energies

Article
Simulation Analysis of the Influence of Changes in Track
Parameters on Running Safety of a Rail Vehicle
Bogdan Sowiński 1 , Anna Stelmach 2, * and Andrzej Chudzikiewicz 3

1 Railway Research Institute, Józefa Chłopickiego Street 50, 04-275 Warsaw, Poland; bsowinski@ikolej.pl
2 Faculty of Transport, Warsaw University of Technology, Koszykowa Street 75, 00-662 Warsaw, Poland
3 Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Faculty of Transport, Kazimierz Pulaski University of
Technology and Humanities, Malczewskiego Street 29, 26-600 Radom, Poland;
chudzikiewicz.andrzej@gmail.com
* Correspondence: anna.stelmach@pw.edu.pl

Abstract: The contemporary striving for increased speed in rail transport, with simultaneous require-
ments in terms of travel comfort, makes the safety of rail vehicles one of the priorities in the process of
passenger rail transport. It is obvious that safety in this case is determined by: the technical condition
of the vehicle, the condition of the railway infrastructure and the conditions of cooperation between
the railway vehicle and the track. Railway vehicles running safety tests can be carried out on-line, in
real operating conditions, and off-line with the use of mathematical models and simulation methods.
The on-line research does not assess the impact of the parameter characterizing the track geometry,
i.e., rail inclination, on the driving safety, and the deviation of the shape of wheel and rail running
surfaces from the nominal dimensions is rarely diagnosed and taken into account in the tests. The





 considerations in this article are devoted to the discussion of the effects on the safety of a rail vehicle,
Citation: Sowiński, B.; Stelmach, A.;
resulting from possible changes in the inclination of the rails and deviations of the rail profile from
Chudzikiewicz, A. Simulation the nominal dimensions. The research, the results of which are presented in the article, were carried
Analysis of the Influence of Changes out using off-line methods for the wheelset, using mathematical models, but taking into account the
in Track Parameters on Running forces resulting from the interactions of the bogie frame and the railway wagon body and the real
Safety of a Rail Vehicle. Energies 2021, track geometry.
14, 5882. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en14185882 Keywords: railway; safety; simulations; railway track; diagnostics; off-line methods

Academic Editor:
Giovanni Lutzemberger

1. Introduction
Received: 23 July 2021
Accepted: 9 September 2021
The issue of railway transport safety is a broad issue and the studies conducted in
Published: 17 September 2021
this area are carried out with the use of railway vehicles and real operating conditions,
as well as with the use of mathematical models and computer simulation methods [1–4].
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
An example of the use of new methods in research on the safety of rail vehicles is the
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
work [5] showing the use of neural networks in the process of driving safety assessment.
published maps and institutional affil- The wheel derail coefficient, wheel rate of load reduction, and wheel lateral pressure are
iations. considered the decision variables for the safety framework, but this set of parameters lacks
a description of the rail’s inclination. The work [5], however, does not address the subject
of a comprehensive approach to the relationship between track geometry and railway
transport safety.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Tests aimed at determining the state of the system or its components, carried out
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
with the use of models or test stands, are classified as off-line tests. The justification for
This article is an open access article
adopting such a research method, especially in the case of rail vehicles, results mainly from
distributed under the terms and economic reasons (research costs) and the possibility of accessing an increasing number
conditions of the Creative Commons of research tools (specialist equipment or computer packages) dedicated to solutions
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to specific problems [6–9]. An example of works dealing with the influence of track
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ irregularities on vehicle behavior and vehicle response to track input for straight track and
4.0/). turnouts are the works [10,11]. The authors of these works emphasize the importance of this

Energies 2021, 14, 5882. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185882 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 5882 2 of 19

