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    1.2 - Unit1 - Proposition, Logical Operators, Truthtables

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    Dr. Sushant Shekhar
    The document discusses tautologies, contradictions, and contingencies in logic. It defines each term and provides examples. A tautology is always true, a contradiction is always false, and a contingency is neither. The document also covers logical equivalences using truth tables to show that statements have the same truth values. These include De Morgan's laws, distributive laws, and equivalence. Exercises are provided to verify logical statements using truth tables.

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    1.2 - Unit1 - Proposition, Logical Operators, Truthtables

    Uploaded by

    Dr. Sushant Shekhar
    72 views5 pages
    The document discusses tautologies, contradictions, and contingencies in logic. It defines each term and provides examples. A tautology is always true, a contradiction is always false, and a contingency is neither. The document also covers logical equivalences using truth tables to show that statements have the same truth values. These include De Morgan's laws, distributive laws, and equivalence. Exercises are provided to verify logical statements using truth tables.

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    1.2_Unit1_Proposition, Logical Operators, Truthtables

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    The document discusses tautologies, contradictions, and contingencies in logic. It defines each term and provides examples. A tautology is always true, a contradiction is always false, and a contingency is neither. The document also covers logical equivalences using truth tables to show that statements have the same truth values. These include De Morgan's laws, distributive laws, and equivalence. Exercises are provided to verify logical statements using truth tables.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    72 views5 pages

    1.2 - Unit1 - Proposition, Logical Operators, Truthtables

    Uploaded by

    Dr. Sushant Shekhar
    The document discusses tautologies, contradictions, and contingencies in logic. It defines each term and provides examples. A tautology is always true, a contradiction is always false, and a contingency is neither. The document also covers logical equivalences using truth tables to show that statements have the same truth values. These include De Morgan's laws, distributive laws, and equivalence. Exercises are provided to verify logical statements using truth tables.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 5

    Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr.

    Emad Al-Zangana
    Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

    1.3. Tautology /Contradiction / Contingency


    Definition 1.3.1. (Tautology)

    A tautology (theorem or lemma) is a logical proposition that is always true.

    Remark 1.3.2. One informal way to check whether or not a certain logical formula is
    a theorem is to construct its truth table.

    Example 1.3.3. p ∨ ~p.

    Definition 1.3.4. (Contradiction)

    A contradiction is a logical proposition that is always false.

    Example 1.3.5. p ∧ ~p.

    Definition 1.3.6. (Contingency)

    A contingency is a logical proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

    Example 1.3.7.

    (i) The logical proposition p ∨ q → ~r is a contingency. See Example 1.2.3(i).

    (ii) The logical proposition p ∨ ~ (p ∧ q) is a tautology.

    p q p∧q ~ (p ∧ q) p ∨ ~ (p ∧ q)

    T T T F T

    T F F T T

    F T F T T

    F F F T T

    Exercise 1. 1.3.8

    8
    Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
    Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

    (i) Build a truth table to verify that the logical proposition

    (p ↔ q) ∧ (~p∧ q)

    is a contradiction.

    (ii) (Low of Syllogism) Show that the logical proposition

    [(p → q) ∧(q → r) ] →(p → q)

    is a tautology.

    Definition 1.3.8. (Logically equivalent)

    Propositions r and s are logically equivalent if the truth tables of r and s are the same
    and denoted by (r ≡ s).

    Example 1.3.9. Show that

    (p → q) ∧ (q → p) ≡ p ↔ q.

    Solution. Show the truth values of both propositions are identical.

    p q ~q p→q ~(p → q) p ∧ ~q

    T T F T F F

    T F T F T T

    F T F T F F

    F F T T F F

    Theorem 1.3.10. (Relation Between Logical Equivalent and Tautology)

    r ≡ s if and only if the statement r ↔ s is a tautology.

    1.3.11. Algebra of Logical Proposition

    9
    Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
    Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

    The logical equivalences below are important equivalences that should be memorized.

    1-Identity Laws: p ∧ T ≡ p.
    p ∨ F≡ p.

    2-Domination Laws: p ∨ T ≡ T.
    p ∧ F ≡ F.

    3-Idempotent Laws: p ∨ p ≡ p.
    p ∧ p ≡ p.

    4- Double Negation Law: ~(~ p) ≡ p.

    5- Commutative Laws: p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p.
    p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p.

    6- Associative Laws: (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r).


    (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r).

    7- Distributive Laws: p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r).


    p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r).

    8- De Morgan's Laws: ~ (p ∧ q) ≡ ~ p ∨ ~q.


    ~ (p ∨ q) ≡ ~ p ∧ ~ q.

    9- Absorption Laws: p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p.
    p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p.
    p ∧ (~p ∨ q) ≡ p∧q.
    p ∨ (~p ∧ q) ≡ p∨q.
    10-Implication Law: (p → q) ≡ (~ p ∨ q).
    11- Contrapositive Law: (p → q) ≡ (~ q → ~p).
    12- Tautology: p ∨ ~ p ≡ T.
    13- Contradiction: p ∧ ~p ≡ F.
    14- Equivalence: (p → q) ∧ (q → p) ≡ (p ⟷ q).

    15- p ∨ q ≡(p ∨ q) ∧ ~(p ∧ q).

    10
    Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
    Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

    Solution.

    (8) We using truth table to prove ~ (p ∧ q) ≡ ~ p ∨ ~q.

    p q ~p ~q p∧q ~ (p ∧ q) ~ p ∨ ~q

    T T F F T F F

    T F F T F T T

    F T T F F T T

    F F T T F T T

    (14) We using truth table to prove (p → q) ∧ (q → p) ≡ (p ⟷ q).

    p q p→q q→p p→q∧q→p p↔q

    T T T T T T

    T F F T F F

    F T T F F F

    F F T T T T

    11
    Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
    Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

    (15) p ∨ q ≡(p ∨ q) ∧ ~(p ∧ q).

    p q p∨q p∧q ~ (p ∧ q) 𝐩 ∨𝐪 ( p ∨ q) ∧ ~ (p ∧ q)

    T T T T F F F

    T F T F T T T

    F T T F T T T

    F F F F T F F

    12

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