GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

NAME: GRADE LEVEL:

SECTION: DATE:

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET:

Cell Modifications

BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR LEARNERS

Welcome back! How are you feeling today? Are you excited for our next venture? Have
you ever wondered why do we look different despite the fact that we are all made of cells? Today
you will learn about cell modifications that allowed cells to carry out special functions.

CELL MODIFICATION

Living organisms can be made of a single cell, such as bacteria and protists, or they
can be multicellular, like plants, animals, and fungi. Unicellular organisms, like bacteria, are
able to perform all life functions within one single cell. They can transport molecules,
metabolize nutrients, and reproduce within this one cell.

Multicellular organisms need many different types of cells to carry out the same life
processes. Each of these special types of cells has a different structure that helps it perform a
specific function. Humans have many different types of cells with different jobs, such as
blood cells that carry oxygen and nerve cells that transmit signals to all parts of the body.
Cell differentiation is the process by which cells become specialized in order to perform
different functions.

Cell specialization (or modification or differentiation) is actually a process that

occurs after cell division where the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that
they can perform their function efficiently and effectively.

Multicellular organisms begin as just one single cell—a fertilized egg. Growing from
one single cell to trillions of specialized cells that perform different functions is a process that
happens with the regulation of DNA and RNA.
Specialized Plant Cells

Root cells are specialized plant cells that absorb dissolved

minerals and water from the ground. Root cells grow in long
lengths called root hairs in order to increase the surface area of
the root system. This also helps anchor the plant. Since root cells
grow underground, you would not expect to find chloroplasts in
these cells since the purpose of chloroplasts is to absorb energy
from the sun. The tip of the root also has

Root hair ©Biology Notes

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specialized cells in an area called the root cap. These cells
discharge a slippery substance that helps them burrow down
into the soil more easily.

The stem cells of plants are specialized cells that

transport water, nutrients, and the products of photosynthesis
throughout the plant. They connect the photosynthesis
factories in the leaves with the storage site in the roots.
Xylem cells transport water from the roots in the upward
direction. Phloem cells transport nutrients in both directions
Stem Cells ©Biology Libre Text
to reach all parts of the plant. Some plants have specialized
stem cells that form the wood to support the plant as it grows
upward and outward.

The cells found in the leaves of plants are highly

specialized, and there are many different types. Column-
shaped palisade cells are found near the surface of the leaf.
They are full of chloroplasts ready to capture energy from the
sun and turn it into chemical energy. Along the bottom of the
leaf, guard cells open and close to allow the transfer of gases
with the atmosphere as well as the transpiration of water.
These cells can help protect the plant from drying out. Guard Cells ©Myscienceschool.org

Specialized Animal Cells

Red blood cells are specialized cells found in animals
that transport oxygen throughout the body. Since transport is
their primary function, they do not need a nucleus. The lack
of a nucleus leaves more space in the cell for hemoglobin,
the protein that binds to oxygen. This also gives red blood
cells their unique shape. Unlike most cells red blood cells do
not reproduce through mitosis. They are created in the Red Blood Cells ©medical news
today
marrow found in the bones.
Muscle cells are long, fibrous cells that have the
ability to contract. They allow animals to move and allow
their organs to function in circulation as well as digestion.
Muscle cells are made up of two special types of proteins
called actin and myosin. Because of actin and myosin,
muscle strands are able to slide past each other. This sliding
action allows muscle cells to contract. Since a lot of energy is
needed in your muscle cells, you will find more mitochondria Muscle cells ©science learning hub
in them than is found in most cells.

Epithelial cells are the cells that line the outside, as well as the inside, of your body. They
are the cells that make up your skin. Skin epithelium is actually located just below the surface of
your skin. The epithelial cells are responsible for making new cells. They also produce the
pigment, melanin, which protects us from the sun’s harmful rays. Epithelium also lines the

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inside of your digestive tract and your respiratory system. Epithelial cells come in many
shapes and sizes, depending on their function.

1. Apical (Surface or luminal) modifications: It is specialized to carry out functions that

occur at these interfaces, including secretion, absorption, and movement of luminal
contents.

