TRUSS DESIGN

Introduction
■ Truss is an arrangement of bars or members connected at joints.
■ In the truss design such as roof truss and lattice girders, no moment
are generated at the connection
– Connections often assumed to be nominally pinned.
■ In truss the external forces applied to the system and the reaction at
the support are generally applied at the nodes.
■ Used in bridge, roof structure, members supporting heavy loads and
members with long span.
■ Type of truss
– Planar truss
– Space truss
Planar truss
Space truss
■ Common members used in
truss system include
– Angle
– Double angle
– C – channels
– SHS
– CHS
– Cold formed steel
■ Terminology in truss system
■ Frame behaviour under action of the loading system

Compression
Term as struts

Tension
Terms as tie
Different shape of trusses
General procedure in simple
roof truss design
Start
Loading
Analysis assuming all joints are pin-jointed and all loading on the nodes, therefore the out put will
be
1. Tensile stress –normally occurs at bottom chord and sloped internal members
2.1Compression stress - occurs at top chord and the vertical internal members

Analysis of the load bearing members such as rafter as a continuous beam supported at the
nodes and loaded by the purlins
If the load positions are uncertain, the rafter moment may be taken as wL2/6(clause 4.10 d)
where L is the node to node length of the rafter and w is the total load per unit length applied
perpendicular to the rafter

Assessment if stresses due to eccentricity of the connections

Normally
ignored
Assessment of the effects of joint rigidity and deflection

End
Roof Truss members
■ Ratio of span to truss depth should be chosen in the range 10 to 15
■ To get the efficient layout of the truss members between the chords, the
following is advisable:
– The inclination of the diagonal members in relation to the chords
should be between 35o and 55o
– Point load should only be applied at nodes
– The orientation of the diagonal members should be such that the
longest members are subjected to tension ( the shorter ones being
subject to compression)
■ In general when truss is subjected to a given loading, the force developed
in each member either tensile or compressive and in certain cases even
bending
■ The roof load is transferred to the truss at joints by a series of purlins
(members running between the trusses
■ Purlins may also provide lateral support to the top chord
■ Truss is either supported by column or wall
■ Distance between trussed is terms as bays
– Spaced between 4.5m to 6m
■ Arrangement of internal bracing members under vertical loading
– Longer members (tension)
– Shorter members (compression)
– Depends on its span
■ Rafters are normally divided into equal panel lengths
■ The purlins should be supported at the node points, so that the rafters
are subjected only to axial force
■ In some cases purlins may have to be supported between
node points
– The rafters then have to be designed for bending and
shear in addition to axial forces
 Loading
■ Normal practice:
– Permanent action
■ Cladding, insulation, ceiling, self weight of structure and purlins
– Variable action
■ May be taken from any relevant codes. For roof:
– 0.75 kN/m2 – only access to the roof for maintenance and
repair
– 1. 5 kN/m2 –where there is access in addition to that in above
– Wind action
■ Guide given by BS 6339: Part 2 or CP3:Ch V:Part 2
■ Depends on the location of building, dimension, slope
■ Load combination
– Dead load
– Dead load plus imposed load
■ Normally use as a design criterion
– Dead load plus imposed load plus wind load
– Dead load plus wind load
■ Become important when force due to wind is greater than that due
to dead load
■ Always be checked when lightweight roof cladding is used
 Analysis of trusses
■ Primary forces
– Calculated by applying loads at the nodes and assuming the truss
is pin-jointed and statistical determinate.
– Local bending moment taken as Wl/6
■ Secondary stress
– Not necessary consider, however should be calculated for heavy
trusses used in industrial buildings and bridge
– These secondary stresses are caused by:
■ Load applied between the nodes of the truss
– Occurs to the rafter of the trusses where the purlins are not
positioned at the nodes.
– Bending moment should be calculated and combined to the
primary axial load and included in steel
■ Eccentricity at connections
■ Rigid jointed and deflection of trusses
– Bending moment is carry out using moment redistribution, computer
analysis or conservatively taken as

wL2/6 (clause 4.10 BS 5950)

where :
w is total load per unit length applied to perpendicular to the rafter
L is the length between nodes.

▪ Eccentricity at connection
▪ Moment due eccentricity should be divided between members meeting
joint in portion to their rational stiffness
 Load Applied between the nodes
of truss
Occurred at
rafter(Top
Chord)

*Calculation carried out by using moment distribution or computer analysis

 Design of Purlins
■ Purlins are those member in truss system which carries the roof sheet and
transfer the load to rafter

■ Design as a beam for flat roof where the slope of the roof is less than 10 0.
■ Alternatively empirical method is applied if the condition suggested in
clause 4.12.4.2 and 4.12.4.3 in BS 5950 are met
Clause 4.12.4.3
■ Purlins must satisfy:
– The slope of the roof should be less than 30o from the
horizontal
– Loading on purlins should be uniformly distributed
– Limitation of section modulus Z about its axis, member
dimension D and B are given in Table 27 BS5950.

