Paramount Physics Cafe

Teaching AS Physics skills

Physics
International Advanced Level

Unit 1 : Mechanics:

One Dimensional Motion :

Speed is the rate of change of distance traveled with respect to time.

The unit of speed is also ms-1.

Speed is a scalar quantity.

Velocity is the rate of change of its displacement with respect to time.

The unit of velocity is ms-1.

Velocity is a vector quantity.

Acceleration of an object is the rate of change of its velocity with respect to time.

Acceleration: is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

The unit of acceleration is m s-2.

Acceleration is a vector quantity.

Average velocity/Speed = total displacement /total time

Distance is represented by the area under v -t graph

For displacement-time graphs, the gradient represents the velocity.
For velocity-time graphs, the gradient represents the acceleration, and the area under the graph
represents the displacement/ distance.

For constant velocity: v = s/ t

For uniform motion of acceleration in straight line :
1. v = u +a t: where v = final velocity , u = initial velocity , a= constant acceleration , t= time
2. s = ½ (u + v) t:
3. v2 = u2 + 2 a s:
4. s = u t + ½ a t2:

These equations apply only if the motion takes place along a straight line and the acceleration is constant;
{hence, for eg. , air resistance must be negligible.}

Free fall motion: When any object fall under a constant force field of gravity, it falls with a constant
acceleration g, which is 9.81 m/s2
When object falls : When object rise:
h= ut +½ gt2 h= ut -½ gt2
v=u+ g t v=u- g t
v2= u2+ 2gh v2= u2 - 2gh
If starts from rest u =0 At max height v=0
Graphical representation of motion.

Line A Line B Line C Line D

A body that is not moving. A body that is travelling with a A body that has a A body that is accelerating with
Displacement is always constant positive velocity. constant negative constant acceleration.
the same. Displacement increases linearly with velocity. Displacement is increasing at a non-
Velocity is zero. time. Displacement is linear rate. The shape of this line is a
Acceleration is zero. Velocity is a constant positive value. decreasing linearly parabola since displacement is
Acceleration is zero. with time. proportional to t2 (s = ut +1/2 at2).
Velocity is a Velocity is increasing linearly with
constant negative time.
value. Acceleration is a constant positive
Acceleration is value.
zero.

Experimental set up for measuring velocity:

Measuring velocity

You can measure velocity with a photogate connected to

a timer or computer. When a card passes through the
gate it is sensed by the timer, switching it on or off.

Velocities can be measure by:

a. Using a stopwatch to measure the time for an object to travel a set distance.
b. Using a ticker tape to place a series of dots on a strip of paper at a set frequency.
c. Using light gates to measure the time for which a set length of card breaks an infra-red
beam, and using data logging equipment to record this. Two light gates can be used to
measure acceleration.
Two Dimensional Motion :

If any object projected from ground at an angle

Horizontal components:
Vertical components:

Since we know that the vertical motion is constant

acceleration due to gravity and the horizontal motion is constant velocity. We can therefore use the suvat
equations.

suvat for horizontal motion:

Since acceleration is zero there is only one equation needed to define the motion

suvat for vertical motion :

When object is projected horizontally from the top :

Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion

Initial horizontal velocity uy = zero = o m/s ;
u x= final horizontal velocity vx; since projected horizontally;
since no force no acceleration vy = uy + gt and
horizontally.
1
R= u × t; where u is the h = uy×t + g t2
projected speed. 2

Scalar & Vector Quatity :

Scalar: A quantity which can be described fully by giving its magnitude is known as a scalar quantity.
Example : mass, speed ,pressure , Energy ,temperature.

Vector : A quantity which can be described fully by giving its magnitude and direction is known as a
vector quantity. Example : weight , velocity , force , work done , electric current .

A List for Scalar

Scalar Quantity Vector Quantity and vector quantity are given in
the table : Distance ,Speed, Displacement, Velocity
Mass ,Pressure, Energy, Weight ,Force
Work K.E and P.E. Momentum, Impulse
,Temperature Acceleration ,Torque ,
Resistance ,Volume Moment, Angular
Density ,Charge, Electric displacement,
current ,Voltage current Gravitational field
,Amplitude , frequency, strength ,Electric field
wavelength. strength, Magnetic field
strength
Taking components of a vector:

Horizontal component , Ax= A Cosθ

Vertical component , Ay= A Sinθ

Addition of vectors:

Vectors can be represented by drawing arrows. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of
the quantity and the direction of the arrow is the direction of the quantity.

