2 - Measurement Techniques

2.1 - Measurements
You must be able to carry out the following measurements using the instruments listed:

Measurement Instrument(s)

Length Ruler, vernier calipers, micrometers

Weight Balance

Angle Protractor

Time interval Stopwatch, calibrated oscilloscope

Temperature Thermometer

Current Ammeter

Voltage Voltmeter

Small electrical current (in null methods) Galvanometer

Magnitude of magnetic field strength (A-level only) Calibrated Hall probe (A-level only)

The resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being measured that gives a
recognisable change in reading.

Vernier calipers have a resolution of 0.1 mm, which is better than that of a ruler which is 1 mm,
meaning that they can be used to make more accurate measurements. Vernier calipers have two
scales, the main scale and the vernier scale, as shown below:

In order to read any instrument with a vernier scale you must:

1. Find the millimetre value from the main scale, by taking the marked value below zero on
the vernier scale. In the example above, this would be 12 mm.
2. Find the mark on the vernier scale which aligns perfectly with a marked reading on the
main scale. In the example above, this would be the 4th mark along (note how the marks
from both scales form a straight line), which represents 0.4 mm, as each mark on the
vernier scale represents a tenth of a millimeter.
3. Add you two measured values: 12 + 0.4 = 12.4 mm.
Micrometers work in a similar fashion to vernier calipers, however they have a higher resolution of
1.1 mm, and are usually used to measure the diameter or thickness of an object. To use a
micrometer you must:
1. Place the object to be measured between the jaw of the micrometer.
2. The barrel of the micrometer has two scales, one which is horizontal (barrel scale) and one
which is vertical (thimble scale). The barrel scale will give a reading of millimeters and half
millimeters.
3. Read the barrel scale by looking at the edge of the micrometer thimble (this is the part
that turns), if the thimble is over the 4th millimeter marking after 10 mm, you’re reading 14
mm and if it is on/just over the half millimeter marking after 14mm, then the reading is 14.5
mm.
4. For more precise measurements, find where the thimble scale lines up exactly with the
axis of the barrel scale. Each mark on the thimble scale represents 0.01 of a mm. If this is
33 then add 0.33 to the barrel scale reading (14.5 mm) to give a measurement of 14.83
mm.

Any type of current can be displayed on an oscilloscope, which shows the variation of voltage
with time. However, it is possible to turn off the time-base, which will cause the trace to show all
the possible voltages at any time in one area, which is useful for taking measurements. For a
direct current, the trace will show a straight line parallel to the axis, at the height of the output
voltage. If time-base is turned off, then only a dot will be seen on the screen, at the height of the
output voltage.
For an alternating current, the trace will show a repeating sinusoidal waveform which shows the
variation of output voltage with time. If the time-base is switched off, then a straight vertical line will
appear on the screen, showing all the possible voltages.
An oscilloscope will have a fixed grid on its display however, you can adjust the scale of both
axes to make measurements easier. To change the scale of the Y-axis, you can select the
number of volts per division using a Y-gain control dial, which will be marked on the oscilloscope.
To change the scale of the X-axis, you can adjust the time base, which again will be marked on the
oscilloscope.

In order to take measurements from an oscilloscope you will need to count the number of
divisions (adjusting the axes to make this easier), and multiply them by either the volts per
division or the time base, depending on what you are measuring.

A galvanometer detects and measures small electric currents. It is often used in null methods,
which is where an unknown value is measured by adjusting a circuit until the reading on the
galvanometer is zero. This is useful because no current flows through the galvanometer meaning
the circuit is left undisrupted, giving very accurate measurements, whereas a real ammeter will
not have infinite input resistance, so will affect the current in the circuit.

For example, a galvanometer can be used to compare the

emf of two cells, using a potential divider circuit as seen in the
diagram on the right. A potential divider is a circuit with
several resistors in series connected across a voltage
source, used to produce a required fraction of the source
potential difference. In this case, the resistors are the
lengths of uniform resistance wire.

The length of the wire L1 is adjusted by changing the

connection of the flying lead to the circuit, which will in turn
change the resistance and so potential across that stretch of
wire (as V=IR and resistance increases with length).
Once the galvanometer reads zero, the potential across the test cell from the driving cell is equal
and opposite to the test cell’s potential difference, which is why no current can flow. This method is
repeated with a test cell of known potential and the original test cell’s potential can be calculated
using ratios.

A Hall probe (A-level only) is used to measure magnetic field strength, and must be used
perpendicular to the field being investigated to prevent it from only measuring a component of
magnetic field strength.

An instrument, such as a weighing scale, may have a digital display or analogue scale. Digital
displays are usually more precise, easier to use and provide a higher resolution, however will
only provide a snapshot of the value being measured whereas analogue scales can show a range
of possible values as well as demonstrating any fluctuations (for example in voltage). One
disadvantage of analogue scales is that they are affected by parallax errors, which are
measurement errors caused by looking at a scale from different angles.
Below are the displays of a digital (left) and analogue multimeter (right).

Calibration curves are used alongside instruments whose outputs are not proportional to the
value they are measuring. An example of such an instrument is a thermocouple thermometer,
which produces an emf which varies with temperature.

In order to use this device you must record the measured value of emf
and find where the calibration curve is equal to this. This can be done
by drawing a horizontal line across from the y-axis, where emf is on
this axis, until you reach a point on the curve. Then draw a vertical line
down from this point on the curve, until you reach the x-axis. Where
the line crosses the x-axis will give you the measured temperature.

The calibration curve of a thermocouple thermometer, for example,

would be produced by measuring its emf output when exposed to known values of temperature.
This process is similar for all instruments which require a calibration curve.

