Thermodynamics is the area of science that includes the relationship between heat and other kinds of energy.

Thermodynamics was discovered and studied beginning in the 1800s. At that time, it was linked to and gained importance
because of the use of steam engines.

Thermodynamics can be broken down into four laws. Although added to the laws of thermodynamics after the other three
laws, the zeroth law is usually discussed first. It states that if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system,
then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. In other words, if two systems are the same temperature as a third
system, then all three are the same temperatures.

Temperature
To understand the concept of temperature, it is useful to define two often-used phrases: thermal contact and thermal
equilibrium.

Imagine that two objects are placed in an insulated container such that they interact with each other but not with the
environment. If the objects are at different temperatures, energy is exchanged between them, even if they are initially not
in physical contact with each other. We assume that two objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy can be
exchanged between them by these processes due to a temperature difference.

Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects would not exchange energy by heat or electromagnetic radiation
if they were placed in thermal contact

Temperature - is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy associated with the disordered microscopic
motion of atoms and molecules. The flow of heat is from a high temperature region toward a lower temperature region.

Temperature is not directly proportional to internal energy since temperature measures only the kinetic energy part of the
internal energy, so two objects with the same temperature do not in general have the same internal energy.

Temperatures are measured in one of the three standard temperature scales (Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit).

Temperature Scales
The scale we use to measure temperature is "degrees" (°). There are three temperature scales that are used today. The
Kelvin (K) scale is used by scientists and for astronomical temperatures. The Celsius scale (°C) is used in most of the
world to measure air temperatures. In the United States, the Fahrenheit scale(°F) is used to measure temperatures at or
near the surface, while the Celsius scale is used to measure upper air temperatures.

All three temperature scales are related to each other through the "triple point of water". The triple point of water is the
temperature at which water vapor, liquid water, and ice can coexist simultaneously. The triple point occurs at 0.01 °C
(273.16 K or 32.02 °F). To convert from one temperature scale to another, use the equations below:

Convert Celsius to Kelvin: TK = TC + 273

Convert Celsius to Fahrenheit: TF = 9/5 TC + 32
Convert Fahrenheit to Celsius: TC=5/9(TF–32)

The three different temperature scales have been Absolute temperatures at which various physical
processes occur.
placed side-by-side in the chart below for comparison.
  Temperature scales are named after Anders Celsius (1701–1744), Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736), and
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907), respectively.

Examples:
1. The highest temperature recorded in the Libyan dessert was 136 oF. What is the temperature in the Celsius scale?
2. The average temperature in Baguio City is 20oC. What is on this on the Fahrenheit scale?
3. What is the Celsius equivalent of 80oF?
4. What is the Fahrenheit equivalent of 80oC?
5. What is 18oC in Fahrenheit?
6. What is 18oC in Kelvin?
7. Oxygen freezes at -362oF. What is the Celsius equivalent of this temperature?

Thermal Expansions of Solids and Liquids

The liquid thermometer makes use of one of the best-known changes in a substance: as its temperature increases, its
volume increases. This phenomenon, known as thermal expansion, has an important role in numerous engineering
applications. For example, thermal-expansion joints, such as those shown in Figure 19.7, must be included in buildings,
concrete highways, railroad tracks, brick walls, and bridges to compensate for dimensional changes that occur as the
temperature changes.

Linear Expansion
Matter usually expands when heated and contracts when cooled, the relative amount of change being different for
different substances.

There is a linear expansion of a solid in any one dimension under the influence of heat.

Figure 1. Linear expansion takes place when you apply heat to solids in most cases.

If you raise the temperature of an object a small amount:

Tf = To + ∆T
where: Tf = represents the final temperature
To = represents the original temperature
∆T = represents the change in temperature
Then, linear expansion results in an expansion in any linear direction of
Lf = Lo + ∆L
where: Lf = represents the final length of the solid
Lo = represents the original length
∆L = represents the change in length

If the temperature goes down a small amount;

Tf = To - ∆T
Then you get a linear contraction rather than an expansion;
Lf = Lo - ∆L

Therefore, the change in length, ∆L, is proportional to the change in temperature, ∆T.

