GEOENGINEERING & MICROSTRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF

ALKALI ACTIVATED FLY ASH GEOPOLYMER

Subham Das (1701616), Suvendu Kumar Swain (1701617), Vanshika Rai (1701618), Swati
Mohanty (1701619), Rajalaxmi Jena (1701628), Tapashree Pattanayak (1701629)
Guided by Prof. Aparupa Pani

ABSTRACT

Fly ash is the fine solid particulate residue driven out of the boiler with the fuel gases in coal-
fired power plants. Now it can be used for making geopolymer which acts as a cement-like
product. The geopolymerization technique provides an alternative good solution to the utilization
of fly ash with negligible harmful impact on environment. Geopolymer concrete is totally
cementing free concrete. In geopolymer, fly ash act as binder & alkaline solution act as an
activator. Concrete is worldwide used construction material after water. Ordinary Portland
cement is conventionally used as primary binder to produce concrete. Some inherent
disadvantages of OPC are still difficult to overcome. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal obtained
from thermal power plant. It is also rich in silica & alumina. the abundant availability of fly ash
worldwide create opportunity to utilize this byproduct of burning coal, as substitute for OPC to
manufacture concrete. The present study investigates the geo-engineering and microstructural
characteristics of alkali activated fly ash (FA). Fly ash is used as a raw material to provide silica
and alumina, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used as the only activator for the synthesis of
geopolymer.

Keywords – Fly ash; Geopolymer; Alkali activatation; Strength; Microstructure

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1. INTRODUCTION

Fly ash is the fine solid particulate residue driven out of the boiler with the fuel gases in
coal- fired power plants. Now it can be used for making geopolymer which acts as a cement-like
product. It provides an alternative good solution to the utilization of fly ash with little negative
impact on environment. Geopolymer concrete is totally cement free concrete. Fly ash is a
byproduct of coal obtained from thermal power plant. It is also rich in silica & alumina. The
abundant availability of fly ash worldwide create opportunity to utilize this byproduct of burning
coal. At present, India produces approximately 180 million-tons of fly-ash. The disposal of such
huge quantity of ash is a serious issue.
Fly ash is a fine gray powder consisting mostly of spherical, glassy particles that are
produced as a byproduct in coal-fired power stations. Fly ash has pozzolanic properties, meaning
that it reacts with lime to form cementious compounds. It is commonly known as a
supplementary cementitious material. Fly ash is produced by coal-fired electric & steam
generating plants. Typically, coal is pulverized & blown with air into the boiler's combustion
chamber where it immediately ignites, generating heat & producing a molten mineral residue.
Fly ash is collected from the exhaust gases by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters. The
harmful toxic elements present in fly ash are arsenic, mercury, cadmium, & uranium. Fly ash use
in concrete improves the workability of plastic concrete, & the strength & durability of hardened
concrete. Fly ash use is also cost effective.

MERCURY ARSENIC CADMIUM URANIUM

Figure 1 Different materials

2. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The aim of our project is to study geoengineering and microstructural properties of alkali
activated fly ash geopolymer. For this study chemical additives such as sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), and Potassium hydroxide (KOH) has been used. The

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mechanical and microstructural improvement of chemically activated geopolymers at various
conditions has been tested.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW

Geopolymer has been evolve as a another form of cementitious material (Davidovits,

1991). Geopolymerization relies on alumino-silica chain. Source materials from industrial waste
like fly ash which contains higher percentage of amorphous silica and alumina are suitable for
making geopolymer. Usually, in this process fly ash is mixed with alkali solution to obtain
alumina and silica precursors. When it comes into contact with alkali, the process of dissolution
initiates (Comrie and Kriven, 2003). At low temperature when fly ash activated with alkaline
solution it becomes geopolymer, sometimes called as alkali-activated fly ash geopolymer.
The huge production of fly ash creates serious disposal problem in addition to several
environmental and ecological issues (Praharaj et al. 2002). In general, the combustion of sub
bituminous and lignite coal produces ash with good cementitious properties due to the presence
of 5–15% calcium oxide, whereas the bituminous and anthracite coal ash exhibits insignificant
cementing properties due to the presence of less amount of calcium oxide (Sridharan et al. 1996).
Further, due to the presence of harmful toxic metals and organic contaminants, fly ash has been
categorized as a hazardous waste. It also has a capacity for high adsorption of heavy metals due
to its fine nature (Zhou et al. 2015).
Hence, by keeping the aforementioned issue the present study focuses on the strength and
microstructural characteristics of fly ash geopolymer. An experimental work has been carried out
to study the effect of various concentrations of sodium hydroxide such as 1, 2, 4, and 8 M in
terms of molarity to fly ash ratios on the mechanical and microstructural properties, after
specified days of curing.

4. MATERIALS

In the present research work, a low calcium class F fly ash was used as a source material which
was obtained from Nalco, Odisha, India. Then raw fly ash was then oven-dried at a temperature
of 105°C to 110°C for 24 h and for further use, it was stored in an airtight container. The
physical properties and chemical composition of fly ash is given in Table 1 and 2 respectively.
NaOH solution was prepared by dissolving NaOH pellets in distilled water one day prior to the

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testing to attain thorough dissolution and complete heat dissipation process. Summary of
synthesis parameters is shown in Table 3.
Table 1 Physical Properties of Fly ash

Properties Value Properties Value

Colour Light grey Specific gravity 2.42
Shape Spherical Specific surface area (m2/g) 29.3

Table 2 XRF Data Analysis of Fly ash

Constituents Compositions (%) Constituents Compositions (%)

Silica (SiO2) 57.5 Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 2.6
Alumina (Al2O3) 18.9 Sulfate (SO4) 1.4
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 9.5 Unburnt Carbon 6.0
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 3.4 Others 0.7

Table 3 Summary of Synthesis Parameters

Raw Material Fly ash

Alkali Activator NaOH concentration (0.5, 1, 2, and 4 M)
Curing Period (Days) 3, 7, 28 Days
Curing temperature Room Temperature

5. METHODOLOGY

The geopolymer synthesis was done by mixing alkali activator of different molarities such as 1,
2, 4, and 8 M into the fly ash and mixed well by using mechanical mixer for 1.5 minutes. The
fresh geopolymer mixtures were quickly casted into the Vicat’s mould and the setting time was
determined at room temperature according to ASTM C191-08.
Further, geopolymer mixtures were placed in the mould of size 50×50×50 mm (ASTM
C109-01). Cube samples were cured at room temperature for 3, 7, 28 days. After completion of
specified days of curing these cube specimens were tested under a compression testing machine
at a loading rate of 0.9 kN/sec as per ASTM C109-01 and the average strength of three identical
specimens were taken into account.

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 The reaction products and microstructure of alkali activated fly ash geopolymer was
studied after 28 days of curing by X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and scanning electron
microscope (SEM). After completion of compressive strength test, the broken samples were
collected and soaked in ethanol to stop further reaction process. These specimens were grounded
finely by using mortar pestle to a size less than 75 micron and thoroughly homogenized. The
development in reaction product and microstructural changes were further compared with the
untreated fly ash specimen.

