MOTION

1. Vehicles do not typically travel at a constant speed

Identify that a typical journey involves speed changes
Very rarely a journey will take place at a constant speed for the entirety of the journey; a
typical journey involves speed changes throughout.

A car may slow down as it reaches a corner, approaches a speed bump, speed up
as it goes down a hill and accelerate from traffic lights
Even when it turns, it might be at a constant speed but is experiencing speed
change
Distinguish between the instantaneous and average speed of vehicles and other
bodies
Speed:Measure of the time rate of change at which an object over a distance

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Average Speed: The average speed of an object throughout the whole journey

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Instantaneous Speed: The speed of an object at a particular instant in time

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Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities in equations

Vector Quantity: specifies size (magnitude) and direction
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Scalar Quantity: specifies size (magnitude) but not direction

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Examples:

Vector Scalar
Force Mass
Velocity Speed
Displacement Distance
Acceleration Work
Momentum Energy
Magnetic Fields Power
Electric Fields Time

Compare instantaneous and average speed with instantaneous and average velocity
Instantaneous speed is a SCALAR quantity, whilst instantaneous velocity is a VECTOR
quantity.
Average speed is also a scalar quantity and average velocity a vector quantity.
 Average speed takes the whole journey into account
Average velocity only takes into account the starting and ending points
Define average velocity as:
Average velocity:change in displacement divided by the change in time

Where:
r = displacement (m)
t = time (s)

Displacement: Measure of the change in position of an object (vector)

Displacement indicates:

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How far in a straight line an object is from its starting point
The direction of the finishing point from the starting point
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Plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation to
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measure the average speed of an object or a vehicle
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Present information graphically of:

-Displacement vs. time
-Velocity vs. time
For objects with uniform and non-uniform linear velocity
Uniform Motion: movement at a constant velocity in a straight line
Non-uniform Motion: movement along a straight line with varying velocity (i.e.
acceleration/deceleration)

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Displacement-time Graphs:

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GRADIENT = DISPLACEMENT/TIME =VELOCITY
Example:
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A 300km journey that had been 150km
North and 150km South:
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In vector terms, displacement

north is +ve and displacement
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south is –ve
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Section A: 100km/h
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Section B: Stationary (velocity is

0km/h)
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Section C: 50km/h
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Section D: -100km/h
Average Velocity of graph: 0
Non-Linear Example:

Instantaneous Velocity on a
non-linear curve:
Drawing an approx. tangent at a
point and measuring the gradient
can find the instantaneous velocity
AT THAT POINT.

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Velocity-time Graphs:

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GRADIENT = VELOCITY/TIME = ACCELERATION

AREA UNDER THE CURVE =
DISPLACEMENT

Example:
Same journey as displacement-time
example:

Sections A, B, C, and D all have

an acceleration of O
Displacement = Om

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 Note: Graph is very unrealistic as change in velocity is INSTANT, which is
impossible in the real world

NOTE: Non-linear instantaneous acceleration may be found in the same manner as the
velocity example above.

2. An analysis of external forces on vehicles helps to understand the effects of

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acceleration and deceleration
Describe the motion of one body relative to another
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The motion of a body is measured relative to another body.
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A frame of reference is a set of axes that we measure things relative to

Usually, motion of an object is measured relative to the Earth‟s surface, so the
frame of reference in the Earth‟s surface
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Galilean Relativity: The laws of mechanics are the same for a body at rest and
one moving at a constant velocity. Hence, using a car with a constant velocity as a
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reference frame is JUST AS VALID as using the Earth.

If two objects are moving with respect to a reference frame, the velocity of one
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relative to the other can be determined by subtracting the velocity of the

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observer
VELOCITY OF A RELATIVE TO B = VELOCITY A – VELOCITY B

When solving 2D (straight line) problems, it is easiest to let velocity in one direction
be +ve and the opposite direction be –ve.
When solving 3D problems, Pythagoras can be used through the knowledge of
addition and subtraction of vectors
NOTE: The direction of vectors can be reversed to help solve problems (as long as
the sign is taken into account):
o E.g. 40ms-1 East = -40ms-1 West (and vice versa)
Identify the usefulness of using vector diagrams to assist solving problems
Vector diagrams can be used to solve problems in regard to a range of vector
quantities, including velocity, acceleration and force.
VECTOR ADDITION:

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The Graphical Method: Involves drawing the forces to scale, head to tail (i.e. FORCE
DIAGRAM) and the resultant is the vector that is from the starting point to the end
point.