problem, however, emphasizing the need for research in which it is possible to study the
influence of the rail geometry on the behavior of the vehicle, taking into account not only
such basic parameters as geometric irregularities i.e., longitudinal level and alignment or
track gauge, but also other parameters characterizing the track, such as, e.g., rail inclination.
In the case of railway vehicles, safety is determined by: the technical condition of the
vehicle, the condition of track railway surface and track, and the conditions of cooperation
between the railway vehicle and the track. In the case of a railway track, the process
of assessing the technical condition is reduced to measuring geometric irregularities of
the track, assessing the condition of the subgrade and measuring rail profiles, taking into
account the wear of the transverse profile and the longitudinal wear of the rails, in particular
the wear of the corrugation type [12,13]. Recently, there has been a development of track
condition monitoring methods using computer simulation methods, specialized service
vehicles or dedicated systems built by research institutes or research teams of universities.
An example may be the solutions described in the works and the results obtained [14–16].
However, it should be said that these works concern monitoring methodology and are
focused on monitoring parameters such as track modulus, track voids or twist, top or
alignment based on the use of existing systems based on the on-board GSM-R cab radio.
Such solutions, important from the point of view of train running safety, cannot be used
for detailed analyses of the impact of parameters such as rail inclination on derailment.
However, during the current operation, measurements and evaluation of the transverse
inclination of rails in the track are not performed—a parameter that affects the transverse
interaction of the vehicle with the track, the wear of rails and wheels profiles and, as a
result, the safety of driving [17]. As demonstrated by simulation studies and analyses, the
changes in the parameters characterizing the railway track during operation, combined
with the deterioration of the wheel profile as a result of wear, have a significant impact on
the behavior of the vehicle on the track and may ultimately lead to vehicle derailment [18].
As it is difficult to investigate the impact of changes in the transverse inclination of rails on
the vehicle running safety with on-line methods, as demonstrated by the analyses of the
conducted research, described above, an attempt was made to evaluate this phenomenon
with the use of mathematical models and simulation methods.
Numerical models of railway track and railway vehicles are fundamental tools for
the study of their mechanics properties, taking into account safety and comfort of rail
transport. The structure of the models and their mathematical notation depend on the
research tasks adopted for implementation. One can find examples of published works
dealing with specific railway problems in [19–21]. The thematic areas in which the analyses
are performed are:
• modelling the vehicle–track dynamic interaction for a vehicle on a straight track, but
also in the case when the vehicle is passing over a bridge or crossing a transition zone;
• assessing and diagnosing the deterioration of track components, including switches
and crossings;
• rail wear/corrugation and hanging sleepers;
• studying other problems related to wheel–rail interaction, including the effect of noise
of rolling flat wheels.
Among the works carried out in these areas, a small number of works on the issues
of the impact of track irregularity on road safety, and in particular the relationship of the
parameter determining the inclination of the rails on the derailment problem, can be noted.
As it results from the analysis of the literature, in the 1970s research was conducted on
the influence of rail inclination on the behavior of the vehicle on the track and, above all,
on driving safety. These tests were related to the introduction of S1002 railway wheels and
UIC60 rails into operation. Since then, the research work was carried out on such issues
as: the development of modeling methods and the creation of new tools for experimental
and simulation tests, analysis of the relationship between track irregularities and vehicle
dynamic responses, without considering the issue of rail inclination, the issues of current
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 3 of 19

‐
monitoring of the track and vehicle condition with a view to driving safety or the issues of
wear of wheel and rail profiles.
The development of high-speed railways and new solutions in the field of construction
of rail vehicles, not only for the needs of railways, but also for tram transport in urban
public transport, resulted in the launch of works on the introduction of new railway wheel
profiles and new solutions in the field of railway infrastructure. These activities mean that
there is a need to fill the existing research gap in the field of the impact of rail inclination on
traffic safety in rail transport, taking into account new perspectives regarding technological
solutions in this area. The presented article should fill this gap.
‐
2. Models and Parameters
The general structure of the simulation model for off-line diagnostic tests should, due
 the structure of the real object being diagnosed, consists of [6,22–24]:
to
• ‐
track model;
• wheel-rail contact model;
• vehicle dynamics model. ‐
The track model was adopted in this study as for low-frequency vibrations [14,25,26].
The track is described as a perfectly rigid system, the kinematics of which is written by ge-
ometry, taking into account the speed of the vehicle moving on the track. Typical diagnostic
tests of railway track geometry (e.g., with geodetic methods) are limited to the examination
of geometrical irregularities of the left and right rails, or a combination of them, while the
track geometry (Figure 1) includes an important element—rail inclination (Cl ).

Figure 1. Rail inclination Cl .

The contact model, describing the interaction between the vehicle and the track,
addresses two basic issues, namely the calculation of the geometrical contact parameters
and the contact forces between the wheel and rail. The basis for determining the geometric
parameters of contact is the location of the contact points on the wheel and rail, in the
coordinate system related to the wheel or rail and the resulting derived quantities, such as:
• instantaneous rolling radii of the wheels of the wheelset;
• contact angles (angles of inclination of the tangents at the wheel-rail contact point to
 the track plan);
• main radii of curvature of the running surfaces of wheels and rails at the points
of contact;
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 4 of 19

• the roll angles (rotations around the Ox axis).

For low-frequency vibrations, the nominal model of a rail vehicle is a mechanical
system consisting of rigid bodies such as a vehicle body, two bogie frames and four wheel
sets, connected by massless elastic-damping elements. The mathematical model by which
the results will be analyzed in this article contains inertial and geometric parameters
corresponding to the passenger car. The mathematical model has 27 degrees of freedom
defined as follows [6,23]:
• sets have 3 degrees of freedom (lateral displacement y, yaw angle ψ and pitch angle χ);
• bogie frames have 5 degrees of freedom (lateral displacement y and vertical z and
rotation angles ψ, χ and ϕ);
• the wagon body has 5 degrees of freedom (lateral displacement y and vertical z and
rotation angles ψ, χ and ϕ).
The movement constraints of each wheelset result from its interaction with a rigid track.
As a result, the vertical displacement z and the angle of rotation about the longitudinal
track axis θ are dependent on the lateral displacement of the set y and on its yaw angle ψ;
the coordinate describing the position of the center of the wheel set along the track axis x
depends on the angle of rotation about the symmetry axis of this wheel set χ. The form of
constraints is non-linear and depends on the geometrical parameters of the wheelset and
the track, e.g., on track gauge, lateral inclination of rails, wheel and rail profiles and wheel
center gauge of the wheel set.
Thus, we can see that in the model for off-line diagnostic tests, there is a generally
undiagnosed track geometry parameter—rail inclination and rarely diagnosed geometric
parameters of wheel and rail running surfaces [25,26]. The inclination of rails is usually
assumed to be constant, and it is assumed that it does not change during the operation
process. We would like to partially dedicate the considerations contained in this article
to the discussion of the effects of its possible changes. The impact of changing the rail
inclination on the location of the contact points and the resulting changes in contact
parameters will also be investigated, as well as how the change in rail inclination affects
the results of simulation tests. We will also show the impact of changes in the profiles of
the running surfaces of the rail, related to the operation process, on the dynamic response
of the model.
In general, in this article, we wanted to pay attention to some problems related to the
inconsistency of typical diagnostic tests performed on-site (on-line methods) and off-line
diagnostic tests carried out with the use of mathematical models of a rail vehicle, bearing
in mind the running safety of a rail vehicle.