This proportion isn’t true for all solids, however – just for most. Some solids contract when you heat them. For example,
ice actually contracts as you raise its temperature from 0 oC to 4 oC as its molecules rearrange themselves from the
crystalline structure of ice.

Deconstructing linear expansion

On a molecular level, linear expansion happens because when you heat objects up, the molecules bounce around faster,
which leads to a physical expansion. When you heat up a solid, it expands by a few percent, and that the percentage is
proportional to the change in temperature, then

∆L/ Lo (the fraction the solid expands) is proportional to ∆T (the change in temperature)

The constant of proportionality depends on what material you’re working with; therefore, in practice, the constant is
something you measure, much like the coefficient of friction. And like the coefficient of friction, the constant of
proportionality is also a coefficient – the coefficient of linear expansion, which is given by the symbol ά (not to be confused
with the symbol for angular acceleration). You can write this relationship as an equation this way:

∆L / Lo = α ∆T

Then, the equation can be written as;

∆L = α Lo ∆T where: ά = coefficient of linear expansion, in 1/oC

Volume Expansion
Linear expansion, takes place in one dimension, but the world isn’t always linear. It comes supplied with three
dimensions. If an object undergoes a small temperature change of just a few degrees, you can say that the volume of the
solid will change in a way proportionate to the temperature change. As long as the temperature differences involved are
small, you get

∆V/Vo (the fraction the solid expands) is proportional to ∆T (the change in temperature)

where: ∆V = represents the change in volume

Vo = represents the original volume

With volume expansion, the constant involved is called the coefficient of volume expansion. This constant is given by the
symbol β, and like ά, it’s measured in oC-1. Using β, here’s how you can express the equation for volume expansion:

∆V/Vo = β∆T, then ∆V = βVo∆T

If the distances involved are small and the temperature changes are small, you usually find that β = 3ά. This
makes sense, because you go from one dimension to three. For example, ά for steel is 1.2 x 10 -5 oC-1, and β = 3.6 x 10 -5
o -1
C .
The Unusual Behavior of Water
Liquids generally increase in volume with increasing temperature and have average coefficients of volume expansion
about ten times greater than those of solids. Cold water is an exception to this rule, as the temperature increases from
0°C to 4°C, water contracts and thus its density increases. Above 4°C, water expands with increasing temperature, and so
its density decreases. Thus, the density of water reaches a maximum value of 1.000 g/cm 3 at 4°C.

Examples:
1. A copper bar is 80 cm long at 15 oC. What is the increase in length when it is heated to 35 oC? The linear
expansion coefficient for copper is 1.7 x 10 -5 /oC.
2. You’re heating a 1.0 m steel bar, coefficient of linear expansion 1.2 10 -5 /oC, raising its temperature by 5 oC. What
is the final length of the bar?
3. A cylinder of diameter 1.0 cm at 30 oC is to be slid into a hole in a steel plate. The hole has a diameter of 0.99970
cm at 30 oC. To what temperature must the plate be heated? For steel, α= 1,1 x 10 -5 /oC.
4. A segment of steel railroad track has a length of 30.000 m when the temperature is 0.0°C.a) What is its length
when the temperature is 40.0°C? b) Suppose that the ends of the rail are rigidly clamped at 0.0°C so that
expansion is prevented. What is the thermal stress set up in the rail if its temperature is raised to 40.0°C? c) What
if the temperature drops to -40.0°C? What is the length of the unclamped segment?
5. You’re heating a 2.0 m3 aluminum block having a coefficient of volume expansion of 6.9 x 10 -5 /oC, raising its
temperature by 30 oC. What is the final volume of the block?
6. A copper telephone wire has essentially no sag between poles 35.0 m apart on a winter day when the
temperature is -20.0°C. How much longer is the wire on a summer day when TC = 35.0°C?
7. A pair of eyeglass frames is made of epoxy plastic. At room temperature (20.0°C), the frames have circular lens
holes 2.20 cm in radius. To what temperature must the frames be heated if lenses 2.21 cm in radius are to be
inserted in them? The average coefficient of linear expansion for epoxy is 1.30 x 10 -4 (°C)-1.

Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas

The volume expansion equation ΔV = βVi ΔT is based on the assumption that the material has an initial volume Vi before
the temperature change occurs. This is the case for solids and liquids because they have a fixed volume at a given
temperature.

The case for gases is completely different. The interatomic forces within gases are very weak, and, in many cases, we
can imagine these forces to be nonexistent and still make very good approximations. Note that there is no equilibrium
separation for the atoms and, thus, no “standard” volume at a given temperature.

For a gas, it is useful to know how the quantities volume V, pressure P, and temperature T are related for a sample of gas
of mass m. In general, the equation that interrelates these quantities, called the equation of state, is very complicated.
However, if the gas is maintained at a very low pressure (or low density), the equation of state is quite simple and can be
found experimentally. Such a low-density gas is commonly referred to as an ideal gas.
 To be more specific, the assumption here is that the temperature of the gas must not be too low (the gas must not
condense into a liquid) or too high, and that the pressure must be low. The concept of an ideal gas implies that
the gas molecules do not interact except upon collision, and that the molecular volume is negligible compared
with the volume of the container. In reality, an ideal gas does not exist. However, the concept of an ideal gas is
very useful because real gases at low pressures behave as ideal gases do.

It is convenient to express the amount of gas in a given volume in terms of the number of moles n. One mole of any
substance is that amount of the substance that contains Avogadro’s number NA = 6.022 x 1023 of constituent particles
(atoms or molecules). The number of moles n of a substance is related to its mass m through the expression

where M is the molar mass of the substance

 The molar mass of each chemical element is the atomic mass (from the periodic table) expressed in g/mol. For
example, the mass of one He atom is 4.00 u (atomic mass units), so the molar mass of He is 4.00 g/mol. For a
molecular substance or a chemical compound, you can add up the molar mass from its molecular formula. The
molar mass of stable diatomic oxygen (O2) is 32.0 g/mol.

 First, when the gas is kept at a constant temperature, its pressure is inversely proportional to its volume (Boyle’s
law).
 Second, when the pressure of the gas is kept constant, its volume is directly proportional to its temperature (the
law of Charles and Gay-Lussac). These observations are summarized by the equation of state for an ideal gas:
PV = nRT

where R = universal gas constant = 8.314 J/mol.K

= 0.082 14 L.atm/mol.K
n = the number of moles of gas in the sample
1 L = 103 cm3 = 10-3 m3
The ideal gas law is often expressed in terms of the total number of molecules N. Because the total number of molecules
equals the product of the number of moles n and Avogadro’s number NA,

It is common to call quantities such as P, V, and T the thermodynamic variables of an ideal gas. If the equation of state is
known, then one of the variables can always be expressed as some function of the other two.

Examples:
1. An ideal gas occupies a volume of 100 cm3 at 20°C and 100 Pa. Find the number of moles of gas in the container.
2. A certain scuba tank is designed to hold 66.0 ft 3 of air when it is at atmospheric pressure at 22°C. When this volume
of air is compressed to an absolute pressure of 3 000 lb/in. 2 and stored in a 10.0-L (0.350-ft 3) tank, the air becomes so
hot that the tank must be allowed to cool before it can be used. Before the air cools, what is its temperature? (Assume
that the air behaves like an ideal gas.)
3. A spray can containing a propellant gas at twice atmospheric pressure (202 kPa) and having a volume of 125.00 cm 3
is at 22°C. It is then tossed into an open fire. When the temperature of the gas in the can reaches 195°C, what is the
pressure inside the can? Assume any change in the volume of the can is negligible. Suppose we include a volume
change due to thermal expansion of the steel can as the temperature in-creases. Does this alter our answer for the
final pressure significantly?
4. A mass of oxygen occupies 0.0200 m 3 at atmospheric pressure, 101 kPa, and 5.0 oC. Determine its volume if its
pressure is increased to 108 kPa while its temperature is changed to 30 oC.
5. On a day when atmospheric pressure is 76 cmHg, the pressure gauge tak reads the pressure inside to be 400 cmHg.
The gas in the tank has a temperature of 9 oC. If the tank is heated to 31 oC by the Sun, and if no gas exits from it,
what will the pressure gauge read?
6. The gauge pressure in a car tire is 305 kPa when its temperature is 15 oC. After running at high speed, the tire has
heated up and its pressure is 360 kPa. What is then the temperature of the gas in the tire? Assume atmospheric
pressure to be 101 kPa.

