sensors

Article
Measurement of the Geometric Center of a Turnout
for the Safety of Railway Infrastructure Using MMS
and Total Station
Arkadiusz Kampczyk
Department of Engineering Surveying and Civil Engineering, Faculty of Mining Surveying and Environmental
Engineering, AGH University of Science and Technology, al. A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland;
kampczyk@agh.edu.pl




Received: 7 July 2020; Accepted: 8 August 2020; Published: 10 August 2020


Abstract: The turnouts in railway infrastructure constitute bottlenecks, limiting the capacity of the
entire railway network. These turnouts force speed limits due to their design and geometry. The need
to ensure the proper technical condition of turnouts has prompted ongoing scientific research and the
use of modern technological solutions. Until now, there have been no tests for the correct location of
the geometric center of a double and outside slip turnout with the related geometric relationships.
Therefore, the main objective of this research was to demonstrate the position of the geometric center
of a double slip turnout and the geometric conditions of the curves of circular diverted tracks by
measuring the horizontal versines and geometric irregularities of turnouts. The application of this
surveying method, with reference to obtuse crossings and arising from geometric dependencies in the
double and outside slip turnout, is defined and implemented (also known as a method for checking
the correct location of the geometric center of a turnout—Surveying and Monitoring of the Geometric
Center of a Double and Outside Slip Turnout (SMDOST)) via the Magnetic-Measuring Square (MMS)
and electronic Total Station. This method also recommends measuring the horizontal versines of the
diverted tracks. This paper presents the results of field measurements while using the SMDOST and
MMS methods, which were applied to carry out an analysis and evaluation of the turnout geometry
conditions, thereby presenting the irregularities that cause turnout deformations. The validity of
the SMDOST method using MMS and Total Station was thus confirmed. The observations from the
conducted research indicate that neglecting measurements of the geometry of the turnouts resulted in
additional irregularities in their conditions.

Keywords: double slip turnout; outside slip; turnout deformation; curve versine; turnout measurement;
magnetic-measuring square; MMS; curvature in the turnouts; linear measurement procedure; safety
in railway infrastructure

1. Introduction
The surveying of railway turnouts (railway switches) is one of the main survey tasks needed to
ensure safety. The results of monitoring turnout geometry are essential for planning and optimizing
maintenance work. The railway network is a system of interconnected railway roads managed by the
infrastructure manager. The railway track, including turnouts and diamond crossings, is an element
of the railway infrastructure [1]. The most critical element of a properly functioning infrastructure
is primarily the technical condition of the railway’s surface. Turnouts are an extremely important
element of railways and have a direct impact on limiting the speed of the rolling stock due to their
functions, structural and geometric complexity, and cooperation with the rolling stock. Railway lines
are subject to requirements under both European and national law, and railway interoperability should

Sensors 2020, 20, 4467; doi:10.3390/s20164467 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 2 of 35

always ensure safe and uninterrupted train movement [2]. The turnouts and diamond crossings on
railway lines and marshalling yards constitute bottlenecks that limit the capacity of the entire railway
network. These turnouts force speed limits due to their design and geometry, which, in turn, affect
capacity constraints. Surveying the state of changes in turnout geometry is one of the most important
scientific issues.
The increase in demand for high-speed rail systems in the Member Countries of the European Union
and the high level of investments in such systems have become a technical and organizational challenge
for the manufacturers of all relevant components and for operators and infrastructure managers.
Operators are facing ever-increasing demands to provide improved driving comfort, increased
reliability, and ensure the durability of all components of the railway track (i.e., the permanent way
and the railway surface) [3]. The new design solutions for double slip turnout on strine–concrete
switch sleepers should allow the operating speed to be increased to 120 km/h on the main track and
V ≤ 40 km/h on the deviated track (diverted track) [3].
Many geopolitical, economic, and social changes taking place in the modern world have generated
an increase in citizens’ expectations for fast, safe, and reliable transport. The answer to these expectations
is the development of high-speed rail systems, which entails innovation in the railway industry.
Solutions implemented on high-speed rail system networks are gradually migrating to conventional
rail, urban railway, and metro systems, thereby increasing the competitiveness of the entire sector [4].
According to Márquez et al. [5], the European Commission estimates that passenger traffic will
double and that freight traffic will triple by 2020. In the same period, a reduction of 30% in the
lifecycle costs (LCC) of track assets is desirable. The remote condition monitoring (RCM) of track-side
equipment such as turnouts and level crossings can help increase reliability, availability, maintainability,
and safety (RAMS). Nevertheless, the application of the LCC model to RCM has thus far been neglected.
Márquez et al. [5] took up the subject of LCC for RCM using a real case study, showing how the costs
and benefits of RCM can be assessed. Railway turnouts work under difficult environmental conditions,
but their reliability requirements are high due to safety and economic factors. Once implemented,
their maintenance depends on the data collected regarding their condition and decisions on appropriate
corrective actions. The more regular the data collection and decision cycle are, the greater trust the
operator will have in an efficient and correct service [6]. Proactive maintenance entails carrying out
maintenance activities that are based on operating hours or the number of hours of operation instead
of planning maintenance only when really needed. This requires an effective combination of data
collection, analysis, presentation, and decision-making processes [6].
The problem of the durability of turnouts and rails remains open to technological research in
order to determine the relevant structural relationships and mechanical characteristics [7,8]. The most
complex and important construction elements of railroads are turnouts, which are particularly exposed
to abrasive wear, fatigue, and shape changes as a result of the high dynamic cyclic loads that occur
during the passage of railway vehicles [7]. Railway turnouts are one of the most critical elements of
railway infrastructure [9–11]. The complex physical phenomena within the switch, which are associated
with significant forces between the vehicle in motion and the track, require special attention to be paid
to turnouts. Increasing turnout speeds, both the main track and on the deviated track, require increased
turnout geometry and blade (switch rail) length [9]. Highly reliable and simple turnout maintenance is
required due to the expected high availability of the line, which makes it necessary to newly explore
turnout technology. Modern turnout technology is characterized by constant development that is
driven by the growing expectations of leading infrastructure managers regarding high reliability and
low maintenance costs [9].
Khouy et al. [12] argued that each year, a significant part of the budget should be devoted to the
inspection, maintenance, and renewal of turnouts. The application of a cost-effective maintenance
strategy can help achieve the best performance at the lowest possible cost. In Sweden, the geometry of
turnouts is checked at specific intervals with the STRIX/IMV 100 measuring wagon (track geometry car).
Xu et al. [13] stated that turnout wear is a common mechanism that destroys turnouts. Other studies
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 3 of 35

also demonstrated the influence of the wear of turnout sections on the behavior at the wheel–rail
contact points and their dynamic actions. The wear of profiles interferes with the distribution of the
wheel–rail contact points, changes their positions along the longitudinal direction, and affects the
dynamic impact of the vehicle and the turnout [13].
The dynamic passage of rolling stock through turnouts is reflected by their condition. The experimental
and numerical studies carried out indicate that the axle load of the train [14], the running directions of
the rolling stock, the dynamic loads due to the influence of the wheel profile of the rolling stock [15],
the quality of the rolling stock passing, the total process of the wheel passing through the turnout [16],
the type of crossing (frog) and the sort and type of turnout, the wheel–rail contact interaction, damage
to the crossing and turnouts (material, number, etc.) [17], the wheel profile-crossing elements [17–19],
the turnout switch sleeper stiffness, the ballast condition, and the elastic properties of turnout support
structures [20,21] have an impact on the efficiency, effectiveness, and performance of the turnout and
its components. Turnouts and diamond crossings are key elements in railway networks. Any failure
usually leads to delays and cancellations of trains, which has a negative impact on the quality of service
provided, railway safety, and operating costs. Turnouts are multi-component systems, and, to actively
prevent failures with undesirable consequences, it is necessary to successfully anticipate problems at a
component level [22].
The current regulations inform the measurements of the actual geometry of exploited turnouts
and diamond crossings, as well as their visual inspections, technical testing, and maintenance [23–27].
EN 13232 (nine parts of the standards) determines the design and production of turnouts and diamond
crossings [28]. These regulations support the monitoring of railway infrastructure components for
interoperability in order to ensure the safe and uninterrupted passage of trains, thereby meeting
community requirements for rolling stock on the rail network. The turnout is a special multi-track
structure made of rails, steel sections, and other elements, which allow railway vehicles to pass from
one track to another at a certain speed [23]. The main types of turnouts are as follows:

• Single point (single turnout, point);

• Slip turnout;
• Curved slip (Y-points);
• Three-way turnout.

A double slip turnout (Rkpdiwew ) is composed of the following (Figure 1):

• Four switches (two pairs);

• Two obtuse crossings; and,
• Two common crossings (single crossing) with check rails and rolling rails.
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 36

1. A diagram
Figure 1. diagram showing
showing aa double
double slip
slip turnout—Rkpd
turnout—Rkpdiwew
iwew,, where
where the
the red color indicates the
quadrilateral
quadrilateral of
of the
the turnout.
turnout.

Depending on the location of the switches, some turnouts feature blades inside the turnout
quadrilateral—a double slip turnout (known as “English”)—while some turnouts feature blades
outside the turnout quadrilateral—an outside slip turnout (known as the “Bäseler system” or
“shortened English”) [29]. Under the term, a turnout quadrilateral is the area contained from the
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 4 of 35

Depending on the location of the switches, some turnouts feature blades inside the turnout
quadrilateral—a double slip turnout (known as “English”)—while some turnouts feature blades outside
the turnout quadrilateral—an outside slip turnout (known as the “Bäseler system” or “shortened
English”) [29]. Under the term, a turnout quadrilateral is the area that is contained from the normal to
the bisectoral angles of common crossings (at English turnouts), obtuse or triple (at Bäseler system
turnouts), carried out by their mathematical points [29]. The double slip turnout—English—is created
by building two connections in a diamond crossing in diverted (deviated) directions. This turnout is
composed of two common crossings (single crossing), two obtuse crossings, four pairs of switches,
and connecting rails (Figure 1).
This turnout provides a passage in four directions: two straight directions and two turns deviated
(diverted). When the blades are placed inside the quadrilateral of a turnout, there is a limitation in
the length of the tangents to the curves of the diverted tracks, which prevents the construction of
turnouts with a diverted track radius greater than 265 m. Limiting the value of the turnout angle
entails that, for the largest turnout used on the PKP (Polish State Railways S.A., in Polish: Polskie
Koleje Państwowe S.A., PKP), the radius of the diverted track will be, as follows [29]:

• 205 m at a tangent of crossing angle of 1:9 and an S42 turnout type; and,
• 190 m at a tangent of crossing angle of 1:9 and 49E1 and 60E1 turnout types.

The diamond crossing at a tangent of crossing angle of 1:9 is a skeleton of single and double
slip turnouts, with the blades being located within the boundaries of the quadrilateral turnout and
with the blades located outside the boundaries of the quadrilateral turnout [30]. A distinction is
double slip turnouts with points of intersection whose blades are within the limits of the quadrilateral
turnouts (for smaller radius), and with points of intersection whose blades are outside the limits of the
quadrilateral turnouts (for larger radius) [31]. The maintenance of the railway track is characterized
by a variety of existing turnouts, diamond crossings, and adjustment switches (expansion joints,
breather switches, and special expansion switches) with different shapes of curves and inclinations,
as well as different shapes of switch sleepers. Regular assessments of all turnouts, diamond crossings,
and adjustment switches should be done according to the speed and ballast, as required [32].
The outside slip turnout—the Bäseler system—is created by building in a diamond crossing
two connections in the diverted direction, in such a way that the outer courses of these connections
intersect one course of each of the two intersecting tracks. This turnout consists of two obtuse crossings,
two triple crossings, four switches, and connecting rails. The characteristic structural elements of these
turnouts are double and triple crossings. The arrangement of blades in the outside slip turnout outside
the quadrilateral of the turnouts contributes to the lack of a limit on the radius of the diverted track,
which is typical for double slip (English) turnouts. This makes it possible to build turnouts with a
tangent of crossing angle of 1:9 and diverted track radii of 300 and 500 m, as well as turnouts with a
tangent of crossing angle 1:6.6 and a 190 m radius [29].
The surveying and monitoring of the geometric location of the turnout’s center point is one
of the most important scientific issues and it is reflected in the linear rail transport infrastructure
facilities in operation. A thorough review of the scientific and technical literature shows a lack of
publications in this area. Therefore, the present study offers a detailed description and continuation of
previous research work [2,33–39]. In [33], characteristic points for the measurement of turnouts were
defined, including double slip turnout. In [38], a digital track gauge that was designed to measure
the characteristic geometric dimensions of tracks, turnouts, and diamond crossings, especially within
the crossing, was presented. In turn, the work in [34–36,39] presented the results of studies on the
measurement of versines (exploitation, assembly) on the diverted track of a single point turnout via
the innovative Magnetic-Measuring Square (MMS) method [39].
This paper contains the results of research on the actual state of Rkpdiwew geometry, which is a
defined and implemented surveying method with reference to obtuse crossings and it arises from the
geometric dependencies in double and outside slip turnout (also known as a method for assessing
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 5 of 35

the correct location of the geometric center of a turnout, Surveying and Monitoring of the Geometric
center of a Double and Outside Slip Turnout—SMDOST) using MMS and the electronic total station
TC407 Leica. The main objective of this research was to demonstrate the following:

• The position of the point condition geometric center SG of the double slip turnout.
• The geometric condition of the curves of circular diverted tracks by measuring the horizontal versines.
• The geometric irregularity condition of turnouts.