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Geometrical Solution: Drawing the force diagram and using trigonometry to solve for
the resultant vector. m
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Analytical Solution:Involves splitting each vector into its horizontal and vertical
components, adding the horizontals and verticals individually and then combine them
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together at the end to get a resultant force.

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To split a vector into its horizontal and vertical components the following formulae are
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used:
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The combined X and Y components can be converted back into one force using these
formulae:

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Vector Subtraction:To subtract vectors we reverse the direction of the negative vector
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(the vector being subtracted) and then add it to the first vector.
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Explain the need for a net external force to act in order to change the velocity of an
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object
Newton‟s First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia):
‘A body will remain at rest or in motion at constant velocity unless acted upon by a
net external force.’

Hence, the motion of a body will not change of its own accord; an EXTERNAL
force i.e. from a source OUTSIDE THE BODY, is required
Forces can act internal or external to a system but only the external forces can
affect the motion of the system
When an unbalanced force acts upon an object, it accelerates in the direction of
the net force. The acceleration takes the form of a change in VELOCITY (i.e. speed
and/or direction)
Inertia: The tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion

Inertia is NOT a force; it is a property of all objects (i.e. anything that contains
mass)
The inertia of an object is directly proportional to its MASS

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 Inertia can be thought of the “amount of resistance to change in velocity” (which is
quantified by its mass)
Describe the actions that must be taken for a vehicle to change direction, speed up
or slow down
Speed Up: The driver must push the accelerator so that the driving/thrust force (from
the engine) is greater than the resisting forces (i.e. friction and air resistance). This
causes an unbalanced net force in the direction of the thrust force, causing the driver to
speed up.
Slow Down: The driver can take their foot off the accelerator so that the driving force
becomes zero.This causes an unbalanced net fore in the direction of the resisting forces,
causing the driver to slow down. The resisting forces decrease until the car comes to a
complete stop. In order to slow/down stop a car in a short distance, the brakes can be
applied (DISCUSSED BELOW).
Changing Direction: The steering wheel must be turned which cause the direction of the

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driving force (and hence the velocity) to change e.g. when turning right, the steering wheel
is turned clockwise, causing the wheels, driving force and the velocity to turn right.
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Describe the typical effects of external forces on bodies
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FORCES ON CARS:
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Weight:Acts through the centre of the mass, or balancing point of the car, generally closer
to the front of the car.
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Normal Reaction Force: A normal reaction force pushes upon all four wheels. Its
magnitude is usually greater at the front wheels than the rear wheels. On a HORIZONTAL
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road, the sum of the normal reaction forces has the same magnitude as the weight.
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Driving force: Provided by the rotation of a car‟s tyres on the road, which is provided by the
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car‟s motor. As the tyres push forward on the road, the road pushes forward on the tyres,
propelling the car forward. The forward push of the road on the tyre is a type of
friction commonly called traction, or grip.If the tyres don‟t have enough tread, or the
road is icy, there isn‟t enough friction to push the car forward and the tyres slide on the
road, causing it to skid.
Friction:Four types of friction to consider when dealing with cars:

Static friction: The friction between the tyres and the road and provides the
reaction force that causes the wheel to roll and the car to move. When it is
removed (e.g. a car bogged in mud) the wheels rotate but because there is no
reaction force between the tyres and the surface, the car will not move.
Sliding friction: The friction between two surfaces that prevents one surface
sliding over the other. It applies when a car is parked on a hill to prevent the car
sliding down the hill. It also applies when hard braking stops the wheels from
turning and the car skids to a stop.
Movement friction: The friction that opposes the motion of a moving body and
would include air resistance as well as the friction between moving parts of a car
such as the pistons and cylinders.

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 Rolling Friction:Acts on the non-driving wheels of a car. When the driving wheels
are not being turned by the motor, rolling friction opposes the movement of all four
wheels. Whenthe brakes are applied, the wheels to which the brakes are attached
are made to turn too slowly for the speed at which the car is moving. They are no
longer rolling freely, this increases the road friction greatly and the car eventually
stops.
Air resistance: Air resistance (or drag) increases as the car moves faster. It is a form of
friction caused by the air particles that acts on the car in the opposing direction to the
vehicle‟s movement. It includes the movement of a car through still car as well as the
movement of air against the motion of the vehicle (wind). Streamlining(i.e. sloping the
shape of the car so that the air flows over it) greatly reduces air resistance.
NOTE:

Normal Reaction Force: Force that acts perpendicular to a surface as a result of

an object applying a force to the surface

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Net Force: The vector sum of the forces acting on an object

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Define average acceleration as:
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Acceleration: A measure of the rate of change of velocity. It is a VECTOR QUANTITY and

is measured in metres/second/second (ms-2)
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Average Acceleration:
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Therefore, CHANGE IN VELOCITY = ACCELERATION

Define the terms ‘mass’ and ‘weight’ with reference to the effects of gravity
Mass:The amount of matter in a body

Measured in Kilograms (kg)

Same all throughout the universe as it is unaffected by gravity
1kg is defined as the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram. This is a
cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy that is kept in a vault in Paris

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 Mass may be considered either Gravitational mass or Inertial mass, however there
is NO DIFFERENCE between the two
Gravitational Mass:The mass of a body determined by its response to the force of gravity
(i.e. dividing its weight (w) by acceleration due to the gravity (g))

Measured by comparing the force of gravity to an unknown mass to the force of

gravity of a known mass at the same location
Usually carried out with a beam balance
Inertial Mass: The mass of a body determined by applying a known force to an unknown
mass, measuring the acceleration and applying Newton‟s Second Law F= ma.
Weight:The force acting on a body due to a gravitational field

Weight is a VECTOR and is measured in Newtons (N)

Varies according to gravitational field strength (g), of which Earth‟s is 9.8N/kg.
Gravitational field strength (g) is the same as acceleration due to gravity (g) as ms -2

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and N kg-1 are IDENTICAL UNITS
Mass is directly proportional to weight
WEIGHT = mg m
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Acceleration Due to Gravity: The acceleration on an object caused by the force of
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gravitation

Acceleration due to gravity on Earth is 9.8ms-2. This is caused by the gravitational

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attraction between the Earth and an object

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Objects fall at the same rate because the force of gravity is proportional to an
object‟s mass
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Hence, if it weren‟t for air resistance, all objects (regardless of size, shape, mass
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etc.) would fall to the Earth at the SAME RATE

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o This can be evidenced in a vacuum

Outline the forces involved in causing a change in the velocity of a vehicle when:
-Coasting with no pressure on the accelerator
The driving force becomes zero, resulting in a net horizontal force acting in the opposite
direction to the motion of the car (caused by resisting forces i.e. friction and air resistance).
This will cause the car to gradually slow to a stop.
-Pressing on the accelerator
Pressing on the accelerator increases the rate at which fuel is fed to the cylinders of the
car. This in turn increases the rate of rotation of the wheels and increases static friction.
The reaction force to this increases the forward force on the car overcoming the resisting
forces (e.g. air resistance), causing the car to speed up.
-Pressing on the brakes
The hydraulic system transfers the pressure to the pads that grip the discs or drums. The
pads exert a frictional force on the discs or drums that slows the rate at which the wheels

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are rotating. This causes a forward force between the wheels and the road and the
reaction force to this forward force causes the car to slow down and stop.If too much
pressure is applied to the brakes they completely stop the rotation of the wheels. This
causes the wheels to slide (skid) over the road and since sliding friction is less than static
friction the car travels a much greater distance before stopping.

-Passing over an icy patch on the road

Ice reduces friction to a very low value so the driver cannot apply braking, accelerating or
turning (centripetal) forces to the road. Because the lack of friction disallows the
application of a net force on the car, it would continue in a straight line at a constant
velocity…even if the road didn‟t.

-Climbing and descending hills

Climbing Hills:

The sine component (mgsin) of the weight force acts downhill which slows the car

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In order to maintain a constant velocity, the engine must exert a force greater than
the gravitational force (the sine component) pulling it down
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When ascending hills, the net force acting on the car is the driving force (f) minus
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the weight component and any other resisting forces
F = F- mgsin - (any other resisting forces) = ma
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F = Driving force
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N = Normal reaction force

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mg = Weight force
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mgsin = Weight component

F = F - mgsin = ma

Descending Hills:

Only difference is that the weight component is ASSISTING THE CAR

Therefore, F and mgsin are acting in the SAME DIRECTION
F = F + mgsin-(resisting forces) = ma
-Following a curve in the road
Circular motion is caused by a centre-seeking force called a centripetal force.