Heat and Internal Energy

Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to a temperature difference between the
system and its surroundings. When you heat a substance, you are transferring energy into it by placing it in contact with
surroundings that have a higher temperature. This is the case, for example, when you place a pan of cold water on a
stove burner—the burner is at a higher temperature than the water, and so the water gains energy. The term heat is used
to represent the amount of energy transferred in this method.

Internal energy is all the energy of a system that is associated with its microscopic components—atoms and molecules—
when viewed from a reference frame at rest with respect to the center of mass of the system. The last part of this
sentence ensures that any bulk kinetic energy of the system due to its motion through space is not included in internal
energy.

Internal energy includes kinetic energy of random translational, rotational, and vibrational motion of molecules, potential
energy within molecules, and potential energy between molecules.

Units of Heat
One calorie (1cal) is defined as the amount of heat needed to heat 1.0 gram of water raising its temperature by 1.0 oC.
1 calorie = 4.186 J

(Note that the “Calorie,” written with a capital “C” and used in describing the energy content of foods, is actually a
kilocalorie.)

One kilocalorie (1 kcal) is the amount of heat needed to heat 1.0 kilogram of water raising its temperature by 1.0 oC.
1 kcal = 1000 cal = 3.97 Btu = 3077 ft.lb
1 J = 2.39 x 10 -4 kcal = 9.48 x 10 -4 Btu

One British Thermal Unit (Btu) is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise 1 pound of water raising its temperature
by 1.0oF.
1 Btu = 1.055 J = 0.252 kcal = 778 ft.lb
Specific Heat and Calorimetry
When energy is added to a system and there is no change in the kinetic or potential energy of the system, the
temperature of the system usually rises. (An exception to this statement is the case in which a system undergoes a
change of state—also called a phase transition.)

If the system consists of a sample of a substance, we find that the quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of
a given mass of the substance by some amount varies from one substance to another. For example, the quantity of
energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C is 4 186 J, but the quantity of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of copper by 1°C is only 387 J.

The heat capacity C of a particular sample of a substance is defined as the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of that sample by 1°C. From this definition, we see that if energy Q produces a change ΔT in the temperature
of a sample, then
Q = C ΔT

The specific heat c of a substance is the heat capacity per unit mass. Thus, if energy Q transfers to a sample of a
substance with mass m and the temperature of the sample changes by ΔT, then the specific heat of the substance is
c = Q/ m ΔT

Specific heat is essentially a measure of how thermally insensitive a substance is to the addition of energy. The greater a
material’s specific heat, the more energy must be added to a given mass of the material to cause a particular temperature
change.

The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually expressed in the form shown below where c is the
specific heat. The relationship does not apply if a phase change is encountered, because the heat added or removed
during a phase change does not change the temperature.

where Q = heat added or removed

c = specific heat
m = mass of a substance
ΔT = cahnege in temperature

 Note that when the temperature increases, Q and ΔT are taken to be positive, and energy transfers into the
system. When the temperature decreases, Q and ΔT are negative, and energy transfers out of the system.
The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/gram °C = 4.186 Joule/gram °C which is higher than any other common substance.
As a result, water plays a very important role in temperature regulation. The specific heat per gram for water is much
higher than that for a metal.

Water has the highest specific heat capacity ,

Cwater = 4186 J/(kg-oC) = 1 kcal/(kg-oC) = 1.0 Btu/(lb-oF)

Ice and steam have lower specific heat capacities than water,
Cice= 2090 J/(kg-oC) = 0.50 kcal/(kg-oC) = 0.50 Btu/(lb-oF)
Csteam = 2010 J/(kg-oC) = 0.48 kcal/(kg-oC) = 0.48 Btu/(lb-oF)

Metals usually have low specific heat capacities,

Clead = 130 J/(kg-oC) and Ciron = 460 J/(kg-oC)

Conservation of Energy: Calorimetry

One technique for measuring specific heat involves heating a sample to some known temperature Tx , placing it in a
vessel containing water of known mass and temperature Tw ‹ Tx , and measuring the temperature of the water after
equilibrium has been reached. This technique is called calorimetry, and devices in which this energy transfer occurs are
called calorimeters. If the system of the sample and the water is isolated, the law of the conservation of energy requires
that the amount of energy that leaves the sample (of unknown specific heat) equal the amount of energy that enters the
water.