2.2 - Errors and Uncertainties

Random errors affect precision, meaning they cause differences in measurements which causes
a spread about the mean. You cannot get rid of all random errors.
An example of random error is electronic noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument.
To reduce random errors:
● Take at least 3 repeats and calculate a mean, this method also allows anomalies to be
identified
● Use computers/data loggers/cameras to reduce human error and enable smaller
intervals
● Use appropriate equipment, e.g a micrometer has higher resolution (0.1 mm) than a ruler
(1 mm)

Systematic errors affect accuracy and occur due to the apparatus or faults in the experimental
method. Systematic errors cause all results to be too high or too low by the same amount each
time.
An example is a balance that isn’t zeroed correctly (zero error) or reading a scale at a different
angle (this is a parallax error).
To reduce systematic error:
● Calibrate apparatus by measuring a known value (e.g. weigh 1 kg on a mass balance), if
the reading is inaccurate then the systematic error is easily identified
● In radiation experiments correct for background radiation by measuring it beforehand and
subtracting it from the final results
● Read the meniscus (the central curve on the surface of a liquid) at eye level (to reduce
parallax error) and use controls in experiments

You must understand the difference between precision and accuracy:

Precision Precise measurements are consistent, they fluctuate slightly about a mean
value - this doesn’t indicate the value is accurate.

Accuracy A measurement close to the true value is accurate.

The uncertainty of a measurement is the bounds in which the accurate value can be expected to
lie e.g. 20°C ± 2°C , the true value could be within 18-22°C.

Absolute Uncertainty: uncertainty given as a fixed quantity e.g. 7 ± 0.6 V

3
Fractional Uncertainty: uncertainty as a fraction of the measurement e.g. 7 ± 35V
Percentage Uncertainty: uncertainty as a percentage of the measurement e.g. 7 ± 8.6% V

To reduce percentage and fractional uncertainty, you can measure larger quantities.

Readings are when one value is found (e.g. reading a thermometer). Measurements are when the
difference between 2 readings is found, since both the starting point and end point are judged
(e.g. a ruler).

The uncertainty in a reading is ± half the smallest division,

e.g. for a thermometer the smallest division is 1°C so the uncertainty is ±0.5°C
The uncertainty in a measurement is at least ±1 smallest division,
e.g. a ruler, must include both the uncertainty for the start and end value, as each end has
±0.5mm, they are added so the uncertainty in the measurement is ±1mm

When pieces of measured data are used in calculations, their uncertainty will also affect the result
of the calculations, therefore you must be able to combine uncertainties as shown below:

● Adding / subtracting data - ADD ABSOLUTE UNCERTAINTIES

E.g. A thermometer with an uncertainty of ± 0.5 K shows the temperature of water falling from
298 ± 0.5 K to 273 ± 0.5K, what is the difference in temperature?

298-273 = 25K 0.5 + 0.5 = 1K (add absolute uncertainties) difference = 25 ± 1 K

 ● Multiplying / dividing data - ADD PERCENTAGE UNCERTAINTIES

E.g. a force of 91 ± 3 N is applied to a mass of 7 ± 0.2 kg, what is the acceleration of the mass?

uncertainty
a=F/m =91/7 = 13m s−2 percentage uncertainty= valu × 100
e

3 0.2
Work out % uncertainties × 100 + × 100 = 3.3% + 2.9% add % uncertainties
91 7
= 6.2%
So a= 13 ± 6.2% m 6.2% of 13 is 0.8
s−2
a=13 ± 0.8 m s−2

● Raising to a power - MULTIPLY PERCENTAGE UNCERTAINTY BY POWER

The radius of a circle is 5 ± 0.3 cm, what is the percentage uncertainty in the area of the circle?
Area = π x 25 = 78.5 cm2
Area = π r2
0.3
% uncertainty in radius =
5
× 100 = 6% % uncertainty in area = 6 x 2 (2 is the power from r2 )
= 12%
78.5 ± 12% cm2
3 - Kinematics

3.1 - Equations of Motion

● Distance - The distance travelled by an object is a scalar
quantity and describes the amount of ground the object has
covered.
● Displacement (s) - The overall distance travelled from the
starting position (includes a direction and so it is a vector
quantity).
● Speed - This is a scalar quantity which describes the distance
travelled per unit time.
Δs
● Velocity (v) - rate of change of displacement - Δ
Δvt
● Acceleration (a) - rate of change of velocity - Δ
t
● Uniform acceleration is where the acceleration of an object
is constant.

Acceleration-time graphs represent the change in velocity over

time. Therefore the area under the graph is change in velocity.

Velocity-time graphs represent the change in velocity over time.

Therefore the gradient of a velocity time graph is acceleration,
and the area under the graph is displacement.

Displacement-time graphs show change in displacement over

time, and so their gradient represents velocity.

Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of an object at a specific

point in time. It can be found from a displacement-time graph by
drawing a tangent to the graph at the specific time and calculating the gradient.

Distance and speed can be represented in distance-time graphs and speed-time graphs
respectively. Note that unlike displacement and velocity, distance and speed will never be
negative as they are scalar values.

In order to derive the uniform acceleration equations, you must consider the following
velocity-time graph of a uniformly accelerating object:

1. The area beneath a velocity-time graph is

displacement, therefore:
s = area of rectangle + area of triangle
s = ut + t (v2 − u)
s = ut + vt ut
2
− 2
 s= + ut vt s=(u +v
)t
2 2 2

2. The gradient of a velocity-time graph is the acceleration, therefore:

v −u
a= t which rearranges to,

v = u + at

3. The area beneath a velocity-time graph is displacement, therefore:

s = area of rectangle + area of triangle
s = ut + t (v2 − u)
Substitute in the equation at =v−u (from above)

s = ut + t (at)
2
s= + 12 at2
ut

4. The last equation can be found by substituting the equation from part 2 ( v = u + at ) into
u+v
the equation from part 1 ( s =
2 ( )t ).
Rearrange v = u + at , to get:

t = v−au
Substitute this into s = ( u2 +v )t
, to get:
s = ( u+v ) × ( v−u
) 2 a
v2−u2
s= 2a

v2 = u2 + 2as
In summary, when an object is moving at uniform acceleration, you can use the following
formulas:

v = u + at at2
s = ( u2+v ) s = ut + 2 v2 = u2 + 2as
t
Where s = displacement, u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a = acceleration, t = time

When approaching questions which require the use of these formulas, it is useful to write out the
values you know, and the ones you want to find out in order to more easily choose the correct
formula to use.

For example:
A stone is dropped from a bridge 50 m above the water below. What will be its final velocity (v)
and for how long does it fall (t)?
Note, in this example the stone is dropped therefore we can assume that the initial velocity is zero.
Also because the stone is dropped, we know its acceleration will be g (9.81 m/s2 ), which is the
acceleration due to gravity.

s = 50 m u = 0 m/s v=? a = 9.81 m/s2 t=?