This force always acts towards the centre of the circlei.e. towards the centre of
the roads curve

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 This force is supplied by the friction between the tyres and the road (that resists
skidding as the car turns) and is also known as ‘sideways friction’
This sideways friction makes up the whole of the magnitude of the net force (and
therefore the centripetal force) on the vehicle
If the curve is BANKED at an angle , the down-the-slope component, mgsin,
provides additional possible centripetal force

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So long as the frictional forces are strong enough, the vehicle will follow a circular
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path around the corner

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If the centripetal force required for a particular turn EXCEEDS the friction „grip‟ of
the tyres, then the vehicle will not make it, and may „spin out‟ and crash. This can
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happen because:
o Speed is too high for the radius of the curve (i.e. the radius is too small
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compared to velocity)
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o Loss of friction between tyres and road (e.g. road is wet, or tyres are worn
smooth)

Interpret Newton’s Second Law of Motion and relate it to the equation: F =ma

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Newton‟s Second Law of Motion:
‘The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to, and in the same direction as,
the net force acting on the body, and inversely proportional to its mass.’

Units:
Force: N
Mass: kg

Acceleration: ms-2

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Force and Acceleration are VECTORS. Mass is SCALAR
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If a net force does act on a body, it will accelerate. The RATE at which it
accelerates is related to the applied force and the mass of the body by F NET=ma
Sometimes the word „inertia‟ is used to describe an object‟s resistance to being
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accelerated
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The more massive a body is, the harder it is to accelerate

This means that for the same applied force, an object with a large mass will
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experience a smaller acceleration than that of an object with a smaller mass

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Identify the net force in a wide variety of situations involving modes of transport
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and explain the consequences of the application of that net force in terms of
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Net force is the sum of all the forces acting on a body.

In transportation the net force is in the direction the vehicle is travelling.

The net force depends upon the mass and the acceleration of the vehicle, as
stated by Newton‟s second law of motion. So if the acceleration is kept the same
for all vehicles, heavy vehicles will exert a greater force than lighter ones
Trains:

There are several different types (steam, diesel, electric) but all rely on the principle
of a force causing the wheels to turn and the static friction between the
wheels and the rail providing the forward (reaction) force to cause the train to
move.
There is friction between the moving parts of the train as well as air resistance but
the overall result is a net force forward, which results in the forward acceleration of
the train.

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 The train will attain a constant velocity when the forward force is equal to the sum
of the backward forces
Cars:

Automobiles experience much the same forces as trains except that there is friction
between the tyres and the road rather than between the wheels and rail.
Because tyres have a tread pattern the friction between the tyres and the road is
usually greater than the corresponding friction between train wheels and the rails.
There is friction between the moving parts of the car as well as air resistance but
the overall result is a net force forward, which results in the forward acceleration of
the car.
The car will attain a constant velocity when the forward force is equal to the sum of
the backward forces.
Planes:
There are two components of the net force; the horizontal components of the

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motion that provide the planes forward motion, and the vertical forces acting that
cause the plane to lift from the ground.
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The vertical motion of the plane is caused by dynamic lift (as opposed to static lift
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such as a balloon where the object rises in a more dense fluid). The dynamic lift of
an aircraft is caused by two factors, both of which rely on the plane moving forward
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through the air.

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The first is caused by the wing sloping upward towards the direction of forward
motion so that the air is deflected down. The second is due to the shape of the
wing. The wing is curved so that air traveling over the top of the wing travels a
greater distance than air traveling underneath the bottom of the wing. This results
in it occupying a greater volume and so being less dense- this provides substantial
lift for a moving object. This is due to the Bernoulli principle that is beyond the
scope of the HSC physics course.
The forward thrust of a jet plane is caused by the reaction force to the exhaust
gases (Newton‟s third law). A bigger engine or more engines gives a greater
forward force. There is also the force of air resistance opposing the motion of the
aircraft. The net force is forward and the acceleration is given by a = Fnet /m
Analyse the effects of external forces operating on a vehicle
Tension: The pulling force exerted by a wire or string, which attaches two objects together.

It is the opposite of compression

Tension pulls in both directions at once

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 If the system is in equilibrium, then the

3. Moving vehicles have kinetic energy and energy transformations are an important
aspect in understanding motion
Identify that a moving object possesses kinetic energy and that work done on that
object can increase that energy
Energy: is defined as the capacity to do work. It is a scalar quantity and is measured in
joules (J).
Kinetic Energy: is the energy an object possesses when it is moving

The more massive the object, and the faster it is moving, the more kinetic energy it
has

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Work:Work is done when an object moves in the direction of the force applied to it.
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The amount of work done is the product of the magnitude of the force and the
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displacement of the object in the direction of the force. It is a SCALAR quantity.