Parameters Describing the Condition of the Railway Track and Safety Running of a
Railway Vehicle
The railway track is part of the rail track structure and constitutes the basic component
of the railway infrastructure, which determines the quality of rail transport, both passenger
and freight, and the safety of the transport [27]. The basic, component elements of a track
are: rails, rail pads, sleepers and a system for attaching rails to sleepers. The structure of
the pavement and the track is generally a complex structure.
The structure of the track consists of two parallel rails, which are the basic load-
bearing system of the railway track, the geometric arrangement of which is adapted
to the safe movement of rail vehicles at speeds and pressures with specific technical
and operational parameters. The features that define the track geometry are the track
geometry in the horizontal and vertical planes, track gauge, cant, rail inclination and track
geometric irregularities.
The parameters that define the geometric layout of the track in the horizontal and
vertical planes are the radius of the horizontal curve, twist, length of the transition curves
and longitudinal track inclination. These parameters play an important role in the case of
varied terrain, they determine the maximum speed of travel on individual sections of the
railway route and the selection of traction parameters for motor vehicles. The track gauge
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 5 of 19

‐
is the distance between the inner surfaces of the rails measured 14 mm below their running
surface. Currently, 54.8% of the world’s railway lines in use are 1435 mm (4 ft 8 + 21 in)
wide, known as standard gauge. Superelevation is the difference in height of rails in a
curve or on straight track sections. The purpose of the cant is to equalize or reduce the
differences in wheel pressure on the rails and reduce the acceleration acting on passengers
during the movement of the rail vehicle in a curve [28,29].
The transverse inclination of the rails is shown in Figure 2 for the case of a track with
cant, and is denoted CI. It is the deviation of the rail base in the vertical plane by a certain
value creating a ratio of 1:20 or 1:40 with the rail base. During the track operation period,
this slope should not be less than 1:60 and higher than 1:12, but in the track condition ‐
monitoring process, the value of this parameter is not diagnosed. The next quantities
characterizing the track are the geometric irregularities of the track, which are the generator
‐
of kinematic and parametric excitations for vehicle vibrations, characterizing the track
geometry in the vertical plane of the track [30,31].

Figure 2. Parameters that define the track geometry: St —track gauge, θt —cant, Cl , θ
and Cr —rail inclination. ‐

The description of the track irregularity can be made in several ways, e.g.,
• vertical irregularities of the left (zl ) and (zr ) right rail;
• transverse irregularities of the left (yl ) and (yr ) right rail;

• local cant (θ t );

• inclination of the right (Cr ) and left (Cl ) rails or their equivalent sizes;
• θ
vertical irregularities of track center line (zt );
• lateral irregularities of the track center line (yt );
• track gauge (st ).
 The relationships between the above-mentioned values are as follows:

yt = 0.5 (yr + yl )
‐
st = snom + yr − yl (1)
0.5
zt = 0.5 (zr + zl )
where: snom —nominal track gauge. 0.5
In the case of a perfect track and the absence of geometric irregularities, a wheelset
running on a straight track simultaneously moves in the transverse direction, making
an oscillating motion around the center line of the track. This is the effect of the conical
profile of the wheel and the characteristic structure of the wheelset—connecting two wheels
with a rigid axle. In the theory of wheelset movement, this movement was first described
analytically by Klingel in 1883, and in the following years it was and is still the subject
of numerous studies and analyses [32,33]. The appearance of geometric irregularities in
the track causes the wheelset movement to cease to be an oscillating movement described
by a regular sinusoid, but it is still a movement in which the lateral displacements of the
center of mass of the wheelset oscillate around the center line of the track and the wheels
of the wheelset contact their flange with the inner part of the rail. At the contact point on
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 6 of 19

the wheel flange, the wheel exerts pressure on the rail head, the sourceμ of which are two
forces, the vertical force Q and the transverse force Y, while the rail acts on the wheel with
a reaction force—normal N and a friction force µN. In extreme conditions, caused, e.g., by
bad track conditions, worn wheel and rail profiles, bad condition of the running gear of a
rail vehicle or excessive vehicle load, large lateral displacements of the wheelset may occur
and, consequently, the wheel may climb on the rail. This could lead to the wheelset going
off the track and vehicle derailment. This situation is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Force components in wheel-rail contact in the‐event of excessive wheel climbing on the rail
(Y—transverse force, Q—vertical force, N—normal force, T—friction force, F—lateral rolling friction
force, ∆z—wheel lift).
Δ
Assuming a state of equilibrium in the wheel-rail system presented in Figure 3, the
quotient of forces Y and Q, referred to in the literature as the derailment coefficient or the
‐
safety factor against derailment (derailment ratio), can be expressed as [18,34,35]:

Y Nsinγ − µ × Ncosγ tgγ − µ

= = (2)
Q Ncosγ + µ × Nsinγ 1 + µ × tgγ

where:
γ—wheel flange angle; 1
µ—coefficient of friction between wheel and rail.

