112 N.T.K.

Ngan
Asia-Pacific Social Science Review (2017) 17(1): 112-120

RESEARCH BRIEF

Folklore and Fantasy Short Stories in Medieval

Literature of Vietnam: Otherworld Journeys
Nguyen Thi Kim Ngan
Hue University, Vietnam
nganpedagogy@gmail.com

To a very large extent, like the evolutionary highly intellectual poetry, just as it still is in
development of the organism, once a certain literary that folklore narrative observed by scholars
genre is lost, some of its new factors will be introduced in modern times, in Ireland, Yugoslavia, and
into the new genre of literature. Truyền kỳ, the first Russia. (Davidson, 1975, p.75)
form of fantasy short stories of Vietnamese written
literature during the medieval period from 10th to In the East, in general, and in Vietnam in particular,
19th centuries, also had all these characteristics when the role of folklore to the formation of traditional
its formation came from the influence of literature written literature has been recognized. Despite being
and culture—general and specific creed in Sino- formed relatively late, medieval Vietnamese literature
Culture and especially from the folk narrative of still bears a striking resemblance to the world’s written
Vietnam. My purpose in this essay focuses on learning literature that it begins with the collection of folklore.
about the effect of written folk literature through This is the earliest form of medieval literature during
literary acculturation on the theme of journeys to the period of post-antiquity or early medieval. It seems
otherworlds from folktales to the fantasy short stories. that for truyền kỳ, folklore is also a form of “literary
allusion”, through which literary artists can practice
their creative perspective of “simplicity is the origin
Literature Review of all evolution.” Folktales can be considered as a
genre of the first intertextuality formed to serve the
The inheritance of folklore elements in Vietnam’s intentions of Ý tại ngôn ngoại [metaphor thought or
medieval short stories included the evolutionary read between the lines].
characteristics which bore universal features during Folklorists also assumed that the inheritance of
the period of transition from oral to written narrative medieval Vietnamese narrative from folklore has
art. As Derek Brewer put it: taken place in two trends: “documentalization”
and “literaturization”. Documentalization is the
The difference between medieval literary process of recording existing folktales following the
narrative and folklore narrative was one only author’s writing style without any embellishment.
of degree, with many qualities shared. Oral In this approach, medieval prose writers often take
delivery was still an influence on Chaucer’s both plot and motifs to organize and write the same

Copyright © 2017 by De La Salle University

Folklore and Fantasy Short Stories in Medieval Literature of Vietnam 113

stories. Therefore, it is not strange that this literary The genre of fantasy short stories developed and
section has been the theme of both written literature marked the maturity of folk narrative through three
and folklore. It corresponded to the early period of different stages: strange tales in the period of six
medieval literature, in Vietnam, from the 10th to the Chinese reigns, fantasy stories under Song Dynasty
14th century. Literaturization is to take an element of (from the year of 618), and the novel of horror tales in
folklore (i.e. plot, motifs, themes, and characters) to Ming-Qing Dynasty (between 1340–1715). Each stage
create an entirely new story in two stages of medieval had its own characteristics due to the domination of
literature: 15th–17th and 18th–19th centuries. In this social changes, history, culture, and beliefs. Lu Xun
essay, I would like to focus on the second trend in (1959) had some remarks:
truyền kỳ.
Truyền kỳ is defined as a genre of short stories that On this genre that the genre of truyền kỳ
originated from China, which was conceived from originated from strange tales, only had
traditional myths, fairytales, legends of ancient time, difference in literary spread that led to special
and chronicles under Early Qin (221–206 BC); and achievements or borrowed from allegory to
describe the melancholy, quoted happiness
inherited the traditional strange tales from the reign
and unhappiness to tell commandments, but
of Wei Jin (265–420) as well as the period of Western
its end was still standard literature, along with
Han (265–316) and Eastern Han (317–420). For stories about spirits, which prove that cause and
content, truyền kỳ borrowed the story from the folklore, effect have never changed for long time, really
exploring the motifs, themes, plot available from the exciting. (p. 93)
folk. For narrative art, it uses unusual things and phi
kỳ bất truyền [non-fantasy, not pass by tradition] as Considered as the central literature and
the creative method to describe the profound content having important impact on other peripheral
issues related to social life. literatures in Han-culture, Chinese literature
Truyền kỳ also harbored a lot of features of many has had a great influence on neighboring
genre as the interspersion between prose and poetry, countries in which the impact of Chinese
expressing a combination of history telling and poetic fantasy stories towards Vietnamese literature
talent. The structure of truyền kỳ usually begins with is a typical instance. For this reason, truyền kỳ
introduction of the characters, their names, hometowns, in Vietnam have been quite complete in terms
of content as well as form since it appeared.
and character’s morality. Then, there are stories about
Most importantly, the appearance and sudden
miraculous meetings considered as the central parts
rise to the top of truyền kỳ in Vietnam was
of the story. Their epilogues often hypothesizes the considered as the work of endogenous growth
cause of storytelling and comments implying of the strange tales that contained nationalistic
Confucian virtue. features and were associated with oral narrative
Stylistically, truyền kỳ has used prose to tell stories, genres and historical prose.
parallel structure to describe scenes and people, and
poetry to express characters’ feelings. Truyền kỳ is The Role of Folktales in Forming of Truyền Kỳ
sometimes difficult to distinguish from strange tales in the Medieval Vietnamese Literature
under six Chinese reigns (III–VI centuries; including
Three Kingdoms, Jin Western Han, and Eastern Han). According to Paul L. Bennett (1952):
However, unlike authors of strange tales who utilized
strange facts into real ones, and rustic and primitive A historical examination of what passes under
narrative, truyền kỳ have reached to the complete form the general name ‘literature’ reveals three
and structure of short fictions that express florid style, distinct relationships of folklore to it: (i) the use
charming lyrics, implied connotation, and romantic of directly as literature, (ii) the use of folklore
details. in a modified form as literature, and (iii) the
use of folklore as a plane of reference in the
production. (p. 23)
114 N.T.K. Ngan