 Cilia: are membrane-covered extensions of the entire apical surface. They beat in
waves, often moving a surface coat of mucus and trapped materials. Ciliated epithelia
include ciliated pseudostratified columnar (respiratory) epithelium and the ciliated
simple columnar epithelium of the oviducts.
 Flagella: are also concerned with movement. Spermatozoa, derived from seminiferous
epithelia, are the only flagellated human cells.
 Microvilli (brush border or striated border): are plasma membrane-covered extensions
of the cell surface. Their cores are composed of parallel actin microfilaments; these are
anchored in a dense mat of filaments in the apical cytoplasm called the terminal web.
By interacting with cytoplasmic myosin, the microfilaments can contract, shortening
the microvilli. The apical surface of absorptive cells is usually covered with microvilli,
which greatly increase the apical surface area when extended. Microvillus-covered
epithelia, said to exhibit a striated border, or brush border, include the absorptive
simple columnar epithelium lining the small intestines and the absorptive simple
cuboidal epithelium lining the proximal tubules of the kidney.
 Stereocilia: are not true cilia but very long microvilli. They are found in the male
reproductive tract (epididymis. ductus deferens) where they have an absorptive
function, and in the internal ear (hair cells of the maculae and organ of Corti). where
they have a sensory function.

LEARNING COMPETENCY

The learner describes some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out
specialized functions (e.g. microvilli, root hair). STEM_BIO11/12-1a-c-5

DIRECTIONS/INSTRUCTIONS

Perform the following activities. If you are at home you can have the activity together
with your family. Take note of each step. If you have questions, you can contact your teacher
for clarifications and assistance. Enjoy learning!

31
ACTIVITY 1:

Answer the given questions below. Write your answer on the space provided in each
item.

1. Why is cell differentiation necessary for the survival of multicellular organisms?

2. Cilia are found in the respiratory system both in the nose and bronchus. What do you
think is the function of cilia?

3. Microvilli are found in the small intestines where most of the nutrients that we take in are
absorbed by the body. What do you think is the function of microvilli?

4. Plant roots are used by plants to absorb water and nutrients. Most plant roots have root
hairs. What do you think is the function of roots hairs in plants?

ACTIVITY 2: QUESTION TO PONDER

1. Just like a cell, they undergo modification to adapt themselves to survive in the
environment. In your life, what changes have you done to adapt yourself with the changing
demands of the society?

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2. Do you think it is necessary that organisms continue to modify and specialize? Why or
why not?

REFLECTION

Directions: Accomplish this part honestly.

1. I learned that

2. I enjoyed most on

3. I want to learn more on

REFERENCES FOR LEARNERS

Cell Specialization and Differentiation (n.d.). Texas Gateway for Online Resources.
Retrieved from: https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/cell-specialization-and-
differentiation#:~:text=Multicellular%20organisms%20need%20many%20different,it%
20perform%20a%20specific%20function.&text=Cell%20differentiation%20is%20the
%20process,order%20to%20perform%20different%20functions.
 33

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
NAME: GRADE LEVEL:
SECTION: DATE:

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET:

Cell Cycle

BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR LEARNERS

Another wonderful day for us to learn. How is your day going dear biologist? In our
past lessons, you have learned in the cell theory that cells come from preexisting cells.
Today, we will get deeper into this postulate. You will learn how cells reproduce.

THE CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division
that produces two new daughter cells. Cell on the path to cell division proceeds through a
series of precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth, DNA replication, and
division that produces two identical cells. The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase
and the mitotic phase. During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic
contents are separated, and the cell divides. (Belardo, 2016)

Figure 1. The cell cycle © Khan Academy

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INTERPHASE
During interphase, the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also preparing for
cell division. In order for a cell to move from interphase into the mitotic phase, many internal and
external conditions must be met. The three stages of interphase are called G 1, S, and G2.
 G1 Phase (First Gap). In this stage the cell is accumulating the building blocks of
chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins as well as accumulating sufficient
energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the nucleus.
In this phase, the cell also grows physically larger.
 S Phase (Synthesis of DNA). Throughout the interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a
semi-condensed chromatin configuration. The S phase, DNA replication can proceed
through the mechanisms that result in the formation of identical pairs of DNA
molecules- sister chromatids- that are firmly attached to the centromeric region. The
centrosome is duplicated during S phase.
 G2 Phase (Second Gap). In this phase, the cell replenishes its energy stores and
synthesizes proteins necessary for chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles
are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic
phase. There maybe additional cell growth during G2 phase.

