Progress in Physical Geography 30, 2 (2006) pp.

270–279

Applied climatology: urban climate

Catherine Souch and Sue Grimmond*
Department of Geography, King’s College London, Strand,
London WC2R 2LS, UK

I Introduction (2006) on forecasting and numerical models,

Given the large and ever-increasing number and the paper of Voogt and Oke (2003) on
of urban inhabitants globally, and the pro- thermal remote sensing and Dabberdt et al.
found effects of cities and their inhabitants on (2004) on measurements; scales of analysis
the atmosphere, both within and beyond (the urban canyon, neighburhood, entire city)
urban limits, ever-increasing attention is – see, for example, McKendry (2003);
being directed to the study of urban climates. Arnfield (2003a; 2003b; 2005); and the
The underlying rationale for these urban climatic element of interest (temperature,
climate studies varies: ranging from the need moisture; wind, etc) – see, for example
to know more about the fundamental physics, Shepherd (2005); Richards (2005). Here,
biology or chemistry of urban atmospheres, attention is directed to urban climate papers
and to integrate such understanding in opera- published in the refereed literature in the last
tional weather forecasting and air quality two years. Coverage is not comprehensive
models; interest in environmental sustain- and is heavily biased towards papers published
ability and the desire to plan settlements and in English. Studies that focus specifically on
build houses that are more energy and water the composition of the urban atmosphere and
efficient; concerns about environmental air quality, rather than the physical state of
health, whether related to air quality, heat the atmosphere, are not reviewed here.
stress; or ‘homeland security’ and the
dispersion of toxic substances in cities. II Spatial patterns of urban
In the last five years, a number of review climate elements
papers on urban climatology have been The urban heat island (UHI) still remains the
published. These have been structured in most intensively studied climatic feature of
terms of methodology – see, for example, a cities. Data, either from existing meteoro-
series of papers published from the Fifth logical networks or from mobile monitoring
International Conference on Urban Climates systems, provide the empirical base for inves-
(ICUC5) by Kanda (2006) on scale models, tigations of the spatial and temporal structure
Grimmond (2006) on measurements, Masson of the urban heat island. Recent papers using
(2006) on numerical models, and Best this approach include analyses of the UHI in

*Author for correspondence. Email: sue.grimmond@kcl.ac.uk

© 2006 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd 10.1191/0309133306pp484pr

 Catherine Souch and Sue Grimmond 271

Seoul, Incheon, Daejeon, Daegu, Gwangju urban trees on UVR compared to photosyn-
and Busan, South Korea (Chung et al., 2004; thetically active radiation fields, with implica-
Kim and Baik, 2004a; 2005), Buenos Aires, tions for damage to materials, altered
Argentina (Bejarán and Camilloni, 2003), herbivory of insects and activity of microbes,
New York City, USA (Gedzelman et al., modified growth of vegetation, and effects on
2003), Lisbon, Portugal (Alcoforado and human health.
Andrade, 2006), Prague, Czech Republic In the last few years, there has been
(Beranova and Huth, 2005), and Debrecen, resurgence in interest in moisture and precipi-
Hungary (Bottyán et al., 2005). These studies tation in urban settings. Virtually all human
serve to confirm results from previous inves- activities involve the generation of moisture
tigations; notably that the urban heat island as well as heat as a byproduct, especially the
is stronger at night than in the day, that it burning of fossil fuels and the use of water in
decreases with increasing wind speed and cooling towers and ponds. Other anthro-
cloud cover, it is least developed in summer, pogenic activities, such as irrigation of urban
and temperature fields are strongly related to vegetation, also provide important moisture
surface/building geometry, land use, vegeta- sources, particularly in greener residential
tion and patterns of anthropogenic heat neighbourhoods and urban parks. Urban
release (Giridharan et al., 2004; Jonsson, effects tend to be complex, both spatially and
2004; Unger, 2004). The critical importance temporally, with important implications for
of the rural reference site, as well as the radiative exchanges, fog and visibility, and also
urban site, in defining urban-rural differences human comfort. Richards (2005), in a novel
has also received continued attention approach that integrates hardware scale
(Hawkins et al., 2004; Sakakibara and Owa, model experiments, field measurements
2005). Increasingly, studies of the urban (using mini-lysimeters), and numerical model-
heat island are using higher-resolution data, ling, has provided important new data on dew
which allow the diurnal course of the and its significance as a water flux both to
urban heat island to be studied in detail vegetated surfaces and roofs. Mayer et al.
and the detection of episodes of short-lived (2003) documented spatial and temporal
thermal contrasts related to advection, variability of humidity (vapour pressure)
the passing of fronts, thunderstorms, etc within the urban canopy layer across different
(Szymanowski, 2005). land uses, though were unable to document
The influence of building geometry on significant relations with human perceptions
radiative fluxes is a principal reason for of thermal comfort.
surface temperature differences between After a hiatus in research on urban precipi-
rural and urban areas. Urban climatologists tation (Lowry, 1998), in the last few years
continue to develop techniques to rapidly there has been resurgence in studies of urban
quantify building/canyon geometry; notably effects on precipitation, clouds and storms.
through new methods to quantify sky view This has been driven in part by new technolo-
factors (Chapman and Thornes, 2004) and gies; for example the application of data from
the application of LIDAR (Zhou et al., 2004). the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
Field studies (for example, Blankenstein and (TRMM) satellite’s precipitation radar
Kuttler, 2004), have provided further evi- (Shepherd et al., 2002; Shepherd and Burian,
dence of the impact of street geometry and 2003) and Doppler radar (Russo et al., 2005).
building materials on downward longwave Such technologies allow precipitation, which
radiation and nocturnal air temperature. In a can be highly variable spatially, to be
study of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), Heisler more easily quantified, though ground-based
et al. (2003), through measurements and rain gauges still remain the absolute refer-
modelling, document quite different effects of ence. Recent studies (see the review in
272 Applied climatology