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 Setting Time

The initial and final setting time of fresh geopolymer mixtures prepared at different
concentrations is presented in Figure 2. It is noticed that, the increase in alkali concentration
reduces the setting time. The increase in hydroxide ions accelerates the development of
aluminosilicate gel; thus minimizes the setting time. However, the untreated fly ash specimen
shows an initial setting time of 11 hr and final setting time overreaches 24 hr. This is owing to
sluggish chemical reaction of fly ash with time under ambient room temperature. Similar type of
observation is noted by Temuujin et al. (2009).

1600 Initial setting time Final setting time

1400
Setting Time (min)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
1 2 4 8
NaOH Concentration (M)

Figure 2 Effect of NaOH concentration on setting time

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6.2 Compressive Strength

Figure 3 depicts the compressive strength development of fly ash geopolymer for different alkali
concentration after specified days of curing.

16
1M
Compressive Strength (MPa) 14
2M
12 4M
10 8M
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30

Curing Period (Days)

Figure 3 Compressive strength of geopolymer mortar

It is observed that highest value of compressive strength attained at 8 M sodium hydroxide

solution in spite of the curing period. Similar trend of results is found by many researchers
(Rattanasak and Chindaprasirt, 2009; Zhang et al. 2014; Pani and Singh, 2018). It is found that,
higher dosage of alkaline solution accelerates the dissolution and hydrolysis process which
enhances the development of polymeric compounds. Thus, increases the compressive strength.
The highest compressive strength achieved after 28 days of curing is 13.5 MPa. This result
indicates curing condition is also an important parameter for development of compressive
strength.

6.3 Microstructural Study

The reaction compounds formed by alkali activation of fly ash with 8 M concentration at
different curing period are examined by XRD and SEM and are presented in Figure 4 and 5
respectively. The XRD pattern of raw fly ash shows the peaks of quartz, mullite and hematite.
The diffractograms of the geopolymer specimens after 7 and 28 days of treatment with 8 M
NaOH solution shows prominent peaks of aluminosilicate compounds of albite and sodalite.

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These geopolymeric compounds are responsible in reducing the setting time and increasing the
compressive strength.

Figure 4 X-ray diffractogram of fly ash geopolymer

Further, SEM micrograph of fly ash shows the appearance of unreacted spherical particles with a
relatively smooth surface. However, after 7 and 28 days the deposition/agglomeration of
aluminosilicate gel over the surface of the fly ash particle is clearly noticeable (Pani and Singh,
2019a; Pani and Singh, 2019b). Later these small spherical agglomerated gels get merged and
converted to more-ordered structures.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5 SEM micrographs of fly ash geopolymer (a) Fly ash, (b) After 7 days and (c) After
28 days

7. CONCLUSION

Setting time and compressive strength values of fly ash geopolymers are studied and these are
correlated with the developed reaction products. This study has shown that, the increase of

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NaOH concentration reduces the setting and increases the compressive strength. Thus, NaOH
concentration play significant role in influencing the mechanical properties of blended
geopolymer. The developed sodium based aluminosilicate compounds of albite and sodalite are
the main reaction products responsible for the strength increment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project would not have been possible without the support of School of Civil
Engineering, KIIT DU. Further, I would like to thank the Director of SCE for constantly
motivating the students, and Lab assistant of Geotechnical Engineering Lab for always being
available during the whole study.

REFERENCES

1. A. Pani and S. P. Singh, “Effect of temperature on the strength of lime-stabilised fly

ash,” Environmental Geotechnics, pp.1-11, 2018.
2. A. Pani and S. P. Singh, “In-situ stabilization of sedimented ash deposit by partial penetrating
chemical columns,” Journal of environmental management, vol. 231, pp. 21-32, 2019a.
3. A. Pani and S. P. Singh, “Leaching of Major and Trace Elements from Ash Beds Treated
with Chemical Columns,” Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, vol. 23 (2),
pp. 04019003, 2019b.
4. A. Sridharan, N. S. Pandian and C. Rajasekhar, “Geotechnical characterization of pond ash.”
In Proc., Conf. on Ash Ponds and Ash Disposal Systems, pp. 97–110. New Delhi, India:
Indian Institute of Technology, 1996.
5. ASTM C109 / C109M-01, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic
Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube Specimens), ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2001, www.astm.org
6. ASTM C191-08, Standard Test Methods for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat
Needle, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2008, www.astm.org
7. D. C. Comrie and W. M. Kriven, “Composite cold ceramic geopolymer in a refractory
application,” Ceramic Transactions, vol. 153, pp. 211–225, 2003.

148
8. J. Davidovits, “Geopolymer: inorganic polymeric new materials,” Journal of Thermal
Analysis, vol 37, pp. 1633–1656, 1991.
9. J. V. Temuujin, A. Van Riessen and R. Williams, “Influence of calcium compounds on the
mechanical properties of fly ash geopolymer pastes,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol.
167(1), pp. 82–88, 2009.
10. J. Zhou, S. Wu, Y. Pan, L. Zhang, Z. Cao, X. Zhang and G. Qian, “Enrichment of heavy
metals in fine particles of municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) fly ash and associated
health risk,” Waste Management, vol. 43, pp. 239-246, 2015.
11. M. Zhang, T. El-Korchi, G. Zhang, J. Liang and M. Tao, “Synthesis factors affecting
mechanical properties, microstructure, and chemical composition of red mud–fly ash based
geopolymer,”. Fuel, vol. 134, pp. 315–325, 2014.
12. T. Praharaj, M. A. Powell, B. R. Hart and S. Tripathy, “Leachability of elements from sub-
bituminous coal fly ash from India,” Environ. International, vol. 27 (8), pp. 609–615, 2002.
13. U. Rattanasak and P. Chindaprasirt, “Influence of NaOH solution on the synthesis of fly ash
geopolymer,” Minerals Engineering, vol. 22(12), pp. 1073–1078, 2009.

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BEHAVIOUR OF SURFACE FOOTING RESTING ON REINFORCED
LAYERED SOIL
Name of the students – Sudhansu Sarkar (1601153), Tanmoy Paul (1601157)
Guided by Prof. Bandita Paikaray

ABSTRACT

The work presented here includes laboratory model testing on surface footing placed on sand
overlying crusher dust - a two layer system of soil. Here the experimental work has been conducted
on unreinforced and geosynthetic reinforced soil condition at loose and medium dense state of soil.
The reinforcement has been used at interface to find its effect on bearing capacity compared to
unreinforced state of soil.For loose state, a relative density of 35% has been chosen and for medium
dense state, a relative density of 67% has been taken for both sand and crusher dust. The effect of
relative density, effect of reinforcement as well as the effect of top layer lying above bottom layer
on bearing capacity of surface footing has been studied here.