In Vietnam, when reviewing the history of medieval chaos context during the 16th and 17th centuries. The
literature, it can be seen that the connection between context in which writers created fantasy short stories
folklore and written literature often exists in the same is the time of many wars taking place among various
ways: of three ways of connection above, the first feudal corporations against the invaders.
one is the clearest. Chí quái, chí dị [strange tales and In several studies (Liên, Hưu, & Tiên, 2009;
horror tales], including some typical works like Việt Quýnh, Lâm, & Hãn, 1998), after the radiant aureole
điện u linh [collection of Vietnamese stories about of the reign of Lê Thánh Tông King, from 1504 to
the country’s spiritual underworld] by Lý Tế Xuyên 1527, the Lê dynasty fell into confusion when the
and Lĩnh nam chích quái [selection of the miraculous six successive kings were either killed, deposed, and/
story in the land of Lĩnh Nam] by Trần Thế Pháp, are or was incompetent to rule. During the 16th–17th
considered as the first medieval literary genre which centuries, the feudal factions tried to scramble for
is recognized as the earliest approach of the writers their interests, which caused internal conflict among
with the folktales. the ruling class. Moreover, the conflict between the
In the third phase, the most complex approach, ruling class and the people intensified.
modern and postmodern writers often use folklore Thus, political disorder, wars among feudal
as a reference source, a combination form of groups, and the situation of internal enemies and
“intertextuality”, in which the folk material reproduced external invaders became a part of Vietnam’s history
not at the level of plot, character, or plot change but in medieval age. All of these events led to a marked
by the mythical logic, archetype, symbols, and other crisis on the spiritual life of society. Faced with
cultural memories such as the case of Nguyễn Huy such reality, Confucianism, a theory to rule in peace,
Thiệp with various works including Kiếm sắc [sharp exposed its impotence and was no longer attractive. The
sword], Vàng lửa [gold in fire], Phẩm tiết [elevation], Confucians, who have the sense of uprightness, on the
and Trương Chi [Trương Chi story]. Especially one hand have broken their faith, on the other hand
in using folklore in a modified form as literature, confronted with a couple of selection issue—hành-
learning about all aspects of folklore, knowledge of the tàng, xuất-xử [become a Mandarin or not]—that the
illiterate, grammar of narration, or by a combination of ancients have arranged in the absolute totalitarian.
several sources of folklife provided an excellent stuff According to this view, Xuất xử, at that time, is not
for writers to create. The specific values, along with only simply to “leave” or “stay”, hành [practice], or
materials that folklore has provided like models of plot, tàng [hidden, to seclude oneself and lead a leisurely
have special allurement. The authors have accepted life] but also is the expression of political attitudes
experimental plots from folklore and reconstructed as well as virtuous qualities of man. In the context of
these plots into short fantasy stories by adding losing unique position, social status is broken-down
characters and new forms from their own experience and excluded from the center of discourse. Most
and their new socio-cultural environment. Confucians who wrote truyền kỳ proved that on the
In addition, apart from inheriting art materials, surface, they are fleeing from life, taking away from
folklore foundation in truyền kỳ is also reflected in world affairs. However, they are in fact discreetly
the extent and cultural outlook that this genre was feeling and expressing uncooperative thoughts and
influenced by folklore. Truyền kỳ have backed the resisting the social practice. The circumstance of being
virtue of sustainable values formed from folktales at once rebelling and being suppressed by the theory
and use them to converse the Confucian and social of “Political legitimacy,” by ideological counter-
contents to be included in the plots. Folk ideology now insurgency, and anti-majesty that Confucianism
acts as a cultural appraisal system and mirror with “frame”, literature became a tool for liberating the
power up on the literary works. It tacitly expressed conflicting “intense inner life.” Personal ego, regarded
that in the integration of folklore elements into prose to be gripped and limited by Confucian perspectives,
exists an implicit connection with the defiant attitudes has taken this opportunity to rise up strongly.
of the authors towards the feudal dynasty in war and Therefore, a part of intellectuals and writers who
Folklore and Fantasy Short Stories in Medieval Literature of Vietnam 115