Shepherd, 2005) serve to confirm previous sensible heat fluxes that exceed latent heat
understanding that urbanization has an effect fluxes (although it is important to note that
on precipitation through increases in hygro- latent heat fluxes are not insignificant, part-
scopic nuclei, turbulence via surface rough- icularly in residential settings). Attention has
ness, convection because of changes in the also been directed to the quantification of the
urban heat budget, convergent windflow over anthropogenic heat flux, and important new
the urban area which may lead to rain- information on the magnitude and variability
producing clouds, and the addition of water of the flux for cities in the USA has been
vapour from combustion from anthropogenic published by Sailor and Lu (2004) and Fan
sources. Although Jin et al. (2005) were not and Sailor (2005), for example.
able to relate urban increases in precipitation Urban surface structures, such as build-
to aerosol concentrations. Inoue and Kimura ings, significantly influence local weather and
(2004), in Tokyo, document an increase in air quality. The problem is complicated
low-level clouds around the metropolitan area because it entails complex terrain, turbulence
on clear summer days. At larger scales, and interactions between various energy
Ohashi and Kida (2004) consider urban transfer processes. Recently, a significant
effects on local circulations and the transport number of field-based, wind tunnel and
of moisture. The implications of urban effects numerical modelling studies of urban wind
on both rainfall and runoff for urban water flow (Martilli et al., 2003; Emeis, 2004) and
management, both in terms of drainage atmospheric turbulence (Davies et al., 2004;
design (Burian et al., 2004) and water conser- Kastner-Klein and Rotach, 2004; Feigenwinter
vation (Mitchell et al., 2003), remain a focus and Vogt, 2005) have been conducted. These
of many urban hydroclimatological studies, studies can be broadly categorized into those
with implications both for storm-water engi- concerned with flow within (Cui et al., 2004;
neering and water reuse and conservation. Calhoun et al., 2004; Kim and Baik, 2004b;
Wang et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2004) and
III Energetics and dynamics of above the urban canopy (canyon) layer
urban climates (Coceal and Belcher, 2005), and those con-
Clear evidence of increasing attention to the cerned with exchange processes between
fundamental heat, mass and momentum (Barlow et al., 2004; Dupont et al., 2004;
exchanges that generate urban climates is Harman et al., 2004b; Lien and Yee, 2004).
provided by the increasing number of field Kastner-Klein et al. (2004) present an
studies of the surface energy balance (see, for overview of experimental and wind tunnel
example, Christen and Vogt, 2004; Moriwaki studies of the influence of street architecture
and Kanda, 2004; Grimmond et al., 2004; on the wind and turbulence patterns in street
Offerle et al., 2005a; 2005b; 2006a; 2006b; canyons and discuss the effects on local air
Spronken-Smith et al., 2006). Most of these quality. Small-scale features of the street
studies use eddy-covariance instrumentation, architecture are shown to play an important
mounted on tall-towers, with data represen- role; for example, roof configuration affects
tative of the local (neighbourhood) scale. the vortex within the canyon. Focusing on
However, studies of specific urban materi- the influence of canyon geometry on scalar
als/urban facets also have been undertaken fluxes, Barlow et al. (2004), experimentally,
(Weber and Kuttler, 2004; 2005). What is and Harman et al. (2004a), with a numerical
emerging is a consistent understanding of the model, provide insight into the effects of
nature of the urban surface energy balance: urban flow on vertical fluxes for a range of
high storage heat uptake in the day, particu- urban canyon geometries. Variations in scalar
larly in the morning; positive turbulent heat flux, by more than a factor of two, for urban
fluxes to the atmosphere at night; and street canyons with different geometries lead
 Catherine Souch and Sue Grimmond 273