Keywords – model testing, surface footing, relative density, crusher dust, geosynthetic
reinforcement, bearing capacity

150
1. INTRODUCTION

In day today life, huge amount of waste materials are produced due to rapid industrialization. They
are the main cause for environment pollution causing health hazards to a great extent. By utilizing
these wastes such as red mud, fly ash, stone dust and marble dust in bulk below foundation, in
embankment and in pavement construction, their adverse effect can be minimized. Crusher dust
being an industrial waste produced hugely from construction site is used as a foundation material
for the present study. Many research work has been conducted on sand as a foundation material to
find bearing capacity of model footing. But as a natural source, keeping an eye on it, its depletion
day by day is also causing a alarming situation for future. Hence to minimise its use in foundation,
crusher dust can be used as a replacement or in combination with sand. In the present study, crusher
dust is used as a bottom layer having sand as top in combination giving rise to a two layer soil
condition. Many research work have been conducted in past on sand only (Abtahi and Boushehrian
(2018), Farsakh et al. (2013), Latha and Somwanshi (2009), Yetimoglu et al. (1994). Also sand is
used in two layer condition combined with different density of sand or with clay as a bottom layer
with reinforcement at the interface. (Ibrahim (2016), Saha and Deb (2017). In previous study, no
research work has been conducted on crusher dust using in foundation except few. (Bai et al.
(2012), Paikaray et al. (2018), Paikaray et al. (2019).
2. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of the present study is to find the bearing capacity of surface footing placed on sand
overlying crusher dust at relative density of 35% and 67% without reinforcement and with
reinforcement at interface.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW

Sand as a foundation material has been taken in many model testing found in literature to find the
bearing capacity of different types of footing at different relative density state.Yetimoglu et al.
(1994) conducted model tests in laboratory to find the bearing capacity of rectangular footing on
geogrid reinforced sand. A cubical tank of size 0.7m (L) × 0.7m (B) × 1m (D) was used for model
testing .The rectangular footing of size 127mm (l)×101.5mm (b)×12.5mm (t) was placed over
sand filled in the tank with a relative density of RD 73%.The top layer depth (u) of geogrid was

151
optimized giving higher ultimate bearing capacity. The intermediate layer (h), number of layers
(N) and geogrid size giving the maximum result was found out.
Latha and Somwanshi (2009) determined the bearing capacity of a square footing place on
geosynthetic reinforced sand bed. The bearing capacity at reinforced stage was giving higher value
than the unreinforced soil bed.
Farsakh et al. (2013) studied that the behaviour of square and rectangular footing on sand along
with two reinforcements such as geotextile and geogrid. Square footing of size
152mm(l)×152mm(b) × 25.4mm(t) and rectangular footing of size 254mm(l) × 152mm(b) ×
25.4mm(t) were used in the test tank of size 1.5m(L)×0.91m(B)× 0.91m(D). The test showed better
result of using geogrid than geosynthetic.
Abtahi and Boushehrian (2018) found the effect of contamination on bearing capacity of circular
footing by adding gasoline and kerosene to the foundation sand bed. Similarly in two layer soil
condition, sand has been used always with different density as a top layer to increase in bearing
capacity of soft soil like clay. Also reinforcement like geosynthetic is used at interface to enhance
the same at different layers towards top from the interface level. Roy and Deb (2017) have taken
sand as top layer on clay using geosynthetic in many layers from the interface to find the bearing
capacity of a rectangular footing. The effectiveness of multi-layer reinforcement was studied by
comparing the bearing capacity improvement factor, settlement reduction factor, and load-spread
angle. Bai et al.(2012) have only studied the effect of crushed stone as top layer over soft using
geobelt as reinforcement. Similarly Paikaray et al. (2019) conducted model test on crusher dust as
a foundation material for square footing at interference to find the ultimate bearing capacity. Also
the effect of reinforcement layout has been studied at interference of opting on crusher
dust.(Paikaray et al., 2020).
4. METHODOLOGY

The following procedure and methodology has been followed for conducting the present study.
The model test was conducted in the specific research laboratory of school of civil engineering,
KIIT University. The test tank used for this specific test is of 1.6m (L) ×1.0m (B) ×1.2m (H). The
model footing is of size 0.18m (l)×0.18m(b) with thickness of 0.025m. The tank was filled with
crusher dust at the bottom up to a depth of 60% of the total height of the tank and the sand was
filled upto the rest of the tank till the top. Sand behaving as a well graded material was placed at
the top of the poorly graded crusher dust. The grain size distribution of both the materials are

152
presented below in Fig.1 The coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of curvature of crusher dust
are found to be 8,36 and .415 and for sand , it is of 2.28 and 1.03 respectively. As the sand carrying
Cc as 1.03 considering as a well graded material was considered as the top layer over crusher dust.
Both the materials were collected from Banki (sand) and Khurda(crusher dust) of Odisha (Fig.2).
Geosynthetic was used as reinforcement in between two layers of sand and crusher dust at the
interface. It was collected from NTPC, Kanhia. (Fig.3). The tensile strength of geosynthetic was
found to be 8.5kN/m.

100 110
100
Percentage finer (%)

80 90
80
60 70
60
40
50
20 40
30
0 20
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 10
0
Particle size (mm)
0.01 0.1 1 10

Figure 1 Grain size distribution of crusher dust and sand

Figure 2 Crusher dust and sand used as foundation material

The crusher dust and sand were filled inside the test tank by using a funnel to flow the material
from a fixed height to maintain the relative density by raining technique. At the top of the sand,
the mode footing was placed and set with LVDTs at its four corners to find the settlement at the

153
time of testing. Similarly, a load cell was placed at the centre of the footing to apply the concentric
load on the footing. The load-settlement data was obtained for different state of relative density
with and without geosynthetic and graph was plotted to find the ultimate bearing capacity of
footing.

Figure 3 Geosynthetic used for present study

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter deals with the presentation of test result, and discussion of the present study. The
results and analysis of the whole study is presented here in detail.

Applied pressure (kN/m2)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0

10
Settlement (mm)

20

30
Qult=98kN
/m2
40

50

Figure 4 Load-settlement curve for RD 35% CD and RD 35% sand without reinforcement

154
The load-settlement curve for reinforced crusher dust and sand at RD 35% is presented in Fig.5.

Applied Pressure (kN/m2)

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0

5
Settlement (mm)

10 Qult=184
kN/m2

15

20

25
Figure 5 RD 35% CD and RD 35% sand with reinforcement

Similarly for RD 65% CD and Sand with and without reinforcement test was conducted and the
results were obtained presented in Table1.
Table 1 Ultimate bearing capacity values at different density with and without
reinforcement
Sl.No Soil Relative Footing Reinforcement Qult Variation of Qult
density on same density
(RD)
1 CD+Sand 35%+35% Square unreinforced 98kN/m2 87.75kN/m2
2 35%+35% reinforced 184kN/m2
3 67%+67% unreinforced 280kN/m2 23.57kN/m2
4 67%+67% reinforced 346kN/m2

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6. IMPLICATIONS ON SOCIETY

Producing in huge quantity from the crusher units during the processing of aggregates, crusher
dust is available plenty. Environment pollution is the main cause of its deposition. Using in bulk
below foundation, in pavements, in embankments can reduce its bad effect which will be a great
help to the society.
7. CONCLUSION

The present study summarizes the following conclusion

1. The effect of two layer state of soil is giving better result of bearing capacity to crusher dust
than in combination with sand than in isolation.

2. The Qult in unreinforced state of soil is giving less value than reinforced state at RD 35% with
a percentage variation of 87.75%.