THE MITOTIC PHASE

The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the duplicated chromosomes
are aligned, separated, and move to opposite poles of the cell, and then are divided into two
new identical daughter cells. The first portion of the mitotic phase is karyokinesis or nuclear
division. The second portion is cytokinesis, the physical separation of the cytoplasmic
components into the two daughter cells.

 Karyokinesis

o Prophase. During this phase, the nuclear envelope starts to dissociate into small
vesicles, and the membranous organelles fragment and disperse toward the
periphery of the cell. The nucleolus disappears. The centrosome begins to move
to opposite poles of the cell. Microtubules that will form the mitotic spindle
extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as the microtubule
fibers lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to coil more tightly with the aid of
condensing proteins and become visible under light microscope.

o Prometaphase. During this phase, many processes that were begun in the
prophase continue to advance. The remnants of the nuclear envelope fragment.
The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules assemble and
stretch across the length of the former nuclear area. Chromosomes become more
condensed and discrete. Each sister chromatid develops a protein structure called
a kinetochore in the centromeric region. The proteins of the kinetochore attract
and bind mitotic spindle microtubules. As the spindle microtubules extend from
the centrosomes, some of these microtubules come into contact with and firmly
bind to the kinetochores. Once a mitotic fiber attaches to a chromosome, the
chromosome will be oriented until the kinetochores of sister chromatids face the
opposite poles. Eventually, all the sister chromatids will be attached via their
kinetochores to microtubules from opposing poles. Spindle microtubules that do
not engage the chromosomes are called polar microtubules. These microtubules
overlap each other midway between the two

36
 poles and contribute to cell elongation. Astral microtubules are located near the
poles, aid in spindle orientation, and are required for the regulation of mitosis.

o Metaphase. During this phase, al the chromosomes are aligned in a plane called
the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, midway between the two poles of the
cell. The sister chromatids are still tightly attached to each other by cohesion
proteins. At this time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed.

o Anaphase. At this stage, the cohesion proteins degrade, and the sister chromatids
separate at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called a chromosome, is pulled
rapidly towards the centrosome to which its microtubule is attached. The cell
becomes visible elongated as the polar microtubules slide against each other at the
metaphase plate where they overlap.

o Telophase. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and begin to

decondense, relaxing into chromatic configuration. The mitotic spindles are
depolymerized into tubulin monomers that will be used to assemble
cytoskeletal components for each daughter cell. Nuclear envelopes form
around the chromosomes, and nucleosomes appear within the nuclear area.

 Cytokinesis
It is the second main stage of the mitotic phase during which cell
division is completed via the physical separation of the cytoplasmic
components into two daughter cells.
In animal cells, cytokinesis follows the onset of anaphase. A
contractile ring composed of actin filaments form just inside the plasma
membrane at the former metaphase plate. The actin filaments pull the equator
of the cell inward, forming a fissure called cleavage furrow.
In plant cells, a new cell wall must form between the daughter cells.
During interphase, the Golgi apparatus accumulates enzymes, structural proteins,
and glucose molecules prior to breaking into vesicles and dispersing throughout
the dividing cell. During the telophase, these Golgi vesicles are transported on
microtubules to form phragmoplast at the metaphase plate. There, the vesicle fuse
and coalesce from the center toward the cell walls; this structure is called cell
plate. As more vesicles fuse, the cell plate enlarges until it merges with the cell
walls at the periphery of the cell. Enzymes use the glucose that has accumulated
between the membrane layers to build a new cell wall.

Figure 2. Mitotic Phase © The Biology Corner

37
  G0 Phase. Not all cells adhere to the classic cell cycle pattern in which a newly
formed daughter cell immediately enters the preparatory phases of interphase, closely
followed by the mitotic pahse. Cells in G 0 are not actively preparing to divide. The
cell is in quiescent (inactive stage) that occurs when an external signal triggers the
onset of G1. Other cells that never or rarely divide, such as mature cardiac muscle and
nerve cells permanently remain in G0.