the authors to conclude that the physical The coupling of SEB models to atmospheric
mechanisms responsible should be incor- models makes it possible to simulate and
porated into energy balance models for eventually forecast city climates, in particular
urban areas. the UHI and city induced circulations in the
In addition, there has been a very large boundary layer. The simplest of these models
number of studies on larger-scale dynamics are empirical ones, such as NARP-LUMPS
and structure of the urban atmosphere. (Grimmond and Oke, 2002; Offerle et al.,
Building on the excellent work of COST-710 2003), which are driven by routinely collected
(Fisher et al., 1998; Seibert et al., 2000), meteorological data (solar radiation, tempera-
investigators continue to compare informa- ture, wind speed) combined with basic mea-
tion on boundary layer structure provided by sures of surface cover/morphology (height of
different instruments (SODAR, RASS and the buildings, and fractions of the surface built
ceiliometers) (Emeis et al., 2004; Pino et al., and vegetated), to simulate each SEB flux.
2004), the dynamics of urban boundary layers Slightly more complex, and more common,
(Nair et al., 2004), and numerical simulations approaches involve the adaptation of exist-
of urban boundary layer growth (Miao and ing Soil Vegetation Atmosphere Transfer
Jiang, 2004; Tong et al., 2005). Schemes (SVAT) or Land Surface Schemes
An increasingly common trait of urban (LSS). In these, dynamical effects of the
observational programmes is that they are urban surface (high-density obstacles) on
collaborative, multi-institutional, multina- mean airflow are incorporated either by
tional and interdisciplinary initiatives; see, for altering the roughness length, using an
example, BUBBLE (Basel UrBan Boundary appropriate urban scheme, or adding a drag
Layer Experiment; Rotach et al., 2005), force directly in the equations of motions of
ESCOMPTE (Durrand and Cros, 2005; the atmospheric model up to the height of the
Mestayer et al., 2005) and Joint Urban 2003 buildings (see, for example, Dupont et al.,
(Allwine et al., 2004). To varying degrees, 2004; Otte et al., 2004; Dandou et al., 2005).
these studies combine multiple methods: The radiative trapping by urban canyons also
near-surface and remote sensing observations is dealt with either by using a bulk approach,
with numerical and physical modelling. The reducing the average albedo (Best et al.,
scale of the studies and the resources involved 2006) or by parameterizing the attenuation of
mean processes and effects are investigated solar radiation with depth into the canopy
across multiple spatial and temporal scales. In (Dupont et al., 2004). Drawing on better
addition, many of these studies represent estimates of the anthropogenic heat flux, and
collaborations between those interested in the effect of building materials and urban
both the physics and chemistry of the geometry on storage heat, these effects also
atmosphere, which allows critical boundary have been included (see examples in Best,
conditions to be specified (see, DAPPLE 2005; Dandou et al., 2005). More complex
as one particularly good example; Arnold urban canopy models incorporate the three-
et al., 2004). dimensional shape of buildings, solve separate
energy budgets for roofs, roads and walls, and
IV Modelling of urban parameterize radiative interactions between
climates and effects roads and walls. Such models can be subdi-
The nature and objectives of urban climate vided into single-layer models, where there is
models cover a wide range. In terms of those direct interaction only with one atmospheric
models which simulate the surface energy layer above the uppermost roof layer (see, for
balance (SEB), there have been significant example, Masson, 2000; Masson et al., 2002;
advances recently (summarized in the Harman et al., 2004a; 2004b; Lemonsu
reviews of Best, 2006, and Masson, 2006). et al., 2004; Kusaka and Kimura, 2004), and
274 Applied climatology