γ The safety criterion against derailment (2) was introduced by Nadal in 1908 and is
still used in railways to calculate the Y/Q ratio when assessing the safety of rail vehicles.
μ it results from the form of criterion (2), the value of the coefficient depends directly on
As
the wheel flange angle γ and the friction coefficient µ. These dependencies are presented
in Figure 4, marking the Y/Q value equal to 0.8, determined in accordance with the UIC
518 regulation [9], for the flange angle γ = 75◦ and the friction coefficient µ = 0.5.
On the other hand, assuming the UIC60 rail profile and the S1002 wheel profile
γ μ
and assuming the friction coefficient µ = 0.36, which occurs most often in operating
conditions [12], we obtain the relationship:
 
Y
Q y=70◦ , µ=0.36
γ
≤ 1.2 (3)

μ
In addition to the friction coefficient and the wheel flange angle, the following factors
have an indirect impact on the value of the derailment coefficient: track arrangement,
technical condition of the track and the vehicle, the dynamics of the vehicle-track system
and the geometry of the wheel and rail profiles resulting from, e.g., their wear. Among
these parameters is also the inclination of the rails, which is not monitored in the track
1.2
°, .
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 7 of 19

diagnostics process, and which affects the value of the flange angle. Figure 5a,b shows the
behavior of the wheel flange angle for the case when the rail inclination value is on the
order of 1:20, and for the case when the rail inclination is 1:∞. The lack of rail inclination or
a change in this inclination may cause the contact point to move from the running surface
to the rail flange, which leads to an increase in the flange angle and thus to an increase in
the Y/Q value (Figure 4). This increases the likelihood of vehicle derailment.
As there are no considerations on this subject in the literature, it will be analyzed in
the further part of the work, carried out with the use ofμcomputer simulation methods.γ

∞
‐

μ µ and the flange angle

Figure 4. Dependence of the function (Y/Q) on the coefficient of friction γ γ
according to UIC 518.

∞
‐

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Distribution of forces acting at the point of contact of the wheel with the rail in the case of rail inclination (a) and
in the case of no rail inclination (b).

3. Simulation and Results

A mechanical system with parameters corresponding to a first-class passenger wagon
‐
with MD522 bogies [23]—moving at a constant speed on a rigid track with variable
geometry—was adopted as the model tested in the simulation study.
The basic assumptions about the vehicle model are described in Chapter 2 of the paper.
The wheel profiles were adopted in accordance with the carried out measurements of
the nominal or worn wheel with S1002 outline, and rail profiles according to UIC60 rail
profiles. The movement of the vehicle was modeled in a non-inertial frame of reference
related to the track centerline.

‐
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 8 of 19

The mathematical model of the system can be presented in a general form as follows [7,23]:
.. . .

M q + C q + Kq = p t, q, q (4)

where: M, C and K represent the square inertia, damping, gyroscopic and stiffness matri-
ces, respectively.
The column vector q contains independent coordinates describing the motion of the
rigid bodies of the system. The columnar matrix p represents forces. It can be interpreted
as the sum of two matrices:
.
.

p t, q, q = f (t) + h q, q (5)
where f (t) is a vector containing inputs from track irregularities and external actions, e.g.,
.

wind, and h q, q is a vector of nonlinear forces containing contact forces between the
wheel and the rail.
We will discuss the influence of the system geometry on the vehicle dynamics for the
MD522 wheel set model described by the equations presented below.
Assuming that the wheelset does not lose contact with the track and we are dealing
with a one-point contact, the reaction equations derived from the track can be written as
follows [8,21,24]:
..
mzt = − Fz − G cos θt + Q R + Q L
.. (6)
Jx θ = −YL r L + YR r R − Q R l R + Q L l L + Mx
where:
.. ..
zt , θ, θ t —vertical acceleration, roll angle acceleration and local cant (values resulting from
inter alia, the constraints within the system) and the local track cant;
m, Jx —wheelset mass, as well as the moment of inertia with respect to the longitudinal axis;
QL , QR , YL , YR —vertical and lateral forces exerting on the wheelset;
lL , lR , rL , rR —the moment arms of the forces exerting on the right and left side of the rail
and the rolling radiuses of the wheels;
G—track static load by the wheelset;
Fwith , Mx —vertical force and the moment of force acting on the wheelset and resulting from
the movement of the bogie frame and of the railcar body.
The normal forces are set in accordance with [24]:
QL
NL = cosδL − T2L tanδL
QR (7)
NR = cosδR + T2R tanδR
where:
δL , δR —contact angles for the left and right wheel;
T2L , T2R —lateral tangential forces.
As visible in Equations (6) and (7), the geometric contact parameters are values which
to a great degree determine the forces acting on the wheelset. The curvature radius values
in the contact point of the wheel and the rail influence the normal forces—calculated in
accordance with Hertz’s two elastic bodies contact theory; by them, the tangential forces
and the contact angle and the wheel rolling radius are important factors influencing the
lateral and vertical forces acting on the wheel.