Extract form BS 5950 * In EC Zp = Wel, D=h, B = b

■ Design condition for purlins
– Minimum steel grade of S275
– Unfactored load should be used
– Uniform loading
– The slope of the roof should not exceed 30o from the horizontal
– Section modulus Z, and dimension B and D should not be less than
the respective values given in Table 2.7 BS 5950: part 1: 2000.
Example 5.1 : Analysis of trusses
Given:
– Imposed load on plan, Qk = 0.75 kN/m2
– Dead load on plan, Gk = 3 kN/m2
– Spacing between trusses St = 5m
– Purlin spacing Sp = 2m
Determine the loading transfer to the node.

a
b
c
d
 Purlin

Apex Apex
a

Purlin b
St
spacing,
Sp
c Sp
Sp Truss

PLAN
Truss
VIEW
spacing, St St
Solution:
Design load per unit area,
q = Gk + Qk
= (3kN/m2) + (0.75kN/m2)
= 3 + 0.75 = 3.75 kN/m2
Area of load transferred to intermediate node,
A = Sp  St = 5m  2m = 10m2
Point load,
P = q  A = 3.75kN/m2  10m2 = 37.5
37.5kN
37.5kN 37.5kN
37.5kN 37.5kN
18.75kN 18.75kN

a
b
c
d
Example 5.2 : Purlin design
A plane truss is arranged all purlins on its node. Design the purlin using
single angle sections, with the following data;

Spacing between trusses = 5m

Weight of roof sheet, insulation and purlins (on slope) = 0.35 kN/m2
Self-weight of truss (on slope) = 0.20 kN/m2
Imposed load (on plan) = 0.75 kN/m2

6.324 m
2m

12 m
Solution:

According to BS roof slope should be less than 30o

2 6.324
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = → 𝜃 = 18.4𝑜 < 30𝑜 2
6

Purlin design 6
Permenant Load = 0.35 kNΤm2 (on slope)
6
Variable Load = 0.75 × = 0.79 kNΤm2 (on slope)
6.324
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑛 = 6.324Τ3 = 2.11𝑚

𝑊𝑝 = 1.0𝐺𝑘 + 1.0𝑄𝑘 = 0.35 + 0.79 × 2.11 × 5 = 12.03 kN

Use angle for purlins and referring to BS 5950 Table 2.7

𝑊𝑝 𝐿 12.03 × 5000
𝑍𝑝 = = = 33.41 cm3
1800 1800
 𝐿 5000
h= = = 111.11 mm
45 45

Assume sag rod are assigned on the middle of purlins between two
trusses, thus
𝐿Τ2 5000Τ2
𝑏= = = 41.67 mm
60 60
Therefore use single angle 125×75×10L (𝑍𝑥 = 36.5 cm3 = 𝑊𝑒𝑙

Loading transferred to the trusses (on slope)

Permenant Load = 0.35 +0.2 = 0.55 kNΤm2 (on slope)

Variable Load = 0.79 kNΤm2 (on slope)
Total permenant load, 𝐺𝑘 = 0.55 × 2.11 × 5 = 5.8 kN
Total variable load, 𝑄𝑘 = 0.79 × 2.11 × 5 = 8.33 kN

Design load, P = 1.35𝐺𝑘 + 1.5𝑄𝑘 = 1.35 × 5.8 + 1.5 × 8.33 = 20.33 kN

■ Loading summary of truss

20.33 kN

20.33 kN 20.33 kN

20.33 kN 20.33 kN

10.17 kN 10.17 kN
Example 5.3
Design the purlin using single angle sections for the sloping truss
given. Using the following data:
slope = 1:2.5
spacing between trusses = 5.5 m
distance between purlin = 1.6 m
Permanent actions = 0.3 kN/m2 (on slope)
Variable actions = 0.75 kN/m2 ( on plane)
Permanent action on slope = 0.3 × 5.5 × 1.6 = 2.64 𝑘𝑁
Variable action on slope = 0.75 × 5.5 × 1.6 × 2.69Τ2.5 = 5.326 kN
Combine action, W = 1.35 × 2.64 + 1.5 × 5.326 = 11.55 kN
∴ Moment = WLΤ8 = 121.55 × 5.5Τ8 = 7.94kNm
Design by empirical method (no sag rod at the middle)
Wp = 2.64 + 5.326 = 8.77 kN (unfactored load)
From Table 2.7 BS 5950 : Part 1 : 2000
From Table 2.7 : BS 5950: Part 1: 2000
Z = Wp LΤ1800 = 7.94 × 5500Τ1800 = 24.27 cm3
D = LΤ45 = 5500Τ45 = 122.22 mm
B = LΤ60 = 5500Τ60 = 91.67 mm
Therefore, use single angle;
200 × 100 × 10𝐿 𝑍𝑥 = 93.2 𝑐𝑚3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐿 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
150 × 150 × 10𝐿 𝑍𝑥 = 56.9 𝑐𝑚3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐿 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Design by beam method (Clause 6.2.5 EN1993-1-1:2005)
Section should at least class 3 section

𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑒𝑙,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
3
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑚𝑖𝑛
8.8 × 10 = 275 → 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 32 𝑐𝑚3
1.0
Therefore, use single angle 120 × 120 × 10𝐿 𝑊𝑒𝑙 = 36 𝑐𝑚3
Check the deflection

5𝑊𝐿3 5 × 6.13 × 103 × 55003

𝛿= = = 20.7 𝑚𝑚
384𝐸𝐼 384 × 210 × 103 × 313 × 104

Allowable deflection (Table 8: BS 5950: Part 1 : 2000)

L 5500
= = 27.5 mm > 20.7 mm → OK
200 200
Verification of members in tension
■ Tension member fails when is reached the ultimate stress and the
failure load is independent of the length of the member.
■ For members that is purely in tension, section classification will not be
considered as it will not buckle locally.
■ Tension members are generally designed using rolled section, bars and
flats.
Design resistance
■ The design value of tension force NEd at each cross section shall satisfy
is define as
Clause 6.2.3 of EC3-1-1

and design tensile force Nt,Ed must be less than the design tensile
resistance moment ( Nt,Rd )
Clause 6.2.3 (1) of EC3-1-1
■ For section with hole, the tensile resistance is limited by the smaller of
Design plastic resistance Npl, Rd
𝑁𝑒𝑑
≤ 1.0 Eq (6.6) Clause 6.2.3
𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑

Design ultimate Resistance Nu,Rd

– Nu,Rd is the design of the net cross-section and is concerns with
the ultimate fracture of the net cross-section, which will
normally occur at fastener holes

𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝛾 Eq (6.7) Clause 6.2.3
𝑀0

Where Partial factor M is define form National annex

M U.K N.A. Value

M1 Resistance of cross sections 1.0
M2 Resistance of cross-sections in tension to fracture 1.25
■ Characteristic strength fy and fu
– According to UK National Annex the strength value is
define from the product standard.
Characteristic Strength( fy and fu )for Hot rolled sectionsExtract from Table 7 of
EN10025-2

Yield strength, Ultimate strength , fu

fy (N/mm2) (N/mm2)

3  tp  100
40  t  63

63  t  80
16  t  40

Steel Grade
t  16

tp < 3
S 235 235 225 215 215 360 360
S 275 275 265 255 245 430 410
S 355 355 345 335 325 510 470
■ Net Section (Area (A net)) Clause 6.2.2.2
– Members with significant holes (when the holes are large), the net
area of cross section is calculated
– Depend on holes position

i. Anet for non staggered fasteners

Anet = A - dot
ii. Anet for staggered fasteners

Where total area to be deducted should be taken as greater of

a) The maximum sum of the sectional areas of the holes on any line
perpendicular to the member axis

b) ; Measured on any diagonal or zig-zag line

 where :
t is the thickness of the plate
p is the spacing of the centre of the same two holes measured
perpendicular to the member axis
s is the staggered pitch of the two consecutive holes
n is the number of holes extending in any diagonal zig-zag line progressively
across the section
do is the diameter of hole

*for bolts ups to and including diameters of 24mm, the clearance should be 2mm
and above 24 mm should be 3 mm.
Example
■ Determine the Anet of the plate (140 x 10 mm) with the holes
as shown in Figure with 20 mm diameter bolts are used.
 A B
C

B C
A

Line perpendicular to axis

Section A-A
Area= 2 (22 x 10) = 440 mm2
Measured on any diagonal or zig-zag line
Section B-B
502 502
Area = 𝟏𝟎 3 x 22 − σ + ; = 243.3 mm2
4 x 30 4 x 30

Section C - C
 Anet = (140 x 10) – 440
502 502
Area = 𝟏𝟎 3 x 22 − σ + ; = 243.3 mm2 = 960 mm2
4 x 30 4 x 30
General of Angles under tension
■ Angles are extensively used as tension members in trusses
and bracing
■ If axially loaded trough centroid, could be designed as in the
case of plates.
■ Connected to gusset plats by bolting or welding only one of
the two legs and lead to eccentric tension in members
■ Design resistance for angles connected by 1 leg and other
unsymmetrical connected member in tension ( i.e. T or channel
section) (Clause 3.10.3 of EC3-1-8)
– Take into account the eccentricity in joints and the effect of the
spacing and edge distances of bolt