3. The Qult in unreinforced state of soil is giving less value than reinforced state at RD 67% with
a percentage variation of 23.57%.

4. The variation of Qult at loose soil compared to dense soil in two layer condition is of 185% and
88% at unreinforced and reinforced soil .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thankful to the school of civil engineering department of Kiit University for providing such
research facility in specific research laboratory to execute the model tests.This will contain a 3-4
line on whom you want to acknowledge for the project.

REFERENCES

1. Abtahi, S. A., & Boushehrian, A.H. (2018). Experimental Behaviour of Circular Abu-
Farsakh, M., Chen, Q. and Sharma, R.(2013). An experimental evaluation of the behaviour of
footings on geosynthetic-reinforced sand. Soils and Foundations, 53(2), 335-348.

156
2. Abu-Farsakh, M., Chen, Q. and Sharma, R.(2013). An experimental evaluation of the
behaviour of footings on geosynthetic-reinforced sand. Soils and Foundations, 53(2), 335-
348.
3. Ismail Ibrahim, K. M. H. (2016). Bearing capacity of circular footing resting on granular soil
overlying soft clay. HBRC Journal, 12(1), 71–77.
4. Latha, G. M., & Somwanshi, A. (2009). Bearing capacity of square footings on geosynthetic
reinforced sand. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 27(4), 281–294.
5. Paikaray, B., Das, S. and Mohapatra, B. (2019) . Interference of Two Shallow Square Footings
on Geogrid Reinforced Crusher Dust. Sustainable Construction and Building Material 25,
Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 41-60.
6. Paikaray, B., Das, S. K. and Mohapatra, B. G. (2020). “Effect of reinforcement layout on
interference effect of square footings on reinforced crusher dust”. International Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2020.1712531.
7. Paikaray, B., Das, S.K., Mohapatra, B.G., Swain, S.P., Swain,S. (2020). "Bearing capacity
analysis based on optimization of single layer depth of reinforcement below rectangular
footing" LNCE, Pg 47-56.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4577-1_4.

8. Roy, S. S., Deb, K. (2017). Bearing Capacity of Rectangular Footings on Multilayer

Geosynthetic-Reinforced Granular Fill over Soft Soil. Int. J. Geomech, 17(9): 04017069-1-
04017069-15.

9. Yetimoglu, T., Wu, T. H., Saglamer, A. (1994). Bearing capacity of rectangular footings on
geogrid-reinforced sand. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 120 (12): 2083-2099.

157
PARAMETRIC STUDY ON LOAD SETTELMENT BEHAVIOUR OF
SINGLE PILES USING API RECOMENDED T-Z RELATIONSHIP FOR
SANDY SOILS
Arpan Thakur, Sobhan kumar Samal, Akash Das, Amit Nayak and Sudhanshu Bhusan Mohapatra
Guided by Prof. Satyajeet Nanda

ABSTRACT

Load settlement behavior of pile is an essential part of a design for a pile foundation. Soil pile
interaction and nonlinear end bearing governs the load settlement behavior of piles. The soil-
structure interface depends on various factor like surface roughness of construction material, the
composition of soil, relative density, grain size distribution, shape of soil particles, moisture
content of soil, magnitude of normal stress, rate of shearing and mode of shearing. The soil pile
interaction cane be expressed by using t-z relationship. Recently, API (American Petroleum
Institute) has recommend t-z relationship for single piles. This project conducted a parametric
study on load settlement behavior using API recommended t-z curves. The results indicate that the
load settlement behavior of pile is very sensitive to pile dimension, water table and strength
parameter of soils.
Keywords – Load settlement behavior, t-z curve, API, skin friction, end bearing

158
1. INTRODUCTION

Several approaches are used to predict the load-transfer curves for piles. The load-transfer,
or t-z, curve is the graphical representation of shear stress at the pile shaft due to the vertical
movement of pile. The t-z curve varies with depth, soil-pile interface friction angle, and type of
pile installation. Several empirical and theoretical models have been proposed for the prediction
of t-z curve. The empirical models (e.g., Coyle and Reese 1966; Coyle and Sulaiman 1967;
Vijayvergiya 1977; Briaud and Tucker 1984; Mosher 1984; API 2000) are very site-specific and
may produce error up to 100%. Coyle and Reese (1966) reported error between computed and
actual load carrying capacity of pile varies from +61 % to -52% using their proposed empirical t-
z curve. The theoretical models (e.g. Randolph and Wroth 1978; Kraft et al. 1981; Zhu and Chang
2002) are more versatile and are capable of accommodating site-specific soil stress -strain
behavior, soil stress history, soil-pile interaction and pile installation. The theoretical model
proposed by Randolph and Wroth (1978) is based on linear elastic behavior. The theoretical
models by Kraft et al. (1981) and Zhu and Chang (2002) are based on the non- linear soil stress-
strain behavior.

159
 ሺ𝐐𝟎 , 𝐙𝟎 ሻ

Layer-1 τ
ሺ𝐙𝟏 , 𝛕𝟏 ሻ
𝐙𝟏 Zs

τ
Layer-2
ሺ𝐙𝟐 , 𝛕𝟐 ሻ
𝐙𝟐 Zs

τ
Layer-3 ሺ𝐙𝟑 , 𝛕𝟑 ሻ
𝐙𝟑 Zs

τ
Layer-4 ሺ𝐙𝟒 , 𝛕𝟒 ሻ
𝐙𝟒 Zs

τ
Layer-5 ሺ𝐙𝟓 , 𝛕𝟓 ሻ
𝐙𝟓 Zs

τ
Layer-6 ሺ𝐙𝟔 , 𝛕𝟔 ሻ
𝐙𝟔 Zs

Base
ሺ𝐰𝟏 , 𝐏𝟏 ሻ
𝐰𝐨

𝐏𝐛

wb

Fig.1. Pile spring arrangement. The dot on the t-z and P-w curve indicate mobilized stress/load

with pile movement.

Figure1 shows pile and springs arrangement used in the mathematical formulation. The pile is
assumed to be vertical. For analysis, the embedment length of pile is equal to the total length of
pile during the analysis. The pile material is assumed to be linearly elastic throughout its length at
all level of load applied on the head of the pile. In the majority of analysis the radial soil
displacement due to the Poisson effect of pile material under vertical pile load is assumed to be
negligible compared to the vertical soil deformation. The behavior of spring can be replaced with
the t-z curve. Although analytical methods are available, however API recommended t-z has been
extensively used in practice. In this research parametric study has been conducted to study the

160
effectiveness of API recommended curve in sandy soils. In order to performer the numerical study
an algorithm proposed by Nanda et al (2014) has been used. The algorithm has been implemented
using Ms. Excel and Visual basic.

2. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of this study is to conduct parametric study on load deformation behavior of using
API t-z curve. This parametric study has three objectives;
i. Effect of changing in water table depth on load settlement behavior of soils
ii. Effect of soil properties on load settlement behavior of soil
iii. Effect of rate of change of soil strength properties on load settlement behavior of pile

3. API t-z relationship

The API (2002) recommended graphical t-z curves based on large amount of data base are
shown in Figure 2. The t represents shear strength induced at soil pile interface and z is the
deformation. For sand the variation of t-z curve is linear and no softening behavior is considered.
In case of clay soil the variation of t-z curve is nonlinear and softening behavior is considered. The
recommended values of tres/tm are in the range of 0.7 to 0.9. The limitations are the soil stiffness
and nonlinear soil behavior are not considered and the maximum deformation remains constant
along the pile depth. The toe resistance can be determined by the relationship give in API also
shown in the Fig. 3. The maximum shear strength is calculated by using various cluses of API
2002.

161
Figure 2. The t-z curve for sand and clay soil (API 2002)

Figure 3. The Q-z curve for end bearing resistance at pile base (API 2002)

162
4. ALGORITHM

The procedure used for developing load settlement curve is similar to the procedure
discussed by Coyle and Reese (1966). Some of the steps proposed by Coyle and Reese (1966) have
been modified to accommodate computer coding and faster computation. The procedure starts by
applying a small deformation at the base of the pile. Detailed steps are given below.
i. Divide the pile into number of segments
ii. Assume a small pile base settlement and compute the base resistance from the equation
(Fig.3)
iii. Assumes t as some percentage of tm.
iv. Using equation (Fig.2) determine the pile settlement
v. Using τ used in step iv, compute the load at the top of the segment as
q = Pb + tCLi
C = Circumferential area, Li = Length of segment
vi. Compute the elastic deformation of pile segment by
qm +Pb Li
( )( ) q+Pb
2 2
S1 = where, qm =
AE 2

vii. The total midpoint settlement of the pile segment is S2 = S1 + wb .

viii. If zs is less than S2, increase a small amount in τ and repeat steps iv to vii.
ix. If zs is greater than S2, decrease a small amount in τ and repeat steps iv to vii.
x. If S2 and zs agree with tolerance (S2-zs< 10-5), move to the next segment which is just above
the preceding segment. Use Pb =Q in step v and repeat steps iii to ix. The procedure
continues until computation reaches the uppermost segment of pile.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The parametric study is conducted by varying the depth of water table, soil strength parameters
and rate of increase of soil strength parameters. In the first stages the water table effect will be
evaluated. The saturated and bulk density of soil are 18.5 kN/m3 and 16 kN/m3 respectively. The
length of pile is 20m. For numerical analysis the pile has been divided in to 20 segments. The
limiting skin friction of 47.5 kPa and 67kPa has been consider for depth of 0 to 10m and for rest
of soil respectively. Table 1 shown the input parameters used for the first stage of parametric study.
In this stage both the interface friction angle and water table shall be varied.

163
 Table.1 Input parameters for parametric study

φ (varies from top to bottom) Slope of φ δ (varies from Water depth Curve
variation, Δφ/L top to bottom) from surface No.
10 (Top) to 30 (Bottom) 1 2/3 φ 0 1
1 2/3 φ 5 2
1 2/3 φ 10 3
1 2/3 φ 15 4
15 (Top) to 32 (Bottom) 0.85 2/3 φ 0 6
0.85 2/3 φ 5 7
0.85 2/3 φ 10 8
0.85 2/3 φ 25 10
18 (Top) to 35 (Bottom) 0.85 2/3 φ 0 11
0.85 2/3 φ 5 12
0.85 2/3 φ 10 13
0.85 2/3 φ 15 14
20 (Top) to 38 (Bottom) 0.9 2/3 φ 0 16
0.9 2/3 φ 5 17
0.9 2/3 φ 10 18
0.9 2/3 φ 25 20
23 (Top) to 40 (Bottom) 0.85 2/3 φ 0 21
0.85 2/3 φ 5 22
0.85 2/3 φ 25 25
30 (Top) to 40 (Bottom) 0.5 2/3 φ 0 26
0.5 2/3 φ 5 27
0.5 2/3 φ 25 30

Fig.4 shown the results of parametric study using input as shown in Table 1. The x-axis and y-axis
represent load on pile head and deformation in mm respectively. The input parameters for each
curve number shown in Fig.4 are given in Table.1. The interface friction angle is considered as 2/3
time the angle of internal friction of soil. The computed load settlement behavior is largely
nonlinear. The effect of water table is very clear from Fig.4., that is, the load settlement behavior
is steeper as water table moves downwards. With water table change from 0 to L (Pile length)
around 40% change in ultimate load carrying capacity was observed. Increased in soil strength
parameters increases the ultimate load carrying capacity of pile and the load settlement relationship
became more stepper. Comparing Fig.4(a) and Fig 4(b) it can be observed that at slower rate of
change of soil strength properties may marginal increase the ultimate load carrying capacity of
piles. In Fig. 4(a) and Fig. 4(b) the Δφ/L varies at 1 and 0.85 respectively. The trend on load
settlement behavior observed using t-z relationship recommender by the API is quite similar to the
observed load settlement behavior of piles of large scale model test.

164
 Load, kN Load, kN
0 1000 2000 3000 0 1000 2000 3000
0 0
2 2
Deformation

Deformation
4 4

6 6

8 8
3 4 6 7 8 10
10
1 2 10

Load, kN Load, kN
0 1000 2000 3000 0 1000 2000 3000
0 0

2 2
Deformation
Deformation

4 4

6 6

8
8 16 17 18 20
11 12 13 14 10
10

Load, kN Load, kN
0 1000 2000 3000 0 1000 2000 3000
0 0
1 1
2 2
Deformation

Deformation

3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 21 22 25 26 27 30
9

Fig. 4. Results of parametric study

165
7. CONCLUSION

Following conclusions can be made from the above study.

1. The numerical prediction of load settlement behavior of pile using API t-z relationship
possesses similar trend as observed in field studies.
2. Water table variation can change the load carrying capacity of piles up to 40%.
3. Slow rate of variation of soil strength can increase pile load carrying capacity
4. The load settlement behavior become more steeper with increase in water table depth and
soil strength parameters

REFERENCES

1. API(2000). RP 2A-WSD: Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and

Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms—Working Stress Design, Washington, DC:
American Petroleum institute.
2. Abramowitz, M., and Stegun, I. A. (1972). “Handbook of mathematical Functions”, U.S.
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC.
3. Coyle, H. M., and Reese, L. C. (1966). “Load transfer for axially loaded piles in clay.” J.
Soil Mech. and Found. Div., 92(2), 1–26.
4. Jardine, R., Chow, F., Overy, R., and Standing, J. (2005). ICP design methods for driven
piles in sands and clay, Telford, London.
5. Randolph, M., and Gourvenec, S. (2011). Offshore geotechnical engineering ,Spon, New
York
6. Randolph, M. F., and Wroth, C. P. (1978). “Analysis of deformation of vertical loaded
piles.” J. Geotech Engineering. Div., 104(12), 1465–1488.
7. S. Nanda and N. R. Patra (2014) “Theoretical Load-Transfer Curves along Piles
Considering Soil Nonlinearity”, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 140(1), 1-10

166
EVALUATION OF THE GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF

MSW IN A LANDFILL

Alisha Maity (1601244) , Aman Aravind Sahoo (1601245), Ankit Yadav(1601247), Anshuman