The measurements were covered by an exploited double crossover turnout with spires inside
a quadrilateral Rkpdiwew No. 9 type S49/1:9/190, which was constructed from S49-type rails with a
tangent of crossing angle of 1:9 and a radius of 190 m. This was built on the main additional track,
No. 6, and assigned to Railway Line No. 131 Chorzów Batory–Tczew in the territory of the Silesian
Voivodship (in Polish: Ślaskie),
˛ Lubliniecki County, Poland.
For the state of the geometric irregularities of double slip turnouts with blades inside the Rkpdiwew
quadrilateral, the research was additionally confirmed by monitoring the four turnouts within the
S49/1:9/190-type double obtuse crossing (No. 134, 136, 182, and 139) in the territory of the Silesian
Voivodship, Tarnogórski County, Poland.
The exploitation speed on the main and diverted tracks of the turnouts covered by the tests was
V = 40 km/h, whose acceptable deviations (for track gauge and cant (superelevation parameters)) have
already been established.
The SMDOST was also used for double cross-junction with blades outside the quadrilateral
Rkpdizew . Controversially, in the relevant legal regulations [23], the slip turnouts (double and outside
slip turnout and single slip turnout) do not require their versines to be measured. The values of the
exploitation versines reflect the conditions of the curves of the diverted track. It is also surprising that
the geometric positions of the double and outside slip turnout (Rkpd) center have, to date, only been
determined by the intersecting axes on the main track of the turnout. This was confirmed by the
proprietary SMDOST study results.
This research shows the practicality and usefulness of using the SMDOST method with MMS,
especially in places that are difficult to access (e.g., obtuse crossings and check rail turnouts). Elements
affecting the anomaly of Rkpd’s geometric center position and its deformation are shown. The durability
of turnouts depends not only on the material properties and turnout design, but also on the operating
conditions and turnout geometry. The presented method of surveying, with reference to the obtuse
crossing and the resulting geometric dependencies in the double and outside slip turnout, pays special
attention to the state of the geometric dependencies of the monitored turnout. This method offers
in-depth insights and conclusions from the turnout operation process. The new insights that are
contained in this article can be used not only as a reference point for the inspection and maintenance
of turnouts but also for their installation. This method can be used for the robust planning, decision
making, analysis, and condition assessment of the geometry of a turnout’s double and outside slip.
This paper this makes a profound contribution to the interdisciplinary fields of surveying, traffic
construction, and traffic engineering. The conducted research is an element of the surveying and
diagnostic work in the discipline of civil engineering and rail transport.

2. Related Work
Turnouts are an essential element of any railway network. However, they are also capacity
constraints [40,41]. There are many types of turnouts, and their properties vary depending on their
destination (use). The main feature of a turnout is its projected speed. In practice, each turnout
is influenced by adjustments to the layout of a given location. A compromise between space, cost,
railway-line speed, and efficiency in the choice and location of turnouts should be considered.
Bemment et al. [40] presented the constraints of turnouts in the performance of a railway network,
demonstrating that these constraints arise because turnout (track connection) designs have evolved
over time in order to meet a specific objective, which, at the same time, means that turnouts may not
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 6 of 35

be optimized to provide the performance that a modern network requires. The authors defined the
formal requirements for track connection solutions, arguing that traditional solutions do not meet all
of the requirements, and additionally presented an innovative solution for track connections called the
“Repoint” solution.
The issue of railway performance and capacity is highly dependent on the state of the infrastructure.
Capacity varies depending on factors, such as train speed, the location of stops, train heterogeneity,
the distance between train signals, and timetable status. Capacity is an important problem in the railway
industry, and the efficient use of infrastructure is a difficult requirement for railway undertakings [42–44].
Rail track connections provide the necessary flexibility for the railway network. However, turnouts
cause single points of failure and limit capacity [45]. Turnout failures in high-traffic passenger rail
systems cause disproportionately long delays. It is recognized that, as equipment failures are eliminated,
reliability and availability become contributory factors to a lack of reliability [46].
Turnouts are an expensive and critical point of feature of the railway system, as they are
exposed to adverse operating loads as compared to a simple railway track and, therefore, require
regular maintenance [11]. Sae Siew et al. [11] noted the torsional effects of railway turnout crossings
on track-support structures. Turnouts, by virtue of their construction and purpose, are one of the
subassemblies that form part of the railway infrastructure with the greatest number of accidents
featuring railway vehicles [47]. The main points of derailments during train passage are the points
of the switch and crossing (crossing). When the wheels of the rolling stock pass through a switch on
a crossing, forces can be twice as high as when driving on the track. Kisilowski and Kowalik [47]
presented the results of research on the application of a visual system for monitoring the diagnosis of
individual elements of railway turnouts. This diagnostic system performs a real-time check of the
surface condition of the switch point and crossing and determines the geometric values of both elements.
Hamarat et al. [48] noted that a turnout is the basic infrastructure for managing the flexibility
of rail traffic. The turnout imposes restrictions on the operation of trains, which results in dynamic
reactions to the high amplitude of interactions between trains and turnouts. A numerical model that
was capable of determining the impact forces was thus developed to evaluate the dynamic behavior of
turnouts and their influence on turnout elements such as the supports and ballasts [48].
Hamadache et al. [49] emphasized that the railway turnouts and level crossings (railway switch
and crossing—S&C) have a very complex structure. The complexity of railway switches and crossing
systems makes them vulnerable to breakdowns and malfunctions that can ultimately cause delays or
even fatal accidents. Thus, we must develop suitable monitoring techniques to handle fault detection
and diagnosis (FDD) in railway S&C systems.
In most countries, railways are a main part of the transport infrastructure. Thus it is essential
to apply good maintenance strategies for railway networks to avoid service disruptions and ensure
system security. For example, the conditions of the railway track must be regularly monitored to
detect faults at an early stage before they become serious problems [50]. Mańka [51] focused on the
need for risk analysis and process approaches in safety management, including a safety management
system (SMS) and maintenance management system (MMS), featuring additional systems as compared
to typical railway systems, such as control command and signaling, the transport process, and the
maintenance and repair process. In [50], the use of train running measurements for monitoring railway
tracks was examined. An Irish Rail train in operation was instrumented with accelerometers and a
Global Positioning System (GPS).
Salvador et al. [52] noted that the maintenance of railway tracks is becoming a real challenge
for railway engineers due to the need to meet increasingly higher quality requirements while using
cost-effective procedures. Gomon and Gómez [53] referred to cross-border rail transport as a special
case of rail transport that creates many difficulties in crossing state borders. These difficulties are
due to factors including other power systems, other control systems, different traffic management
regulations, and even communication problems due to different languages. The authors also noted
that railway workers often rely on their experience.
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 7 of 35

The geometric arrangements of the track connections are characterized by the following features [8,54]:

• Having a decisive influence on the operational parameters of railway lines;

• Having a significant impact on the construction costs of new lines; and,
• Being marked by a low susceptibility to change.

One of the basic tasks of detecting threats on a railway track is to monitor the increases in the track’s
degradation from a state of full operational suitability, through a state of deteriorating performance,
to a state of endangering traffic safety [55].
Kwiatkowska [56] described the process of diagnostic work on turnouts using innovative research
methods, focusing on the application of a Scorpion three-dimensional (3D) scanner for the 3D profile
measurements of turnout components for the early diagnosis of damage to the blade, stock rail,
and crossings. The results were also presented based on testing the dynamic interactions generated by
rolling stock movement; the authors noted that the purpose of conducting diagnostic and dynamic
tests is detecting damage to turnout components.
Minbashi et al. [57,58] presented the results of studies on the assessment of the geometric quality
of railway turnouts using power spectral density (PSD). The results indicate that PSD in the form
of a continuous curve may show irregularities in the wavelengths and amplitudes of their turnouts.
The measurement of changes in the vertical geometry at turnouts is exposed to different types of work;
as a result, a method for measuring the vertical position of track geometry under non-operational
conditions (without stress) was introduced in order to show track degradation [10]. The state of
behavior of turnout geometry in the vertical plane was shown, depending on whether the turnouts
were located in the main or diverted track [10].
One developmental method for monitoring turnouts involves an inertial measurement using the
Electronic Analysis System of Crossing–Portable (ESAH-M) system. Sysyn et al. [59] noted, however,
that the accuracy and sensitivity of such measurements are affected by many factors, which may
lead to high measurement uncertainty. The inaccuracy of measurements and data processing depend
largely on the relationship between the point of impact at the nose of the crossing and the position
of the sensor [59]. The monitoring of turnout elements was carried out using the ESAH-M system,
based on a dynamic measurement and a displacement system using a remote video meter. In turnout
components (e.g., in the crossing), high contact forces are exerted at the wheel–rail contact point
through the wheel’s impacts on the wing rail and at the nose of the crossing. This results in significant
wear and tear [60]. Moreover, there was no ballast, no damage to the rails, and no deterioration in
the geometry. The ESAH-M measuring system measures dynamic three-dimensional acceleration.
The video measuring system records the dynamic movements of rails and switch sleepers during the
passage of rolling stock. Both of the measuring systems are located off of the turnout, ensuring safe
operation and continuous measurement [60].
Kovalchuk et al. [61] presented a system for diagnosing the crossings of turnouts by measuring
the transverse profile. This method is based on the use of modern microcontrollers with high technical
parameters and the simultaneous use of Internet of Things (IoT) information technology.
Ma et al. [62] presented parameter studies on the surface-initiated rolling contact fatigue (RCF)
of turnout rails using a three-level unreplicated saturated factorial design. The results showed that
the rail surface-initiated RCF is mainly caused by tangential stress that is high under small creep
conditions, normal and tangential stresses that are high under large creep conditions, and normal
stress that is high under pure spin creep conditions.
In turn, Wei et al. [63] focused on assessing the degradation of crossings at turnouts via wheelset
acceleration measurements. The possibility of evaluating the degradation of crossings at turnouts
via axle box acceleration (ABA) was investigated. Information was collected from many sensors:
ABA signals, three-dimensional rail profiles, GPS and tachometric records, and both nominal and
degraded passages. An algorithm was proposed in order to distinguish the ABA characteristics that are
associated with degradation and then assess the conditions of the crossings at turnouts. The types and
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 8 of 35

degrees of degradation can then be assessed based on the spatial distribution and energy concentration
of the characteristic ABA signal frequencies.
Pållson [64] also refered to the monitoring of crossings at turnouts and presented a numerical
method for optimizing robust geometry. The work presented in [65] provided relevant criteria
and explored the basic and multidisciplinary issues concerning the design and practical selection of
composite materials in turnout systems. The influence of composite carriers on track geometry (recorded
by “AK Car” track control vehicle based on measurement data), track settlement, track dynamics,
and acoustic characteristics was highlighted.
In [66], experimental studies were performed on the influence of holes and openings in webs on
the strength and ductility of concrete. An et al. [67] referred to the observation and simulation of wheel
set acceleration on a railway weld in a high-speed rail system. Irregularities can cause a high amount
of force at the wheel–rail contact point and they are considered to be the main cause of the failure
of the track structure. In [68], a 3D model of dynamic rolling friction with finite elements (FEs) was
presented for a small pitch corrugation test, taking into account the direct and momentary coupling
between the contact mechanics and the dynamics of the structure in the vehicle–rail system.
Laser scanning and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) technology were used for the spatial
analysis of railway infrastructure condition geometry [69–75]. In [71], a cost–benefit analysis of Building
Information Modeling (BIM) in the railway area was presented, including many railway tracks, stations,
telecommunication facilities, infrastructure facilities, railway structures, etc. The experimental results
in [69] showed that this method can not only quickly extract linear objects, such as railway tracks
and catenary wires but can also detect objects in complex real topologies such as arches and turnouts.
Kaewunruen and Lian [76] presented a digital twin aided sustainability-based lifecycle management
method for railway turnout systems. The efficiency and effectiveness of their maintenance can be
improved by integrating existing practice with Building Information Modelling due to the complexity
of railway turnouts. This research established and analysed the world’s first 6D BIM for the lifecycle
management of a railway turnout system. The digital twins of a railway turnout in 3D include the
scheduling, costs, and sustainability across the whole turnout lifecycle. Maciuk [73,74] noted that
GNSS plays an important role in civil engineering and other technical fields. A certain level of accuracy
is necessary for solving certain surveying and engineering issues [72,73]. Zhang et al. [75] responded
to the required assessment of the relative spatial accuracy of GNSS/inertial navigation systems (INSs)
with limited traffic for the measurement of track irregularities.