– A single angle in tension connected by a single row of bolts in one

leg, may be treated as concentrically loaded over an effective net
section.
– The design ultimate should determine as
follows (Clause 3.10.3 of EC3-1-8)
■ With 1 bolt

2.0 e2 −0.5d0 tfu

Nu,Rd =
γM2

Value of reduction
■ With 2 bolts factor (Table 3.8 of
EC3-1-8)
β2 Anet fu
Nu,Rd =
γM2

■ With 3 bolts
β3 Anet fu
Nu,Rd =
γM2
– For angle in tension connected through one leg, BS EN 1993-1-1,
6.2.3 (5) refers to Clause 3.10.3BS EN 1003-1-8.
■ EC does not cover the case of more than one bolt in the direction
perpendicular to the applied load. Therefore the resistance has been
calculated using expressions from BS 5950-1; the tables apply only
to a single row across the angle.
■ The value of the design resistance to tension Nt,Rd has been
calculated as follows;
𝐴𝑒𝑞 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑚0
Where
𝐴𝑒𝑞 is the equivalent area of the angle

For bolted section: 𝐴𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴𝑒 − 0.5𝑎2

For welded sections: 𝐴𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴𝑒 − 0.3𝑎2

𝐴𝑒 = 𝑎𝑒1 + 𝑎𝑒2 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑒 ≤ 1 ⋅ 2(𝑎𝑛1 + 𝑎𝑛2 )

– A block tearing check (BS EN 1993-1-8, 3.10.2) is also required
for tension members.
■ Tension member design step summary
1. Determine the design axial load Ned
2. Chose a section
3. Find fy and fu form the product standard
4. Get the gross area A and net area Anet
5. Substitute the value into the equations to work out Npl,Rd and
Nu,Rd
for angles connected by a single row of bolts, use the required
equation to work out Nu,Rd from EC3-1-8 which will depend on
the number of bolts
6. The design tensile resistance is lesser of the values of Npl,Rd
and Nu,Rd
7. Carry out tension check
Example 5.4
Calculate the design resistance, Nt,Rd of a plate as shown for steel grade
S275

Diameter + hole
clearance
Example 5.5 : Tension member
Consider the chord AB of the steel truss, indicated by the figure, assuming it is
submitted to a design tensile axial force of Ned = 220 kN. The cross section consists
of two angles of equal legs, in steel grade S234. Design chord AB assuming two
distinct possibilities for the connection:
a. welded connection
b. bolted connection
Verification:
Npl,Rd = Afy/ mo
= 960 x 275/1.0 = 225.6 kN
Nu,Rd = 0.9 Anet fy/ m2
Nu,Rd = 0.9 x 960 mm2 x 360/1.25
= 248.8 kN
Nt,Rd = 225.6 kN
NEd /Nt,Rd = 0.97 < 1.0 Ok
Example 5.6
A single unequal angle 125mm x 75mm x 8mm is connected to
12 mm thick gusset plate at ends with 6 no 16 mm diameter
rivets of Grade 4.6 to transfer tension as shown in figure below.
Determine the tension capacity of an angle section if
a. longer leg is connected to gusset plate.
b. shorter leg is connected to gusset plate.
Use 𝑓𝑦=250 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Clause
3.10.3
 Example 5.7
■ Design a single angle tie member to carry the design axial
tension of 375 kN with riveted connections. Use fy=250MPa
(Provide rivet preferably in single row)
Verification members under
compression
■ Maximum slenderness ratio
– Normally define in code and those often limit the minimum size of
the members that can be used in light trusses.
– Acceptable maximum slenderness values are :
■ Member resisting dead and imposed load-180
■ Members resisting wind load – 250
■ Any member normally acting as a tie but subject to reversal of stress
due to wind – 350
■ These limit ensure reasonably robust members are selected only light
load are involved.
■ Wind load are transient- larger slenderness are permitted than for dead
(permanent action) and imposed load (variable action)
■ These rules also reduce the likehood of damage occurring during
transport and erection.
Resistance of member