disregard the position and fame, seriously esteem the Khổng Tử (Confucius) tried to exhort his disciples to
personal preference, độc thiện kỳ nhân [live the life stand aloof. The transmission period of the first brick
of a recluse to self-improve], demand liberation, even placed on a platform other peripheral ones, a place
drive to enjoy sexual passion. As a result, fantasy short category with “peer” is another folk tales—the area that
stories have become a discourse of “liberation” for the Confucius tried to exhort school alienated his game.
contradictory situation of Confucians. Such attraction of folklore materials in truyền kỳ has
Among those who wrote fantasy short stories, been close to the way that Rabelais used laughter from
Nguyễn Dữ is the most representative author for this folklore to meet the needs of human liberation—“folk
“discourse”. Resigning as mandarin and choosing the humor existed and developed outside the official sphere
life of a recluse with the reason of caring for elderly of high ideology and literature, but precisely because of
mother, Nguyễn Dữ conjectured to write Truyền kỳ its unofficial existence, it was marked by exceptional
mạn lục [Notes scattered fantasy short stories] in radicalism, freedom, and ruthlessness” (Bakhtin,
the years 1509–1547 and this work is often described 1984, p. 72). This is an effective method to rebuild the
as “based on indignation to write the book.” Lan trì concept of the world, against the bound worldview of
kiến văn lục (Nghĩa, 1997), a collection of Lan Confucian and silently realize a “rebellion” of thought.
Trì’s fantasy short stories, written by Vũ Trinh is
considered as the consequence of “hiding in thatched
cottage without any discussion on world affairs” (p. A Case Study: Otherworld Journeys From
825). Similarly, Đoàn Thị Điểm, the author of Truyền Folktales to Truyền Kỳ
kỳ tân phả [New genealogy of fantasy short stories],
illustrated the aspirations of liberation and competitive The models, the prototype nature of space implied
success of women in male-dominated society through in creation of myths, fairytales, and epics, were
many of her story characters. Despite “going to hiding” completely unrestricted in ancient times or folklore.
and seeming to choose the peaceful life in the villages, They have also been found in the works of medieval
all the authors of fantasy short stories were not willing elite writers and even in modern novels or adventure
to give up their voices, the voice for self-conscious fictions as well as science fictions later. All forms
expression, for “wisdom of oneself,” and different of space repeatedly revealed somewhat the themes
colors of Confucian intellectuals in mainstream history. and mindset inherently archetypical of folklore;
Therefore, the tradition of truyền kỳ genre at the concurrently, by some way they indicated that the
beginning is a sign of resistance. The writers of fantasy writers have adapted from the traditional narrative
short stories collected unusual and strange folk stories and harmonized it with the values and aspirations of
to re-create them as a way of challenging the power at their own culture.
the center. They told about the strange stories in this Others have contradicted this view “human
world to expose the fact that literature has opposed memory quickly forgets purely historical fact and must
or challenged the specific historical events. From that be reinforced by faith. Faith alone leaves an indelible
point, it has created a written literature consisting of imprint on tradition . . . that makes possible its survival,
political consciousness with unorthodox texts used both even when the faith itself has long since disappeared”
to express with communities and cover/camouflage the (Taylor, 1964, p. 115). This has been clearly reflected
idea of an awareness and other sensitive issues. in the existence of folklore materials in truyền kỳ of
Thus, fantasy short stories, from appearing in Vietnamese written literature in which spatial models
written literature to even on its top, have never and theme of journey to other worlds in folklore are
been recognized as a central genre but only a sub- still used in diversified way whereas nature of ancient
discourse, a small flow of literature. The main reason faith on this issue has been changed, even disappeared.
is that fantasy short stories have provided the first Otherworld journeys showed the adventure of
bricks on a platform of other peripheral ones, a genre characters to variously fantastic and illusory worlds in
with “coequal” position, the folktales—the area that folktales. This theme includes a lot of motifs which are
116 N.T.K. Ngan