3. Methodology
The following subsections describe, in detail, the surveying method that is based on obtuse
crossings and arising from the geometric dependencies in double and outside slip turnouts.

3.1. Surveying the Geometric Center Double Slip Turnout—Rkpdiwew —With Blades Inside the Quadrilateral
The geometric center of a double slip turnout is the mathematical point of the turnout determined
by the intersection of the axes on the main tracks of the turnout (theoretically). In the center of the
double slip turnout, there is an obtuse crossing (Figures 1 and 2) that consists of two noses (beaks),
a wing rail, and a check rail to ensure that the flange of the opposite wheel is introduced into the
correct flangeway (Figure 2). The crossing is the part of the turnout where the rails intersect. Crossings
are usually subject to rail wear [13,47,60], which is a result of the friction of the surface caused by the
wheels of the rolling stock. The rules for obtuse crossing assembly are defined in [77] and refer to the
angular position values of the obtuse crossings, which should be placed exactly opposite each other
and parallel.
noses (beaks), a wing rail, and a check rail to ensure that the flange of the opposite wheel is introduced
into the correct flangeway (Figure 2). The crossing is the part of the turnout where the rails intersect.
Crossings are usually subject to rail wear [13,47,60], which is a result of the friction of the surface
caused by the wheels of the rolling stock. The rules for obtuse crossing assembly are defined in [77]
and
Sensorsrefer
2020, to
20, the
4467 angular position values of the obtuse crossings, which should be placed exactly9 of 35
opposite each other and parallel.

Double
2.Double
Figure 2. slipslip turnout
turnout of Rkpd
of Rkpd iwew with with blades
iwew blades inside
inside the the quadrilateral
quadrilateral of theusing
of the turnout turnout
the
using the Surveying
Surveying and Monitoring
and Monitoring of the of the Geometric
Geometric CenterCenter
of a ofDouble
a Double andOutside
and OutsideSlip
Slip Turnout
(SMDOST) method.
(SMDOST) method.

The following
The following definitions
definitions apply
apply to
to Figure
Figure 2:
2:
•• SG = the geometric
= the geometric center
center of
of Rkpd
Rkpdiwew
iwew;;
• 1, 2, 3, 4 = endpoints of Rkpdiwew (from sides “a”, “b”, “c”, and “d”, respectively);
• 5, 6, 7, 8 = the external endpoints of the obtuse crossing of Rkpdiwew ;
• 9, 10 = the points of contact connecting the stock rail in a straight line, defining the geometric
center of Rkpdiwew ;
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 10 of 35

• 11, 12 = the points of contact connecting the blades on the fixed plates in a straight line, determining
the geometric center of Rkpdiwew ;
• 10 , 20 , 30 , 40 = endpoints of Rkpdiwew on the axis of the main track (from sides “a”, “b”, “c”,
and “d”, respectively);
• f1 = measuring the versine on chords 1–4;
• f2 = measuring the versine on chords 2 and 3;
• αp = main turnout angle—project (between the main track axles); and,
• Rp = project radius.

To carry out surveying with reference to obtuse crossings and the resulting geometrical
dependencies, the method of measurement was defined together with the measurement points
in Rkpdiwew , which required the application of a Geodetic Mini Prism (surveying mini prism) for
the following:

• The external endpoints of the obtuse crossings of Rkpdiwew ;

• The points of contact connecting the stock rail in a straight line, defining the geometric center
of Rkpdiwew ;
• The points of contact connecting the blades on the fixed plates in a straight line, determining the
geometric center of Rkpdiwew ; and,
• The endpoints of Rkpdiwew .

To date, the designation for the geometric location of the center of the Rkpdiwew turnout has only
referred to the endpoints of Turnouts 1–4 (Figure 2). However, to correctly determine the geometric
center SG, reference should be made to the following (Figure 2):

1. External points of Obtuse Crossings 5–8 and the following:

• The points of contact—No. 9 and 10—connecting the stock rail in a straight line, defining the
geometric center of Rkpdiwew ; and,
• The points of contact—No. 11 and 12—connecting the blades on the fixed plates in a straight
line, determining the geometric center of Rkpdiwew ;
2. Turnout Endpoints 1–4.

If the SG point, with reference to an obtuse crossing (featuring additional points and endpoints
of the turnout of Rkpdiwew ) is unambiguously determined by intersecting straight lines and it is
located in one place, then the turnout has a correctly located geometric center SG. Otherwise, it is
geometrically irregular.
An important criterion for the analysis and evaluation of the geometric condition of Rkpd is
monitoring the horizontal versine of the turnout f1 and f2 (Figure 2). The conducted research has
shown that, in the current practices of Rkpd implementation and exploitation, the monitoring of the
horizontal versine value in turnout-diverted tracks is not carried out. However, previous research
shows the need to monitor the horizontal versine, whose value reflects the radius of the curve R,
which influences the state of the turnout geometric system. On a plane, a circle can be described with a
radius R, which is realized on three points. The linear elements of the resulting triangle are the height,
which is the horizontal versine of the curve, and the base, which is the measuring chord (Figure 2) [37].
The versine value of the curve is calculated based on the coordinates of the points forming the triangle
of the versines, in which the height of the triangle is the versine of the curve [37].
Measurements using the SMDOST method were carried out on an exploited double slip turnout
with blades inside the quadrilateral Rkpdiwew No. 9 type S49/1:9/190 (Figure 3), which was built on the
main additional track (No. 6) assigned to Railway Line No. 131 Chorzów Batory–Tczew in the territory
of the Silesian Voivodship, Lubliniecki County, Poland. Additionally, Turnout No. 9 is characterized
by the following (Figure 3):
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 36

territory of the Silesian Voivodship, Lubliniecki County, Poland. Additionally, Turnout No. 9 is
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 11 of 35
characterized by the following (Figure 3):
• Zipper
• closures—locking
Zipper closures—locking points ininthe
points theturnout railway;
turnout railway;
• Blade
• resilience;
Blade resilience;
• Electrical
• adjustability;
Electrical adjustability;
• Crossings
• with with
Crossings a forge-welded
a forge-weldednose;
nose;
• • Railway fish plate
Railway fish plate variety; variety;
• No•electric
No electric heaters;
heaters;
• Wooden switch sleepers; and,
• Wooden switch sleepers;
• Ballast—natural broken stone.
• Ballast—natural broken stone.

Figure Figure
3. SMDOST-monitored double
3. SMDOST-monitored doubleslip
slip turnout with
turnout with blades
blades inside
inside the quadrangle
the quadrangle Rkpd
Rkpdiwew . iwew.

The measurement Rkpd iwew was performed using MMS with a Leica GMP111 mini prism,
The measurement Rkpdiwew was performed using MMS with a Leica GMP111 mini prism, prism
prism constant +17.5 mm (Figure 4), and an electronic total station TC407 Leica. The accuracy of the
constantmeasured
+17.5 mm points(Figure
mp(pom) at 4),theand
Rkpd an electronic total station TC407 Leica. The accuracy of the
iwew No. 9 turnout using the polar method mp(pom) was 0.002 m,
measured the points mp(pom)
line-of-sight at the
error Rkpdiwew No.
(Hz -collimation) was9 turnout
0.0000 g ,using
and the theVzpolar
-Indexmethod
(Verticalm index was 0.002
p(pom)error) was m, the
g
line-of-sight
0.0000error
. The(H z-collimation)
measuring stationwas 0.0000
of the g, and
electronic the
total Vz-Index
station (Vertical
was located index
in the error)space
intertrack was in
0.0000
the g. The
measuringmiddle of the of
station total
thelength of the double
electronic total slip turnout,
station was outside the infrastructure
located in the intertrackgauge space
(structure gauge).
in the middle of
The location of the electronic total station (Leica TC407) ensured a uniform and short aiming line for
the total length of the double slip turnout, outside the infrastructure gauge (structure gauge). The
the instrument lengths (line of sight/collimation axis) of all the measuring points. This study excluded
location of the electronic total station (Leica TC407) ensured a uniform and short aiming line for the
jumps in different lengths of the aiming line of the instrument to increase the measurement accuracy.
instrument lengths (line
Measurements were of sight/collimation
taken from one locationaxis) using of
theall measuring
surveying polarpoints.
method This study excluded
(the surveying method jumps
in different
of polarlengths of the
coordinates), and theaiming
versineline of the instrument
was measured to As
in the outer rails. increase measurement
a result, an identical accuracy accuracy.
Measurements
value of mwere taken from
p was obtained for allone
of the location
measuring using the
points. Thesurveying
polar method polar method
involves (the the
measuring surveying
horizontal angle and length of the aiming line of the instrument from the
method of polar coordinates), and the versine was measured in the outer rails. As a result, an identicalposition of the electronic
total station—i.e., the center over the surveying matrix point to the turnout measurement points
accuracy value of mp was obtained for all measuring points. The polar method involves measuring
(defined in the SMDOST method) between the side of the matrix and the target axis. Distance and angle
the horizontal angle and length of the aiming line of the instrument from the position of the electronic
measurements were performed simultaneously with a TC407 electronic total station (measurements in
total station—i.e.,
one series). The theusecentre
of MMS over
withthe surveying
a GMP111 matrix
mini prism pointthe
ensured to station’s
the turnout
correctmeasurement
location on the points
(definedexternal
in theendpoints
SMDOSTofmethod) between
the measurement: thethe sidecrossing,
obtuse of the matrix andconnecting
the contacts the targetthe axis.
stockDistance
rails, and
the contacts connecting the blades on the fixed plates, and the
angle measurements were performed simultaneously with a TC407 electronic total station turnout endpoints (Figures 2 and 4).
(measurements in one series). The use of MMS with a GMP111 mini prism ensured the station’s
correct location on the external endpoints of the measurement: the obtuse crossing, the contacts
connecting the stock rails, the contacts connecting the blades on the fixed plates, and the turnout
endpoints (Figures 2 and 4).
 Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 12 of 35
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 36