■ Evaluated by taking into account the mode of instability

– Local buckling of the section is controlled using section
classification and when necessary, effective section properties
(class 4)
– Buckling of the member is controlled by applying a reduction
coefficient in the calculation of resistance.
■ Buckling mode
– Only evaluate the flexural buckling of the compressed members in
the plane of the truss structure and out of the plane of the truss
structure
– Each mode , the buckling resistance is obtained by applying a
reduction to the resistance of the cross section.
■ Obtained from slenderness of the member which depends on the
elastic critical force (Clause 6.3.1.3 of EC3-1-1) and can be observed
according to Annex BB of EC3-1-1 for the following buckling mode:
 ■ For buckling in the plane of the truss beam:
– Buckling length is taken equal to 90% of the system length
( distance between nodes) when the truss member is
connected at each end with at least two bolts or by welding
(Annex BB)
– Exception for angle truss member(Annex BB(4))
■ For buckling out of plane of the truss beam
– Buckling length is taken equal to the system length.
– For buckling in the plane of the truss of the chord members in
uniform compression
■ Buckling length may be taken as 90% of its system length
(distance between nodes).
– For buckling out of plane of the truss
■ Difficult to determine using elastic critical
– Reason:1) there is not necessarily a lateral support at each
node of the truss 2) lateral support points are not
necessarily effectively rigid
 Chord
In plane Out of Plane
I or H Other open Hollow I or H Other open Hollow
Sections sections Section Sections sections Section
0,9L 1,0L 0,9L 1,0Ls 1,0Ls 0,9Ls

Where
L is the in plane system (distance between nodes)
Ls is the out of plane length (segment between lateral support)

TRUSS MEMBERS
In plane (except angle section) Out of plane
Appropriate fixity and end restraint Inappropriate end All cases
(with at lest 2 bolts or by welding) restraint
(with 1 bolt)
0,9L 1,0L 1,0L
Design resistance of cross section
■ The design value of compression force (Clause 6.2.4 of EC3-1-1), NEd at each
cross section shall satisfy:
𝑁𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑
■ And a compression member should be verified against buckling as follows;

𝑁𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑
■ For compression member, it is quite common to make up members from a truss
structure using two angles or two channels (UPE)
– To ensure that such build up members behave as sole members in the
flexural buckling mode, the two components are connected by small
battens
■ Must connected without sleek to prevent slip.
– The gap between angles, and the thickness of the battens, should be the
same as the thickness of the gusset to which the built-up member is
connected.
Members composed of two angles

Batten-long flat
strip of material,
e.g. wood, metal, for
securing something
■ The maximum spacing of the connections between members
is limited by EC3-1-1 to 15 times minimum radius of gyration
of the isolated component.
– Otherwise a more complex verification need to carried
out (taking into account the shear stiffness of the
composed member)
 Compression members : single angles
■ Often connected through one leg which introducing eccentricity with
respect to the centroid of cross section.
■ Complex determination of the compression capacity under eccentric
loading along with end restraint due to the symmetry of angle cross
section.
Design resistance of cross section
Generally for design cross section

For class 3 cross sections the value of N c,Rd is the same as the plastic
resistance, Npl,Rd
For class 4 cross sections the value of N c,Rd can be calculated using the
effective area
Design Buckling Resistance

– Design resistance for 2 modes of buckling

1. Flexural (F) buckling resistance (taking torsional – flexural
buckling effects into account),Nb,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd
2. Torsional (T) buckling resistance , Nb,T,Rd

1. Design flexural buckling resistance, N b,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd

– depend on the non-dimensional slenderness which in turn depends
on :
■ System length , L
– distance between intersection of the centroidal axes (or
setting out line of the bolts) of the angle and the members to
which it is connected.
■ The properties of the cross-section
 ■ The non dimensional slenderness for two or more bolts in
standard clearance holes in line long the angle at each end or
an equivalent welded connection is define in Annex BB (1) B
of EC3-1-1.
■ For Class 1,2 and 3 cross section
Clause 6.3.1.3
Annex BB (1) B

Lcr 1
i 1

E
 = 93,9
fy
■ For class 4 cross section

Eq 6.51 in Clause
6.3.1.3

Where Ly,Lz and Lv are the system length between intersections

These expression take into account of the torsional flexural buckling
effects as well as the flexural buckling effects.
■ For the case of a single bolt at each end, BS EN 1993-1-1 refers the user to
6.2.9 to take account of the eccentricity
2. Design torsional buckling resistance, Nb,T,Rd

– Flexural torsional buckling "Occurs in compression members only and it can be

described as a combination of bending and twisting of a member. And it must be
considered for design purposes, since the shape and cross sections are very
critical. This
T mostly occurs in channels, structural tees, double-angle shapes, and
equal-leg single angles"
– In the case of
– Doubly symmetric I and H sections (provided that both flanges are restrained at
positions of lateral restraint)
– Hollow sections
Torsional and flexural torsional buckling will not give a lower mode
than flexural buckling. And "The flexural-torsional buckling mode
should be considered only when the shear centre does not coincide
with the centroid." This is the reason why "channels, structural tees,
double-angle shapes, and equal-leg single angles" are more
susceptible to TFB.
– Design torsional buckling resistance depends on the non-dimensional
slenderness which is in turn depends on:
■ The system lengths , Lcr
■ The properties of the cross section
■ The non-dimensional slenderness
 Clause
6.3.1.4

