GIS 205 – GIS and Remote Sensing

Lesson 6
Cartographic Principles & Design
Lesson 6: Cartographic Principles & Design
Introduction
Cartography is the art and science of map making. Cartographers make a huge
contribution in making the maps more meaningful and understandable. In this
lesson major principles of cartography are introduced.

Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Explain the properties of color.
2. Utilize the best color in cartographic output.
3. Select the best symbols for point, line, and polygon to assist map and
feature interpretation.
4. Use of basic cartographic principles that contribute to effective map design.

ACTIVITY
Please refer to the attached activity.
Activity No. 8

ANALYSIS
1. Why effective selection of color important in mapping?
2. Find two maps that violate at least two different “Principles of Cartographic
Design.” Explain how you would improve these maps.

ABSTRACTION
A. Data Classification

It is important to have a good understanding of the data which needs to be

represented on a map. One must recognize the scale of measurement for a
particular data set because the scales determine the kind of mathematical
operations that can be performed on the data. These scales of measurement are
described below:
I. Nominal Scale
It only satisfies the identity property. The values assigned to variables are
descriptive; they cannot be used for mathematical comparisons. For
example, on the basis of gender we can classify individuals into ‘male’ and
‘female’ but neither of the gender is higher or smaller than the other.

II. Ordinal Scale

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This scale has the properties of both identity and magnitude but the interval
between any two values is indeterminate. It generally uses the operators
“greater than”, “equal to” or “less than” for ordering the observations. For
example, the result of an athletic event declares the ranks secured by
various athletes but the ranks themselves do not describe by what time a
rank holder has finished the race with respect to another athlete.

III. Interval Scale

This scale has the properties of identity, magnitude and equal intervals. The
Fahrenheit scale for measuring temperature is made up of equal
temperature units, so the difference between 10- and 20-degrees
Fahrenheit is equal to the difference between 40- and 50-degrees
Fahrenheit.

The use of interval scale tells whether one is greater or smaller than the
other and it also quantifies the amount by which one is greater or smaller
than the other. For example, the temperature of a city recorded on the first
day of a month is 15 degrees and on the second day is 20 degrees. So, we
can say that the temperature on the second day is higher than that on the
first and the second day is 5 degrees hotter than the first day.

IV. Ratio Scale

The ratio scale has the properties of identity, magnitude, equal interval and
absolute zero. Having true zero allows for computing ratios. Weight is an
example of ratio scale. Weights can be given ranks, units along the weight
scale are equal to each other and weight has an absolute zero.
0 kg means there is no weight and 100 kg are said to be twice of 50 kg.

B. Map Layout

A map conveys geographical information and relationships. The result of any

analysis in GIS is communicated using maps so as to help users/readers to better
understand the geographical phenomenon. The map can only fulfill its purpose
when it is presented in a proper manner. There are certain points which are to be
kept in mind while designing a map:
a) Objective: It is necessary to pay attention to the question why and where
will the map going to be used. One should be clear about whether the map
is just sharing information, depicting result of an analysis or highlighting the
key issues and relationships. One should also know whether the map is
going to be displayed on a wall, in a book or in some other information
resource.
b) Audience: A designer/cartographer must know who will be addressed
through the maps. Maps must match the level/expectations of the audience.
The level of design for a technical group and for general people ought to be
different.
c) Balanced design: A map must be prepared using appropriate page size,
color, patterns of shading, text, and scale. Everything on the map should be
legible.

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Designing the map layout

The process of map composition starts with preparing a layout for the map. Apart
from the data, a map has certain other things that make map a package of effective
and clear communication. These provide critical information to users and are
known as map elements. A layout specifies the space and positions for different
map elements such as neat lines, title, North arrow, scale bar, legend etc.
Preparing an effective layout often requires experimentation with the available
space.

Figure 41. A map Layout

Every element in the layout has to be given a thought—whether it is important to

include the respective element, does it require elaboration etc. The map elements
that are generally found on a map are:
 Scale: Scale must be given in order to derive the actual size of an entity on
the map or distance between two geographical entities on a map.
 Direction: True north is the direction of North Pole and it differs from the
magnetic north. The magnetic north pole changes due to the changes in the
geo-physical condition of the earth. Many maps indicate both the true and
the magnetic north but the direction that is indicated on most of the maps is
the true north.
 Legend: Legend lists all the symbols used in a map and describes what they
depict.
 Title: A short suitable text that clearly defines the theme of the map.