3.1. Effect of the Change in Rail Inclination on the Coordinates of the Contact Points in the
Wheel-Rail System and Geometrical Contact Parameters
The basis for the calculation of the contact parameters are the positions of the contact
points on the wheel and rail rolling surface which touch one another. We analyze these
positions depending on the rail inclination, assuming a track nominal width of 1435 mm.
Figures 6 and 7 present the positions of contact points for a nominal profile of a S1002 type
wheel and a UIC60 type rail for a rail inclination of 1:40. Here, the wheel makes a lateral
 ‐

Energies 2021, 14, 5882 9 of 19

−
ψ −
displacement (y) in a range from −8 mm ψ to +8 mm from the wheelset central position
against the track with a yaw angle (ψ) equal to zero.

0.005 0.
0 0.02
0.005 0.
0 0.02

Figure 6. The position of contact points on the surface of a rail (rail inclination 1:40).

0.005 0.
0 0
0.005 0.
Figure07. The position of contact points on the surface of a wheel (rail inclination 1:40).
0

For lateral displacements of the wheelset (y) within a range from −8 mm to approxi-
mately −1 mm, there is a single-point contact. Next, we have the two-point − contact area ‐
− (y) up to ~0.5 mm, in which
for ‐ one of the contact paths is a continuation ‐of the−previous
− For lateral displacements‐ from 0.5 to 4.2 mm, single-point contact occurs.
positions. ‐ In the
three above-mentioned zones, the position of the contact point‐gradually shifts towards
the inner part of the rail. For larger (y) in the range of the contact with the flange, we
‐ ‐ there is a contact
are dealing with a two-point contact. However, for y ≈ 5.6 and 6 mm,
‐ jump, but after that, its position is almost unchanged depending on (y).
point position
When comparing ‐ the position of contact points on≈the wheel with the positions of contact
points on the rail, we ‐ can see that the first three contact≈zones correspond to one another,
this including the jumps of contact point positions which occur. Near contact with the
flange and on the flange, the position of the contact point changes quite rapidly, whereas it
remains virtually constant on the rail.
The positions of the contact points for rail inclination equal to 0 are shown in Figures 8 and 9.
‐

0.005
0 0.02

Figure 8. The position of contact points on the surface of the rail (rail inclination = 0).
 0.005
0 0.02
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 10 of 19

0.005
0 0

0.005
0 0
Figure 9. The position of the contact points on the surface of the wheel (rail inclination = 0).

Similar as in the previous case, we are dealing here with quite clearly distinguished
−
contact point zones. However, the differences in its positions are considerable, especially in
the case of those zones corresponding to the situations when wheelset displacement is in
the range from −8 to ~4.2 mm. The positions corresponding to the contact with the flange
are similar in both cases.
− a much bigger qualitative change for a rail inclination of 1:20, which
We can observe
is shown in Figures 10 and 11.

0.005
0 0.02
0
Figure 10. The positions of contact points on the surface of a rail (rail inclination 1:20).

0.005
0 0.02
0

0.005
0 0
Figure 11. The positions of contact points on the surface of a wheel (rail inclination 1:20).

‐
 0.005
0 0

Energies 2021, 14, 5882 11 of 19

‐
In this case, for most of the possible relative positions of the wheelset and the rails,
we have one-point contact. The fact of changing the position of contact points entails
changes in the geometric parameters of the contact, which we will show in the example of
changes in the rolling radius and contact angle, assuming the symmetry of wheel and rail
profiles for both rails of the track and a track width equal to 1435 mm. Figure 12 shows a
comparison of the course of the tangent value of the contact angle between the wheel and
rail for three previously analyzed rail inclinations They are presented as functions of lateral
displacements of the wheelset within the range from 0 to 8 mm. The course of tangent
values of the contact angle for 0 inclination grows the fastest. The values obtained for
inclinations equal to 1:20 and 1:40 almost coincide for larger displacements of the wheelset.
The course for 1:40 inclination is slightly bigger for smaller displacements.

Figure 12. The tangent of the contact angle on the right side of the rail for various rail inclinations.

The wheel rolling radius has analogous characteristic features as in the case of the
tangent of the contact angle (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Temporary right wheel rolling radius for various rail inclinations.

3.2. The Influence of Rails Inclination on the Results of Simulation Tests

We now proceed to the analysis of the influence of rail inclinations on the system
dynamics. We take into consideration the differences between the courses of lateral force
values and wheelset displacements for the rail inclinations equal to 1:40 and 1:20.
The simulations were conducted for the following traffic conditions:
• movement proceeds along a straight track with a length of 800 m;
• the forward velocity of the simulated vehicle’s model is 120 km/h;



 
Energies 2021, 14, 5882  12 of 19

• the geometrical irregularities of the track were adopted on the basis of the measure-
ments taken by the Plasser EM 120 track recording car [3,4];
• the track condition, in accordance with PKP (Polish State Railways) regulations [11],
can be described as good.
Examples of simulation results are presented in Figures 14 and 15. − When analyzing
− be stated that the lateral forces for 1:40 rail
the obtained results, it can − inclination have
lower values. This is also accompanied by their smaller standard deviation, although the
differences are not so significant here. A list of the basic statistical values of these forces is
presented in Table 1. − −
−

− − − −

− − − −

Figure 14. The lateral force on the left wheel for various rail inclinations.