■ The use of rolled hollow section for truss

– Provide far more efficient use of material
■ the buckling strengths are higher as radius of gyration are larger
■ lateral torsional buckling is either non existent in the case of square or
circular sections or the effect are much reduced for rectangular
sections.
■ Typical cross requiring check for torsional or flexural tortional
buckling (EN 1993-1-1)
Example 5.7 : compression
member
Member subjected to compression load. Design the web chord (Fe
430, S275) which subjected to compression load, NEd = 1630 kN.
Try section 244.5 x 10 CHS, Fe = 430 (S275)
d = 244.5 mm
t = 10 mm
A = 7370 mm2
I = 5073000 cm4
Wel = Wel,y = 415000 mm3
Wpl = Wpl,y = 503000 mm3
Section Classification
Steel grade, Fe 430, (S275)
t ≤ 40 mm, fy = 275 N/mm2, fu = 430 N/mm2,  = 0.92

From Table 5.2, sheet 3/3

d/t = 244.5/10

Overall cross-section classification is therefore Class 1

𝐴𝑓𝑦 7370 × 275
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = = 2026.75 𝑘𝑁
𝑀0 1.0
𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 1630 𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 2026.75 𝑘𝑁, 𝑂𝐾
Buckling resistance of section, clause 6.3.1 (3)

𝐴𝑓𝑦
The design buckling resistance is given as, 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 =
𝑀1
1
= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 < 1.0
ɸ+ ɸ − 2 ത

Where, ɸ = 0.5 1 +  − 0.2 + 2

𝐴𝑓𝑦
ത =
𝑁𝑐𝑟

2 𝐸𝐼 2 ×210000×50730000
𝑁𝑐𝑟 = = = 6571 𝑘𝑁
𝐿2𝑐𝑟 40002
Is given in this example
𝐴𝑓𝑦 7370 × 275
ത = = = 0.56
𝑁𝑐𝑟 6571 × 103
Selection of buckling curve a, α = 0.21
ɸ = 0.5 1 + 0.21 0.56 − 0.2 + 0.562 = 0.69

1
= = 0.91 < 1.0 𝑂𝐾
0.69 + 0.692 − 0.56

𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.91 × 7370 × 275

𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = = 1844.34 𝑘𝑁𝑁𝐸𝑑
𝑀1 1.0

= 1630 𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 1844.34 𝑘𝑁, 𝑂𝐾

The chosen cross section 244.5 x 10 CHS in Grade S275 steel is

acceptable
Example 5.8 Compression member
Double angles of 150 x 150 x 15L sizes are subjected to compression load
of 624.4 kN. The distance between nodes for the member is 5464 mm.
Solution:
Initially, as in common practice; the bending moment due to the self-weight
of the member is ignored. The effect of this moment will be evaluated later.
■ Data given :
– The roof is symmetrical :slope on each side is 3 %.
– Truss Span 46.6
– Simply supported at the tops of the columns
– General transverse stability of the building is provided by fixity of the columns at
ground level
■ Longitudinal stability is provided by a system of roof bracing and braced bays
in the walls
Compression
member(strut)

Vertical
member-column
■ Example is focused mainly on the trusses cross sections
(shape and orientation) and the in-and out-of-plane buckling
lengths

Design truss
compression
member
Determine the buckling length
Truss subjected to gravity loads, the upper chord is compressed and
need to design against in and out of buckling
Buckling length;
– In plane buckling length is distance between the nodes of the
truss
– Out of plane

Calculated compression force is NEd = 624.4 kN

 Notes: initially, as in common practice, the bending moment due to

the self weight of the member is ignored. The effect of this moment
will be evaluated later
1. Cross-section properties of a single angle
For a 150 × 150 × 15 L
A = 43 cm2
Gz = Gy = 4.25 cm—distance,c
Iy = Iz = 898.1 cm4
Iv = 369 cm4
For a pair of angles
Section area:
A = 2 × 43 = 86 cm2
Second moment of area out (also known as moment of inertia) of plane of the
truss (the section is assumed to be homogeneous), assuming the gap between
the angles is 10 mm:
Iy = 2 × 898.1 + 2 × 43 × (4.25+1.0/2)2 = 3737 cm4.
Second moment of area in the plane of the truss:
Iz = 2 × 898.1 = 1796 cm4
2. Class of section in uniform compression
Nominal thickness, 𝑡 < 40 𝑚𝑚
Material parameter for fy = 355 N/mm2;
235 235
= = = 0.81
𝑓𝑦 355