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Work and energy are equivalent, as 1 Newton-metre = 1 joule

Work done on a moving object will increase its kinetic energy
IF FORCE ACTS OVER A DISPLACEMENT, THEN WORK IS DONE

Describe the energy transformations that occur in collisions

When a collision occurs, some kinetic energy is transferred to other objects, but the
remainder of the energy is transformed into other forms of energy including:

Potential energy of deformation: This is stored energy in an object as a result of

changing its shape. Sometimes this energy can be transformed into other forms
when the object returns to its original shape

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 Sound energy: Transmitted through the air as a result of vibrating particles. When a
vehicle collides with an object or another vehicle, some of its kinetic energy is
transferred to the surrounding air, causing it to vibrate rapidly
Thermal energy: Energy that a substance possesses as a result of the random
motion of particles within it. The vehicles panels, tyres and other parts get very hot
as kinetic energy is transferred to the particles within them. The other object or
vehicle, and even the surrounding air, are also heated
Collisions can either be Elastic or Inelastic:

Elastic Collisions: If in a collision, kinetic energy is conserved, the collision is said

to be elastic. An example would be when Gas molecules collide with each other
and with the walls of their container, as kinetic energy is not decreased.
Inelastic Collisions: In inelastic collisions, kinetic energy is not conserved. Some
of the Kinetic energy is transformed into other forms of energy such as heat and
sound. If the colliding parts stick together, the collision is inelastic.

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Define the law of conservation of energy
‘In an isolated system, energy can be transferred from one type to another, but the
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total energy of the system remains constant.’ i.e. energy can neither be created nor
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destroyed, it can only change form.
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4. Change of momentum relates to the forces acting on the vehicle or the driver
Define momentum as:
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Momentum: Momentum is the product of the mass of an object and its velocity. It is a
VECTOR quantity and is measured in Kg/ms-1 (or N/s)
ks
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Define impulse as the product of force and time

Impulse: Impulse is the product of the force and the time interval over which it acts. It is a
VECTOR quantity and is measured in N/s.

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Impulse is also defined as the change in momentum:

By altering the Newton‟s 2nd law of

motion:
F = ma

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F = m(v-u)/t

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F.t = mv – mu
Impulse = momentum change
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Explain why momentum is conserved in collisions in terms of Newton’s Third Law
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of motion
Newton‟s Third Law: “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
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Alternatively, “When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body
simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to that
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of the first body.”

The reason why these pairs of forces don’t cancel each other out is because
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they are both being applied to DIFFERENT OBJECTS.

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Newton‟s third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Consider a collision between two objects, A and B.
According to Newton‟s third law, while the objects are in contact, F A = - FB
Suppose the objects are in contact for time t.
Then FA t = - FBt
i.e. the impulse of A is equal and opposite to the impulse of B
And since impulse is equal to the change of momentum
The change of momentum of A is equal and opposite to the change of momentum of B
So the total momentum remains constant i.e. momentum is conserved.

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Solve problems that apply the principle of conservation of momentum to
qualitatively and quantitatively describe the collision of a moving vehicle with:
Stationary vehicles: When a car crashes into a stationary vehicle several things happen
to reduce the severity of the impact on the occupants. Firstly the crumple zone of the
moving vehicle collapses, increasing the time it takes to come to rest. Secondly the panels
of the stationary vehicle distort and this further increases the distance and so the time over

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which the moving vehicle comes to rest. Thirdly the stationary vehicle gains some of the
momentum of the moving vehicle and moves. This allows the moving vehicle to keep
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moving but at a slower rate. This further increases the time for the moving vehicle to come
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to rest and reduces the force.
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Q. A car of mass 1200 kg travelling at 10 ms-1 crashes into the back of a stationary car of
mass 1500 kg. The stationary car lurches forward at a speed of 5ms-1. Find the speed of
the moving vehicle immediately after the collision.
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A. m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1+ m2v2

1200 x 10 + 0 = 1200 v1 + 1500 x 5
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12000 = 1200v1 + 7500

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4500 = 1200v1
v1 = 4500/1200 = 3.75
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The moving vehicle will move forward at 3.75 ms-1.