Using
v2 = u2 + 2as , you can find v.
v2 = 02 + 2 × v2 = 981 v = 31.3 m/s
9.81 × 50
2
Using s = ut + at2 , you can find t.

50 = 4.905t2 t2 = 10.19 t = 3.19 s

You can find the value of g, the acceleration

due to gravity, experimentally, and below is a
method you could follow:

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the

diagram, connecting the light gates to a
data logger and as close to the
electromagnet as possible.
2. The position of the lower light gate
should be adjusted such that the height
h is 0.75 m, measured using the metre
ruler.
3. Turn on the electromagnet and attach
the ball bearing.
4. Switch off the electromagnet, and note the time taken for the bearing to fall between the
light gates (t) as recorded by the data logger.
5. Reduce h by 0.05 m by moving the lower light gate upwards and repeat the above two
steps, reducing h by 0.05 m each time, down to 0.25 m.
6. Repeat the experiment twice more to find mean values of t for each value of h.

In the above investigation, the acceleration (g) is constant, meaning one of the constant
acceleration equations can be used to analyse the results.

Consider
s= + 1 at2 :
ut 2

The displacement of the ball bearing (s) will be h, its initial velocity (u) is 0, and its acceleration is g,
so the above equation becomes:
h = 12gt2 ⇒ 2h = gt2

Therefore if you plot a graph of 2h against (the mean value of) t2, its gradient will be g.
When an object is moving at a constant velocity in one direction, and experiences a uniform
acceleration in the perpendicular direction, it will follow a parabolic shape, as shown in the
diagram to the right.

At first, the object only experiences

a horizontal velocity (vx), however
as time goes on, its vertical velocity
(vy) increases due to the uniform
acceleration.
This causes the object to change
direction, and as the time passed
increases, the degree by which the
direction has changed increases, as
shown by the parabolic shape.
4 - Dynamics

4.1 - Momentum and Newton’s Laws of Motion

➔ Newton’s 1st law - An object will remain at rest or travelling at a constant velocity, until it
experiences a resultant force
➔ Newton’s 2nd law - The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force
experienced by the object: F = ma where F is the resultant force, m is the object’s mass
and a is its acceleration.
It is important to note that the resultant force and acceleration are always in the same
direction.
➔ Newton’s 3rd law - For each force experienced by an object, the object exerts an equal
and opposite force.

The mass of an object is the property of a body and is a measure of its resistance to
acceleration. The larger the mass of an object, the smaller the acceleration it experiences for a
given resultant force experienced. This can be demonstrated by considering Newton’s 2nd law: F =
ma.

For example, object 1 has a mass of 1 kg and object 2 has a mass of 10 kg and they both
experience a resultant force of 10 N.

a=F Object 1: 10
= 10
m ms-2
1
Object 2:
10 =1
10 ms-2

As you can see, the object with the larger mass (object 2) will experience a smaller acceleration for
a given resultant force of 10 N.

Linear momentum is the product of mass and velocity of an object.

Momentum = mass × velocity
Δ(mv)
Newton’s 2nd law states F = ma , therefore, F = Δt
Δv
as a = Δ .
From this you can see that force is the rate of change of momentum.t

4.2 - Non-Uniform Motion

The weight of an object is the gravitational force experienced by it, and varies depending on
the strength of the gravitational field the object is in.

The weight of a body on Earth can be calculated by finding the product of its mass and g (the
acceleration due to gravity).
Weight = mass × g
A body falling in a uniform gravitational field will experience a constant weight as the strength of a
uniform gravitational field is constant. Below is a description of the motion of an object, with an
initial velocity of 0 ms-1, in a uniform gravitational field:
1. The object experiences weight downwards and air resistance upwards. As the magnitude of
weight is larger than air resistance, it will accelerate downwards as there is a resultant
force (Newton’s 2nd law).
2. As the object’s velocity increases, the magnitude of air resistance increases,
therefore the resultant force and acceleration downwards will decrease.
3. Air resistance will continue increasing up until the point where the magnitude of weight
and air resistance is equal. As there is no resultant force, the object travels at a constant
velocity, known as the terminal velocity.

Air resistance will affect both the vertical and horizontal components of a projectile’s motion as
shown in the diagram below:

As you can see, with air resistance the maximum height is reached earlier, and the vertical and
horizontal distance travelled decreases.

4.3 - Linear Momentum and its Conservation

The principle of conservation of momentum states that momentum is always conserved in
any interaction where no external forces act.
This means the momentum before an event (e.g a collision) is equal to the momentum after. This
fact is used to find the velocity of objects after collisions.
 For example:
A car with a mass of 500 kg, and a velocity of 4
m/s, collides with a stationary truck with a mass
of 1500 kg. The two vehicles join together and
move on with a velocity V. Find the value of V.

First find the momentum before the collision.

Total momentum before = (500 × 4) + (1500 × 0)
= 2000 kgms-1

Total momentum before = Total momentum after

Therefore, 2000 = 2000 × V V = 1 ms-1

There are two types of collision:

● Elastic - where both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
● Inelastic - where only momentum is conserved, while some of the kinetic energy is
converted into other forms (e.g heat, sound, gravitational potential) and may be larger or
smaller after a collision

For a perfectly elastic collision the relative speed of approach before the collision is equal to
the relative speed of separation after the collision.

For example, consider 2 steel balls of equal mass, one is at rest and the other is travelling at a
velocity of v. The moving ball collides with the ball which is at rest, and transfers all its momentum
and kinetic energy to it. This means that the ball which was at rest will now move away from the
other steel ball (which came to rest after the collision), at a velocity equal to the relative speed of
approach.

Most collisions are inelastic, meaning their kinetic energy is not conserved. For example, in a
collision between two vehicles, kinetic energy is converted into elastic potential energy and thermal
energy, through the deformation of crumple zones, and also sound energy.
5 - Forces, Density and Pressure

5.1 - Types of Force

A uniform gravitational field exerts the same gravitational force on a mass everywhere in the
field. This force (F, also known as weight) can be calculated using the following equation:
F = mg
Where m is the mass of the object experiencing the force and g is the gravitational field strength.