Barua (1601248), Asutosh Kumar Singh (1601249), Enoswar Bramha (1601250), Arindam Dutta

(1601251)

Guided by Prof. Preetynanda Nanda

ABSTRACT

The geotechnical properties of fresh municipal solid was studied. The present study was aimed at

the viewpoint of reclamation of the dumps for infrastructural development, which is based on

their geotechnical properties. The characteristics of municipal solid was changed with aging due

to degradation. The degradation of solid was altered along with time and their engineering

properties depending on their physical and chemical characteristics. A comprehensive laboratory

study has been taken up to study the properties of fresh municipal solid (MSW) from KISS

landfill site, near Bhubaneswar in India. Laboratory testing includes moisture content, particle

size analysis, shear parameters, compression ratio, hydraulic conductivity properties and organic

content. Until now, there is no standard procedure for conducting tests of fresh MSW samples in

laboratory or in-situ. Preparing the fresh MSW samples for the testing is very challenging. It

requires lots of laboratory and in-situ testing to understand the behavior of fresh MSW materials

in the landfill.

Keywords – MSW, compaction, hydraulic conductivity, particle size

167
1. INTRODUCTION

Solid Waste Management is a very complex problem in both developing and developed
countries. For many countries, engineered land filling continues to be an affordable and
environmentally acceptable method of solid will be disposed. Due to increase in population,
the amount of solid will be generated is increasing day by day. The waste that are generated
in cities are disposed in different ways. Scientific disposal of large quantities is a challenging
problem at all levels - global, regional and local levels, creating nuisance in the cities.
Historically, will be disposed of unscientifically leading to the development of many will be
dumped around the cities and towns. In Bhubaneswar the city population is about 0.83 million
and has more than 100 industries working at various industrial estates and other locations too.
In this study, the fresh municipal solid was collected from landfill site near KISS, near KIIT
UNIVERSITY and will be analysed for important geotechnical properties such as compaction
characteristics, shear strength, permeability and compressibility behaviour. Thus, this research
aims to provide valuable information about KISS landfill site reclamation needed for closure.
Physical characteristics vary with time due to continuous application of surcharge or
overburden. Consequently, the geotechnical properties vary with time.

2. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of the present study is to characterize MSW of KISS site and determining it's
geotechnical properties like compaction characteristics, hydraulic conductivity, shear strength
parameters, and finding its suitability as a landfill material.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW

Reddy et al., (2011) studied the effect of biodegradation on synthetic MSW and consequent
changes in hydraulic conductivity, compressibility and shear strength are studied. It is concluded
that hydraulic conductivity of synthetic MSW was decreased by two orders of magnitude due to
degradation. Compression ratio was reduced from 0.34 to 0.15 for degraded sample. Similarly
cohesion value increased from 1 kPa for fresh MSW to 16-40 kPa and friction angle decreased
from 35 degree for fresh MSW to 28 degree for degraded MSW. This is attributed to the lack of
materials such as metals, plastics and textiles in the samples. With increased degradation

168
primary and secondary compression ratios also decreased. For both fresh MSW and degraded
MSW with increase in horizontal displacement both friction angle and cohesion increased
significantly.

Reddy et al., (2015) collected fresh MSW samples from Orchard hills landfill and it was
subjected to leachate recirculation and enhanced anaerobic degradation in specially designed
laboratory bioreactors. With degradation organic content, hydraulic conductivity and moisture
content and bulk unit weight increased. Friction angle decreased from 30 degree to 12 degree,
but cohesion value increased from 29 to 65 kPa.

Machado et al., (2010) shows the effect of overburden stress. The permeability has a range in
between 10-5 to 10-8 m/s. CPT and SPT results in BL showed a clear relationship between them:
by increasing the NSPT values both the tip resistance and sleeve friction increases. In the case of
MCL this trend is not pronounced and it seems that with the increasing NSPT value, both the tip
resistance and sleeve friction remain almost constant.

Babu et al., (2014) investigated the importance of consideration of spatial variation of

geotechnical properties of MSW in the probabilistic stability assessment of MSW landfill slopes.
The two important probabilistic characteristics of the MSW spatial variability, i.e., coefficient of
variation and auto correlation distance, are studied. The MCS technique, combined with
numerical analysis, is used for the reliability analysis of landfill slopes. The results of the
analysis indicate that factor of safety evaluated with spatially varied geotechnical properties of
MSW are lower than the corresponding values evaluated for uniformly constant geotechnical
properties of MSW.

Ramaiah et al., (2017) found that modified compression index of MSW at the two dump sites is
between 0.11 and 0.17 and is falling on the lower side of the data reported for MSW in the
literature. This is attributed to relatively low percentages of compressible elements such as
plastics and paper, coupled with the high percentages of inert materials such as gravel-sized and
soil-like materials. Solid waste specimens prepared with fibrous materials exhibited a continued

169
increase of shear stress without any peak stress.

4. METHODOLOGY

A detailed procedure has been followed in order to achieve the desired objective which are
provided below.
• Study of literature
• Site selection, material collection, and testing
4.1 Site selection and material collection

KISS Landfill site has been selected for detailed study on characterization, potential for
contamination and exploring methods of improving their geotechnical behavior by
stabilization method. Most of the dumped in various illegal sites. Thus, the landfill site from
KISS has been taken for detailed investigation.

4.1.1 Sample collection:

MSW received at compost plant is a mixture of decomposed material with plastic, metal,
glass, sand and other non-biodegradable material. MSW components were grouped into
different fractions (easily degradable, moderately degradable, hardly degradable, and inert)
depending on their biodegradability. Sufficient quantity of fresh MSW was collected from
this heap and kept in closed bags and carried to the laboratory for characterization as part of
this study.

170
Fig.1 Landfill site of KISS

Figure 1 Campus 6 square, KIT DU

4.2 Methodology

Geotechnical Properties of MSW

4.2.1 Particle Size Distribution

The mechanical behaviour and decomposition of municipal solids are strongly influenced by
the particle size distribution. Due to the presence of large particles and heterogeneity, the
grain size distribution of MSW is extremely difficult to determine.

4.2.2 Moisture Content

The moisture content were determined by wet basis as follows: A representative sample as
received is taken and weighed as received (wet weight, WW). The sample was dried in hot air
oven at 60°C until it reaches equilibrium (dry weight of sample, Wd). The moisture content
of fresh will be on wet weight basis is about 55%. This may be due to more water present in
the organic content.

171
 SIEVE MASS OF %RETAINED CUMULATIVE% %FINER
SIZE RETAINED SOIL OF TOTAL RETAINED OF
IN EACH SIEVE WEIGHT TOTAL
4.75 346 19 19 81
3.35 314 17.2 36.2 63.8
2.8 312 17.1 53.3 46.7
2.36 373 20.4 73.7 26.3
1.18 336 18.4 92.1 7.9
0.075 105 5.7 97.8 2.2
PAN 34 1.8 99.6 0.4
W1=1820g
90
80 81

70
63.8
60
50
46.7
40
30
26.3
20
10 7.9
0 2.2 0.4
4.75 3.35 2.8 2.36 1.18 0.075 PAN

Figure 2 Particle size analysis of MSW

Table 1 Typical composition of fresh MSW at KISS landfill site.