Figure 15. Wheelset lateral displacements for various rail inclinations.

Table 1. The statistical values of lateral forces (in [N]) impacting the wheel at various rail inclinations.

Inclination Average Value Standard Deviation Minimum Value Maximum Value

Lateral force on the left wheel
1:20 6184 8046 −14,390 32,940
1:40 −2010 6063 −21,380 25,440
Lateral force on the right wheel
1:20 −6499 7939 −29,120 18,100
1:40 1929 6045 −22,750 17,900

Of course, the standard deviation of the lateral displacement of the wheelset is related
to the lateral forces. For a 1:40 inclination, this is bigger than for a 1:20 inclination. The
range of lateral displacements is also bigger in this case. A list of basic statistical values of
lateral displacements is presented in Table 2.
∞
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 13 of 19

Table 2. The statistical values of the lateral displacement (in m) of the wheelset at various rail inclinations.

Inclination Average Value Standard Deviation Minimum Value Maximum Value

1:20 9.68 × 10−5 1.09 × 10−3 −2.15 × 10−3 3.62 × 10−3
1:40 14.62 × 10−5 1.20 × 10−3 −3.11 × 10−3 3.79 × 10−3

The lateral force on the right wheel has shown similar qualitative features as on the
left wheel.
Examples of the lateral displacements of the wheelset are shown in Figure 15.
In the case of the transverse forces relevant for the calculation of the derailment
coefficient, their mean value is higher for a 1:20 inclination compared to the mean values of
the forces for a 1:40 inclination. This affects the values of the lateral displacements of the
wheelset (Figure 16) and the values of the Y/Q ratio.

(a)

(b)

Figure 16. Cont.

Energies 2021, 14, 5882 14 of 19

(c)

∞
Figure 16. (a) Course of the Y/Q ratio for the left rail, for rail inclination 1:∞ and travel speed 200 km/h;
(b) course of the Y/Q ratio for the left rail, for rail inclination 1:40 and travel speed 200 km/h; and
(c) course of the Y/Q ratio for the left rail, for rail inclination 1:20 and travel speed 200 km/h.

From the simulations of straight track runs, taking into account the actual track
irregularities, for different rail inclinations, the values of the Y/Q derailment coefficient for
the left and right rails were obtained. The maximum values of this coefficient are presented
in Table 3 and the exemplary results for the speed of 200 km/h are shown in Figure 16a–c.

Table 3. Values of the Y/Q derailment ratio for different speed values and different rail inclinations.

Speed Inclination 1:∞ Inclination 1:40 Inclination 1:20

km/h Y/Qmax Y/Qmax Y/Qmax
50 0.13 0.37 0.07
100 0.30 0.32 0.32
150 0.43 0.4 0.41
200  2.8 2.6 0.41

 ‐
When assessing the influence of the driving speed on the value of the Y/Q coefficient
(Table 3), for various
 rail inclinations, it can be observed that for low speeds, up to 100
km/h, this influence is insignificant, while an increase in speed above 100 km/h results
in an increase in the value of this coefficient, which reduces driving safety. On the other
hand, the Y/Q coefficient waveforms at the speed of 200 km/h show that the lack of rail
inclination (Figure 16a) or a small inclination (1:40) results in the appearance of the Y/Q
coefficient exceeding the limit value of 0.8; as shown in Figure 16a,b, an inclination of 1:20
resulted in a significant reduction of the derailment coefficient to the value of 0.41.
We now discuss the issue of the influence of varying rail inclination along the track
on some of the kinematic and dynamic parameters of the wheelset. Those variations are
not diagnosed, but we cannot assume their ideal constancy. Due to the fact that there is no
measurement data whatsoever related to this issue, the following assumptions have been
adopted for the numerical experiments:
• rail inclination is a random process with an average value of 0.025 (this corresponds
to a 1:40 inclination);
• the lengths of the inclination change waves correspond to the lengths of the rail
lateral alignment;
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 15 of 19

• the maximum and minimum inclination value does not exceed the average value ±10%.
Based on such assumptions, an implementation of a certain stochastic process has
been generated; it was assumed to be a variation of rail inclination.
A number of simulations were conducted on a straight track with a length of 400 m,
changing the velocity of the vehicle in the range from 10 to 70 m/s. The obtained results
confirm a thesis that rail inclination variations (of course within the limits which have been
assumed here) do not cause significant changes in the kinematics and dynamics of the
rail vehicle, which is confirmed by an analysis of system element displacement and of the
forces in contact.
However, what is interesting is the fact that at certain velocities, one may observe
regular lateral oscillations (sinusoid with a wavelength of approximately 65 m) of the
railcar body, with a low amplitude of approximately 1 mm. Such oscillations occurred at
velocities of 27 to 33 m/s. This corresponds to a railcar body oscillation frequency from
~2.4 to 2 Hz. This range also includes the imaginary parts of some eigenvalues of the
linearized model of a rail vehicle. We can say with a high degree of certainty that this is a
result of parametric oscillations implied by the assumed disturbance of the system.