For an angle (EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2 (Sheet 3)):

ℎ 150
= = 10 ≤ 15 = 15 × 0.81 = 12.2
𝑡 15
𝑏+ℎ 150+150
= = 10 > 11.5 = 11.5 × 0.81 = 9.3
2𝑡 2×15

The section is a Class 4 and it is therefore not fully effective in uniform

compression. The effective area of the cross-section should be calculated with
reference to EN 1993-1-5. Such a calculation leads to a fully effective area:
Aeff = A = 86 cm2
3. Resistance of the cross-section
The resistance of the section in uniform compression is therefore given by:
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 8600 × 0.355
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = = 3053 𝑘𝑁
𝑀0 1.0

4. Buckling resistance of member (clause 6.3)

Buckling resistance in the plane of the truss
The buckling length is equal to:
0.9 × 5.464 = 4.918 m
The design buckling resistance of compression member
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑁𝑏,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 =
𝑀1
The elastic critical force is:
2 𝐸𝐼𝑧 2 × 210000 × 1796 × 104
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑧 = 2 = 2
= 1539 𝑘𝑁
𝐿𝑐𝑟 4918
The slenderness is given by:
𝐴𝑓𝑦 8600 × 0.355
ത 𝑧 = = = 1.408
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑧 1539

The buckling curve is curve b (EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.2), and the imperfection
factor is:
α=0.34
Φz = 0.5 1 + α ത 𝑧 − 0.2 + ത 2𝑧 = 0.5 1 + 0.34 1.408 − 0.2 + 1.4082 = 1697
1 1
𝑧 = = = 0.378
Φ + Φz − z 1697 + 1697 − 1408
2 2 2 2

And the buckling resistance is then:

𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.378 × 8600 × 0.355
𝑁𝑏,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 = = = 1154 𝑘𝑁
𝑀1 1.0
Buckling resistance out of plane of the truss
The buckling length is equal to the system length: Lcr,y = 5,464m.
The critical axial force is:
The elastic critical force is:
2 𝐸𝐼𝑦 2 × 210000 × 3737 × 104
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦 = 2 = 2 = 2594 𝑘𝑁
𝐿𝑐𝑟 546.5
The slenderness is given by:

𝐴𝑓𝑦 8600×0.355
ത 𝑦 = 𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦
= 2594
=1.085
The buckling curve is curve b (EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.2), and the imperfection
factor is:
α=0.34
Φy = 0.5 1 + α ത 𝑦 − 0.2 + ത 2𝑦 = 0.5 1 + 0.34 1.085 − 0.2 + 1.0852 = 1239
 1 1
𝑦 = = = 0.544
Φ + Φy2 − 2y 1239 + 12392 − 10852

And the buckling resistance is then:

𝑦 𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.544 × 8600 × 0.355

𝑁𝑏,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = = = 1661 𝑘𝑁
𝑀1 1.0
The buckling resistance in the plane of the truss is less and the
verification is:
𝑁𝐸𝑑 624.4
= = 0.5 < 1.0
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 1154
The resistance is adequate.
Example 5.9 : Diagonal in compression
Lateral restrain by roof purlins is provided for single-span roof trusses of 9 m
centers. The purlins are positioned at node points and are assumed to provide
lateral restraint to the top boom at 3-m centers.

Truss geometry, loading and analysis

It is assumed that the roof has no access, apart from maintenance, giving a
characteristic imposed load of 0.6 kN/m2.
The truss will be designed for a vertical uplift of 0.55 kN/m2 from wind.
Permanent actions
Cladding 0.2 kN/m2
Weight of truss 0.35 kN/m2
Services 0.05 kN/m2
Total 0.6 kN/m2
Design actions
It is assumed that the roof loading is applied at the nodes on the top chord of the
truss. The design loads may be derived as follow:
Variable actions 0.6 x 1.5 = 0.9 kN/m2
Permenant actions 0.6 x 1.35 = 0.8 kN/m2
1.7 kN/m2
The forces, F, applied to each node will be 1.7 kN/m2 x 9 x 3 = 45.9 kN
Wind Uplift
It is assumed that the services loading will not be present when there is full wind
causing uplift on the truss. The resulting restraining action will be the permanent
action less the allowance services = 0.6 – 0.05 = 0.55 kN/m2
The loding on trusses
Wind Uplift = 0.55 x 3 x 9 x 1.5 = 22.28 kN
Restraining permanent actions = 0.55 x 3 x 9 x 1.0 = 14.85 kN
Total uplift on each node = 7.43 kN
Because of the favourable event (wind uplift) , therefore the factor
design is 1.0Gk + 1.5 QK
a. Diagonal brace members
The critical member is that adjacent to the support.
Design forces
The tension force is 323 kN
The compression force is 52 kN
Check 120 x 120 x 10 angle grade Fe 430.
Section properties

h = 120 mm, t = 10 mm, iy = 36.7 mm, A = 2320 mm2

Nominal thickness, 𝑡 < 40 𝑚𝑚, Material parameter for fy = 275 N/mm2; fu = 430
N/mm2;
235 235
= = = 0.924
𝑓𝑦 275