Note that the gravitational field strength for a uniform field is constant.
The gravitational field strength on the Earth’s surface is approximately 9.81 Nkg-1.

A uniform electric field exerts the same electric force on a charge everywhere in the field. This
force (F) can be calculated using the following equation:
F = EQ
Where Q is the charge of the object experiencing the force and E is the electric field strength.

Note that the electric field strength for a uniform field is constant, and can be calculated using the
following equation:
E = Vd
(for uniform fields formed by parallel plates)
Where V is the potential difference across the plates and d is the distance between the plates.

Objects in fluids may experience an upthrust force due to different pressures exerted on the
surface of the object. In order to fully understand this you must be aware of the following equation
used to calculate pressure (p) (this equation is further explored in section 5.4):

Δp = ρgΔh
Where ρ is the density of the fluid, g is the gravitational field strength and h is the depth of the object in the
fluid.

Consider a cylinder which is submerged in water. The

bottom of the cylinder is deeper down in the fluid
therefore h is larger than it is for the top of the cube.
This means that the pressure at the bottom of the
cylinder will also be larger. As the two faces of the
cylinder have an equal area, and P = F/A, the force
experienced by the bottom of the cube is larger than the
top of the cube and it is pushed upwards.
Friction is a force which opposes the motion of an object. It is known as drag or air resistance
when considering the friction experienced in a fluid. Frictional forces convert kinetic energy into
other forms such as heat and sound.

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the fluid’s resistance to flow/deform. The larger the
viscosity of a fluid, the larger the viscous (frictional) forces experienced by objects moving through
the fluid. As the speed of an object travelling through a fluid increases, the viscous force
increases.

The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which an object’s weight acts.
If an object is described as uniform, its centre of gravity will be exactly at its centre.

5.2 - Turning Effects of Forces

The moment of a force about a point is the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from
the line of action of the force to the point.

Moment = Force X Perpendicular distance to line of action of force from the point

A couple is a pair of coplanar forces (meaning they are forces within the same plane), where the
two forces are equal in magnitude but act in opposite directions. A couple tends to only
produce rotation.

To find the torque of a couple, you multiply one of the forces by the perpendicular
distance between the lines of action of the forces.

Moment of a couple = Force X Perpendicular distance between the lines of action of forces

5.3 - Equilibrium of Forces

The principle of moments states that for an object in equilibrium, the sum of anticlockwise
moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of clockwise moments.

You can use this fact to answer certain questions, for example:
Find the value of F from the diagram on the right.

Σ clockwise moments = Σ anticlockwise moments

Taking moments around A:

(2 × 50) + (3 × 35) = (3.5 × F )
2 = 3.5F F = 58.6 N
0
5

Note, in the example moments are taken about A, as the distance from A to A is 0, the moment
caused by the 12 N force is also 0, therefore it can be ignored.

Note that a system is in equilibrium if there is no resultant force and no resultant torque.
 You can show an object is in equilibrium by either:
● Adding the horizontal and vertical components of the forces acting on it and showing
they equal zero
● Or if there are 3 coplanar forces acting on the object, you can draw a scale diagram and if
the scale diagram forms a closed triangle, then the object is in equilibrium.

5.4 - Density and Pressure

The density (ρ) of a material is its mass per unit volume, and it’s a measure of how compact a
substance is. You can calculate density using the following equation:
m
ρ= V
Where m is the mass of the object and V is its volume.

Pressure (p) is defined as the force perpendicular to a surface per unit area, and can be
calculated using the following equation:
F
p= A
Where F is the force acting perpendicular to the surface and A is its area.

Using the defining equations of pressure and density, you can derive the formula Δp = ρgΔh used
in section 5.1:

Consider a beaker containing a fluid of density ρ, and a small cylinder as

shown in the diagram to the right.
The pressure on the bottom face of the cylinder, which has an area A, is
due to the weight of the column of the fluid above it.
You can calculate this mass of this fluid by multiplying its density by its
volume:
V olume = A × h
Mass =ρ×A×h As Weig = mg , you can calculate the
ht
weight of this fluid as shown below:
Weight = ρ × A × h × g
Finally you can calculate pressure using the equation shown above:
Weight
p= Area = ρ×A×h×g
A = ρhg
Therefore,
Δp = ρgΔh
You can use the equation on the previous page to calculate the pressure exerted by a fluid on an
object when you know the fluid’s density and the height of the fluid above the object.
Note this equation does not give you a value of total pressure.

Total pressure is the sum of the pressure exerted by the fluid and atmospheric pressure.

For example, a stone is thrown into a lake and sinks to the bottom, 15.0 m below the surface. The
density of the lake water is 997 kgm-3 and the atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 Pa. Find the total
pressure experienced by the stone.

Firstly, calculate the pressure exerted by the water using Δp = ρgΔh

.
997 × 9.81 × 15.0 = 1.47 × 105 Pa

Next, find the total pressure.

Total pressure = Δp + Atmospheric pressure

Total pressure = 1.47 × 105 + 1.01 × 105 = 2.48 × 105 Pa

6 - Work, Energy and Power

6.1 - Energy Conversion and Conservation

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can
be transferred from one form to another. Therefore, the total energy in a closed system stays constant.
Total energy in = Total energy out

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work and comes in different forms:

➔ Gravitational potential energy - this is dependent on the object’s position in a gravitational
field and its mass. It increases as an object’s height above the ground increases.
➔ Kinetic energy - this is the energy stored by an object when it is moving and is dependent on the
object’s mass and velocity.
➔ Internal energy - this is equal to the sum of all of the kinetic energies and potential energies of all
the particles of an object.
➔ Elastic potential energy - this is the energy stored by an object when it is squashed or stretched.
➔ Electrical potential energy - this is dependent on a charged object's position in an electric field.

Energy is transferred from one form to another when:

● Work is done - for example, when an object is squashed, kinetic energy is converted into elastic
potential energy.
● Energy is emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation - for example, when
thermal/internal energy of a radiator is transmitted by
infrared radiation.

As another example, think about a ball being thrown up into the air. The thrower
gives the ball kinetic energy therefore it moves upwards, however as it does, the
ball slows down because kinetic energy is transferred to gravitational potential
energy. Eventually, all of the kinetic energy is transferred to gravitational
potential energy and the ball stops momentarily, after which the ball’s
gravitational potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy and the ball
falls to the ground.