(a) (b)
Figure 4. The Magnetic-Measuring Square (MMS) with the surveying GMP111 mini prism located on
Figure 4.the
The Magnetic-Measuring
external Square
end of an obtuse crossing: (a)(MMS)
forwardwith
view;the
and,surveying GMP111 mini prism located on
(b) side view.
the external end of an obtuse crossing: (a) forward view; (b) side view.
The MMS with the GMP111 mini prism and the electronic total station provided the coordinates for
ThePoints
MMS1–12.withThethe GMP111
final stage wasmini prism
to obtain the and
angulartheand
electronic total
linear values station
of Rkpd iwewprovided the coordinates
, which characterize
the turnout geometry. A feature of the MMS is that the vertical axis of its
for Points 1–12. The final stage was to obtain the angular and linear values of Rkpdiwew thatstylus mounting hole coincides
with the
characterize the measuring edge and with
turnout geometry. the axisof
A feature ofthe
the MMS
surveying stylus
is that theand the geometric
vertical center
axis of its of the
stylus mounting
GMP111 mini prism. As a result of the neodymium magnets built into its structure, the MMS was
hole coincides with the measuring edge and with the axis of the surveying stylus and the geometric
stabilized immovably for the Rkpdiwew steel sections, providing a visualization at each measurement
center ofpoint
the GMP111
(Figure 4). mini prism. As a result of the neodymium magnets built into its structure, the
MMS was stabilized
To date, onlyimmovably
the endpointsfor the Rkpd
of Rkpd turnout were
iwew steel
usedsections,
to determine providing a visualization
the geometric location of the at each
center of the turnout.
measurement point (Figure 4). These measurements were carried out through:
To date,
• only
The theofendpoints
points of Rkpd
intersection (cuts) usingturnout werelines
the measuring used tomeasuring)
(cord determine as the geometric
diagonals. location of
However,
the centre ofthe
thecomponents
turnout. These measurements
of the steel werestructure
sections as a turnout carriedrunoutatthrough:
different heights, thereby causing
the measuring line to cut incorrectly on the horizontal plane (e.g., rails and check rails). In addition,
• The points
weather of conditions
intersection (cuts)theusing
influence the measuring
measurement linesand
results (wind) (cord
stringmeasuring)
that is too long as can
diagonals.
However, causethe components
sagging of thefrom
and suspension steelthesections
turnout’sasstructural
a turnout structure
elements. run at different
The manoeuvring of the heights,
therebymeasuring
causing the linemeasuring
on a specific line to cut
turnout incorrectly
reflects on the
the accuracy and horizontal
safety of the plane
work (the(e.g., rails and check
measuring
line can fall and hook between the blade or stock rail). This makes
rails). In addition, weather conditions influence the measurement results (wind) and it impossible to quickly removestring that
this line from the exploited turnout;
is too long can cause sagging and suspension from the turnout’s structural elements. The
• The point of intersection of straight lines using ranging poles (survey poles) located at the axis of
manoeuvring of the measuring line on a specific turnout reflects the accuracy and safety of the
the turnout endpoints and delimiting the points of intersection acting as the designated centers
work (theof themeasuring
turnout. This line can required
method fall andsetting
hooka between
minimum of the
fiveblade or stock
surveying rail). This
poles directly at themakes it
impossible
Rkpd, towhich
quickly is aremove
referencethis lineaccuracy
for the from the exploited
of the point to turnout;
be determined. In the situation of
• The pointan incoming
of intersectiontrain, theofsurveying
straight poles
lineshad to beranging
using removedpoles
quickly, and after
(survey the train
poles) had left,
located at the axis
the measurement process had to be repeated;
of the turnout endpoints and delimiting the points of intersection acting as the designated
• Using a traditional surveying prism or a mini-prism with a survey pole and the surveying pole
centres of the turnout. This method required setting a minimum of five surveying poles directly
tip as a standard surveying solution and applying both to the steel elements of the turnout
at the Rkpd,
structurewhich is a traditional
for which referencesurvey
for the accuracy
poles of thepole
and surveying point
tipsto
dobenotdetermined.
provide correctIn theofsituation
point
of an incoming
destination train, the surveying
signaling. poles
The traditional had to
solutions be so
used removed quickly,
far resulted and errors
in signalling after depending
the train had left,
the measurement process had
on the non-verticality of theto be repeated;
survey pole and the surveying pole tips with the surveying prism;
• Using anot locating thesurveying
traditional prism at a height
prism of or
14 mm below the top
a mini-prism rolling
with surface of
a survey the rail
pole and head
the(crown of
surveying pole
the rail) induced a signalling error for the destination point on the steel turnout sections; and,
tip as a standard surveying solution and applying both to the steel elements of the turnout
structure for which traditional survey poles and surveying pole tips do not provide correct point
of destination signaling. The traditional solutions used so far resulted in signalling errors
depending on the non-verticality of the survey pole and the surveying pole tips with the
surveying prism; not locating the prism at a height of 14 mm below the top rolling surface of the
rail head (crown of the rail) induced a signalling error for the destination point on the steel
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 13 of 35

• Measurements of the main length elements via surveying tape. The operation of the developed
length of the surveying tape with a minimum length of 33.230 m (turnout length) reflected the
measurement accuracy and safety of the works.

So far, there have been no measurements of the versines on the diverted tracks of turnouts. As a
result of introducing the SMDOST and MMS methods, the measurement process was optimized with
an increase in measurement accuracy and safety, not only for the surveying employee’s presence on
the exploited turnout but also the correct determination of the position of the geometric center of the
double slip turnout (and the outside slip turnout), as well as ensuring the geometric conditions of the
circular arcs of the diverted track. The use of SMDOST and MMS is related to the steel elements of the
turnout structures and the availability of specific turnout characteristics. SMDOST relates to:

• The external endpoints of the obtuse crossing (which have not yet been defined);
• Extra points such as the points of contact connecting the stock rail and the points of contact
connecting the blades; and,
• The turnout endpoints.

The resulting network of straight lines marks point SG in one place by intersecting the lines
forming a correctly defined and situated geometrical center SG. Failure to meet one of the conditions
for the reference network of measurement points or when reference is made to such points but SG is
not in one place results in a geometrical irregularity (geometrical anomaly).
The accuracy of the measured points is defined by the following:

• The location of an electronic total station in the coordinate system. The measurements were
carried out using a single setup (station, location) in the so-called local coordinate system defined
by the instrument, thereby ensuring a common coordinate system and the uniform accuracy
of measurements for the whole turnout. The measuring station’s (measuring setup) electronic
total station was located in the middle of the total length of the double slip turnout outside the
infrastructure gauge (structure gauge) in the intertrack space. Because the measurements carried
out in the coordinate system were defined by the instrument itself and not by the state coordinate
system, the effect of the electronic total station’s location was delimited;
• State of instrumental errors. Errors were eliminated by calibrating the instrument and using the
measurement methods;
• The influence of atmospheric conditions, which were limited by the application of so-called
atmospheric corrections (e.g., air temperature and pressure during the measurements);
• Signalling the measuring point at the turnout. The turnout is characterized by a large number of
steel elements with characteristic profile shapes. As a result of the integration of the geodetic mini
prism with the MMS (equipped with neodymium magnets), the turnout was stabilized directly
above the measuring points, followed by the verticality and correct signalling of points at a height
of 14 mm below the top of the rolling rail head or the lower edge of the steel elements of the
turnout (e.g., wedges on the obtuse crossing) together with the provision of an aiming direction
(pointing line, sight line). The height of the Leica GMP111 geodetic mini prism integrated into the
MMS was 10 cm; and,
• The accuracy of the distance and angle measurement is a characteristic feature of a stationary
electronic total station, as defined by ISO 17123: accuracy standard deviation Hsd —horizontal
direction, Vsd —vertical angle/zenith angle (acc. to ISO 17123-3) is 7” (20cc ); electronic Distance
Measurement—EDM measuring program IR_Dokł/IR_Fine (standard deviation acc. to ISO 17123-4)
is 2 mm + 2 ppm [78].
 Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 14 of 35

The accuracy of the measured points mp(pom) in the turnout Rkpdiwew was 0.002 m using the
SMDOST method and MMS integrated with the Leica GMP111 geodetic mini prism and the Leica
TC407 electronic total station. This accuracy could be increased by using an electronic total station and
high accuracy surveying prisms integrated with MMS and SMDOST.
MMS is also compatible with other surveying prisms that can be used depending on the
measurement purpose. The increasing use of railway infrastructure for passenger and freight transport
makes it necessary to maintain the large capacity and safe maintenance of railways. Thus the application
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 36
of the SMDOST and MMS method is of crucial importance to monitor turnouts in the most optimal,
safe, and effective way.
3.2. Surveying the Geometric Center Outside the Slip Turnout—Rkpdizew—With Blades Outside the Quadrilateral
3.2. Surveying the Geometric Center outside the Slip Turnout—Rkpdizew —With Blades outside the Quadrilateral
Surveying the location of the geometric center SG of the defined SMDOST method is also used
Surveying the location of the geometric center SG of the defined SMDOST method is also used in the
in the same way to monitor the outside slip turnout with blades on the outside of the Rkpdizew
same way to monitor the outside slip turnout with blades on the outside of the Rkpdizew quadrilateral
quadrilateral
(Bäseler(Bäseler systemin turnouts;
system turnouts; in outside
practice, called practice, called outside
slip turnout). Rkpdizew slip turnout).byRkpd
is characterized its izew is
characterized
complex byconstruction,
its complex construction,
featuring featuring
arches of 300 m or more.arches of 300
The blades m or
of these more.areDue
turnouts to in
located its longer
tangential arches,
front the blades
of the crossings dueof
tothese turnouts
its longer arearches
tangential located in front
(Figure 5). of the crossings (Figure 5).

Figure Figure
5. Outside slip slip
5. Outside turnout with
turnout withblades outsidethe
blades outside the quadrilateral
quadrilateral turnout
turnout of Rkpdof Rkpd
izew . izew.

The measurement points for Rkpdizew were also defined, requiring the application of a surveying
To carry out the SMDOST method of surveying, the measurement points for Rkpdizew were also
mini prism in the following areas, in order to carry out the SMDOST method of surveying (Figure 6):
defined, requiring the application of a surveying mini prism in the following areas (Figure 6):
• The external endpoints of the obtuse crossings of Rkpdizew ;
• The•external endpoints
The points of contact ofconnecting
the obtusethecrossings ofaRkpd
stock rail in straight ; thereby defining the geometric
line,
izew

• The points of contact

center of Rkpd connecting the stock rail in a straight line, thereby defining the geometric
izew ; and,
• The endpoints
center of Rkpdizew; of Rkpdizew .

• The endpoints of Rkpdizew.

 Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 15 of 35
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 36

Figure 6. Outside slip turnout for Rkpd with blades on the outside of the quadrangle using the
Figure 6. Outside slip turnout for Rkpdizew
izew with blades on the outside of the quadrangle using the
SMDOST method.
SMDOST method.
The following definitions apply to Figure 6:
The following definitions apply to Figure 6:
• SG = geometric center of Rkpdizew ;
• SG = geometric center of Rkpdizew ;
• 1, 2, 3, 4 = endpoints of Rkpdizew (from the sides “a”, “b”, “c”, and “d”, respectively);
• 1, 2, 3, 4 = endpoints of Rkpdizew (from the sides “a”, “b”, “c”, and “d”, respectively);
• 5, 6, 7, 8 = external endpoints of the obtuse crossing of Rkpdizew;
• 9, 10 = the points of contact connecting the stock rail in a straight line, thereby defining the
geometric center of Rkpdizew;
• 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′ = endpoints of Rkpdizew in the axis of the main track (from the sides “a”, “b”, “c”, and
“d”, respectively);
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 16 of 35

• 5, 6, 7, 8 = external endpoints of the obtuse crossing of Rkpdizew ;

• 9, 10 = the points of contact connecting the stock rail in a straight line, thereby defining the
geometric center of Rkpdizew ;
• 10 , 20 , 30 , 40 = endpoints of Rkpdizew in the axis of the main track (from the sides “a”, “b”, “c”,
and “d”, respectively);
• f1 = measuring the versine on chords 1–4;
• f2 = measuring the versine on chords 2 and 3;
• αp = main turnout angle—project (between the main track axles); and,
• Rp = project radius.

To determine the point of the geometric center SG, reference should be made to the following
(Figure 6):

1. The external points of Obtuse Crossings 5–8 and the points of contact connecting the stock rail in
a straight line (No. 9 and 10), defining the geometric center of Rkpdizew ; and,
2. The turnout Endpoints 1–4.

If the point SG with reference to obtuse crossings and the points of contact connecting the stock
rail in a straight line and the turnout endpoints of Rkpdizew is unambiguously determined by the
intersecting straight lines and is located in one place, then the turnout has a correctly located geometrical
center SG. Otherwise, it is a geometric anomaly of the Rkpdizew turnout.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Structure of the Number of Derailments and Safety Status

According to requirements of the European Railway Agency (ERA) and of the Office of Rail
Transportation (UTK) for the railway network managed by PKP PLK S.A. (Polish State Railways Polish
Railway Lines Joint Stock Company, in Polish: Polskie Koleje Państwowe Polskie Linie Kolejowe
Spółka Akcyjna, PKP PLK S.A.), the applied classification of railway accidents includes [79]:

• collisions;
• derailments;
• accidents at level crossings and pedestrian crossings;
• accidents including persons outside level crossings and pedestrian crossings (excluding suicides);
• rolling stock fires; and,
• other accidents.

Figure 7 shows the state of derailments on the railway network managed by PKP PLK S.A. in
Poland from 2007 to 2017. Derailments are a component of an accident, defined as an unintentional
sudden event or a sequence of such events involving a railway vehicle, yielding negative consequences
for human health, property, and/or environment [1]. The trend line demonstrates the phenomenon
of derailments in the period 2007–2017 to be in a descending orientation, progressing over time
proportionally (Figure 7). The average number of all derailments in the period of 2007–2017 in Poland
is 112.2.
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 17 of 35
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 36
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 36

Figure
Figure 7. 7. State
State ofofderailments
derailmentson
onthe
therailway
railway network
network managed
managedby
byPKP
PKPPLK
PLKS.A.
S.A.ininPoland
Polandin in
thethe
Figure 7. State of derailments on the railway network managed by PKP PLK S.A. in Poland in the
years
years 2007–2017.
2007–2017.
years 2007–2017.