Different cells take different lengths of time to complete the cell cycle. A typical
human cell might take about 24 hours to divide, but fast-cycling mammalian cells, like the
ones that line the intestine, can complete a cycle every 9-10 hours when they're grown in
culture. Different types of cells also split their time between cell cycle phases in different
ways. In early frog embryos, for example, cells spend almost no time in G 1 and G2 and
instead rapidly cycle between S and M phases—resulting in the division of one big cell,
the zygote, into many smaller cells (Khan Academy, 2015)

LEARNING COMPETENCY

The learner characterizes the phases of the cell cycle and their control
points. STEM_BIO11/12-1a-c-6

DIRECTIONS/INSTRUCTIONS

Perform the following activities. If you are at home you can have the activity together
with your family. Take note of each step. If you have questions, you can contact your teacher
for clarifications and assistance. Enjoy learning!

ACTIVITY 1

Study the given picture of an onion root.

A D
1. Identify the following stages in the cell
cycle and give a brief description of
each. B

A. C

B. E

C.
Onion root ©The Biology Corner

D.

E.

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 2. Which phase is not represented in the picture? Why?

ACTIVITY 2: Cell Cycle and Cancer

READ

Cancer remains a national health priority in the country with significant implications
for individuals, families, communities, and the health system. Cancer is the third leading
cause of morbidity and mortality in the country after diseases of the heart and the vascular
system. Among Filipino men, the 6 most common sites of cancer diagnosed in 2010 were
lung, liver, colon/rectum, prostate, stomach, and leukemia. Among Filipino women the 6
most common sites diagnosed were breast, cervix, lung, colon/rectum, ovary and liver.
Furthermore, 189 of every 100,000 Filipinos are afflicted with cancer while four Filipinos die
of cancer every hour or 96 cancer patients every day. (DOH, n.d.)
Cancer is basically a disease of uncontrolled cell division. Its development and
progression are usually linked to a series of changes in the activity of cell cycle regulators.
For example, inhibitors of the cell cycle keep cells from dividing when conditions aren’t
right, so too little activity of these inhibitors can promote cancer. Similarly, positive
regulators of cell division can lead to cancer if they are too active. In most cases, these
changes in activity are due to mutations in the genes that encode cell cycle regulator proteins.
Cancer cells behave differently than normal cells in the body. Many of these
differences are related to cell division behavior. Cancer cells may make their own growth
factors, have growth factor pathways that are stuck in the "on" position, or, in the context of
the body, even trick neighboring cells into producing growth factors to sustain them. Cancer
cells also ignore signals that should cause them to stop dividing. Another hallmark of cancer
cells are their "replicative immortality," a fancy term for the fact that they can divide many
more times than a normal cell of the body.
Answer the following:
1. What is the reason for having cancer cells?

2. Based from your readings, what do you think is the reason why cancer is difficult to treat?

39
ACTIVITY 3: Cell Cycle and Me
Present the cell cycle creatively. You may choose from the following options based
from your interest. Be guided also with the rubric given. (You may do the activity with
your family and have fun!)
Intelligence Activities
Spatial/visual Create a 3D model (mitotic phase only) using recyclable
materials.
Logical/Mathematical Create an info graph about the cell cycle.
Verbal/linguistic Write an informative essay or poem about the key points in the
cell cycle
Bodily kinesthetic Vlog about the stages of the cell cycle.
Musical Compose a 3 minute- song about the cell cycle.

RUBRICS FOR SCORING

A. 3D Model

Excellent Above Average Average Below Average

Components
(9-10 points) (7-8 points) (4-6 points) (1-3 points)

All required Most required Some required Few required

Model items are items are items are items are
components represented represented in represented in represented in the
in the model. the model. the model. model.
All labels are Most labels are Some labels are
present and Present and are present and Few labels are
Text and labels
are correctly correctly correctly present.
placed. placed. placed.
Highly 3D model 3D model
Creativity and creative, Creative 3D appearance appearance
appearance exceptional model meets lesson shows least effort
3D model requirements. required.