Conservation of energy allows us to write the mathematical representation of this energy statement as
Qcold = -Qheat
The negative sign in the equation is necessary to maintain consistency with our sign convention for heat.

Phase Change
A substance often undergoes a change in temperature when energy is transferred between it and its surroundings. There
are situations, however, in which the transfer of energy does not result in a change in temperature. This is the case
whenever the physical characteristics of the substance change from one form to another; such a change is commonly
referred to as a phase change.

Two common phase changes are from solid to liquid (melting) and from liquid to gas (boiling); another is a change in the
crystalline structure of a solid. All such phase changes involve a change in internal energy but no change in temperature.
The increase in internal energy in boiling, for example, is represented by the breaking of bonds between molecules in the
liquid state; this bond breaking allows the molecules to move farther apart in the gaseous state, with a corresponding
increase in intermolecular potential energy.

Different substances respond differently to the addition or removal of energy as they change phase because their internal
molecular arrangements vary. Also, the amount of energy transferred during a phase change depends on the amount of
substance involved. (It takes less energy to melt an ice cube than it does to thaw a frozen lake.)

If a quantity Q of energy transfer is required to change the phase of a mass m of a substance, the ratio L = Q/m
characterizes an important thermal property of that substance. Because this added or removed energy does not result in a
temperature change, the quantity L is called the latent heat (literally, the “hidden” heat) of the substance.

The value of L for a substance depends on the nature of the phase change, as well as on the properties of the substance.
From the definition of latent heat, and again choosing heat as our energy transfer mechanism, we find that the energy
required to change the phase of a given mass m of a pure substance is
Q = ± mL
Latent heat (L) is the heat per kilogram that you have to add or remove to make an object change its state; or latent heat
is the heat needed to make a phase change happen. Its units are J/kg in MKS

Three types of latent heat:

1. The latent heat of fusion, Lf (melting or freezing): The heat per kilogram needed to make the change between
the solid to liquid phases, as when ice turns to water.
2. The latent heat of vaporization, L v (boiling or condensing): The heat per kilogram needed to make the change
between the liquid to gas phases, as when water boils.
3. The latent heat of sublimation, Ls : The heat per kilogram needed to make the change between the solid to gas
phases, as when dry ice evaporates.

The latent heat of fusion of water, L f, is 3.35 x 10 5 J/kg = 335 kJ/kg = 80 kcal/kg = 144 Btu/lb, and the latent heat of
vaporization of water, Lv, is 2.26 x 10 6 J/kg = 2260 kJ/kg = 540 kcal/kg = 972 Btu/lb.
(It takes 3.35 x 10 5 Joules to melt 1 kg of ice at 0 oC (just to melt it, not to change its temperature). And it takes 2.26 x
10 6 Joules to boil 1 kg of water into steam. These are the energies involved in making water change its phase.)
Transitions between solid, liquid, and gaseous phases typically involve large amounts of energy compared to the specific
heat. If heat were added at a constant rate to a mass of ice to take it through its phase changes to liquid water and then to
steam, the energies required accomplishing the phase changes (called the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of
vaporization ) would lead to plateaus in the temperature vs time graph. The graph below presumes that the pressure is
one standard atmosphere.

Phases of matter:
1. Solid – has a definite shape and volume because it has molecules that vibrate in a fixed equilibrium position with
strong cohesive forces.
2. Liquid – has a molecule that have cohesive forces strong enough to give it a definite volume but not strong
enough to give a definite shape. The molecules of a liquid can flow, rolling over each other.
3. Gas – is composed of molecules that are far apart, with weak cohesive forces. Gas molecules move freely in a
constant, random motion.
4. Plasmas - Eventually, given enough heat, the electrons and nucleus become separated and into positively,
charged ions and negatively charged electrons. This soup of ions and electrons is known as a plasma

Phase changes occur when materials change state, from liquid to solid ( as when water freezes), solid to liquid ( as when
rocks melt to lava), liquid to gas (as when you boil a tea), and so on.