closely associated with the rituals and beliefs related to The story Cây tùng và cây bách [the pine and the
the life after death of ancient people. The inheritance cypress] seemed to be adapted from ancient folktale
of this theme illustrated the transformation from the named Lưu Bình Dương Lễ. Other stories like Chuyện
so-called “marvelous” into the so-called “fantasy” người liệt nữ ở An Ấp [story about the heroine in An
in the flow of literature from primitively ancient to village], Chuyện thần nữ Vân Cát [story about Van
medieval. In addition, the marvelous from the realm Cat nymph], Đền thiêng ở cửa bể [the holy temple in
of folktales has obviously become one of the basic the outfall were related to the temples and worship of
energy to reshape the aspect of fantastic tales in the the gods. Another posed issue is that why has written
medieval period. It can be seen that the folk materials literature, truyền kỳ, used so much folklore since it
seem to be a good factor that makes us easily recognize appeared?
the writers (Nghĩa, 1997), in the 16th century, or as a People often naturally admit the situation but
signal that we can use to decrypt some horror tales or have no explanation why the authors repeated this
strange tales, that is, Việt điện u linh (Xuyên, 1972) phenomenon in a lot of places around the world. Like
or Lĩnh nam chích quái (Pháp, 1960). Truyền kỳ mạn the romantic literature of Western Europe in which
lục, a work of Nguyễn Dữ in Trần dynastic—the day medieval folktales and folksongs were supposed to
of publication is inapplicable—is an obvious evidence be particularly important source of novels. In the East,
of utilizing, continuously developing, and creating the typically China, on the other hand, the popular origins
materials from folklore as well as the dialogue of two of “novel” is that scholars have less doubt. They have
literary styles. noted that storytellers are those who created novels on
Thiên cổ kỳ bút [the rare literary work from past the street or in small villages and bequeathed them to
to present] is considered as an excellent combination the next generation.
and reached the pinnacle of mixture between the oral In fact, truyền kỳ have used a huge source of
narrative genres and historical prose. According to Bùi materials from folklore. In particular, the inheritance
Duy Tân (Khánh, Tân, & Chương, 2001), Truyền kỳ of the theme of voyage to other worlds with varied
mạn lục is the only writing of Nguyễn Dữ. His works, motifs is a typical example. Other worlds have been
including 20 stories divided into four books, were established including: “Upper worlds” which are
written following the style of fantasy short stories. The attached to the light, the eternity spirits, love, and
plot is primarily taken from the stories handed down the mood of peace and contentment—the eternal
in folklore in which many cases come from the legend aspiration of people about the prospects of world that
of gods whose temples still exist today (temple of Vũ just has fun and truth. Such world is clearly portrayed
Thị Thiết in Ha Nam province, Nhị Khanh temple in in Phạm Tử Hư’s trip to the heaven to enjoy all of
Hung Yen province, and temple of Văn Dĩ Thành and sceneries, splendid buildings, and everlasting life in
Goi village in Hanoi). the otherworld. It is mentioned as the final destination
It is quite easy to realize the intimate relationship of undying love (Lấy chồng dê [Married with a goat])
between Truyền kỳ tân phả (Điểm, 1982) and other in which the husband who had supernatural power
stories orally handed down in illiterate communities brought his lost wife with him to the heaven.
as well as indigenous worship. Truyền kỳ tân phả “Terrestrial otherworlds” are the existing worlds
consisted of six stories, five of which were found to be associated with all the joy and anger, love, and hate of
associated with literature and folk festivals. The story the people and society. These worlds are abundant of
Cuộc gặp gỡ kỳ lạ ở Bích Câu [a strange meeting in famine and disease outbreakg (Dốc đầu sấm [the slope
Bich Cau] had relation to the fairy tale about a man of thunder]), the plaintive love due to wars (Truyện Lệ
named Tú Uyên who married a fairy, but the issue Nương [the tragedy of Le Nuong]) or the pain that led
behind is Taoism (a Chinese philosophy based on the to the suicide of a wife who was given as a payment
writings of Lao-tzu in 6th century B.C.), the way to of her husband’s gambling debt (Truyện người nghĩa
fairy life Taoist and the development of this faith in phụ ở Khoái Châu [the story of faithful woman in
Vietnam during the 18th century. Khoai Chau]).
Folklore and Fantasy Short Stories in Medieval Literature of Vietnam 117