Immoveable object: When a car crashes into an immovable object there is still the
crumple zone of the moving vehicle. However the panels of the immoveable object don‟t
deform and the immoveable object does not move forward. This means that a collision
with an immoveable object such as a telegraph pole is much more dangerous than a
collision with a stationary vehicle.
Also in the case of a telegraph pole the force is spread over a smaller area so the pressure
is greater and the force is greater over the area of the impact.

Q. A 1 tonne car travelling at 10 ms-1 hits a telegraph pole and comes to rest in 0.05
second. What force does the telegraph pole exert on the car?

A. F = Dp/t = (1000 x 10) /0 .05 = 2 x 105 N against motion.

Head-on Collision: It is sometimes said that a head-on collision between two cars
travelling at 60 km/h is like hitting a brick wall at 120 km/h. If a car hits a brick wall it comes
to rest over the length of its crumple zone. If two cars collide head-on they come to rest
over the length of two crumple zones. Assuming they come to rest at the mid point of the

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two crumple zones then each car comes to rest over the length of one crumple zone. This
means that in a head-on collision between two cars each travelling at 60 km/h is like each
of them hitting a brick wall at 60 km/h, not 120 km/h.

Q. Two cars, each of mass 1200 kg travelling at 15 ms-1 (54 km/h) collide head on and
come to rest in 0.04s. A newspaper reporter said that it was like each car hitting a brick
wall at 108 km/h.
(i) What was the change of momentum of each car?
(ii) What was the change of kinetic energy of each car?
(iii)What average force did each car exert on the other one?
(iv) By what factor did the reporter overstate the change in momentum?
(v) By what factor did the reporter overstate the change in kinetic energy?

A. (i) Dp = mDv = 1200 x 15 = 18000 Ns against motion

(ii) Ek = ½ mv2 = ½ x 1200 x 152 = 135 000 J
(iii) F = Dp/t = 18000/0.04 = 450 000N against motion.
(iv) x2. Doubling the speed doubles the momentum.

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(v) x4. Doubling the speed means we have (2v)2 i.e. 4v2 and 4 x Ek

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Same direction: When two cars travelling in the same direction collide the speed of
collision can be taken as the difference between the two speeds i.e. the speed of one car
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relative to the other. Such collisions are not normally very dangerous provided both cars
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are travelling at approximately the same speed.

Q. A utility of mass 1500 kg travelling at 20 ms-1 runs into the back of a car of mass 1200
p

kg travelling at 15 ms-1. If the two vehicles coalesce (join together) what is the speed of the
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two vehicles after the collision.

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A. m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1+ m2v2

1500 x 20 + 1200 x 15 = (1200 + 1500)v
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30000 + 18000 = 2700v

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v = 48000/2700 = 17.78 ms-1

5. Safety Devices are utilized to reduce the effects of changing momentum

Define the inertia of a vehicle as its tendency to remain in uniform motion or at rest

Newton’s first law is called the law of inertia. The inertia of a vehicle refers to
its tendency to remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by an
external force.

Discuss reasons why Newton’s First Law of Motion is not apparent in

many real world situations
While the first part of Newton‟s first law seems apparent (we don‟t expect something at
rest to suddenly start moving of its own accord) the second part is not as obvious. The
reason objects do not remain in uniform motion is that it is impossible to completely
eliminate friction and friction always acts to oppose the motion. Consequently any object in
motion will be slowed down by friction between itself and the surface over which it travels
and by the resistance of the air that it has to push out of its way.

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Assess the reasons for the introduction of low speed zones in built-up areas and
the addition of air bags and crumple zones to vehicles with respect to the concepts
of impulse and momentum
Low speed zones mean that vehicles travelling at low speed have less momentum than
faster vehicles. Consequently in a collision their change in momentum is less and the
occupants are subjected to less force. Also there is a big reduction in kinetic energy when
vehicles travel more slowly. A car travelling at 40 km/h has less than half of the kinetic
energy that it would have if travelling at 60 km/h
The key to road safety is to remember that force is equal to the rate of change of
momentum and if we can increase the time over which something comes to rest we
reduce the force. Whether a car comes to rest suddenly (a collision) or gradually (gentle
application of the brakes) the impulse or change of momentum is the same. Crumple
zones increase the time it takes for a car in a collision to come to rest and so the change
of momentum occurs over a longer time and reduces the force.
Air bags spread the force over a bigger area of the body and so reduce the pressure on
points of impact. Since pressure is equal to force per unit area it means that the maximum

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force to any part of the body is reduced.

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Evaluate the effectiveness of some safety features of motor vehicles
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