Recyclable Few recyclable 3D model did not

Smart use of
materials are materials are use any
Resourcefulness recyclable
used in the 3D used in the 3D recyclable
materials
model model material.

Score

40
B. Vlog

Excellent Above Average Average Below Average

Components
(9-10 points) (7-8 points) (4-6 points) (1-3 points)
Footage is Most footage is Some footage is
Visual Recording is of
consistently of above average in of high quality
Appeal poor quality.
high quality. quality. and some is not.
The post includes The post is
The post The post does
either the URL missing either
includes the not include the
Format address or title of the URL
URL address and URL address
the Vlog, but not address or title
a title. and the title.
both. of the Vlog.
The vlog The vlog
includes a includes a The vlog poorly
The vlog does
comprehensive general characterized
Content not characterize
characterization information on the stages of the
the cell cycle.
of the stages of the stages of the cell cycle.
the cell cycle. cell cycle.
Communication
Student speaks
Students speaks skills and
clearly, and is Communication
Communication somewhat interaction with
pleasant to listen skills are poor.
clearly. the camera are
to and watch.
weak.
Score

C. Informative Essay/Poem
Below
Excellent Above Average Average
Components Average
(9-10 points) (7-8 points) (4-6 points)
(1-3 points)
The essay includes a The essay includes
The essay poorly
comprehensive a general The essay does
characterized the
Content characterization of information on the not characterize
stages of the cell
the stages of the cell stages of the cell the cell cycle.
cycle.
cycle. cycle.
Virtually no Few spelling and A number of Too much
spelling, punctuation punctuation errors, spelling, grammatical
Grammar
or grammatical minor grammatical punctuation or errors.
Usage errors errors grammatical
errors
Writing shows Writing shows a Writing shows Writing shows
Understanding strong understanding clear understanding adequate little
understanding understanding
Little or no use
Word Sophisticated use of Word choices make Needs more
of nouns and
Choice words essay informative. nouns and verbs. verbs.
Score

41
D. Song Composition

Excellent Above Average Average Below Average

Components
(9-10 points) (7-8 points) (4-6 points) (1-3 points)
The song lyrics The song lyrics The song lyrics The song lyrics
are outstanding. are good. The are somewhat are not coherent.
The words words coherent. The The words not
memorable. The memorable. The song lyrics are memorable.
Lyrics
song lyrics are song lyrics are well received by
enthusiastically enthusiastically the audience.
received by the received by the
audience. audience.
The student The student The song The song
composed an composed an composed is not composed is not
original song original song but very original, very original.
Creativity with a clear there are some but there are The message is
theme. elements that are some elements not conveyed.
not excellent. that are not
excellent.
Writing shows Writing shows a Writing shows Writing shows
strong clear adequate little
Information understanding understanding understanding understanding

The writer The writer The writer The song was

clearly lacked one of the lacked two of unorganized and
organized following: the following: difficult to
information, clearly clearly follow.
Organization used mostly organized organized
correct grammar information, information,
and spelling. correct grammar correct grammar
and spelling and spelling
usage. usage.
Score

42
E. Infographic

Excellent Above Average Average Below Average

Components
(9-10 points) (7-8 points) (4-6 points) (1-3 points)
Appropriate Most details Few details No details to
details support support main support main support main
Content main idea idea idea idea
supports purpose
of visual
Topic and title Topic and title Topic and title Topic and title
clear and easily are mostly clear difficult to are not clearly
Focus
identified. and easily identify. identified.
identified.
Outstanding use Adequate use of Inappropriate Little attempt to
Visual of color, design, color, design, use of color, use color, design
Appeal and space. and space. design, and and space
space. appropriately.
Free of Mostly free of Frequent Too frequent
Mechanics grammatical grammatical grammatical grammatical
errors errors errors errors
Score

REFLECTION

Directions: Accomplish this part honestly.

1. I learned that

2. I enjoyed most on

3. I want to learn more on

REFERENCES FOR LEARNERS

Bellardo (2016). General Biology 1. Vibal Group

Khan Academy (2015). Phases of the Cell Cycle. Retrieved from:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-molecular-
biology/mitosis/a/cell-cycle-phases

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