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Figure 42. A map with its elements

Given below are a few other elements that are selectively used:
 Neatlines: These are lines used to frame a map to indicate where the map
begins and where it ends.
 Reference grid/Graticule: A reference grid is a network of evenly spaced
horizontal and vertical lines used to create context on a map. The grid can
be used to show unique locations (control points) either in a geographic
coordinate system or in a projected coordinate system.
 Locator map: The maps that display locations unfamiliar to users, are
generally supported with locator maps which represent the locations in a
larger geographic context and with which the user is expected to be familiar.
 Inset map: Sometimes the details on a part of a map are so clustered that
they become difficult to read and a magnified view of that part of the map is
required. These magnified view maps or close up maps are called insets.
 Source of information: The age, accuracy and reliability of the data sources
are critical in carrying out any study. One can show the sources of data one
has used in maps so that a user can track them and check his analysis and
interpretation.
 Date of production: The representation of time on the maps is important in
some cases. For example the weather map prepared on daily, weekly or
monthly basis must indicate time on them. A road map to be used for a
developing city must be a recent one so as to be relevant for the city etc.

C. Map Elements

Color
The aim of filling colors in a map is to make visual distinction among various
features thus making map more decipherable.

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Hue is the dominant wavelength we usually call as color such as green, red or blue.
Saturation is the purity of hue or the dominance of hue. Value measures how dark
or light the color is when hue is maintained constant. Changes in hue usually
indicate qualitative differences such as different administrative units whereas
changes in value and saturation represent quantitative differences such as
population density in a country.

Figure 43. Map showing sex ratio in different states of India

The lightness or darkness of the color represents quantitative differences.

Generally, dark colors mean more and represent high values of the attribute under
study. The above given map depicts the sex ratio in various states of India. The
areas in dark color represent states with high sex ratio and the ones in light color
represent states with low sex ratio.
There is a slight difference in color that appears when a map is displayed on a
computer screen and when it is printed on a paper. The difference is attributed to
the two different ways of creating colors known as additive, and subtractive models
of color which are explained below.

Additive Color Model

It involves light emitted from a source and is employed on devices that use light
such as camera, monitors etc. The three primary colors red, green, and blue are
mixed at different levels to generate other colors. When one of these colors is
combined with the other in equal amounts the secondary colors cyan, magenta,
and yellow are produced. The combination of all the three colors in equal intensities
produces white

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Figure 44. Additive color mixing

Subtractive Color Model

A subtractive color model explains the mixing of dyes, inks etc. to create a range
of colors, each formed by subtracting i.e. absorbing some wavelengths of light and
reflecting the others. A printer works on this color model. It uses three colors—
cyan, magenta and yellow. When these are mixed together black is seem to be
formed but the color is actually dark brown. This is why most printers add a black
ink to print black text.

Figure 45. Subtractive color mixing

Text
The use of text on maps enhances the information one wishes to convey.
Displaying geographic features and symbols alone on the map doesn’t convey the
full meaning until and unless it is supported with the relevant text. Inserting text on
maps can save various purposes such as:
 To label the features on map layers, e.g. labeling the name of the states in
the political map of India
 To use text as graphic so as to highlight a particular area, e.g. labeling the
location of Taj Mahal
 To add information such as title, author, data source references to the map
layout.

Placement of Labels
Labeling refers to placing of a descriptive text onto a feature on the map. The
placement of labels is an important part of cartographic design because labeling

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affects the readability of a map. Placing labels at appropriate positions facilitates

users to associate labels with the features being described. Sometimes, a part of
map becomes overcrowded with labels making it difficult for a user to distinguish
which label is used for which feature. This situation can be taken care of in a
dynamic map, by adjusting labels in such a manner that they only appear on the
map after it is viewed on a particular scale. For static maps, call outs are used for
labeling features in such a situation.

Figure 46. Proper placement of labels that mark the dams on Himachal Pradesh map

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Figure 47. Placement of labels using call outs that mark lakes in Himachal Pradesh map

Symbols
A symbol is a graphic or a pictorial element used to represent a feature on map.
Various types of symbols are used for representing objects or features belonging
to any of the three themes viz. point, line and polygon. Every symbol has a set of
properties associated with it. These include its shape, size, color, angle, pattern
etc

Shape is the geometric form of the symbol. It is used to differentiate between the
object classes. The closer the shapes of the symbols resemble the features they
represent, the better is the map perceived by the users.