It is very important to note that work is being done by the ball to work against
resistive forces, therefore the initial kinetic energy given to the ball is not equal
to the maximum gravitational potential when the ball has
stopped in mid-air. This is because the kinetic energy of the ball is being transferred to the
environment in the form of heat due to air resistance.

6.2 - Work and Efficiency

Work done (W) is defined as the force causing a motion multiplied by
the distance travelled in the direction of the motion.

W = Fs cos θ
Where s is the distance travelled and θ is the angle between the direction of the force and

the direction of motion.

Work is done on a gas to change its volume when it is at constant
pressure, (this is usually done through the transfer of thermal energy) the
value of work done can be calculated using the formula:

Work done = pΔV

Where p is the pressure and ΔV is the change in volume.

Efficiency is a measure of how efficiently a system transfers energy. It is calculated by dividing the useful
power output by the total energy input.

Efficiency = useful output power useful output power × 100

input power
Efficiency (percentage) = input power

If you multiply the value of efficiency by 100, you receive the value of efficiency as a percentage.

The efficiency of a system is never 100%, meaning that the energy input into a system is always greater
than the useful energy output. This is because energy is always lost due to various forms of friction, for
example, where two parts of the system make contact kinetic energy will be transferred to internal, and
sound energy (which is usually undesirable).

6.3 - Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy

You can calculate the kinetic energy (Ek) of an object using the following equation:
Ek = 1
2 mv
2
Where m is the mass of the object and v is its velocity.

The above equation can be derived by using the constant acceleration equations and Newton’s 2nd law:
-1
1. Consider an object of mass, m, which accelerated uniformly from rest to v ms .
-1
2. As u = 0 ms , you can rearrange
v2 = u2 + 2as like so:
2
v = 2as
a= v2
2s

3. Multiply the above equation by mass.

ma = mv2
2s
As F = ma
mv2
F = 2s

4. Work done is the product of force and distance travelled, therefore multiply the above
equation by distance travelled (s) to find the equation for kinetic energy.
Fs = mv2 s
2s
Ek = 1
2 mv2
Gravitational potential energy is dependent on the object’s position in a gravitational field and its mass,
whereas elastic potential energy is dependent on the object’s elasticity/spring constant and its change in
length. They are both forms of potential energy which are stored by objects, but they are formed through
very different mechanisms.

You can calculate the change in gravitational potential energy (ΔEp) of an object using the following
equation, if it is close to the Earth’s surface. This is because the Earth’s gravitational field can be
modelled as uniform close to its surface.

ΔEp = mgΔh
Where m is the mass of the object, g is the acceleration due to gravity and Δh is the change in height.

If a force is applied to an object and it does positive work (meaning the height of the object increases),
the gravitational potential energy of the object will increase; the reverse is also true. For an object
close to the Earth’s surface, the change in potential energy can be calculated using the formula above.

The larger the force applied, the larger the amount of work done
and so the larger the change in potential energy.
Note that the direction of the force does not have to be
vertically up in order to use the above equation, just make sure
that the change in height is calculated (this may sometimes
involve the use of trigonometry).

The above equation can be derived by using the equation for weight and work done:
1. Consider an object of mass, m, which is moved upwards through a distance of h metres. The
force required to move the object (with a constant velocity) will be equal to its weight:
Weight = mg

2. Work done is the product of force and distance travelled, therefore the work done on the mass is
equal to the weight multiplied by the change in height.
Work done = mgΔh
ΔEp = mgΔh

Below is an example question where you have to use the principle of conservation of energy and the
kinetic and gravitational potential energy equations. Note that the effect of air resistance is ignored,
therefore ΔEp = ΔEk .

As a simple pendulum of mass 500g swings, it rises up by a height of 10cm at its maximum amplitude
from its equilibrium position. What is the maximum speed the pendulum can reach during its
oscillation? (Ignore the effect of air resistance)
Firstly, find the maximum gravitational potential energy (which will be at the amplitude).

ΔEP = 0.5 × 9.81 × 0.1 = 0.4905 J

Then, equate this to the kinetic energy formula (subbing in known values), and rearrange to find v.

1
× 0.5 × v2 = 0.4905 v2 = 1.962 v = 1.4 ms-1
2

6.4 - Power
Power (P) is the rate of energy transfer (energy transferred per unit time). As work is a measure of energy
transfer, the rate of doing work = the rate of energy transfer, therefore:

ΔW F ×Δs
P = Δ = Δ
= Fv as v = Δs Δ
t t t

It is important to note that you can calculate the work done by an electrical appliance of power P in t
seconds, by finding the product of power and time passed.
Energy transf erred = P × Δt

Below are some example questions using the formulas above:

163800 J of energy are required in order to boil 0.5 kg of water

How long will it take for a kettle with a power of 1200 W to boil 0.5 kg of water?
Power is the energy transferred per unit time, therefore to find the value of time taken we must
divide the energy required by the power.
W W
P = t →t= P t = 163800
1200= 136.5 s

-1
A ball of mass 0.6 kg is kicked and accelerates from rest to 12 ms in 0.2 s. Calculate the average power
gained by the ball.
Firstly, you must calculate the energy transferred, which in this case is the ball’s gain in kinetic
energy.
Ek = 1
1 2 × 0.6 × 122 = 43.2 J
2 mv 2
Then, divide the energy transferred by the time taken.
W 43.2
P= t 0.2 = 216 W

-1
A car travels on a straight level road at a constant velocity of 15 ms , against a frictional force of 200 N.
Find the power generated by the car.
If the car is travelling at a constant velocity, then the resultant force acting on it is zero
(Newton’s first law), meaning the car is generating a force of 200 N. Therefore, you can
calculate power using the formula P = Fv.
P = 200 × 15 = 3000 W
8 - Gravitational Fields

8.1 - Gravitational Field

A force field is an area in which an object experiences a non-contact force.

Force fields are formed during the interaction of masses, static charges or moving charges.
Different types of fields are formed depending on which interaction takes place:
● Gravitational fields - formed during the interaction of masses
● Electric fields - formed during the interaction of charges

Therefore, a gravitational field is an area where objects with mass experience a non-contact
force.