To add vectors the arrows are simply arranged so that the point of one touches
the tail of the other. The resultant vector is found by drawing a line joining
the free tail to the free point.

Forces:

Mass: is a measure of the amount of matter in a body, & is the property of a body which resists change in
motion.

Weight: is the force of gravitational attraction (exerted by the Earth) on a body.

Impulse of a force I is defined as the product of the force and the time ∆t during which it acts i.e. I = F x ∆t
{for force which is const over the duration ∆t}
Impulse is equal in magnitude to the change in momentum of the body acted on by the force.
Hence the change in momentum of the body is equal in magnitude to the area under a (net) force-time graph.
{Incorrect to define impulse as change in momentum}
Force is defined as the rate of change of momentum, ie F = m(v - u)/t = ma

The {one} Newton is defined as the force needed to accelerate a mass of 1 kg by 1 ms -2.

Normal contact force is a force perpendicular to the surface experienced by a body when it is in physical
contact with something else.

A couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce rotation only.

A couple is a pair of forces, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, whose lines of motion do not
coincide.

Moment of a Force: The product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action to the pivot
Torque of a Couple: The produce of one of the forces of the couple and the perpendicular distance between
the lines of action of the forces. (WARNING: NOT an action-reaction pair as they act on the same body.)
Stability of an object refers to its ability to return to its original position after it has been displaced from that
position.
Conditions for Equilibrium (of an extended object):
1. The resultant force acting on it in any direction equals zero
2. The resultant moment about any point is zero.

Principle of Moments: For a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of all the anticlockwise moments about any
point must be equal to the sum of all the clockwise moments about that same point.

Centre of gravity is the point on an object through which the entire weight of the object may be considered to
act.

Newton’s first law 0f momentum:The momentum of a particle remains constant unless n external foce acts
on the particle.

Newton’s second law 0f momentum :states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to
the resultant force acting on it and the change takes place in the direction of the force.

Newton’s third law states that when two bodies exert action and reaction force on each other , their changes
of momentum are equal and opposite.

Newton’s third law of motion.

Force on body A is equal in magnitude to force on body B. Forces are in opposite directions .Forces are of the
same kind.
Work Energy Power

Work = force × displacement in the direction of the force

Area under F with displacement x graph is work done / work done

The work done on any object = change in Potential Energy (ΔU = mgh) + Change in Kinetic Energy (ΔK = ½mv 2)

Gravitational P E is energy of a mass due to its position in a gravitational field.

Elastic P E energy stored in an object due to a force changing its shape / deformation / being compressed /
stretched / strained.
In any closed system , Loss of GPE = Gain KE

Power is the rate of doing work . or power = work done / time taken or
power = energy transferred / time taken
power = force × speed

Distinguish between gravitational potential energy and electric potential energy.

1.Electrical potential energy (stored) when charge moved due to work done in electric field.

2.Gravitational potential energy (stored) when mass moved. due to work done in gravitational field

efficiency = useful power / output power

Properties of Materials
Metal: ordered arrangement / pattern / lattice of atoms or long range order of atoms / molecules / ions

polymer: tangled chains of atoms / molecules or long chains of atoms / molecules / ions.

amorphous: disordered / irregular arrangement or short range order of atoms / molecules / ions

crystalline: atoms / ions / particles in a regular arrangement lattice repeats itself.

polymer: long chain molecules / chains of monomers with some cross-linking between chains / tangled chains

Explain what is meant by plastic deformation.

when the load is removed then the wire / body object does not return to its original shape / length

Young modulus = stress / strain

Elastic Potential Energy = average force × extension = ½ × F × x = ½ k x2

Explain what is meant by strain energy (elastic potential energy)

Ability to do work as a result of a change of shape of an object/ stretched etc

Ultimate tensile stress :

UTS is the maximum force or maximum stress the wire is able to support / before it breaks.
Brittle materials break at their elastic limit, with very little plastic
deformation. Glass, cast iron , high carbon steels, perspex are a brittle
material. It is surprisingly strong and has an ultimate tensile stress (the
maximum tensile( stretching) stress that a material can withstand
before fracture) of about 150M Pa. However ,this varies widely because
any small cracks on the surface will rapidly widen and reduce its strength.