The “lower worlds” are the negatives of the earth • they can drift to the palace under the sea and
where there are a lot of blackness, prisons, death, and be saved again (Truyện người con gái Nam
fear. This world always has demons who are ready to Xương [the story about young woman in Nam
avenge those who burned and destroyed their temple Xuong]); or
(Chức phán sự ở đền Tản Viên [story about the god • come to paradise and never turn back or go
of justice in Tan Vien temple]), the mysterious, and to the hell to witness the judge accusing his/
spine-chilling punishments for wicked people (Truyện her father (Truyện Lý Tướng Quân [story of
mụ ác [story about cruel women]). Ly General]).
The symbols act as intermediary elements to
connect various spaces from folklore, which continued Like the model of three worlds of folklore, the
to maintain their existence in truyền kỳ, for example: reciprocation among different heterogeneous worlds in
truyền kỳ is existing and make up the attraction for this
• “Thu Tinh mountain” is the door to hell (Thành genre. Truyền kỳ, thus, inherited the spatial structure
Tử Đạo [story about Thanh Tu Dao]); from folklore and otherworld journeys are the favorite
• the “road” is both real and mysterious that leads theme that truyền kỳ has borrowed and modified to
the mandarin through the mountain to another create an intentional art world.
world to speak with old woodsman (Truyện The “borrowing” of truyền kỳ based on elements
người tiều phu núi Nưa [story of the woodsman of folklore can be also easily confirmed through the
in Nua mountain]) ; popular motifs for both types of oral stories and fantasy
• The “rowing man” has responsibility for ones. In the item of Otherworld Journeys: Motifs F0-
coming to Đồng Luần abyss to send a letter to F199 (Thompson, 1958), there are motifs such as: (F1)
the god at lower world (Thần vực Đồng Luần Journey to otherworld as dream or vision, (F3) Journey
[the God of Dong Luan abyss]); to otherworld as invasion, (F10) Journey to upper
• The “river” with the boatman transferring world, (F80-F109) Journey to lower world, (F110)
people at dawn to the market of the underworld Journey to terrestrial otherworlds, (F121) Journey
(Bài ký chơi núi Phật Tích [the poem of walking to world of spirits (F81.1) Orpheus: Journey to land
around Phat Tich Mountain]); or of dead to bring back person from the dead, (F105)
• at wistful and foggy place in the early morning, Dead oppose return of living from land of the dead,
the man realizes his friend who passed way has (F160.0.2) Fairy otherworld confused with land of the
now become a god in the high world (Chuyện dead, and so forth.
chức phán sự đền Tản Viên [story about the god This can be similarly found in truyền kỳ, such as
of justice in Tan Vien temple]). stories of “Two Gods who are dutiful to their parents”
• In those three worlds, the humans liberally free in Thánh Tông Di Thảo (Nghĩa, 1997) with these
themselves without any obstacle or difficulties striking motifs:(F132.1) Earthly paradise on mountain
like in these stories: and (F7) Journey to otherworld with angel. The story
• the character of truyền kỳ follows up his teacher about a meeting in an unusual way in the Tây farm in
to visit the fairyland (Phạm Tử Hư lên chơi Truyền kỳ mạn lục has these motifs: (F162.1) Garden
thiên tào [Pham Tu Hu visit the fairyland]); in otherworld, (F162) Landscape of otherworld,
• joining the conversation in the cemetery of the (E280) Ghosts haunt buildings, (F181) Lovemaking
deceased (Cuộc nói chuyện thơ ở Kim Thoa [a in otherworld, and (F173.3) Perpetual feasts in
recital of verses in Kim Thoa]); otherworld. The story named Đền thiêng ở cửa bể
• meeting with the immortals and fairies to [The holy temple in the outfall] in Truyền kỳ tân phả
discuss life and being told about their fortune contain these motifs: (D1810.8.2) Information received
and destiny (Gặp tiên ở hồ Lãng bạc [meeting through dream, (D1813.1.3) Dream warns king of
with the immortals and fairies at Lang bac danger to kingdom, (F163.1) Castle in otherworld,
Lake]); (F171.0.1) Enigmatic happenings in otherworld,
118 N.T.K. Ngan