There are two types of gravitational field:

➔ Uniform field - exerts the same gravitational force on a mass everywhere in the field
➔ Radial field - the force exerted depends on the position of the object in the field

The arrows on the field lines show the direction that a force acts on a mass, and the distance
between field lines represents the strength of the force exerted by the field in that region. The
closer the lines, the stronger the gravitational field strength.

The Earth’s gravitational field is radial, however very close to the surface it is almost completely
uniform.

Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass exerted by a gravitational field on an
object. This value is constant in a uniform field, but varies in a radial field. You can use the
following formula to calculate the gravitational field strength:
F
g= m
Where F is the force exerted and m is the mass of the object in the field.
 8.2 - Gravitational Force between Point Masses
Gravity acts on any objects which have mass and is always attractive.

Newton’s law of gravitation states that the magnitude of the gravitational force between two
masses is directly proportional to the product of the masses, and is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them, (where the distance is measured between the two
centres of the masses).
Gm1m2
F =
r2
Where G is the gravitational constant, m1/m2 are masses and r is the distance between the centre of the
masses.

It is important to note that the mass of a uniform sphere is considered to act as a point mass at its
centre when calculating the gravitational force experienced by an object outside the sphere.

The gravitational field strength (g) in a radial field follows the equation (which is derived in section
8.3):
GM
g=
r2
Where G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the object causing the field and r is the distance
between the centre of the masses.

As you can see the field strength follows an inverse square relationship, meaning that if its
distance increases by a factor of 2, the field strength will decrease by a factor of (22 =) 4 as seen in
the equation.

Objects, like satellites, orbit around masses due to their gravitational fields as the gravitational
force exerted on the object acts as a centripetal force, which causes a centripetal
acceleration causing them to move in a circle.
Therefore, for an orbiting object, you can equate the gravitational force and centripetal force
equations:
Centripetal force mv2 Gravitational force = GMm
= r r2
2
mv
r = G
Cancelling m and r gives: M
m
r2
v2 = GM
r

GM
v=
√
 r
GM
As v = rω , the above equation can be rewritten as: √ r

r
ω = √r2 ω = r3
√ √
GM GM
rω =
The above equation shows that the angular velocity (ω) of an object orbiting a mass is
dependent on orbital radius (r). And as angular velocity is equal to the product of 2π and
frequency, the frequency (f), and therefore time period (T) are also dependent on orbital
radius (r).

ω = 2πf
T
2π r3
GM
= =
√
A synchronous orbit is one where the orbital period of the satellite is equal to the rotational
period of the object that it is orbiting.

Geostationary satellites follow a specific geosynchronous orbit, meaning their orbital period is 24
hours and they always stay above the same point on the Earth, because they orbit directly above
the equator. These types of satellites are very useful for sending TV and telephone signals
because they are always above the same point on the Earth so you don’t have to alter the plane of
an aerial or transmitter.

In order to find the orbital radius of a geostationary satellite you can use the relationship that was
derived above, as we know the orbital period (T) is 24 hours:

2π
= GM
T √ r3
⇒ r3 = GMT 2
4π2

3 6.67×10−11×5.97×1024×(24×60×60)2
r = 4π2
= 7.53 × 1022 m

r = 4.2 × 107 m
Which is around 36 000 km above the Earth’s surface.

8.3 - Gravitational Field of a Point Mass

The equation for the gravitational field strength (g) in radial field can be derived by using the
definition of gravitational field strength and Newton’s law of gravitation:

F
g= F = GMm
m GMm r2

g= r
m
2
GM
g=
r2
Where G is the gravitational constant (6.67 x 10 -11 N m2 kg-2), M is the mass of the object causing the field
and r is the distance between the center of the masses.
Below are some example questions using the formula above:

Find the gravitational field strength 10 km above the surface of the Earth.
The radius of the Earth is 6.37 × 106 m. The mass of the Earth is 5.97 × 1024 kg.

Firstly, calculate the distance from the centre of the Earth to 10 km above the Earth,
remembering to convert km to m. This can be done by finding the sum of 10 km and the
radius of the Earth:
r = 10 × 103 + 6.37 × 106 = 6.38 × 106 m

Next, calculate the gravitational field strength using the above formula.

GM
g= r2
g = 6.67×10−11×5.97×10
62
24 = 9.8 N kg-1 (to 2 s.f)
(6.38×10 )

Find the gravitational field strength 1000 km above the surface of the Earth.
The radius of the Earth is 6.37 × 106 m. The mass of the Earth is 5.97 × 1024 kg.

Firstly, calculate the distance from the centre of the Earth to 1000 km above the Earth,
remembering to convert km to m.
r = 1000 × 103 + 6.37 × 106 = 7.37 × 106 m

Next, calculate the gravitational field strength using the above formula.
GM
g= r2
g = 6.67×10−11×5.97×10
62
24 = 7.3 N kg-1 (to 2 s.f)
(7.37×10 )

As shown by the example questions above, the gravitational field strength close to/on the surface
of the Earth is approximately constant and equal to 9.81 N kg-1.

8.4 - Gravitational Potential

Gravitational potential (ϕ) at a point is the work done per unit mass when moving a small
point mass from infinity to that point. Gravitational potential at infinity is zero, and as an object
moves from infinity to a point, energy is released as the gravitational potential energy is reduced,
therefore gravitational potential is always negative.

Φ= −
G
M
r

Where M is the mass of the object causing the field, G is the gravitational constant (6.67 x 10 -11 N m2 kg-2),
and r is the distance between the centers of the objects.

Below is an example question using the formula above:

Find the amount of energy required for a 50 kg mass to leave the Earth’s gravitational field from
the surface of the Earth.
The radius of the Earth is 6.37 × 106 m. The mass of the Earth is 5.97 × 1024 kg.
 Firstly, using the formula above, find the gravitational potential at the surface of the Earth.

Φ= − r Φ = − 6.67×10−11×5.97×1024
6.37×10
6 = − 6.25 × 107 J kg-1
GM

Therefore, 6.25 × 107 N kg-1 will be needed to move a unit mass from the Earth’s surface
to infinity, so multiply the value of potential by the mass (which is 50 kg), to find the energy
required.