3.3. The Influence of Rail Profile Deviations from Nominal Size on the Results of Simulation Tests
The rail profiles in the conducted tests were assumed to be symmetrical for the right
0.3 cm
and left rails. 0.917.
The profile outlines are presented in Figure cmThree profiles have been used;
one of them corresponds to the nominal profile of the UIC60 rail (marked as rail 1), and the
other two also represent rails of the UIC60 type, but with varying degrees of wear. The
degree of wear can be characterized by the wear field, and thus, in the case of rail 2, it is
−0.3 cm2 , and in the case of rail 3 −0.9 cm2 .

Figure 17. The rails profiles adopted in the simulation tests.

An analysis of the simulation results conducted on a track with alignments as previ-

ously described will be started from the selected coordinates describing the displacement
of the wheelset, showing the impact of variations in the shape of the rail profile on its
kinematics with a S1002 wheel nominal profile. We first deal with the statistical values
regarding the lateral displacements and lateral accelerations of the wheelset. Of course, the
average value of these quantities is close to zero.
Changing the rail profile from a nominal one to that marked in Figure 17 as rail 2,
virtually does not lead to an increase in the standard deviation, and a change into the
profile marked as rail 3 gives a significant increase by ~55%.
The standard deviations of accelerations are independent of the rail profile and practi-
cally the same. The situation is slightly different for the range of acceleration variations, as
the range of accelerations obtained from the simulations at nominal profiles is bigger than
that in the case of worn profiles. There is no relation—if the wear increases, the statistical
values of displacements and accelerations increase.
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 16 of 19

Considering the frequency analysis of the oscillations of the wheelset [24], we first
handle the spectral density of the lateral displacements, analyzing the position of the peaks
in the spectrum, and the changes in their values. The discussion of the results will be limited
to the range of frequencies below 10 Hz as the spectral density of the lateral displacements
for higher frequencies was several times lower (approximately 100 times) [25–27].
The most important conclusion from the frequency analysis regarding the peak lo-
cations is the fact that a change in a rail profile shape does not lead to shifts in the peak
location within the spectrum density diagram. The results obtained for the yaw angle, the
lateral displacements and accelerations of the wheelset have similar characteristics.
Although the analyzed model does not explicitly contain any generalized coordinates
correlating to vertical displacements and to the wheelset roll angle, they may be indirectly
set with the assistance of an analysis of the geometry of the system and of the results which
have been obtained directly. A list of the basic statistical values of the vertical displacements
of the wheelset for the nominal wheel and rail profile with varying degrees of wear is
shown in Table 4.

Table 4. A comparison of the basic statistical characteristics of vertical displacements (in m) of the
wheelset for various rail profiles.

Rail Standard Deviation Minimum Maximum

3 1.13 × 10−3 −3.70 × 10−3 2.75 × 10−3
2 1.12 × 10−3 −3.50 × 10−3 2.85 × 10−3
1 1.14 × 10−3 −3.81 × 10−3 2.69 × 10−3

To conclude the data contained within the table, we may say that if we are dealing
with statistical characteristics, then the conducted simulations indicate only a slight relation
between the rail profile and the vertical displacements of the wheelset. An analysis of the
rolling surface geometry playing an important part in the model gives us a simple expla-
nation of this fact [7,14,22]. The vertical displacement of the wheelset will be influenced
not only by the vertical geometrical irregularities, but also by a change in the temporary
rolling radius of the wheels, and this can be an effect of large lateral displacements, as well
as of the changes in track gauge. The last of these causes is definitely not caused by rail
profile wear.
An analysis of the dynamic quantities will be presented for the statistical values of the
reaction forces resultant from the track, impacting the wheelset, therefore the following
forces: QR + QL and YR + YL .
The average vertical resultant force value impacting the wheelset virtually did not
change regardless of the rail profile and was approximately 112,800 N. The standard devia-
tion value changed with only slight fluctuations. This was as follows: for rail 1—1116 N, for
rail 2—1089 N, and for rail 3—1086 N. Therefore, the changes did not virtually exceed 3%.
Similarly, small changes occurred within the minimum and maximum value of the
resulting vertical force.
The average value of the resultant lateral force impacting the wheelset was approxi-
mately equal to 0 in all of the cases. As far as the standard deviation and the minimum and
maximum values are concerned, they clearly depended on the rail profile.
Similar as in the case of lateral displacements, a change in the rail profile does not
cause changes in the frequency characteristics of the lateral and vertical forces. Although
the values of the characteristics change, the position of their peaks remain unchanged.
The influence of a rail profile on the forces within the system is more visible when we
analyze the forces impacting only one side of the wheelset, that is, e.g., on the following
forces: YL and QL . The results of simulation analyses in this case are included in Table 5.
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 17 of 19

Table 5. A comparison of the basic statistical values of the vertical (Y) and lateral forces (Q) (in N) impacting the wheel for
various rail profiles (assumed a nominal wheel profile).

Rail Average Value Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum

Y 1 56,336 1673 48,000 69,130
2 56,425 989 50,330 62,770
3 56,416 728 52,950 60,620
Q 1 −570 2247 −7646 6632
2 −1126 1121 −5049 2527
3 −413 738 −2872 1783

The differences in the values of both lateral and vertical forces visible in the table show
that perhaps, during off-line diagnostics, one does not have to pay any special attention to
the selection of the data describing the rail profile when we are interested in the system
kinematics. However, it is indispensable when our interests concern the system dynamics,
and, i.e., analyzing a value such as the derailment rate.