Easily Biodegradable Cooking waste

Garden waste
Medium Biodegradable Paper
Cardboard
Food Carton
Sanitary waste
Hardly biodegradable Textiles
Nappies
Wood
Inert waste Metal

172
 Plastic bottles
Other plastics
Special waste
Medical waste
Other waste
Inert waste
Glass

Residual fines Fines (<20mm) include inert fraction which is hard

to visually identify and separate.

4.2.3 Specific gravity

Pycnometer method was employed to determine specific gravity for MSW in laboratory for
finding the specific gravity of MSW. Specific gravity of MSW in the present study was found
to be 2.23. The lower value of specific gravity can be due to the presence of decomposed
organic matter.

4.2.4 Compaction Characteristics-

Standard Proctor compaction tests were conducted on fresh municipal solid will be. The
results of this study indicate that the maximum density may be achieved if the moisture
content will be increased to optimum compaction conditions. Standard proctor test was
conducted as per ASTM D698. 25 no of blows was given in three equal layers. Maximum dry
density was obtained as 450 kg/m3 and OMC as 60%.

173
 Figure 3 Segregation of MSW and collection of waste

4.2.5 Hydraulic conductivity

The hydraulic conductivity of municipal solid (MSW) must be estimated for the design of the
landfill containment systems. Hydraulic conductivity was determined as per ASTM D5084. In
accordance with the Indian environmental regulations, leachate head over the bottom liner
must not exceed 0.3 m. Therefore, a leachate collection and removal system (LCRS) is
designed to remove leachate accumulated over the bottom liner. The hydraulic conductivity of
municipal solid (MSW) must be estimated for the design of the landfill containment systems.
In accordance with the Indian environmental regulations, leachate head over the bottom liner
must not exceed 0.3 m. Therefore, a leachate collection and removal system (LCRS) is
designed to remove leachate accumulated over the bottom liner. Hydraulic conductivity was
found to be in the range of 4.5x10-5 to 5.3 x 10-6 cm/sec.

4.2.6 Organic content

174
 The composition, characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW) and macro nutrient contents
of their organic fraction were evaluated through in depth field and laboratory studies
conducted at the land fill site

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

MSW collected was subjected to various test like particle size analysis, moisture content
determination, hydraulic conductivity, and compaction. It was found that specific gravity of the
given sample 2.23. Moisture content was obtained as 55%. OMC and MDD obtained from
compaction test was found to be 60% and 450 kg/m3 respectively. Hydraulic conductivity was
obtained as 4.5x10-5 cm/sec.

6. IMPLICATIONS ON SOCIETY
Characterization of given MSW and finding its geotechnical properties is the need of the hour.
As it can be further used for land filling in low lying areas. Thus it’s various geotechnical
properties and its environmental impact needs extensive research.

7. CONCLUSION
Fresh MSW collected from the KISS landfill site Landfill in KISS (Bhubaneswar) was tested
for particle size distribution, compaction characteristics, hydraulic conductivity,
compressibility, and shear strength properties. The following conclusions were drawn from
the results of this study:

A maximum dry density of 450 kg/m3 was observed at 60% optimum moisture content; The
composition of MSW should be taken into account when the compaction characteristics are
interpreted. The hydraulic conductivity of fresh MSW was measured. Compression ratio
values varied. Drained cohesion of fresh MSW and drained friction angle was calculated.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project would not have been possible without the support of School of Civil
Engineering, KIIT DU. Further, I would like to thank the Director of SCE for constantly
motivating the students, and Lab assistant of geotechnical engineering lab for always being
available during the whole study.

175
REFERENCES

1. Babu, G. S., Reddy, K. R., & Srivastava, A. (2014). Influence of spatially variable

geotechnical properties of MSW on stability of landfill slopes. Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and

Radioactive Waste, 18(1), 27-37.

2. Reddy, K. R., Hettiarachchi, H., Gangathulasi, J., & Bogner, J. E. (2011). Geotechnical

properties of municipal solid waste at different phases of biodegradation. Waste

management, 31(11), 2275-2286.

3. Reddy, K. R., Hettiarachchi, H., Parakalla, N. S., Gangathulasi, J., & Bogner, J. E. (2015).

Geotechnical properties of fresh municipal solid waste at Orchard Hills Landfill, USA. Waste

management, 29(2), 952-959.

4. Machado, S. L., Karimpour-Fard, M., Shariatmadari, N., Carvalho, M. F., & do Nascimento, J.

C. (2010). Evaluation of the geotechnical properties of MSW in two Brazilian landfills. Waste

management, 30(12), 2579-2591.

5. Ramaiah, B. J., Ramana, G. V., & Datta, M. (2017). Mechanical characterization of municipal

solid waste from two waste dumps at Delhi, India. Waste Management, 68, 275-291.

176
EFFECT OF GGBS IN ENGINEERING BEHAVIOUR OF EXPANSIVE
SOIL
Shree Priya (1601219), Shreeya Bhargavi (1601221), Subhadip Bhattacharjee (1601221),Subham
Kumar (1601222), Snehanshu Sunil (1601223),Sonu Kumar Sharma (1601224) and Soumili
Debnath (1601225)
Guided by Prof. Rachita Panda

ABSTRACT

Soil Stabilization may be defined as alteration or modification of soil properties to improve the
engineering characteristics and performance of a soil. Black cotton soil is known for its high swell
potential and low shear strength. Stabilization of such soil using cement or lime is well established.
But very few have researchers have tried the blast furnace slag (an industrial waste) for this
purpose. In this study, experimental investigations were done to know the effect of ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) on black cotton soil with small percentages of lime. It is
found to be very useful for the purpose and also it is beneficial to the environment by putting an
industrial waste to good use as well as reducing the carbon foot print by not using cement.This
paper reports the findings of laboratory tests carried out on local Indian expansive black cotton
soil collected from Khorda, Odisha with GGBS mixed with the expansive soil in different
proportions. The specimens compacted to their respective Proctor’s optimum moisture content and
dry density (which varied from mixture to mixture) were cured for a period of 7, 14 and 28 days
and their unconfined compression strengths were determined. It is observed that the strength
improvement depends on the amount of GGBS used and the effect of curing period is less
pronounced. Further it was shown that the initial tangent modulus values generally increases with
increase in GGBS content.

Keywords – Black cotton soil, GGBS, Unconfined compression strength, Tangent modulus.