which are later explained or the story Nhớ kiếp trước the life in the process of creative works. The evidence
[Remembering the past life]. In Lan trì kiến văn lục by for issue stated above is that the presence of tacit
Vũ Trinh, the typical motifs are (F80) Journey to lower voices of negotiations between folklore ideas existed
world, (E600) Reincarnation: Back from the dead in in memories of the literary artists and Confucian
another form, and so forth. ideology—the theory that they were trained.
All mentioned above are just small examples in Absorbing folk materials has made up a clash with
popular motif-index which are generally used for both the popular view of the truyền kỳ authors, thus forming
truyền kỳ and traditional narrative. The motifs, along the acoustic of a fragmentized symphony in their
with proverbs, folksongs, and other same stuff, become works. Like the multi-colored glass pieces, folk beliefs
the source as well as the original base to build other and the traditional motifs of otherworld journeys have
real things of the second world in truyền kỳ through offered a kaleidoscope of ideas so as to create diverse
which the reader have connected with this fantasy views about the color of “the world” —and the readers,
world. The authors of truyền kỳ, thereby, have proven therefore, depending on their familiarity with such
their ability in literary acculturation to inherit the folk ideas, would find themselves with other perspectives.
materials and make them reach to the highest artistic Hence, these competitive voices have made that voyage
level as possible—the ability to use an endless amount to otherworld in truyền kỳ colorful and dynamic.
of energy of fantasy that belonged to the folklore In terms of genre aesthetics, Propp (1968) and
motifs, absorbing, transforming and re-creating it into Melentinsky (2000), through their historic-structural
“the high level of literature and ideology and fertilize studies on fairy tales, believed that the long journeys
it” (Bakhtin, 1984, p. 72). Simultaneously, fantastic to otherworld have originated from pre-class period
stories at this time try to provide a complex system of and borne the traces of sacrificial rites and primitive
details in which the contexts have been granted with religious practices from the ancient, for example, there
higher rationalization aiming at explaining some events have been sacrificial rituals attached to Thạch Sanh’s
that cannot be explained in folklore. trip into the forest to kill python; or the story of a girl
The risen causes for borrowing these motifs from named Tấm who has gone through her stepmother’s
folklore to truyền kỳ may be judged from a couple of mill to tend the folk festival and married a prince,
aspects. In terms of the author, an important aspect is which closely linked to Adult Ceremony; or the
that most writers lived “closely” with people living notion of old people about the afterlife symbolized by
in villages and growing up with traditional materials. the journey to unknown regions, such as the trips to
These writers, whose educational background are discover the life after the death of mandarin Thủ Huồn.
based on mythical, legendary, and historical materials, Then, the journeys to the otherworld in truyền kỳ
finally put into their works the “familiar” feeling. By have brought a different color. Adventure to otherworld
absorbing much more folklore values and collecting in truyền kỳ has entirely lost every traces related to the
nonofficial plots, as well as practicing writing strange rites of ancient people while continuously inheriting
stories, to some extent, these writers have created a the motifs from folklore (like the motif of journey to
particular method to resist the social crisis. the heaven, down to the hell, journey to the undersea
Therefore, it is quite obvious that the writers have palace, to the other worlds on the earth) as well as
lived with two simultaneous lives. The first is the life of acquire the plots in which the characters have gone to
educated and elite individuals abiding by the rules and a different world. Written literature in this time used an
regulations of Confucian traditions, while the second infinite amount of energy in symbols, antique patterns,
life is of rebellious spirit affected by the perennial and the journeys of folklore to absorb, transform, and
values of folk—freedom and abiding by the mysterious re-create them into a higher level of symbols in which
regulations of nature as well as exposing all magical the nature of folk beliefs has been fully revoked. Truyền
forces of the spiritual world. From that point, it shows kỳ, thus, is a conscious creation in which the authors
that the conflict has grown between the metaphysical have explicitly rejected the initial purpose—the ritual
senses of the world with rational perceptions about nature of the traditional folktales. Since then, a fantastic
Folklore and Fantasy Short Stories in Medieval Literature of Vietnam 119