When the material changes to a new state --- liquid, solid, or gas (there is a fourth state: plasma, a superheated gas-like
state) ---some heat goes into or comes out in the process.

Molecules of liquids sometimes have a high enough velocity to escape the surface through the process called
evaporation. Evaporation is a cooling process, since the escaping molecules remove the latent heat of vaporization in
addition to their high molecular energy.

Vapor molecules return to the liquid state through the process called condensation. It is the opposite of evaporation and
is a warming process. When the condensation rate equals the evaporation rate, the air is said to be saturated. The rate of
evaporation can be increased by (1) increased temperature, (2) increased surface area, (3) removal of evaporated
molecules, and (4) reduced atmospheric pressure.

If solids that turn directly into gas, as when you have a block of dry ice, frozen carbon dioxide. As the dry ice get warmer,
it turns into a carbon dioxide gas. This process is called sublimation.

Examples:
1. You’re heating 1.0 kg copper block, specific heat capacity of 387 J/kg- oC, raising its temperature by 45 oC. What
amount of heat do you have to apply?
2. You’re heating a 15.0 kg copper block having a specific heat capacity of 387 J/(kg -oC), raising its temperature by 100
o
C. What heat do you have to apply?
3. Cold water at a temperature of 15 oC enters a heater, and the resulting hot water has a temperature of 61 oC. A
person uses 120 kg of hot water in taking a shower. Find the energy needed to heat the water.( c = 4186 J/kg. oC )
4. To a 1-kg sample of wood 10 kcal of heat is added, and its temperature is found to rise from 20 oC to 44 oC. What is
the specific heat capacity of the wood?
5. Three lb of water at 100 oF is added to a 5 lb of water at 40 oF. What is the final temperature of the mixture?
6. How much heat must be added to 200 lb of lead at 70 oF to cause it to melt? The specific heat capacity of lead is 0.03
Btu/ (lb- oF), it melts at 626 oF, and its heat of fusion is 10.6 Btu/lb.
7. How much heat must be added to 3 kg of water to raise its temperature from 20 oC to 80 oC?
8. From a 50-lb block of ice initially at 25 oF, 200 Btu of heat is removed. What is its final temperature?
9. To raise the temperature of 5 kg water from 20 to 30 oC, a 2-kg iron bar is heated and then dropped into the water.
What should the temperature of the bar be?

Conservation of energy allows us to write the mathematical representation of this energy statement as
Qcold = -Qhot
The energy transfer Qhot has a negative value because energy is leaving the hot substance. The negative sign in the
equation assures that the right-hand side is a positive number, consistent with the left-hand side, which is positive
because energy is entering the cold water.

Examples:
1. a) How much is required to raise the temperature of 250 mL of water from 20 oC to 35 oC? B) How much heat is lost
by the water as it cools back down to 20 oC?
2. How much heat does 25 g of aluminum gives off as it cools from 100 oC to 20 oC? For aluminum, c = 880 J/kg.oC.
3. A certain amount of heat is added to a mass of aluminum (c= 0.21 cal/g. oC), and its temperature is raised 57 oC.
Suppose that the same amount of heat is added to the same mass of copper (c = 0.093 cal/g. oC). How much does the
temperature of the copper rise?
4. Two identical metal plates (mass = m, specific heat = c) have different temperatures; one is at 20 oC, and the other is
at 90 oC. They are placed in good thermal contact. What is their final temperature?
5. Determine the temperature Tf that results when 150 g of ice at 0 oC is mixed with 300 g of water at 50 oC.
6. How much heat is given up when 20 g of steam at 100 oC is condensed and cooled at 20 oC?
7. A piece of aluminum (c = 0.21 cal/g .oC) at 90 oC is dropped into a cavity in a large block of ice at 0 oC. How much ice
does the aluminum melt?
8. What mass of steam initially at 130°C is needed to warm 200 g of water in a 100-g glass container from 20.0°C to
50.0°C?