6.25 × 107 × 50 = 3.13 × 109 J (to 3 s.f)

9 - Deformation of Solids

9.1 - Stress and Strain

An object experiencing a force may be caused to change its shape, this
is known as deformation.
There are two types of force, which cause different types of deformation:
● Tensile - causes an object to be stretched (tensile deformation)
● Compressive - causes an object to be squashed/compressed
(compressive deformation)

Springs (as well as many other materials) follow Hooke’s law.

Hooke’s law states that extension is directly proportional to the
force applied, given that the environmental conditions (e.g
temperature) are kept constant. This can be shown by the straight
part of the force-extension graph shown to the right. A straight line
graph through the origin shows that the force and extension are
directly proportional.

The limit of proportionality (P) is the point after which Hooke’s law is
no longer obeyed. The elastic limit (E) is just after the limit of
proportionality and if you increase the force applied beyond this, the material will deform plastically
(be permanently stretched).

Hooke’s law can be described as the equation F = kΔL , where F is the force/load applied, k is
the spring constant, which is a measure of the stiffness of the spring, and ΔL is the extension.

Tensile stress - Force applied per unit cross-sectional area. F

Stress = A
Tensile strain - This is caused by tensile stress, and is ΔL
Strain = L
defined as the extension over the original length.

The Young modulus is a value which describes the stiffness of a material.

It is known that up to the limit of proportionality, for a material which obeys Hooke’s law, stress is
proportional to strain, therefore the value of stress over strain is constant. This value is the Young
modulus.

Young Modulus (E) = T ensile Stress

Tensile strain

Using the formulas from above, this can be rewritten as:

FL
E = ΔLA

You can find the Young modulus of a material from a stress-strain

graph by finding the gradient of the straight part of the graph.
You can find a value of the Young Modulus of a material experimentally. Below is a method for
finding the Young Modulus of a metal in the form of a wire:

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the

diagram.
2. Measure the diameter of the wire in 3
different places using a micrometer
and record these values.
3. Attach the metre ruler to the
workbench so that the lower end is
facing the G-clamp and place a
marker on the wire at 0 cm on the
ruler.
4. Measure the length of wire from the blocks of wood to the marker on the wire when it is
taut.
5. Attach a mass to the wire and record the total mass attached to the end of the wire in kg.
The wire will stretch so the marker will move when this mass increases therefore, record
the new position of the marker.
6. Add another 100 g mass and once again record the position of the marker - keep doing this
until you have readings for at least 7 mass values.

Calculations:
➔ Find the mean diameter of the wire and calculate the average cross sectional area using:
πd2
A= 4
➔ Using F = mg calculate the force exerted on the wire for each mass and record these
values in a table.
➔ Calculate the wire’s extension by finding the difference between the marker’s final position
and its initial position for each mass.
➔ Find the stress for each mass by dividing the force applied by
the cross sectional area of the wire.
➔ Find the strain on the wire for each mass by dividing the
extension ΔL by the original length of the wire.
➔ Plot a graph of stress against strain and draw a line of best
fit.
➔ As the Young modulus = stress/strain, the gradient of the line
of best fit is equal to the Young modulus of the metal.

9.2 - Elastic and Plastic Behaviour

Elastic deformation is where a material returns to its original
shape once the force applied is removed. This is because all the
work done is stored as elastic strain energy.

Plastic deformation is where a material shape is changed

permanently. This is because work is done to move atoms apart, so
energy is not only stored as elastic strain energy but is also
dissipated as heat.
 When work is done on a material to stretch or compress it, this energy is stored as elastic strain
energy. This value cannot be calculated using the formula W = F s cos θ because the force is
variable, however you can find it by calculating the area under a force-extension graph.
Therefore, elastic strain energy = 12 F (when the graph forms a straight line as shown on the
right). ΔL

Force-extension graphs can show the properties of a specific object. There are two main
behaviours that a material can exhibit on a force-extension graph:
● Plastic - This is where a material will experience a large
amount of extension as the load is increased, especially
beyond the elastic limit
● Brittle - This is where a material will extend very little, and
therefore is likely to fracture (break apart) at a low
extension.

Once a material is stretched beyond its elastic limit, a force-extension graph showing loading and
unloading will not return to the origin, however the loading and unloading lines will be parallel
because the material’s stiffness is constant, as shown on the left. The area between the loading and
unloading line is the work done to permanently deform the material.
14 - Waves

14.1 - Progressive Waves

Wave motion can be demonstrated using the vibration of a rope:

As you can see, the wave is made up of consecutive peaks and troughs, which
repeat continuously.

You need to be aware of the following key terms:

Displacement The distance of a particle away from the equilibrium position.

Amplitude A wave’s maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.

Frequency (f) The number of complete oscillations passing through a point per second.

Wavelength (λ) The length of one whole oscillation (e.g. the distance between successive
peaks/troughs).

Speed (v) The distance travelled by the wave per unit time.

Phase How much a wave lags behind another, (units are radians, degrees or fractions
difference of a cycle). This value is used to compare the stages that two waves are in.

Period (T) The time taken for one full oscillation.

The speed (v) of a wave is equal to the wave’s frequency multiplied by its wavelength.
v=fλ
The above equation can be derived using the definitions of speed, frequency and wavelength
as shown below:
1. Consider a wave travelling at a speed v, with a wavelength of λ m.
speed = distance time
distance travelled by wave
v= time
2. A wave travels a distance equal to its wavelength during one time period, therefore:
λ
v = T
3. As f = 1/T, substitute frequency into the above equation.
v=fλ
A progressive wave is a type of wave that transfers energy without transferring material.

Intensity is the power (energy transferred per unit time) per unit area, and can be calculated using
the equation below:
P
I = A
Where P is the power and A is the area.

The intensity of a wave is directly proportional to its amplitude squared, as shown below:
Intensity ∝ (amplitude)2

14.2 - Transverse and longitudinal waves

Transverse waves - the oscillations of particles (or fields) are at right angles to the direction of
energy transfer
● All electromagnetic (EM) waves are transverse and travel at 3 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum.
● Transverse waves can be demonstrated by shaking a slinky vertically or through the
waves seen on a string, when it's attached to a signal generator.

Longitudinal waves - the oscillations of particles are parallel to the direction of energy
transfer
● These are made up of compressions and rarefactions and can’t travel in a vacuum.
● Sound is an example of a longitudinal wave, and they can be demonstrated by pushing a
slinky horizontally.