TheThe
The
state ofof
state
state
the
of thenumber
the numberof
number offaults
of faultsat
faults atthe
at the turnouts
the turnouts of
turnouts
theselected
of the
the selectedstations/area
selected stations/area
stations/area signal
signal
signal
boxes
boxes
boxes
(signal
(signal
(signal
box,
box, area
area under
under control,
control, railway
railway control
control command,
command, and signaling
signaling building)
building)
box, area under control, railway control command, and signaling building) of the railway network in of the
of therailway
railway network
network in in
Poland
Poland is is illustrated
illustrated byby the
the graph
graph in Figure
presented 8.inThis graph
Figure 8. includes
This graph19 stations/area
includes
Poland is illustrated by the graph in Figure 8. This graph includes 19 stations/area signal boxes with 19 signal boxes
stations/area with
signal
information
boxes about the
with information
information about the about
number
number theofnumber
of faults at
faults atofthe
the turnouts
faults at thein
turnouts inturnouts
each of
each of them
them
in each and
and the
ofthe
themnumber
and the
number of number
of faults
faults
rectified
of rectified on
faults rectifiedthe day
on the
on the day of their
day of
of their detection (direct
their detection
detection intervention) [80].
(direct intervention)
(direct intervention) The safety condition
[80]. The
[80]. The safety at the turnouts
safetyatcondition
condition at the
the turnouts
was
turnouts unsatisfactory,
was depending
unsatisfactory, on
depending the type
on the of fault
type ofrequiring
fault direct
requiring
was unsatisfactory, depending on the type of fault requiring direct or timely intervention with or timely
direct or intervention
timely with
intervention
previous
with previous
previous protection.
protection.
protection. TheThe
The average timetime
average
average time needneed
need to remove
to remove the remaining
to remove
the remaining (timely)
the remaining faultsfaults
(timely)
(timely) faults was 10
was 10was
days.
10 days.
days.

Figure 8. 8.Status
Figure Statusofofthe
thenumber
numberof
offaults
faults in
in turnouts in selected
turnouts in selectedstations/area
stations/areasignal
signalboxes.
boxes.
Figure 8. Status of the number of faults in turnouts in selected stations/area signal boxes.
OfOf
allall
thethe
railway
railwaynetworks
networksin inthe
theworld,
world, Canada’s is the
Canada’s is
is the third
thirdlargest
largestand
andtransports
transports the
the fourth
fourth
Of all the railway networks in the world, Canada’s the third largest and transports the fourth
largest volume
largest volume of
volume of goods) [81].
of goods) Investigations
goods) [81].
[81]. Investigations on
Investigations on rail
on rail modes
rail modes explore
modes explore a wide
explore aa wide variety
wide variety of
variety of subjects,
of subjects, such
such as
subjects, such
largest
operational decision
as operational
operational making,
decision risk management,
making, risk management,
management,component
componentfailure, supervision,
failure, metallurgy,
supervision, andand
metallurgy, track
as decision making, risk component failure, supervision, metallurgy, and
train dynamics
track train [81].
dynamicsThe graph
[81]. Thepresented
graph in in Figure
Figure 9 9 shows
shows the the state
state of of derailments
derailments at
track train dynamics [81]. The graph in Figure 9 shows the state of derailments at turnouts on the
at turnouts
turnouts on on
thethe
North American continent in Canada, providing a summary of the number of derailments during the
period of 2007–2017:
 • Non main-track derailments.
Non main-track derailments on turnouts are more common than main-track derailments. The
trend line of derailments in both graphs over the years 2007–2017 presents a gradual decreasing trend
(Figure 9). However, this trend indicates the need for further open research to guarantee the quality
of safety
Sensors 2020, 20,at turnouts. This is also confirmed by the studies presented by Batarlienė in [82],
4467 18 of 35
demonstrating that transport, due to its specificity and risk, must be precisely controlled, regulated,
and operated. The analyses of rail transport and the probability of accidents suggest that although all
• accidents
Main-track are derailments; and,
decreasing in number, accidents involving dangerous goods occur especially
• frequently.
Non main-track derailments.

Figure9.9.State
Figure Stateof
of derailments
derailments at Canadian
Canadianturnouts
turnoutsinin2007–2017.
2007–2017.

NonThemain-track
statistical data on derailments
derailments confirm
on turnouts are the
moreclaim in [83]than
common that derailments are common.The
main-track derailments. Mistry
trend
et of
line al. derailments
in [84] concluded
in boththatgraphs
railwayover
point-operating machine (POM)
the years 2007–2017 failures
presents are considered
a gradual decreasing critical
trend
failures
(Figure 9).ofHowever,
a rail network system.
this trend Signaling
indicates the equipment and turnout
need for further failures to
open research account for 55%
guarantee theof all
quality
railway infrastructure component failures, leading to delays, costly repairs,
of safety at turnouts. This is also confirmed by the studies that were presented by Batarlienė in [82], and potentially
hazardous situations.
demonstrating In [83], due
that transport, Dindar et al.
to its presented
specificity andan risk,
integrated
must beapproach
preciselyforcontrolled,
handling the many
regulated,
different risks arising from various sources in railway turnout systems by identifying
and operated. The analyses of rail transport and the probability of accidents suggest that although all suitable multi-
disciplinary
accidents risk analysis
are decreasing methods accidents
in number, for these complex
involvingsystems.
dangerousThe goods
authors referred
occur to the frequently.
especially various
qualitative- and quantitative-based risk analysis methods proposed to fully understand a number of
The statistical data on derailments confirm the claim in [83] that derailments are common.
technical phenomena, such as ageing, degradation, and signalling faults, in a railway turnout system.
Mistry et al. in [84] concluded that railway point-operating machine (POM) failures are considered
The authors found that one of the fundamental reasons for derailment incidents at turnouts may be
to be critical failures of a rail network system. Signaling equipment and turnout failures account for
the fact that the railway industry pays little attention to the risk elements of railway turnouts. Not
55% of all railway infrastructure component failures, leading to delays, costly repairs, and potentially
only is the prediction of such elements complex and difficult but it also requires a comprehensive
hazardous situations. In
range of applications and[83], Dindar et al. presented
a well-designed geographican integratedsystem.
information approach for handling
In [85], the many
a new stochastic
different risks that arise from various sources in railway turnout systems
mathematical prediction model was established based on a hierarchical Bayesian model (HBM), by identifying suitable
to
multi-disciplinary risk analysis methods for these complex
better address unique exposure indicators in segmented large-scale regions. systems. The authors referred to the
variousImportantly,
qualitative-the and quantitative-based
continuous improvement riskandanalysis methods
optimisation proposed
of the level ofto fullyperformance
safety understand a
number of technical phenomena, such as ageing, degradation, and signalling
of railway undertakings and infrastructure management is an essential component in the field faults, in a of
railway
rail
turnout system.
transport safetyThe authors found
management. that one of
Measurement the fundamental
innovation in railwayreasons for derailment
infrastructure incidents
safety also entails at
turnouts may be the fact that the railway industry pays little attention to the risk elements of railway
turnouts. Not only is the prediction of such elements complex and difficult but it also requires a
comprehensive range of applications and a well-designed geographic information system. In [85],
a new stochastic mathematical prediction model was established based on a hierarchical Bayesian
model (HBM), to better address unique exposure indicators in segmented large-scale regions.
Importantly, the continuous improvement and optimisation of the level of safety performance of
railway undertakings and infrastructure management is an essential component in the field of rail
transport safety management. Measurement innovation in railway infrastructure safety also entails
areas of measurement work (measuring methods, techniques, and instruments) that are interdependent
and complementary based on the SMDOST method with MMS.
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 19 of 35

4.2. Case Study and Field Measurements

This section presents the results and discussion of the application of the SMDOST method
to a double slip turnout. Attention was paid to the correctness of the geometric relationships of
the monitored turnout. Reference was also made to the geometric irregularities of the turnouts.
There is a strict dependence between correctly determining the position of the geometric center point
SG of a double slip turnout and other structural elements. The value of the horizontal versine fi
indicates the condition of the Ri rays of the diverted track. The present research focused on real
Rkpdiwew measurements, demonstrating and confirming that monitoring the condition of turnout
geometry plays a key role in the safe operation of rail transport, essentially affecting quality, comfort,
and safety. The presented SMDOST method confirms the its applicability. This method allows one
to correctly determine the position of the Rkpd geometric center point along with other turnout
geometric dependencies. Referring to the geometric relationships of a double slip turnout, Rama and
Andrews [22] rightly noted that turnouts and diamond crossings are multi-component systems and
that to actively prevent failures and undesirable consequences, it is necessary to anticipate problems at
the component level.
Table 1 presents the results of the measurement of the Rkpdiwew No. 9 ab/cd turnout type
S49/1:9/190 using the SMDOST method. Calculations were made for the values of the existing rays of
the diverted track in the directions of the “ad”–Riad radius and the “bc”–Ribc radius. Theoretically,
the values of the Riad and Ribc radii should be identical and consistent with the value of the projected
radius, Rp = 190 m; however, in a deformed turnout, a discrepancy may occur (analogous to the main
angle of the turnout αp ).

Table 1. Results of the measurements of the Rkpdiwew No. 9 ab/cd turnout type S49/1:9/190 while using
the SMDOST method.

Name Proper Condition Existing Condition Difference

Diverted track radius Rp = 190 m Ri ≈ 225 m 35 m
Horizontal versine of the diverted
fp = 0.726 f1 = fiad = 0.612 m 0.114 m
track ad
Horizontal versine of the diverted
fp = 0.726 f2 = fibc = 0.612 m 0.114 m
track bc
Main angle of the turnout
(between the main tracks axles αp = 7g 04c 466 cc αiab = 7g 02c 408 cc 0g 02c 058 cc
10 –SG–20 )
Main angle of the turnout
(between the main tracks axles αp = 7g 04c 466 cc αicd = 7g 06c 190 cc 0g 01c 724 cc
30 –SG–40 )
Main track length 10 –30 in the axis
|10 –30 |p axis = 33.230 m |10 –30 |i axis = 33.249 m 0.019 m
(in full)
Main track length 20 –40 in the axis
|20 –40 |p axis = 33.230 m |20 –40 |i axis = 33.226 m 0.004 m
(in full)
Length of main track 10 –SG in axis |10 –SG|p axis = 16.615 m |10 –SG|i axis = 16.618 m 0.003 m
Length of main track SG–30 in axis |SG–30 |p axis = 16.615 m |SG–30 |i axis = 16.631 m 0.016 m
Length of main track 20 –SG in axis |20 –SG| p axis = 16.615 m |20 –SG| i axis = 16.604 m 0.011 m
Length of main track SG–40 in axis |SG–40 | p axis = 16.615 m |SG–40 | i axis = 16.622 m 0.007 m

The relationship between the radii of the Ri curve and the arrows fi can be determined by Equation (1):

a ·b
Ri = , (1)
2 ·fi
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 20 of 35

where Ri is the curve radius, fi is the horizontal versine of the curve, and a and b are the distances between
points. The obtained value of the first radius of the diverted track “ad” is Riad = 223.804 m ≈ 225 m.
The value of the second diverted track “bc” is Ribc = 223.655 m ≈ 225 m (Table 1). The measurements
showed the difference in the existing radius Ri = Riad = Ribc to the projected radius Rp , whose difference
is 35 m. Table 1 shows the differences between the linear and angular values of the covered turnout.
According to the recommendations of the Id-4 regulations [23], the versine is not measured in slip
turnouts (double and outside slip turnout and single slip turnout). Instruction Id-4 [23] defines the
methods, rules of measurements, dates for performing visual inspections and technical studies, and the
rules for performing repairs of all the turnouts under exploitation. According to the author, this record
is controversial, because, with the value of an existing versine, one can determine the existing state of
the diverted track geometry. The tests using the SMDOST method revealed the abnormal curvature
of the turnout-diverted track and a change in the values of its radii. The state of the curvature of
the diverted track is an essential element not only for the correct maintenance of operation works,
but also for the implementation of work–turnout assembly (monitoring the correctness of the turnout
assembly). Thus, not only the choice of the permissible track gauge and cant parameters, but also the
permissible speed on the diverted track depend on the state of the curve radius of the diverted track.
The following are also important: the speed of the wear and tear of the structural elements, changes
in the values of the track gauge and cant parameter (and, thus, the derivative parameters), and the
wear and tear of the headland switch sleepers. The anomalies resulting from both the wrong location
of the geometric center point of the SG turnout and the condition of the diverted track contribute
to the impact of rolling stock running turbulence. In this case, running the rolling stock on turnout
tracks whose geometrical parameters are not adjusted to the specified speed causes vibrations due to
accelerations (excessive centrifugal forces).
The SMDOST method used for the double slip turnout No. 9 ab/cd type S49/1:9/190 showed that
the SG point was not clearly defined by the intersecting straight lines and not located in one place.
The geometric center of double slip turnout SG, as the point determined by the components of the
obtuse crossings and their geometric relationships, does not coincide with the point of the geometric
center related to the endpoints of the turnout and their geometric relationships. In the monitored
turnout, there was an irregularity in the position of the point of the geometric center SG. Four points
were ultimately obtained, which formed a quadrilateral. The coordinates of the center of gravity of the
quadrilateral were then calculated and considered as the final operational position of the geometric
center SG of the double slip turnout. The coordinates were transformed using the Helmert method
and declared as adjustment points (point of minor control, register mark) No. 2 and 4 on the main
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 36
track for the direction “bd”—dimension a1 (Figures 2 and 10).