For an angle (EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2 (Sheet 3)):

ℎ 120
= = 12 ≤ 15 = 15 × 0.924 = 13.86
𝑡 10
𝑏+ℎ 120+120
= = 12 > 11.5 = 11.5 × 0.924 = 10.63 ∴ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4
2𝑡 2×10
The section is a Class 4 and it is therefore not fully effective in uniform
compression. The effective area of the cross-section should be calculated
with reference to EN 1993-1-5. Such a calculation leads to a fully effective
area:
Aeff = A = 2320 mm2

Resistance of the cross-section

The resistance of the section in uniform compression is therefore given by:
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 2320 × 275
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = = 638 𝑘𝑁
𝑀0 1.0
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 52 .4
= = 0.08 < 1.0
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 638
Buckling resistance of member (clause 6.3)
Buckling resistance in the plane of the truss
Length, L = 𝐿 = 30002 + 22502 = 3750 𝑚𝑚
The buckling length is equal to:
0.9 × 3750 = 3375 m
The design buckling resistance of compression member
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑁𝑏,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 =
𝑀1
The elastic critical force is:
2 𝐸𝐼𝑧 2 × 210000 × 313 × 104
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑧 = 2 = = 569 𝑘𝑁
𝑙𝑦 33752
The slenderness is given by:
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑦 2320 × 0.275
ത 𝑧 = = = 1.06
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑧 569

The buckling curve is curve b (EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.2), and the imperfection
factor is:
α=0.34
Φz = 0.5 1 + α ത 𝑧 − 0.2 + ത 2𝑧 = 0.5 1 + 0.34 1.06 − 0.2 + 1.062 = 1.49
1 1
𝑧 = = = 0.39
1.06+ 1.062 −1.492
Φ+ Φ2z −2z

And the buckling resistance is then:

𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.39 × 2320 × 0.275
𝑁𝑏,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 = = = 215 𝑘𝑁
𝑀1 1.0
Buckling resistance out of plane of the truss
The buckling length is equal to the system length: Lcr,y = 3750 mm
The critical axial force is:
The elastic critical force is:
2 𝐸𝐼𝑦 2 ×210000× 313 ×104
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦 = = = 461 𝑘
𝐿2𝑐𝑟 37502
The slenderness is given by:
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑦 2320 × 0.275
ത 𝑦 = = = 1.17
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦 461

The buckling curve is curve b (EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.2), and the imperfection
factor is:
α=0.34
Φy = 0.5 1 + α ത 𝑦 − 0.2 + ത 2𝑦 = 0.5 1 + 0.34 1.17 − 0.2 + 1.172 = 1.25
1 1
𝑦 = = = 0.49
1.25+ 1.252 −1.172
Φ+ Φ2y − 2y
And the buckling resistance is then:
𝑦 𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.49 × 2320 × 0.275
𝑁𝑏,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = = = 318 𝑘𝑁
𝑀1 1.0
The buckling resistance in the plane of the truss is less and the
verification is:
𝑁𝐸𝑑 52
= =< 1.0
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 215
Member subject to Bending and axial
Force
■ Beam‐columns:
– Cross‐section check
– Member buckling check
■ Cross‐section checks similar to EC3-1-1, including a
simplified linear interaction, as below:

𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑

+ + ≤1
𝑁𝑏,𝑟𝑑 𝑀𝑦,b,rd 𝑀𝑧,𝑏,𝑟𝑑

■ More sophisticated expressions are also provided for Class 1

and 2 for greater efficiency.
■ Two philosophies:
■ Interaction method - Clause 6.3.3
•Interaction ‘k’ factors from Annex A or B.

■ General method General method - Clause 6, 3 .4

• Not for hand calculations (requires FE or similar)
 N Ed M y , Ed M z,E d
+ k yy + k yz 1
 y N Rk /  M 1  LT M y , Rk /  M 1 M z , Rk /  M 1
N Ed M y , Ed M z,E d
+ k zy + k zz 1
 z N Rk /  M 1  LT M y , Rk /  M 1 M z , Rk /  M 1