There are two types of graphs which can be used to represent waves:
➔ Displacement-distance graphs - these show how the displacement of a particle varies
with the distance of wave travel and can be used to measure wavelength.
For a transverse wave, the displacement distance graph will look very similar to the actual
wave, whereas for a longitudinal wave the graph will look very different from the wave.
 ➔ Displacement-time graphs - these show how the displacement of a particle varies with
time and can be used to measure the period of a wave.

14.3 - Determination of Frequency and Wavelength of Sound Waves

You can measure the frequency of a sound using a cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) as
described below:
1. Connect a microphone to the CRO
input and play the sound using a
signal generator attached to a
speaker.
2. The CRO will display the sound
wave’s displacement-time graph.
In order to change the scale on
the x-axis so that the waveforms
fill as much of the screen as
possible, adjust the time-base settings on the oscilloscope.
3. Measure the number of full waves that appear on the screen and the number of divisions
they appear on. Multiply the number of divisions by the time-base to find the time taken, so
that you can calculate the period of the wave (time taken for one full oscillation).
4. Finally, use the formula f = 1Tto calculate frequency.

A stationary wave is formed from the superposition of 2 progressive waves, travelling in

opposite directions in the same plane (this is explained in further detail in section 15).

Stationary waves are formed of nodes, which are points of minimum displacement and antinodes,
which are points of maximum displacement. The distance between adjacent nodes (or
antinodes) is half a wavelength, and this fact allows stationary waves to be used to determine
the wavelength.
You can measure the wavelength of sound using stationary
waves as described below:
1. Fill a measuring cylinder around three quarters of the way
up with water.
2. Place a tube into the measuring cylinder, as shown on the
diagram to the right, and hold it in place using a clamp
stand.
3. Hit a tuning fork with a hammer and hold it just above the
tube and adjust the tube’s height until a stationary wave is
formed. When a stationary wave forms, the sound
produced by the tuning fork will be noticeably amplified.
4. Measure the height of the air column in the tube (L1) at this
point.
5. Then, move the tube up again until a second stationary
wave is formed. Again record the height of the air column
in the tube (L2).
6. The wavelength of the wave is equal to 2(L2 - L1).

Two measurements of the length of the air column in the tube are taken because the antinode
formed is formed just above the top of the tube, so subtracting these measurements removes the
systematic error that this causes.

A similar experiment can be carried out using a loudspeaker directed at a wall, changing its
position until a stationary wave is formed, and using a microphone to investigate its nodes and
antinodes. Then, you could measure the distance between adjacent nodes in order to calculate
wavelength.

14.4 - Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect is the compression or spreading out of waves that are emitted or reflected
by a moving source. As the source is moving, the wavelengths in front of it are compressed and
the wavelengths behind it are spread out as shown in the diagram below, this leads to a change in
observed frequency. An example of the doppler effect can be heard in the sound of a car moving
past you.
You can calculate the observed frequency (fo) of a moving source of sound when it moves
relative to a stationary observer using the equation below:
f sv
fo = (v±vs)
Where fs is the frequency given out by the moving source, v is the speed of sound, and vs is the constant
speed of the source.

The sign on the bottom of the equation depends on whether the source is moving towards or away
from the observer:
● vs is added when the source is moving away from the observer
● vs is subtracted when the source is moving towards from the observer.

It is important to note that the Doppler effect is observed in all waves, not only sound waves.
For example, the light given out by distant objects in space will experience a Doppler shift.

14.5 - Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum contains all electromagnetic (EM) waves; these are classified into
principal categories by their wavelengths. The diagram below shows the principal categories and
their associated wavelengths.

You should be aware of the orders of magnitude (the power of ten) of the above principal
categories, as shown in the table below:

EM Order of magnitude of wavelength (m)

radiation
Radio
103
Microwave -2
10
Infrared -5
10
Visible -7
10
Ultraviolet
10-8
X-ray
10-10
Gamma ray
10-12
All EM waves travel at the same speed in free space, which is 3 x 108 ms-1, the speed of light in
free space (c).

14.6 - Production and Use of Ultrasound in Diagnosis (A-level only)

An ultrasound wave is a longitudinal wave with a frequency greater than 20 kHz, however when
used for medical purposes the frequency of ultrasound waves used is usually between 1 MHz and
20 MHz.

When a potential difference is applied to a piezoelectric

material (e.g. a quartz crystal), it will experience mechanical
deformation (the reverse is also true). This is known as the
piezoelectric effect and it is used to produce ultrasound waves.

A transducer, containing piezoelectric material is used to

transmit and detect ultrasound waves, this is because:
● When an alternating potential difference is applied to a piezoelectric material it will cause
the material to vibrate at the same frequency as the applied p.d. If the frequency of the
alternating p.d is equal to the natural frequency of the piezoelectric material, there is
resonance and the vibrations reach their maximum amplitude. These vibrations produce
pulses of ultrasound waves that are emitted.
● When a piezoelectric material is hit by an ultrasound wave it will deform, producing a
potential difference which can be amplified and displayed (usually on an oscilloscope).

Ultrasound is reflected when it reaches a boundary between two mediums and the amount of
reflection that takes place depends on the difference in acoustic impedance of the two mediums.

The intensities of the reflected waves can be used to determine the internal structure of the
target (e.g. the density of the materials within the target) being investigated.
The time taken for these reflected waves to return can be used to determine the position of
objects/structures within the target.

The specific acoustic impedance is a measure of how difficult it is for an acoustic wave to travel
through a particular medium (e.g inside a wind instrument).

The intensity reflection coefficient is a measure of the proportion of the incident ultrasound
signal that is reflected when it moves between two mediums. As the amount of reflection that takes
place is dependent on the difference in acoustic impedance of the two mediums, the intensity
reflection coefficient is dependent on the specific acoustic impedances of the two
mediums.
As ultrasound waves move through matter, they experience attenuation meaning that they are
absorbed and scattered, decreasing their intensity. You can calculate the intensity of an
ultrasound wave after it has travelled a distance x through a particular material using the following
equation:

I = I0 e−μx
Where I0 is the initial intensity, x is the distance travelled through the material, and μ is the material’s linear
attenuation coefficient.