Figure 10. Measurement of the track gauge and cant parameter at the point cross-sections.
Figure 10. Measurement of the track gauge and cant parameter at the point cross-sections.

In Figure 10, the following definitions apply:

• a track gauge and cant–turnout pre-blade contact for turnout side “a” and “c”;
• a1 track gauge and cant–turnout pre-blade contact for turnout side “b” and “d”;
• c track gauge and cant of the switch (on the first fixed plate) of the internal rails—the “a” and
“c” sides of the turnout on the main track;
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 21 of 35

In Figure 10, the following definitions apply:

• a track gauge and cant–turnout pre-blade contact for turnout side “a” and “c”;
• a1 track gauge and cant–turnout pre-blade contact for turnout side “b” and “d”;
• c track gauge and cant of the switch (on the first fixed plate) of the internal rails—the “a” and “c”
sides of the turnout on the main track;
• c1 track gauge and cant of the switch (on the first fixed plate) of the external rails—the “a” and “c”
sides of the turnout on the diverted track;
• c2 track gauge and cant of the switch (on the first fixed plate) of the internal rails—the “b” and “d”
sides of the switch on the main track;
• c3 track gauge and cant of the switch (on the first fixed plate) of the external rails—the “b” and “d”
sides of the switch on the diverted track;
• a, b, c, d turnout sides; and,
• Rp project radius.

The study carried out on the values of the track gauges in Sections No. 2 and 4 showed stability,
amounting to 1435 mm (Table 2). The position of the exploitation point SG in relation to the actual
state differed by 0.011 m. The specific dimensions presented in Tables 2–4 should be interpreted with a
prefix of 14 mm.

Table 2. Values of the parameter track gauge and cant for the turnout pre-blade contact at points a and
a1 —periodic monitoring of Rkpdiwew No 9 ab/cd type S49/1:9/190.

Proper Condition and Permissible

Deviation of the Parameter Track
Name of the Gauge and Cant [mm]
Parameter
Turnout Number and Type Main Track Main Track
Turnout Side
Date of Measurement
a a1
Track Gauge 35+8
−4
35+8
−4
Track Cant 0+12
−12
0+12
−12
Track gauge ab 43 34
9 ab/cd Track gauge cd 41 33
S49/1:9/190
7 May 2018 Track cant ab −3 6
Track cant cd 0 −3
Track gauge ab 42 35
9 ab/cd Track gauge cd 40 35
S49/1:9/190
5 February 2019 Track cant ab −4 5
Track cant cd 1 −1
Track gauge ab 43 35
9 ab/cd Track gauge cd 40 35
S49/1:9/190
5 August 2019 Track cant ab 2 −2
Track cant cd 0 −1
Track gauge ab 45 35
9 ab/cd Track gauge cd 40 35
S49/1:9/190
Track cant ab −3 8
2 November 2019
Track cant cd 1 2
The red color indicates the exceeded values.
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 22 of 35

Table 3. Values of the track gauge and cant parameter of the switch for points c, c1 , c2 , and c3 —periodic
monitoring of Rkpdiwew No. 9 type S49/1:9/190.

Proper Conditions and Permissible Deviation of the Parameter

Track Gauge and Cant [mm]
Name of the
Parameter Main Track Diverted Track Main Track Diverted Track
Turnout Number and Type
Turnout Side c c1 c2 c3
Date of Measurement
Track
35+8
−4
43+14
−4
35+8
−4
43+14
−4
Gauge
Track Cant 0+12
−12
0+12
−12
0+12
−12
0+12
−12
Track gauge ab 37 52 40 52
9 ab/cd Track gauge cd 35 50 37 47
S49/1:9/190
7 May 2018 Track cant ab −1 −1 −2 −3
Track cant cd 0 −1 0 0
Track gauge ab 38 52 40 52
9 ab/cd Track gauge cd 35 50 37 44
S49/1:9/190
5 February 2019 Track cant ab −1 −1 −3 −4
Track cant cd −1 −1 −3 0
Track gauge ab 39 55 41 54
9 ab/cd Track gauge cd 36 50 37 50
S49/1:9/190
5 August 2019 Track cant ab 0 0 0 1
Track cant cd 2 −3 2 −3
Track gauge ab 37 55 40 54
9 ab/cd Track gauge cd 36 50 38 50
S49/1:9/190
Track cant ab 0 1 −3 −3
2 November 2019
Track cant cd 0 −1 0 0

Table 4. Values of the track gauge and cant parameters in the switch at points c, c1 , c2 , and c3 —periodic
monitoring of four additional Rkpdiwew types S49/1:9/190.

Proper Conditions and Permissible Deviation of the Parameter

Track Gauge and Cant [mm]
Name of the
Parameter Main Track Diverted Track Main Track Diverted Track
Turnout Number and Type
Turnout Side c c1 c2 c3
Date of Measurement
Track
35+8
−4
43+14
−4
35+8
−4
43+14
−4
Gauge
Track Cant 0+12
−12
0+12
−12
0+12
−12
0+12
−12
Track gauge ab 55 78 55 70
134 ab/cd Track gauge cd 47 62 41 58
S49/1:9/190
Track cant ab 1 4 4 8
4 November 2019
Track cant cd 0 4 1 1
Track gauge ab 37 49 38 57
136 ab/cd Track gauge cd 37 58 35 52
S49/1:9/190
Track cant ab −1 −2 0 1
4 November 2019
Track cant cd 3 3 4 8
Track gauge ab 43 55 40 60
182 ab/cd Track gauge cd 41 60 38 49
S49/1:9/190
Track cant ab 15 12 11 15
5 November 2019
Track cant cd 11 15 13 10
Track gauge ab 34 52 33 54
139 ab/cd Track gauge cd 41 61 41 68
S49/1:9/190
Track cant ab 0 0 0 0
5 November 2019
Track cant cd 0 0 0 0
The red color indicates the exceeded values.
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 23 of 35

In the turnout pre-blade contact of the Rkpdiwew No. 9 ab/cd type S49/1:9/190, the track gauge
and cant at the a and a1 points were periodically monitored (Figure 10):

• a Track gauge and cant–turnout pre-blade contact on turnout side “a” and “c”; and,
• a1 Track gauge and cant–turnout pre-blade contact on turnout side “b” and “d”.

The proper condition for the track gauge parameters of Rkpdiwew type S49/1:9/190 at turnout
pre-blade contact in sections a and a1 was 1435 mm, and the permissible deviation was from +8 to
−4 mm. The deviation in the permissible mutual height position of the rails (track path cant) ranged
from +12 to −12 mm [23]. The track gauge of the turnouts is the distance between the internal surfaces
of the rails measured 14 mm below their running surface. The track cant in the turnout is the difference
in the height of the rails in one cross section. The position of the track in the cross-section is the
measured difference in the height of the rails in one section of the track in the vertical plane [24,25],
taking international law into account.
Table 2 presents the results of the monitoring track gauge and cant values directly in front of the
turnout pre-blade contact of Rkpdiwew turnout 9 at points a and a1 . The investigations showed the
stability of the main track at the cross-sections of the a1 points in the “bd” direction, where the value of
the track gauge parameter was 1435 mm (Figure 10). In the section of the a points in the “ac” direction,
the value of the track gauge parameter exceeded the permissible deviation of the maximum (1445 mm).
The Rkpdiwew geometric condition was additionally confirmed by monitoring four turnouts
within an obtuse crossing for the track gauge and cant parameters (Figure 10). The principles of
measurement at the characteristic points of the railway turnouts and diamond crossings and the
correctness of the measurements are presented in [33,38], paying particular attention to Rkpd, as well
as the measurements of turnout geometry at characteristic points, including within crossings. In the
Rkpdiwew switch zone, for both the “ab” and “cd” sides, sections were measured at the following
points (Figure 10):

• c The track gauge and cant for the switch (on the first fixed plate) of the internal rails—the “a”
and “c” sides of the turnout on the main track;
• c1 the track gauge and cant for the switch (on the first fixed plate) of the external rails—the “a”
and “c” sides of the turnout on the diverted track;
• c2 the track gauge and cant for the switch (on the first fixed plate) of the internal rails—the “b”
and “d” sides of the switch on the main track; and,
• c3 the track gauge and cant for the switch (on the first fixed plate) of the external rails—the “b”
and “d” sides of the switch on the diverted track.

At the double slip turnout, measurements were carried out independently for turnout sides “ab”
and “cd.” The measurements of the track gauge parameter also included the track cant parameter.
The proper conditions of the track gauge for the Rkpdiwew type S49/1:9/190 in the switch zone of
the main track in cross-sections c and c2 were 1435 mm, while, for the diverted track in sections c1
and c3 , they were 1443 mm [23]. The exploitation speed on the main and diverted tracks covered by
the turnout measurements was V = 40 km/h. The permissible deviation of the track gauge parameter
on the main track for dimensions c and c2 ranged from +8 to −4 mm. For the dimensions of the
parameter track gauge on the diverted track c1 and c3 , the permissible deviation ranged from +14 to
−4 mm. The permissible track gauge deviations for the main track depend on the speed, whereas,
on the diverted track, they depend on the value of the curve radius [23]. The permissible canting
deviations are dependent on the maximum speed at the turnout. This deviation for the monitored
turnouts ranged from +12 to −12 mm [23].
Table 3 presents the results of the measurements of the track gauge and cant status in the Rkpdiwew
switch at points c, c1 , c2 , and c3 under the periodic monitoring of turnout No. 9 type S49/1:9/190.
The results show that the values remain within the limits of acceptable deviations, for both the main
track and the diverted track.
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 24 of 35

Figure 11 shows a graphical interpretation of the state of the parameter track gauge for the main
track-switch Rkpdiwew No. 9 for turnout side “ab” (measurement at point c, c2 ) and turnout side “cd”
(measurement at point c, c2 ). The specific dimension of the track gauge width in section c and c2 is
1435 mm, which is marked by a horizontal continuous red line. The red dotted lines on the diagram
define the permissible upper and lower limit values for the width parameter track gauge on the main
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 36
track, which are +8 and −4 mm, respectively, for dimensions c and c2 .

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure11. 11.The
Thetrack
trackgauge
gaugeofofthe
themain
maintrack
trackfor
forturnout
turnoutnumber
number9:9:(a)
(a)turnout
turnoutside
side“ab”
“ab”(measurement
(measurement
atc,c,cc22););(b)
at (b)turnout
turnoutside
side“cd”
“cd”(measurement
(measurementat atc,c,cc2).
2 ).