Heat Transfer
Heat is energy transferred from one system to another by thermal interaction. In contrast to work, heat is always
accompanied by a transfer of entropy. Heat flow is characteristic of macroscopic objects and systems, but its origin and
properties can be understood in terms of their microscopic constituents.

Heat flow from a high to a low temperature body occurs spontaneously. This flow of energy can be harnessed and
partially converted into useful work by means of a heat engine. The second law of thermodynamics prohibits heat flow
from a low to a high temperature body, but with the aid of a heat pump external work can be used to transport energy
from low to the high temperature.

In ordinary language, heat has a diversity of meanings, including temperature. In physics, "heat" is by definition a transfer
of energy and is always associated with a process of some kind. "Heat" is used interchangeably with "heat flow" and "heat
transfer". It can occur in a variety of ways: by conduction, radiation, convection, net mass transfer, friction or viscosity,
and by chemical dissipation.

The SI unit of heat is the joule. Heat can be measured by calorimetry, or determined indirectly by calculations based on
other quantities, relying for instance on the first law of thermodynamics. In physics, especially in calorimetry, and in
meteorology, the concepts of latent heat and of sensible heat are used. Latent heat is associated with phase changes,
while sensible heat is associated with temperature change.

Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of
thermal energy and heat between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal
conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider
the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms
have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system.

Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the
boundary between two systems. When an object is at a different temperature from another body or its surroundings, heat
flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point they are in thermal equilibrium.
Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature,
as described by the second law of thermodynamics.
Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries heat along with the flow of matter in the fluid. The
flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when
thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often
called "natural convection".

All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is forced convection. In
this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan or other mechanical means.

Heat radiation

The final major form of heat transfer is by radiation, which occurs in any transparent medium (solid or fluid) but may also
even occur across vacuum (as when the Sun heats the Earth). Radiation is the transfer of energy through space by
means of electromagnetic waves in much the same way as electromagnetic light waves transfer light. The same laws that
govern the transfer of light govern the radiant transfer of heat.

Examples:
1. An iron plate 2.0 cm thick has a cross-sectional area of 5000 cm 2. One face is at 150 oC, and the other is at 140 oC.
How much heat passed through the plate each second? For iron, k T = 80 W/m.K?
2. A metal plate 4.0 mm thick has a temperature difference of 32 oC between its faces. It transmits 200 kcal/h through an
area of 5.0 cm2. Calculate the thermal conductivity of this metal in W/m.K.
3. Two metal plates are soldered together as shown in the figure. It is known that A = 80 cm 2, L1 = L2 = 3.0 mm, T1 = 100
oC, T2 = 0 oC. For the plate on the left, k T1 = 48.1 W/m.K; for the plate on the right k T2 = 68.2 W/m.K. Find the heat
flow rate through the plates and the temperature of the soldered junction.

4. A beverage cooler is in the shape of a cube, 42.0 cm on each inside edge. Its 3.0-cm thick walls are made of plastic
(kT = 0.050 W/m.K). When the outside temperature is 20 oC, how much ice will melt inside the cooler each hour?
5. a) Calculate the R value for a wall consisting of the following layers: concrete block (R = 1.93), 1.0 inch of insulating
board (R = 4.3), and 0.50 inch of drywall (R = 0.45) all are in U.S. Customary Units. b) If the wall has an area of 15
m2, find the heat flow per hour through it when the temperature just outside is 20 oC lower than inside.
1 U.S. Customary Unit of R = 0.176 m2.K/W
6. A spherical body of 2.0 cm diameter is maintained at 600 oC. Assuming that it radiates as it were a blackbody, at what
rate (in watts) is energy radiated from the sphere?
The Laws of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of a system remains constant, even if it is converted from
one form to another. For example, kinetic energy — the energy that an object possesses when it moves — is converted to
heat energy when a driver presses the brakes on the car to slow it down. There are often catch phrases to help people
remember the first law of thermodynamics: “Work is heat, and heat is work.” Basically, work and heat are equivalent.

The second law of thermodynamics is one of the most basic laws in science. It states that heat cannot flow to a system
at a higher temperature from a system at a lower temperature by its own volition. For such an action to occur, work must
be done. If an ice cube is placed in a cup of warm water, the ice cube melts as the heat from the water flows into it. The
end result is a cup of water that is slightly cooler. Ice cubes can only form if energy is used.