4. Discussion
In the case of an analysis of the changes in the position of contact points on the wheel
and on the rail, one can conclude that there is no clear qualitative and quantitative relation
when taking into consideration the lateral displacement of a wheelset. For 0 and 1:20
and 1:40 inclinations, depending on the lateral displacement of the center of mass of the
wheelset in the range from −8 to +8 mm, there are changes both on the surface of the
wheel and of the rail, from single-point contact into two-point contact. In the case of a
1:20 inclination, one can confirm much bigger quantitative changes, which were shown
in simulation.
Changes in the positions of contact points and the changes of the nature of the contact
from a single-point to a two-point one also influence the progress of the contact angle
tangent between the wheel and the rail and the temporary wheel rolling radius.
Considering the influence of the rail inclination on the kinematic and dynamic param-
eters of the wheel set, the obtained results show that the change in rail inclination may
cause differences in the lateral displacements of the set of up to 15%, while the differences
in the transverse forces acting on the wheel may be on the order of several dozen percent.
One can formulate a thesis that changes in the rail inclination (of course within the limits
and simplifications assumed here) do not cause significant changes in the kinematics and
dynamics of the rail vehicle, which is confirmed by the analysis of the displacement of
system elements and the forces in contact. When assessing the impact of changes in rail
inclination on safety and the phenomenon of derailment, it should be noted that at an in-
creased vehicle speed already above 120 km/h, changes in rail inclination may significantly
increase the Y/Q ratio. The safe slope in this case is 1:20.
It should be noted, however, that the simulation analyses were carried out under
simplifying assumptions, which occur rather rarely in real operating conditions [1,2,12].
When assessing the impact of rail profile changes on vertical displacements of the
wheelset, it should be stated that the simulations carried out show a small relationship
between the rail profile and the vertical displacements of the wheelset. An analysis of
the rolling surface geometry playing an important role in the model gives us a simple
explanation of this fact. The vertical displacement of the wheelset will be influenced not
only by the vertical geometrical irregularities, but also by a change in the temporary rolling
radius of the wheels, and this can be an effect of large lateral displacements, as well as
of the changes in track gauge. The last of these causes is definitely not caused by rail
profile wear.
Recent analyses of system dynamics show differences in the values of both lateral
and vertical forces. It indicates that you may not need to pay special attention to off-
Energies 2021, 14, 5882 18 of 19

line diagnostics and selection of data describing rail profiles when you are interested in
system kinematics.
On the other hand, when referring to the issue of the impact of parameters determining
the condition of the track, including rail inclination, on the running safety of a rail vehicle,
in combination with the condition of wheel and rail profiles and the condition of the
running gear of the vehicle, they undoubtedly play an important role in the assessment of
vehicle safety using the Nadal criterion.
From the obtained simulation results, it can additionally be seen that for certain
vehicle speeds one may observe regular lateral oscillations (sinusoid with a wavelength
of approximately 65 m) of the railcar body with a low amplitude of approximately 1 mm.
Such oscillations occurred at velocities of 27 to 33 m/s. This corresponds to a railcar body
oscillation frequency from ~2.4 to 2 Hz. This range also includes the imaginary parts of
some eigenvalues of the linearized model of a rail vehicle. We can say with a high degree of
certainty that this is a result of parametric oscillations implied by the assumed disturbance
of the system.

5. Conclusions
Train running safety is one of the key criteria for assessing advanced solutions in the
field of modern rolling stock and solutions for track infrastructure. Research in this area
can be carried out using both computer simulation methods and on-line methods, in real
operating conditions.
This paper presents considerations on the impact of changes in the parameters charac-
terizing the track geometry, determining the inclination of the rails, on the running safety
of a rail vehicle, taking into account the actual geometrical irregularities of the track, the
wear of the rail profile and the location of the contact points in the wheel-rail system. The
research was carried out using the computer simulation method with the use of propri-
etary, verified computer packages. The safety assessment was performed using the Nadal
criterion. Despite the passage of many years from the moment of formulating this criterion,
it is still the basic tool in the calculation of the derailment coefficient [35]. The performed
analyses confirmed the previously formulated thesis about the significant impact of rail
inclination on the safety of railway traffic. A change in rail inclination from 1:20 to 1:∞
may result in a significant increase, over short sections of the track, of the derailment factor,
up to a value of the order of 2.7 with a limit value of 0.8.

Author Contributions: Concept of the research: B.S., A.S. and A.C.; methodology: B.S., A.S. and
A.C.; software: B.S. and A.S.; validation: A.C.; investigation: A.S. and A.C.; resources: B.S. and A.C.;
writing: B.S., A.S. and A.C.; visualization: B.S.; project administration: A.C.; funding acquisition: A.S.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received funding from the Warsaw University of Technology https://www.
pw.edu.pl/Badania-i-nauka/Konkursy/Konkursy-IDUB/Program-Open-Science-wsparcie-dla-
publikowania-w-modelu-Open-Access.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the technical support of this article by
Mateusz Kołodziejski.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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