177
1. INTRODUCTION

Expansive soils cause major damage to property. These soils contain mineral such as
montomorillonite clay that is capable of absorbing water. When they absorb water they increase
in volume. The more water they absorb the more their volume increases. This change in volume
can exert enough force on a building, sidewalks, driveways, basement floors, pipelines and even
foundations to cause damage. These distress problems have resulted in loss of billions of dollars
in repairs and rehabilitation (Nelson and Miller 1992).While mechanical compaction, dewatering
and earth reinforcement can improve the strength of the soils, other methods like stabilization
using admixtures are more advantageous. Various admixtures available are lime, cement, fly ash,
blast furnace slag etc. Cement and lime stabilization have been widely used to improve the strength
of the expansive soils (Yong et al. 1996). But cement and lime being costlier these days increase
the overall cost of the project. Therefore research has concentrated on reducing the cost of the
binders.
Another issue that the world is facing today is the disposal of industrial wastes like Fly ash, Ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). There is a great need to utilize these wastes in a beneficial
way. Several projects have illustrated that successful waste utilization (e.g. combining industrial
waste with additives like lime) could result in considerable savings in construction costs (Kamon
and Nontananandh 1991).Swelling in most soils can be controlled by converting the soil to a rigid
or granular mass, the particles of which are sufficiently strongly bound to resist the internal
swelling pressure of the clay. The addition of industrial products like fly ash, GGBS produces a
high concentration of calcium ions in the double layer around the clay particles, hence decreasing
the attraction of water. Also the pozzolanic compounds bind soil particles to improve the strength
and decrease swelling. It also promotes the flocculation of dispersed clay particles.

2. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of the present study is to measure the physical and mechanical characteristics of raw
and blended black cotton soil which includes index properties,compaction test and CBR test such
that the evaluated results can be studied with respect to social and economical point of view.

178
3. LITERATURE REVIEW

Akinmusuru (1991) studied the effect of mixing of GGBS on the consistency, compaction
characteristics and strength of lateritic soil. He observed a decrease in both the liquid and plastic
limits and an increase in plasticity index with increasing GGBS addition. Further, he observed that
the compaction, cohesion and CBR increased with increasing the GGBS content up to 10% and
then subsequently decreased. The angle of internal friction decreased with increasing GGBS
percentage.
Sharma and Shivapullaiah (2011) studied the compaction behavior and effect of unconfined
strength of soil stabilized with fly ash and GGBS. They found that the addition of GGBS with and
without fly ash and lime has significant influence on the geotechnical characteristics of the soil.
Yadu et al (2013)evaluated the potential of granulated blast furnace slag (GBS) to stabilize a soft
soil. Soft soil samples were collected from Tatibandh-Atari, rural road of Raipur, Chhattisgarh.
This soil was classified as CI-MI as per Indian standard classification system (ISCS). Different
amounts of GBS, i.e., 3, 6, 9 and 12% were used to stabilize the soft soil.Based on strength
performance tests, optimum amount of GBS was determined as 9%. Moreover, results indicate
that inclusion of GBS increases the strength of soft soils, for example, UCS of 9% GBS modified
soil was found approximately 28% higher compared to raw soil. Similarly, significant
improvement has been observed for unsoaked and soaked CBR value of soils.
Above studies, motivated the authors to investigate the potential of industrial waste like ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) to stabilize the clayey soil
MATERIALS:
GGBS: GGBS is a consequence of iron manufacturing acquired by heating of the earthy
constituents of iron-ore with the limestone and coke at high temperature in the blast furnace about
1500O C. It was collected from Steel industry, Bhubaneswar, Odisha at Rs 200/- per bag. The
G.G.B.S contain (30% - 50%) of CaO, (28% - 38%) of SiO2, (8% - 24%) OF Al2O and (1% -
18%) of MgO. Workability and strength properties are improved when GGBS is added to BC soil.
Black cotton soil: The soil was collected from Khorda,Odisha and free swell test was carried out
to check the swelling percentage of said soil followed by grain size distribution,liquid limit,plastic
limit and compaction test.

179
 Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3 Figure 4

From the tests conducted it is evident that the soil possesses very less bearing strength which was

not suitable for construction purpose.

4. METHODOLOGY

The soil collected from the site was pulverized with wooden mallet to break lumps and then air-
dried. Processing of GGBS was done on the similar line as that of raw soil. For the soil sample by
adding percentages like 10%, 20%,30% of GGBS for BC soil tests were conducted on soil sample
to know the properties.
1. Atterberg’s limits:
When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil it can be remoulded in the presence of some
moisture without crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed water surrounding the
clay particles. Liquid limit increases with the increasing of the quantity of expansive clay minerals

180
such as montmorillonite, etc.The determination of the Atterberg’s limits using GGBS gives a good
indication of the loss of plasticity index of BCsoil .
Table 1

2. Swelling Property variation:

In order to determine the change in swelling percent of the BC soil due to the addition of GGBS
free swell tests were carried out.A 0.7 kPa pre-loading pressure and samples with a radius of 75
mm were used in the tests. The sample in the ring was placed between two porous stones, loaded
with 0.7 kPa, and cell was fully filled with water. After the specimen was allowed to swell,
readings of dial gauge were periodically.
Compaction properties i.e. maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC)
were determined in the laboratory of all trial mixture in accordance with IS: 2720 (Part 8) - 1983.
A number of Soil-GGBS combinations were used to determine the compaction and strength
properties of blended mixes in accordance with BIS.The soaked CBR tests were conducted on
samples compacted at OMC, and soaked for 96 hours in accordance with IS: 2720 (Part 16) –
1987.

Figure 5

181
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Standard Proctor tests were used to establish the dry density-moisture content relationship and
carried out the test of soil with various amounts of GGBS added consider the effect of GGBS on
optimum moisture content and maximum dry density the test of soil with 0 % to 30% by dry weight
of soil with increase in 10%.The figures show that GGBS can enhance the strength of the soil up
to a content of 30% in fig.6. Fig.7 indicates that there is a significant amount of increase in CBR
value upto 30% addition of GGBS and the optimum result is also obtained from 30% GGBS. The
improvement can be explained by the development of cementitious compound between the GGBS
and the soil (Yadu & Tripathi, 2011). GGBS has a minimal degree of hydration due to its low pH
and for it to be effective in terms of soil stabilisation it should be activated with a suitable activator
in order to break its glassy phase. Thus in the future work, the second stage of optimisation process
will be carried out involving the activation of GGBS.
6. IMPLICATIONS ON SOCIETY

Based on the results of this research, it appears that black cotton soil can be effectively stabilized
with the addition of GGBS mixtures. GGBS mixtures are suitable for use in rural roads,
embankments and it be used as provide fill materials of comparable strength.

7. CONCLUSION

These are the following conclusions of conducted experiment. The results of the
tests are as follows.

1. OMC increased and MDD decreased with the addition of GGBS to the BC soil,
Moreover MDD increased with increase in GBS content in GGBS SOIL mixtures. This
is due to predominant effects of reduced clay content and increased frictional resistance
respectively.

2. The OMC and MDD for GGBS and lime is individually mixed with B.C soil by using
standard proctor test. It obtained that 14.1% water content and 1.67% dry density for 30%
of GGBS.

3. The plasticity index reduced significantly with the addition of GGBS content to the
mixture.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project would not have been possible without the support of School of Civil
Engineering, KIIT DU. Further, I would like to thank the Director of SCE for constantly motivating
the students, and Lab assistant of Transportation Engineering Lab for always being available
during the whole study.

REFERENCES

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3. Yadu, L.K., Tripathi, R.K., and Singh, D.V. (2011b). “Comparison of Fly Ash and Rice Husk
Ash Stabilized Black Cotton Soil,” International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering,
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