Another example of the second law only working with the addition of energy can be seen with an older refrigerator. In that
case, the cooling of the inside of the refrigerator warms the outside of it. So, work is done and the work makes heat. The
work is completed by the pump of the refrigerator.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Processes

Isobaric Process – is a process carried out at constant pressure

Isovolumic Process – is a process carried out at constant volume. When a gas undergoes such a process
ΔW = - PΔV = 0

And so the First Law of Thermodynamics becomes

ΔQ = ΔU

Any heat that flows into the system appears as increased internal energy of the system.

Isothermal Processes - is a constant-temperature process. In the case of an ideal gas where the constituent atoms or
molecules do not interact when separated, ΔU = 0 in an isothermal process. However, this is not true for many other
systems. For example, ΔU ≠ 0 as ice melts to water at 0 oC, even though the process is isothermal.
For an ideal gas, ΔU = 0 in an isothermal change and so the First law becomes
ΔQ = ΔW (ideal gas)

Adiabatic Process – is one in which no heat is transferred to or from the system. For such process, ΔQ = 0. Hence, in an
adiabatic process, the first law becomes
0 = ΔU + ΔW
Examples:
1. In a certain process, 8.0 kcal of heat is furnished to the system while the system does 600 kJ of work. By how
much does the internal energy of the system change during the process?
2. The specific heat of water is 4184 J/kg.K. By how joules does the internal energy of 50 g of water change as it is
heated from 21 oC to 37 oC?
3. How much does the internal energy of 5.0 g of ice precisely 0 oC increase as it is changed to water at 0 oC?
Neglect the change in volume.
4. In each of the following situations, find the change in internal energy of the system. a) A system absorbs 500 cal
of heat and at the same time does 400 J of work. b) A system absorbs 300 cal and at the same time 420 J of work
is done on it.c) Twelve hundred calories is removed from a gas held at constant volume. Give your answers in
kilojoules.
5. For each of the following adiabatic processes, find the change in internal energy. a) A gas does 5 J of work while
expanding adiabatically. b) During an adiabatic compression, 80 J of work is done on a gas.

Entropy and Second Law

A heat engine is a device that takes in energy by heat and, operating in a cyclic process, expels a fraction of that energy
by means of work. For instance, in a typical process by which a power plant produces electricity, coal or some other fuel is
burned, and the high-temperature gases produced are used to convert liquid water to steam. This steam is directed at the
blades of a turbine, setting it into rotation. The mechanical energy associated with this rotation is used to drive an electric
generator. Another device that can be modeled as a heat engine—the internal combustion engine in an automobile—uses
energy from a burning fuel to perform work on pistons that results in the motion of the automobile.

 A heat engine carries some working substance through a cyclic process during which (1) the working substance
absorbs energy by heat from a high-temperature energy reservoir, (2) work is done by the engine, and (3) energy
is expelled by heat to a lower-temperature reservoir. As an example, consider the operation of a steam engine,
which uses water as the working substance. The water in a boiler absorbs energy from burning fuel and
evaporates to steam, which then does work by expanding against a piston. After the steam cools and condenses,
the liquid water produced returns to the boiler and the cycle repeats.

It is useful to represent a heat engine schematically as in Figure 22.2. The engine absorbs a quantity of energy | Qh| from
the hot reservoir. For this discussion of heat engines, we will use absolute values to make all energy transfers positive
and will indicate the direction of transfer with an explicit positive or negative sign.

The engine does work Weng (so that negative work W = -Weng is done on the engine), and then gives up a quantity of
energy |Qc| to the cold reservoir. Because the working substance goes through a cycle, its initial and final internal energies
are equal, and so ΔEint = 0.Hence, from the first law of thermodynamics, ΔEint = Q + W = Q - Weng, and with no change in
internal energy, the net work Weng done by a heat engine is equal to the net energy Q net transferred to it. As we can see
from Figure 22.2, Qnet = |Qh| - |Qc |; therefore,
Weng= |Qh| - |Qc|