Ductile materials initially stretch elastically obeying Hooke's law. However

,once they reach their elastic limit they stretch much more per unit increase
in load. The-r. reach a point at which they continue to stretch, even if the
load is reduced slightly. They then break. Most pure metals are ductile .
copper is a good example-It has about the same ultimate tensile stress as
gla ( l50Mpa) but it stretches much more. Lead , copper , wrought iron
are ductile metals

Polymeric materials are highly temperature dependent. At low temperatures

they can act as brittle materials. At higher temperatures their behavior changes
dramatically.

Note that there is no standard shape of graph for polymerics different polymers
behave in different ways. Diagram (c) above shows the graph for rubber.

Note how, once again, there is more work done in stretching the rubber than is released when
it returns to its original length. The extra energy is released as internal energy in exactly the same way as when a metal
wire is stretched beyond its elastic limit.
*All materials show elastic behavior up to the elastic limit ; they return to their original length when the force is
removed.
* Brittle materials break at the elastic limit.
* Ductile materials become permanently deformed if they are stretched beyond the elastic limit ; they show plastic
behavior.

Stiffness = Young Modulus . Tensile strength = breaking point stress

Toughness = ability to resist crack growth.
Hardness = resistance to plastic deformation.

Experiment for the measurement of Young modulus of a metal in the form of a wire.

(a) Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the apparatus that could be used.

Clamped horizontal wire over pulley or vertical wire attached to ceiling with mass attached .

Reference mark on wire with fixed scale alongside

(b) Describe the method used to obtain the required measurements.

Measure original length of wire to reference mark with metre ruler / tape .
Measure diameter with micrometer / digital calipers
Measure initial and final reading (for extension) with metre ruler or other suitable scale .
Measure / record mass or weight used for the extension .

Good physics method:

measure Type of Structure Examples diameter in
several places / solid remove load and
check wire Crystalline Highly ordered with Sodium chloride(common s1at, returns to
original length / the particles in fixed diamond- The geometric take several
readings with Geometric patterns patterns of the ions or atoms different loads
determine the geometric shapes
(c) Describe how the
of the crystal.
measurements taken can be
used to Metallic Made up of many cast iron, copper The tiny determine the
Young very small crystals crystals can be seen under a modulus.
(polycrystalline); microscope when the material
Determine the order is limited by fractures. crystals in cast iron extension from
final and initial the size of the tend to be larger than those readings Plot a
graph of force crystals in copper and can sometimes against
extension .
be seen by the naked eye
Determine gradient of
graph for F / e Polymeric Long-chain Rubber, polythene .Rubber is a
Calculate area molecules natural polymer; the chain from π d2/4
Calculate E from molecules tend to be tangled E=FL/eA
and when rubber is stretched
they straighten out, giving
rubber its natural springiness
Polythene is a man-made
polymer; it is an example of a
plastic
Amorphou No long-term order in Glass, wax .Amorphous solids
s the molecular do not have a fixed melting
structure point but gradually soften over
a range of temperatures
 Stokes' law and terminal velocity

When any object rises or falls through a fluid it will experience a viscous
drag, whether it is a parachutist or spacecraft falling through air, a stone
falling through water or a bubble rising through fizzy lemonade.

Consider a sphere falling through a viscous fluid. As the sphere falls so its
velocity increases until it reaches a velocity known as the terminal velocity.
At this velocity the frictional drag due to viscous forces is just balanced by
the gravitational force and the velocity is constant.

At this speed: Viscous drag = 6 π ηrv = Weight = mg

Frictional force (F) = 6 π ηrv (Stokes' law)

where v is the terminal velocity of the sphere, r is the radius of the sphere , η is the viscosity of the fluid.

Viscosity : The state of being thick, sticky, and semi-fluid in consistency, due to internal friction.

"cooling the fluid raises its viscosity"

What is viscosity?
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes the internal friction of a moving fluid.

A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is
in motion.

Turbulent Flow: irregular flow that is characterized by tiny

whirlpool regions. The velocity of this fluid is definitely not
constant at every point.

Streamline flow/ Laminar Flow: the flow of a fluid when

each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, paths which
never interfere with one another. One result of laminar flow is
that the velocity of the fluid is constant at any point in the fluid.