motif used to express the logical characteristics of also the creating method of the writers. Thus, thuật
folklore has turned into a true literary device. nhi bất tác, tín nhi hiếu cổ [I just narrate, not create
The authors of truyền kỳ, however, have profusely at all, I believe and love the old things] is one of the
depended not only on the motifs to create a mythical important principles of creation in medieval literature,
world to combine and link with the readers but also on including truyền kỳ, which leads to appreciate better
couples of similar larger structures like a whole story the innovative simulation (as using classic references
to restore, rewrite, or entirely renew their works. In and literary allusion, plots borrowing, etc.). In addition,
some cases, myths, legends, and folktales are fantastic Confucian is a theory of moral creativity disseminated
stories which were narrated, expanded by Lê Thánh in spectrum of various fields. Confucian, therefore,
Tông, Nguyễn Dữ, Đoàn Thị Điểm and Vũ Trinh, that lacks a metaphysical system of worldview. Khổng
produced some results as we have seen. As Sullivan Tử has not discussed about quái, lực, loạn, thần [the
(2001) demonstrated, “the traditional tale provides strange, violence, rebellion and, spirit]; kính quỷ thần
something like the skeletal structure of the plot, and nhi viễn chi [the attitude towards the spirit gods is
the author fleshes that structure out to present a theme respectfulness but have no comment on]. Hence,
that may or may not have been implicit in the original” Vietnamese medieval writers often find out how to
(p. 284). offset this shortcoming from other sources of religions
like Buddhism or Taoism, and especially from the
Although ancient folk prose in the pure form folklore. The phenomenon of such amalgams has
has not been maintained these days, its effects become the characteristics of Vietnam medieval
can be probably felt through the writings literature. Borrowing the theme of otherworld journeys
belonged to various genres, in which plots and and plots from the system of mythology, fairytales,
characters are often repeated and its wisdom as well as local legends has probably not been out of
is still quoted. The historians, philosophers,
literary prosody in this era.
literary researchers and their characters usually
Thus, by borrowing the theme of otherworld
absorb from the treasure of collective wisdom,
enhance such “story” having meaning of journeys in a creative way, truyền kỳ have contributed
teaching up to the level of “case study” and they to indicate that in the context of social crisis, the writers
are often talked about as things that everyone seem to have much more demand on using folklore,
knows (Lisevich, 1978, p. 249). which is considered as the instinctive reaction. Perhaps,
the traditions and stableness established over thousands
Most importantly, the phenomenon of motifs of years of history in folklore would make writers
borrowing and theme of otherworld journeys in easily absorb and create an escape from contemporary
truyền kỳ have come from the traditions of medieval society with a better sense of security in a new literary
literature, deeply influenced by the view of Confucian form, which has caused the process of the voyage to
in which the cult of the ancient elements, the loyalty become an unique expression of the fantasy aimed to
to traditional affairs, and the admiration towards the externalize the inner reality of the characters. This is
prestige of “sages” were highlighted before. The word the phenomenon of the complex in contents and writing
“classic” for medieval human always carries a positive arts that folklore cannot be achieved.
meaning. For Khổng Tử (Confucius), what belonged to
ancient time has impossibly reached. The main purpose
of human and society is not to better themselves, but Conclusion
to capture the values crystallized in the old time, and
to imitate the epitome of perfect creation shaped over Folktales, with binary logical thinking affected from
time that make up the spirit of old restoration typical. mythology, have inherited the model of dichotomy
Ôn cố nhi tri tân, khả dĩ vi sư dã [To revise the old world, the three-world, and the unique theme of
in order to know the new, which makes you become otherworld journeys, from which the occult, fantastic,
a teacher] is not only a motto in the behavior but and strange art-space has been formed. The voyages
120 N.T.K. Ngan

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