The diagram
The diagram inpresented
Figure 11a in Figure
shows11a the shows
state ofthe thestate
trackof gauge
the track gauge parameter
parameter main track main track on
on turnout
turnout
side side
“ab”, as“ab”,
well as
aswell
the as the measurements
measurements mademade for point
for point c and
c and c2 monitored
c2 monitored ininfour
fourmeasurement
measurement
periods. The
periods. Thevalue
valueofofthe
the width
width parameter
parameter is within the permissiblepermissibledeviations.
deviations. The
The diagram
diagramillustrated
in Figure
in Figure
11b 11b also
also shows the shows
parameterthe parameter
track gauge track
on the gauge
main ontrack
the main track for
for turnout turnout
number number
9 but 9 but
for side for
“cd”
side “cd” (measurements at point
(measurements at point c, c2). The value c, c 2 ). The value of the width parameter track gauge
of the width parameter track gauge is also within the is also within
the permissible
permissible deviations.
deviations.
Figure
A 12 shows
graphical a graphical
interpretation of interpretation
the state of theofwidth the state of the width
parameter parameter
track gauge on thetrack gaugetrack–
diverted on the
diverted track–switch of Rkpd
switch of Rkpdiwew No. 9 for both No. 9 for both turnout side “ab” (measurement
iwewturnout side “ab” (measurement in point c1, c3) and turnout in point c 1 3 )side
, c and
turnout
“cd” side “cd” (measurement
(measurement in point c1, c3)inispoint
shown c1 ,inc3Figure
). 12.
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 25 of 35
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 36

(a)

(b)
Figure 12. 12.The
Thetrack
trackgaugegauge ofdiverted
of the the diverted
track intrack
turnout in number
turnout9:number 9: side
(a) turnout (a) turnout side “ab”
“ab” (measurement
(measurement at c1, c3side
at c1 , c3 ); (b) turnout ); (b)“cd”
turnout side “cd” (measurement
(measurement at c1 , c3 ). at c1, c3).

The specific track gauge dimension

The dimension in section c11 and and cc33 isis 1443
1443 mm,
mm, which
which is is marked
marked by by a
horizontal continuous
horizontal continuous red red line.
line. The
The red
red dashed
dashed lines
lines in in the
the diagram
diagram are the permissible upper and
lower limit values of the diverted track parameter track gauge for values of +14 −4mm.
and −4
+14 and mm.
The value of the the track
track gaugegauge parameter
parameter is is still
still within
within thethe limits
limits of
of permissible
permissible deviations
deviations forfor both
both
turnout side “ab” (Figure 12a) and turnout side “cd” (Figure 12b). The
side “ab” (Figure 12a) and turnout side “cd” (Figure 12b). The specific dimensions of the specific dimensions of the track
gaugegauge
track parameter on theon
parameter diverted track are
the diverted larger
track than those
are larger than of its counterpart
those on the on
of its counterpart mainthetrack,
main with
track,a
noticeable
with trend towards
a noticeable trend towards the upperthe limit.
upper limit.
There is aa noticeable
noticeabledifficulty
difficultyininmaintaining
maintaining thethe
correct dimensions
correct dimensions for for
the the
track gauge
track and cant
gauge and
of theofmain
cant the and main diverted tracks, particularly
and diverted on the diverted
tracks, particularly on thetracks of the
diverted arches.
tracks of This
the is confirmed
arches. This byis
the results by
confirmed of the
the tests
results that
of are
the outlined in Table
tests outlined 4, which
in Table included
4, which monitoring
included the state
monitoring the of theoftrack
state the
gaugegauge
track and cant and parameter
cant parameter values invalues
the switches
in the of four additional
switches of four S49/1:9/190
additional Rkpd iwew turnouts
S49/1:9/190 Rkpdiwew at
points c, cat1 ,points
turnouts c2 , andc,cc3 1. , c2, and c3.
Each of the four monitored turnouts exceeded the permissible
Each permissible deviations
deviations of of the track gauge
parameter values
values on on the
thediverted
divertedtracks
tracks(red
(redmarking).
marking).The Themaximum
maximumvalue valueatat
point
pointc1 cwas
1 wasreached
reached at
1478
at mmmm
1478 when whenthe specific
the specific dimensions should
dimensions be 1443
should bemm. 1443However, there was
mm. However, a positive
there was atolerance
positive
of 1443 + of
tolerance = 1457
14 1443 mm.
+ 14 The mm.
= 1457 excessThebeyond
excessthe properthe
beyond value,
properincluding the permissible
value, including deviation,
the permissible
deviation, was 21 mm (Table 4). There was a significant difficulty in maintaining the correct track
gauge parameter dimensions and, therefore, in the track cant in the Rkpd switch diverted track.
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 26 of 35

was 21 mm (Table 4). There was a significant difficulty in maintaining the correct track gauge parameter
Sensors 2020, 20, and,
dimensions x FORtherefore,
PEER REVIEW
in the track cant in the Rkpd switch diverted track. 27 of 36
A graphical visualization of the status of the track gauge parameters monitored at the four
A graphical
additional turnoutsvisualization of the
No. 134, 136, 182,status of isthe
and 139 trackingauge
shown parameters
Figures 13 and 14.monitored at the four
Figure 13 presents the
additional
state of theturnouts No. 134,
track gauge 136, 182,
parameter on and 139 istrack
the main shown forin Figuresside
turnout 13 and 14. Figure 13 presents
ab (measurement at point c,the
c2 )
state of the track gauge parameter on the main track for turnout side ab (measurement
and turnout side cd (measurement at point c, c2 ). The specific dimension is 1435 mm marked with2)a at point c, c
and
red turnout
horizontalsidecontinuous
cd (measurement at point
line, while c, c2). The
the dashed linesspecific dimension
determine is 1435 mmupper
the permissible markedandwith
lower a
red horizontal
limit values. For continuous line, 134,
turnout No. while thethe dashed
value of thelines
trackdetermine the permissible
gauge parameter upper and
was exceeded lower
above the
limit values. For turnout
upper permissible deviation. No. 134, the value of the track gauge parameter was exceeded above the
upper permissible deviation.

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure13.
13.The
Thetrack
trackgauge
gaugeofofthe themain
maintrack
trackin
inturnout
turnoutnumbers
numbers134,
134,136,
136,182,
182,139:
139:(a)
(a)turnout
turnoutside
side
“ab” (measurement at c, c ); (b) turnout side “cd” (measurement at c, c
“ab” (measurement at c, c2 ); (b) turnout side “cd” (measurement at c, c2 ).
2 2 ).

Figure 14 refers to the state of the track gauge parameter on the diverted track in the turnouts
monitored at points c1, c3 for turnout sides ”ab” and ”cd”. The red lines indicate the correct value and
the intermittent permissible deviations. For turnout side ab in turnout 134 and 182, the upper limit
deviation was exceeded, while turnout side ab in turnout 136 was already at its limit value (Figure 14a).
For turnout side cd in all additional turnouts, the upper limit deviation was exceeded. on the diverted
track turnout, the state of the track gauge parameter was exceeded above the upper permissible
deviation (Figure 14b). The consequence of this condition is a change in the state of the diverted track
radii and the position of the geometric center point SG of the double slip turnouts.
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 27 of 35
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 36

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 14.
14.The
Thetrack
trackgauge
gaugeof
ofthe
thediverted
divertedtrack
trackin
inturnout
turnout numbers
numbers 134,
134, 136,
136, 182,
182, and
and 139:
139: (a)
(a)turnout
turnout
side “ab” (measurement at c , c ); (b) turnout side “cd” (measurement at c , c
side “ab” (measurement at c1 , c3 ); (b) turnout side “cd” (measurement at c1 , c3 ).
1 3 1 3 ).

Figure 14etrefers
Hegedűs al. [6]torightly
the state of the
stated track
that gaugeoperate
turnouts parameter under on difficult
the diverted track inand
conditions thethat
turnouts
their
monitoredrequirements
reliability at points c1 , arec3 for turnout
high due tosides
safety”ab”and and ”cd”. factors.
economic The redThus,lines as
indicate
Aniołek theandcorrect
Herian value
[7]
and the intermittent
emphasize, the problem permissible deviations.
of the durability For turnout
of turnouts and railssideremains
ab in turnout
open to134 and 182, the
technological upper
research
limit
to deviationtheir
determine was exceeded,
structural while turnout side
relationships and ab in turnoutcharacteristics.
mechanical 136 was already Theat its limit value
complex and
(Figure 14a).construction
responsible For turnoutof side cd in all
railway additional
roads involves turnouts,
turnouts. theInupper limit deviation
[86], Marx states thatwas exceeded.
professional
On the diverted
turnout track turnout,
maintenance requires the state of knowledge
specialist the track gauge parameter
for which therewasis exceeded above the
little literature upper
available
outside the Deutsche
permissible Bahn regulations
deviation (Figure in Germany.ofIndeed,
14b). The consequence before 1994,
this condition there in
is a change was theno training
state of the
programme
diverted trackavailable.
radii andPreviously,
the positionthis knowledge
of the geometricwas obtained
center point SG almost
of theexclusively
double slipfrom turnout
turnouts.
manufacturers,
Hegedűs etbut al.this
[6] type of information
rightly was onlyoperate
stated that turnouts stationary underanddifficult
not geared to maintenance.
conditions and that
Complex and intricate
their reliability turnoutare
requirements systems
high duethat toinclude,
safetyamong other things,
and economic slipThus,
factors. turnout (double and
as Aniołek and
outside slip
Herian [7] turnout) occupy
emphasize, the problema special
of theposition
durability inofthe field. Knowledge
turnouts and rails remainsof these
opensystems already
to technological
resembles
research toadetermine
kind of secrettheirscience.
structuralRosiński and Michowski
relationships [9] observed
and mechanical that the complex
characteristics. The complex physical
and
phenomena
responsible occurring
construction within the switch,
of railway roadsconnected with the significant
involves turnouts. In [86], Marx forces acting
states that between
professionalthe
moving
turnout vehicle and the
maintenance track, specialist
requires require special
knowledgeattention for turnouts.
for which there is little literature available outside
At the same
the Deutsche Bahntime, wear andin
regulations tear [13], train
Germany. axle load
Indeed, [14],1994,
before directions of the
there was norunning
trainingofprogramme
the rolling
stock, dynamic
available. loads influenced
Previously, by the profiles
this knowledge of the rolling
was obtained almoststock wheels obtained
exclusively [15], the quality of the
from turnout
rolling stock crossing,
manufacturers, but this thetype
totalofprocess of the was
information wheelonlypassing through
stationary andthenotturnout
geared [16], the type of
to maintenance.
crossing and the type of turnout, the interactions between the wheel–rail contact and damage to
crossings and turnouts (material, number, etc.) [17], the profiles of the circle elements of the crossing
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 28 of 35

Complex and intricate turnout systems that include, among other things, slip turnout (double and
outside slip turnout) occupy a special position in the field. Knowledge of these systems already
resembles a kind of secret science. Rosiński and Michowski [9] observed that the complex physical
phenomena occurring within the switch, connected with the significant forces acting between the
moving vehicle and the track, require special attention for turnouts.
At the same time, wear and tear [13], train axle load [14], directions of the running of the rolling
stock, dynamic loads influenced by the profiles of the rolling stock wheels [15], the quality of the rolling
stock crossing, the total process of the wheel passing through the turnout [16], the type of crossing
and the type of turnout, the interactions between the wheel–rail contact and damage to crossings and
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 36
turnouts (material, number, etc.) [17], the profiles of the circle elements of the crossing [17–19], switch
sleeper stiffness,
[17–19], ballast stiffness,
switch sleeper condition,ballast
and thecondition,
elastic properties
and the of the turnout
elastic support
properties of thestructure
turnout[20,21]
supportall
have an impact on the efficiency, effectiveness, and performance of the turnout
structure [20,21] all have an impact on the efficiency, effectiveness, and performance of the turnout and its components.
Rail its
and safety depends Rail
components. on asafety
number of factors.
depends In particular,
on a number the In
of factors. technical conditions
particular, safety isof the railway
influenced by
infrastructure influence safety, of which turnouts are an important element. In [87],
the technical conditions of the railway infrastructure, of which turnouts are an important element. In [87], Kaewunruen et al.
highlight that an accurate risk assessment is vital for track components
Kaewunruen et al. highlight that an accurate risk assessment is vital for track components (e.g., (e.g., embedded anchors,
the failure modes
embedded anchors, of the
which are dependent
failure modes of which on time). Therefore, the
are dependent time frames
on time). in which
Therefore, component
the time frames
risks transition to different risk categories should be determined. In [7], Aniołek
in which component risks transition to different risk categories should be determined. In [7], and Herian presented
Aniołeka
studyHerian
and on burdening
presented and awearing
study railway switchesand
on burdening under exploitation
wearing railway conditions
switchesand the materials
under that
exploitation
were applied
conditions andforthe
their construction.
materials appliedThefor authors concentrated
their construction. Theonauthors
the dynamic loads ofon
concentrated a right-railway
the dynamic
loads of a right-railway single point turnout and found that the first dynamic loads occurthe
single point turnout and found that the first dynamic loads occur when the wheelset enters switch.
when the
The highest
wheelset dynamic
enters loads occur
the switch. when the
The highest wheelset
dynamic enters
loads the crossing.
occur when theThe condition
wheelset entersof the
the ballast on
crossing.
the Rkpd iwew No. 9 obtuse crossing is a significant element, which is directly
The condition of the ballast on the Rkpdiwew No. 9 obtuse crossing is a significant element, which isreflected in the condition
of the railway
directly reflected track–permanent
in the condition way
of theand turnout
railway structure (Figure
track–permanent way15).and turnout structure (Figure 15).