Figure 48. Symbols for different features

The size of symbols depicts a quantitative difference in the distribution of an

attribute. Given below is a map showing petrol pump sites in an area. The
difference in size of symbols that represent petrol pump stations corresponds to

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the number of people working in the particular petrol pump station. The biggest
sized symbol represents that the station has the highest manpower as compared
to the other stations.

Figure 49. Attribute (manpower) representation by size of symbol

In the following map bars have been used to show the comparison and distribution
of male and female populations in different states of India. The size of a bar
corresponds to the number of individuals (male or female, whatever the bar
represents) existing in a particular state.

Figure 50. Attribute (male/female population) representation by bar size

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Sometimes a combination of symbol and color exhibit the attribute of interest.

In the example shown below, the elevation gradation of a landscape is marked by
the simultaneous use of contours (lines) and colors.

Figure 51. Elevation gradation of a landscape

D. Data Presentation

After the careful preparation on several mapping tools which are integrated with
GIS, the maps are presented to users. The final maps are of high cartographic
quality and are brought out using a wide range of devices. Some of these devices
are as follows:

Visual Display Unit

The results of mapping and GIS analysis may be presented on the computers over
the internet for people who work online. Computer screens use cathode ray tube
(CRT) technology or the Light emitting diodes (LEDs) to form images on the
screen. The difference in output resulting from these devices depends on the
hardware and GIS display software used by the
computers. The hardware and software
determine resolution of the screen which
controls the detail that may be displayed, the
number of colors used and size and scale of the
data shown. Figure 52. Visual Display Units

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National Map Viewer is a platform for visualization of country maps on the

computers over the internet. It is a GIS application designed by USGS which
provides easy access to all the public domain geospatial information about United
States. The National Map Viewer is a web portal that can be accessed online for
geospatial information which also allows download of digital data and creation of
cartographic products. Such application disseminates accurate and critical
information to end users.

Plotters

Plotters are output devices for making copies of

geographical data on paper or film. Plotters hold paper
either through a roller or a flat bed surface. The drawing
arm has colored pens. The two dimensional line images
are created as per the commands given by the software.
Few plotters contain preprogrammed information for
complex shapes and symbol drawing which need
reference by a computer command. This makes a plotter Figure 53. Plotter
fast and flexible. Plotters now have bubble jet drawing
devices in place of colored pens which allow faster and uniform drawing.

Printers
A printer is an output device that prints an electronically
stored document on print media such as paper or
transparencies. The toner based printer or the laser
printer take the output from the computer processor and
convert it into the laser signal which is imprinted using a
scanning action onto an electrically charged drum. In
case of inkjet printers with response to the electrical
signals from the GIS software the colored inks are Figure 54. Printer
emitted from the nozzle in the print head and the inks are
transferred from the cartridge to the paper.

E. Distribution Maps

These are the maps that depict distribution of objects having definite values. These
can further be divided on the basis of method of construction. While constructing
the maps the data can be presented by:

Color : A map which shows different objects using various colors is known as
chorochromatic map. For example, the districts of a state can be depicted using
multiple colors or shades of a single color.

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Symbol : A map which uses symbols for representing the data is called
choroschematic map. For example distribution of crop types in an area where rice
is shown by symbol R, wheat by W, maize by M etc.

Regular lines : A map in which statistical data can be shown using lines of equal
interval is called isopleth map. The lines are drawn to show equal amount of

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rainfall, pressure etc. The following figure shows economic potential isopleths for
England and Wales.

Dots : A map by which distribution of objects is shown by putting dots where each
dot refers to a fixed number or quantity is called a dot map. For example the
population distribution in a city can be shown using dot maps.

Shading : A map that uses different patterns of shading in order to represent the
values of some property in an area. For example, the variation in production of fish
in different states of a country can be shown using different patterns of shading.

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APPLICATION
1. Describe the difference between a topographic map and a thematic map.
2. Describe in one sentence, or in one question, the main problem of the
cartographic visualization process.
3. Which of the four main types of thematic data can be distinguished on the
basis of their measurement scales?
4. Which are the six visible variables that allow to distinguish cartographic
symbols from each other?
5. Describe different techniques of cartographic output from the user’s
perspective.

Closure
Good job! You have just finished the GIS Beginner’s Course. Module 2 will be
dealing on more complex GIS processing and common applications of GIS in AB
engineering profession. So, get ready and just enjoy your GIS experience.

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