multilayer models, which distribute the and prevailing meteorological and climatic
impact of the urban area within the boundary conditions. Interesting summaries of urban
layer close to the surface (Martilli et al., 2002; climate research in specific countries around
Kondo et al., 2005). The most appropriate the world are published in the newsletters of
model to use depends on the application at the International Association of Urban
hand and computational resources. Climate (www.urban-climate.org).
Understanding urban canopy flow has Increasingly the focus of urban climate
relevance for issues of air pollution (and research is on understanding the fundamental
abatement strategies), energy usage in cities, processes that generate urban climates, not
pedestrian comfort and security concerns. just the resultant effects. The scales of inquiry
Engineering-type computational fluid dyna- and methodologies used are rich and varied:
mics (CFD) models are designed to compute scale models and wind tunnels, statistical and
small-scale fluid flows and have been used in numerical models, remote sensing, lidar, sodar,
urban climate studies to simulate urban flow radar and profilers, and surface-based flux
and dispersion, understand fluid dynamical measurement using eddy covariance and
processes, and provide practical solutions to scintillometry. As noted by Oke (2006), one of
some problems of dispersion and urban air the greatest challenges for urban climatology
pollution (Baik and Kim, 2002; Baik et al., is to foster more exchange between those
2003; Kim and Baik, 2003). CFD models have working in different subfields and methodolo-
been used to compute flow within and around gies. There is evidence, however, that large
complex building shapes (Calhoun et al., campaign-style studies focused on specific
2004; Cheng and Hu, 2005; Lien and Yee, cities, which involve researchers from many
2005; Lien et al., 2005) and within urban different perspectives in the collection of data,
canyons (Jeong and Andrews, 2002; Cui et al., and provide open access to data to be used by
2004). These schemes may use large-scale others, are encouraging such interaction,
meteorological models to define upper resulting in important advances in field
boundary conditions. The development and measurements, numerical models and funda-
use of CFD models is a very active area of mental understanding of the energetics and
inquiry. The models are becoming more dynamics of urban climates.
sophisticated in terms of numerical methods, While the stated rationale for much
mesh structures and turbulence modelling urban climate research is human health and
approaches (Direct Numerical Simulation, well-being or energy and water consumption,
DNS; Large Eddy Simulation, LES; and urban climatologists often note the lack of
Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Simulation, communication of new knowledge and its
RANS) (see, as recent examples, Lien and implications to end-users, such as planners,
Yee, 2004; Liu et al., 2004; Hamlyn and architects and engineers (see, for example,
Britter, 2005). the comments of Mills, 2006). Recently, how-
ever, increasing attention is being directed to
V Final comments bridge this gap. In terms of building and urban
As highlighted in this brief progress report, design, for example, Mills (2006) provides a
the study of urban climates is attracting signi- useful summary of tools (materials, building
ficant attention. Worthy of specific note are shape/orientation, outdoor landscaping,
the increasing number of urban climate street dimensions and orientation, zoning,
studies being conducted in tropical latitudes. transport policy) that impacts indoor com-
This work has significantly advanced the fort, outdoor comfort and health, and energy
recognition of spatial differences both within use and air quality. Emmanuel (2003; 2005),
and between cities as a result of differences in with a focus on the tropics, directs special
urban fabric (materials, morphology), emissions attention to building and city design to
 Catherine Souch and Sue Grimmond 275

mitigate heat stress through radiant cooling, Beranova, R. and Huth, R. 2005. Long-term changes
ventilation and evaporative cooling. Other in the heat island of Prague under different synoptic
conditions. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 82,
studies have focused on building geometry 113–18.
and shading (Bourbia and Awbi, 2004a; Best, M.J. 2005: Representing urban areas within
2004b; Compagnon, 2004; Shashua-Bar and operational numerical weather prediction models.
Hoffman, 2004; Shashua-Bar et al., 2004) Boundary Layer Meteorology 114, 91–109.
and urban greenspace, at scales from parks to — 2006: Progress towards better weather forecasts for
city dwellers: from short range to climate change,
individual rooftops (Takeuchi et al., 2003; Theoretical and Applied Climatology 84, 47–56,
Gomez et al., 2004; Thorsson et al., 2004). doi: 10.1007/s00704-005-0143-2.
Best, M.J., Grimmond, C.S.B. and Villani, M.G.
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