(a) (b)
Figure 15. Ballast
Ballast condition
condition at
at Rkpd iwewNo.
Rkpdiwew No.9: 9:(a)(a)
left-hand obtuse
left-hand crossing;
obtuse (b)and,
crossing; right-hand obtuse
(b) right-hand
obtuse crossing.
crossing.

This ballast
This ballast isis aa layer
layer of of compacted natural broken
compacted natural broken stone
stone whose
whose purpose
purpose is is to
to provide
provide support
support
and transfer
and transferthethepressure
pressure transmitted
transmittedby the
by switch sleepers
the switch to the subballast
sleepers (formation)
to the subballast and drainage
(formation) and
layer. Rkpd
drainage layer. No. 9 uses Skl-type semi-elastic fastenings (halfelastic fastenings)
iwewRkpdiwew No. 9 uses Skl-type semi-elastic fastenings (halfelastic fastenings) as screw-as screw-and-elastic
fastenings that
and-elastic reduce that
fastenings partial vibrational
reduce partial damping.
vibrationalThe high dynamic
damping. The high loads actingloads
dynamic on theacting
elements of
on the
the turnout, which change over time, lead to significant changes in the properties,
elements of the turnout, which change over time, lead to significant changes in the properties, faster faster abrasive wear,
and local wear,
abrasive plasticand
deformation
local plasticof the material in of
deformation thethe
rolling layerin
material ofthe
the rolling
rail sections.
layer ofEvery
the change in the
rail sections.
crossing
Every speedin
change of the
rolling stock definitively
crossing changes
speed of rolling stockthedefinitively
characteristics of thethe
changes dynamic load, especially
characteristics of the
when the speed increases [7]. The degradation of the turnout structure,
dynamic load, especially when the speed increases [7]. Degradation of the turnout structure, especially in the area of the
obtuse crossing
especially in theandareadiverted track, crossing
of the obtuse accelerates much
and fastertrack,
diverted than accelerates
on the mainmuch tracks. Thisthan
faster occurs
on due
the
main tracks. This occurs due to the greater dynamic impacts of rail vehicles in places of discontinuous
rails. This phenomenon is reflected by the change in the position of the SG turnout’s geometric centre.
The complexity of turnouts entails the existence of moving elements, many stiffness zones that cause
increased dynamic effects, and a weave of dimensions of the parameter value of the track gauge and
flangeway, which has a great influence on the wheel running angles (the wheel angle of attack). These
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 29 of 35

to the greater dynamic impacts of rail vehicles in places of discontinuous rails. This phenomenon is
reflected by the change in the position of the SG turnout’s geometric center. The complexity of turnouts
entails the existence of moving elements, many stiffness zones that cause increased dynamic effects,
and a weave of dimensions of the parameter value of the track gauge and flangeway, which has great
influence on the wheel running angles (the wheel angle of attack). These features make turnouts less
durable than the adjacent railway tracks [8]. The deteriorating state of the track gauge parameter
within the obtuse crossing for both the main and diverted track is shown in Figures 11 and 12 for
turnout No. 9 and for additional turnouts in Figures 13 and 14. The durability of turnouts depends on
the durability of the rails (service life of the rails) from which the turnouts are built. The service life of
rails, on the other hand, depends on many factors, such as their materials, operating characteristics,
and constructional
Sensors elements.
2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEWWhen analysing the durability of a turnout in operation, it is necessary to
30 of 36
consider the results of turnout observations. In the curves of a diverted track, the service life of the rails,
track, the service
depending on thelife of the
radius rails,
of the depending
curve, is muchon the radius
shorter. of theofcurve,
The ratio is much
the service life shorter. Theinratio
of rails laid of
curves
the service life of rails laid in curves to the service life of rails on straight sections of
to the service life of rails on straight sections of track λs is determined by empirical formula (2) [8]: track λ s is

determined by empirical formula (2) [8]:

λ = −5.75·10−7 ·R2 + 1.62·R·10−3 − 0.15 (2)(2)
λ =s −5.75 ∙ 10 ∙ R + 1.62 ∙ R ∙ 10 − 0.15
where
whereRRisisthethecurve
curveradius. The
radius. diagram
The diagramin Figure 16 shows
presented the effect
in Figure of curves
16 shows of theof
the effect diverted
curvestracks
of the
on the service
diverted trackslife
onofthe
rails considering
service the four
life of rails most frequently
considering the four used
most values of the
frequently diverted
used valuestracks’
of the
radii at turnouts
diverted of 190,
tracks’ radii at 300, 500, and
turnouts 760300,
of 190, m. 500, and 760 m.

Figure 16. Effects of the curves of the diverted tracks on the service life of the rail.
Figure 16. Effects of the curves of the diverted tracks on the service life of the rail.
This graph shows that turnouts featuring diverted tracks with a radius of 190 are the most
This graph
vulnerable shows thatThus,
to degradation. turnouts featuring
for turnouts with diverted
a radiustracks
of 190with
m, i.e.,a radius
for Rkpdof 190 turnout
are the No.
most9,
iwew
vulnerable to degradation. Thus, for turnouts with a radius of 190 m, i.e., for Rkpd
the value λ190 = 0.14. This value (λ190 = 0.14) for a turnout with a radius of 300 m, is twice as low at iwew turnout No. 9,

the
λ300value
= 0.28 λ190
and= 0.14.
moreThisthanvalue (λ190 =as
five times 0.14)
lowfor
foraaturnout
radius ofwith
760a m.
radius of 300 m, is twice as low at λ300
= 0.28Several
and more than have
studies five times
been as low for a in
conducted radius
orderofto760 m.
determine the relationship between turnouts
Several studies have been conducted to
and dynamic loads [7,8,11,13,48]. Hamarat et al. [48] presenteddetermine the new
relationship between
insights from turnouts
multibody and
dynamic
dynamic loads [7,8,11,13,48]. Hamarat et al. [48] presented new insights
analyses of a turnout system under impact loads. A numerical model capable of determining impact from multibody dynamic
analyses
forces was of adeveloped
turnout system under the
to evaluate impact loads.behaviors
dynamic A numerical of amodel
railway capable of determining
turnout impact
and their effects on
forces was developed to evaluate the dynamic
turnout components, such as bearers, ballasts, etc. behaviors of a railway turnout and their effects on
turnout components
In [88], Kuźmińskisuch as noted
et al. bearers, ballasts,
that the rapidetc.increase in the world’s population and the interrelated
In [88],
increase in theKuźmiński
number ofetvehicles
al. noted that that
means the the
rapid increase
traffic in the
on roads willworld’s
continuepopulation
to increaseandand the
the
interrelated increase in the number of vehicles means that the traffic on roads
problem of traffic jams will become increasingly more critical. However, it should be noted that rail will continue to increase
and the problem of traffic jams will become increasingly more critical. However, it should be noted
that rail transport is a safer means of transport, characterised by properties that have a positive impact
on increasing safety and environmental protection compared to road (car) transport.
This research showed an abnormality in the position of the geometric center SG of a double slip
turnout, causing its deformation. The main reasons for the geometric irregularities of a turnout are
as follows:
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 30 of 35

transport is a safer means of transport, characterized by properties that have a positive impact on
increasing safety and environmental protection compared to road (car) transport.
This research showed an abnormality in the position of the geometric center SG of a double slip
turnout, causing its deformation. The main reasons for the geometric irregularities of a turnout are
as follows:

• The incorrect shape of the curvature of the turnout-diverted track and a change in its radius (these
anomalies are reflected in the rate of wear of the turnout structural elements, especially the rails,
changes in the state of the track gauge, and the cant parameters of the turnout track, switch sleeper
wear, and peace-of-mind of driving);
• Incorrect maintenance of the track gauge and cant values, especially within a switch, with special
attention given to the diverted tracks for running on a curve;
• The incorrect determination of the exploitation speed on the diverted and main tracks;
• The impact of centrifugal forces;
• The deregulation of spacing track axis values (including the intertrack space);
• The condition of the blades;
• An inadequately compacted ballast underneath the switch sleepers;
• The lack of straightness of the main tracks, under-tightened screws, and a bad state of fixings;
• The wear of the nose or wing rails and obtuse crossings;
• Irregularities in the track rails on the vertical and horizontal planes;
• Incorrectly conducted repair work during current maintenance, e.g., improving the track gauge
parameters and replacing the switch sleepers;
• Incorrect assessment of the position of the geometric center of the turnout;
• Incorrect surveying of the turnout’s location;
• Incorrectly assembled turnout; and,
• The creep (rail movement) of rails before and after the turnout.

The presented SMDOST method fills in the gaps of the previously conducted monitoring of
turnouts. This method contributes to improving safety as the most important component of the
quality of railway infrastructure operation and it can facilitate the management of activities aimed at
continuously improving safety. The present results of the developed SMDOST method with MMS
provide support for the decision-making process in many areas of railway infrastructure measurements.
The SMDOST method and the present results will have a significant impact on the Safety Management
System. The basic elements of the SMDOST method with MMS entail an improvement of quality in
terms of maintenance alongside safety improvements. These results are reflected in the components of
SMS, in the present analysis and evaluation, and in the reduction of risk. The research results relate to
the RAMS procedure for railways, a key issue of which is ensuring reliability and maintenance safety,
as well as exploitation and maintenance quality.

5. Conclusions
Today’s available technologies to ensure safe railway infrastructure for the public make it necessary
for owners, managers, contractors, and partners of infrastructure projects to monitor said infrastructure
effectively. The main result of the present experimental research campaign showed a shift of 0.011 m in
the exploitation position of the SG point in Rkpdiwew compared to the actual state (during the total
turnout exploitation). Based on the versine measurements, the difference between the existing Ri and
the designed Rp radius was shown to be 35 m. The length of the main track also deviated from the
actual state by a maximum value of 0.019 m. Additionally, a difference was found in the value of the
main angle of the turnout αp proper to its existing state, causing mowing–turning of the turnout at
the SG point. This research also showed a tendency for the parameter of the track gauge to increase,
Sensors 2020, 20, 4467 31 of 35

especially on the diverted track–arched. This affected the changes in the position of the SG point of the
double slip turnout.
The irregularities in turnout geometry and their damage were mainly due to a lack of symmetry,
a large number of movable structural elements, and/or a lack of continuous support provided by an
adequately dense ballast under turnout switch sleepers.
The method of surveying with reference to obtuse crossings based on geometric dependencies in
the double and outside slip turnout was used for implementation and stocktaking work in the scope of
running repairs on the turnout. The properly conducted surveying of slip turnouts will ensure their
proper condition.
Deformations adversely affect exploitation work and change the position of the geometric center
of the turnout in rail transport. The deformed geometrical systems of turnouts produce faster wear
and tear of the track surface elements, turnouts, and rolling stock. This, in turn, causes the rolling
stock to run violently, posing a threat to the safety of the train traffic. This research also showed the
practicality and usefulness of this type of MMS measurement, especially in places that are difficult
to access (e.g., obtuse crossings and check rails). The SMDOST method can significantly support
owners, infrastructure managers, contractors, infrastructure project partners, and researchers in making
decisions for more detailed analyses.
The conducted research is part of the surveying and diagnostic work in the discipline of civil
engineering and rail transport.

6. Patents
Digital track gauge. Utility Model PL 067852 Y1 (Toromierz cyfrowy. Wzór użytkowy PL 067852 Y1).
Messages from the Patent Office RP, 6, (2015) Warsaw.
Wiadomości Urz˛edu Patentowego RP, 6, (2015) Warszawa.
Magnetic-measuring parallel motion protractor and its application. Patent PL 235051 B1. (Zespół
przekładnic magnetyczno—pomiarowych do pomiaru parametrów geometrycznych torów i rozjazdów.
Patent PL 235051 B1).
Messages from the Patent Office RP, 05, (2020) Warsaw.
Wiadomości Urz˛edu Patentowego RP, 05, (2020) Warszawa.

Funding: This research did not receive any specific grants from funding agencies in the public, commercial,
or not-for-profit sectors.
Acknowledgments: The article was prepared under the research subvention of AGH University of Science and
Technology No. 16.16.150.545 in 2020.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares that there are no conflict of interest.

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