Unit-2

  MAPPING CHANGE

The role of diagramming in System Investigation:-

 
What is Data Flow Diagram

Data flow diagrams illustrate how data is processed by a system in terms of inputs and outputs. Data flow
diagrams can be used to provide a clear representation of any business function. The technique starts with an overall
picture of the business and continues by analyzing each of the functional areas of interest. This analysis can be
carried out to precisely the level of detail required. The technique exploits a method called top-down expansion to
conduct the analysis in a targeted way.

As the name suggests, Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is an illustration that explicates the passage of information in a
process. A DFD can be easily drawn using simple symbols. Additionally, complicated processes can be easily
automated by creating DFDs using easy-to-use, free downloadable diagramming tools.

Data Flow Diagrams Symbols

There are some symbols that are used in the drawing of business process diagrams (data flow diagrams). These are
now explained, together with the rules that apply to them.

Process

The process shape represents a task that handles data within the application. The task may process the data or
 perform an action based on the data.

Multiple Process

The multiple process shape is used to present a collection of sub processes. The multiple process can be broken
down into its sub processes in another DFD.

External Entity

The external entity shape is used to represent any entity outside the application that interacts with the application via
an entry point.

Data Flow

The data flow shape represents data movement within the application. The direction of the data movement is
represented by the arrow.

Data Store

The data store shape is used to represent locations where data is stored. Data stores do not modify the data, they
only store data.

Privilege Boundary

The privilege boundary shape is used to represent the change of privilege levels as the data flows through the
application.

Data Flow Diagrams - Context Diagram Guidelines

Firstly, draw and name a single process box that represents the entire system.

Next, identify and add the external entities that communicate directly with the process box. Do this by considering
origin and destination of the resource flows and data flows.

Finally, add the resource flows and data flows to the diagram.

In drawing the context diagram you should only be concerned with the most important information flows. These
will be concerned with issues such as: how orders are received and checked, with providing good customer service
and with the paying of invoices. Remember that no business process diagram is the definitive solution - there is no
absolute right or wrong.
 
  There are only five symbols that are used in the drawing of business process diagrams (data flow diagrams). These
are now explained, together with the rules that apply to them.
    
This diagram represents a banking process, which maintains customer accounts. In this example, customers can
withdraw or deposit cash, request information about their account or update their account details. The five different
symbols used in this example represent the full set of symbols required to draw any business process diagram.

External Entity

                    
An external entity is a source or destination of a data flow which is outside the area of study. Only those entities
which originate or receive data are represented on a business process diagram. The symbol used is an oval
containing a meaningful and unique identifier.

Process

                            

A process shows a transformation or manipulation of data flows within the system. The symbol used is a rectangular
box which contains 3 descriptive elements: 
Firstly an identification number appears in the upper left hand corner. This is allocated arbitrarily at the top level and
serves as a unique reference.
Secondly, a location appears to the right of the identifier and describes where in the system the process takes place.
This may, for example, be a department or a piece of hardware. Finally, a descriptive title is placed in the centre of
the box. This should be a simple imperative sentence with a specific verb, for example 'maintain customer records'
or 'find driver'.

Data Flow

                              
A data flow shows the flow of information from its source to its destination. A data flow is represented by a line,
with arrowheads showing the direction of flow. Information always flows to or from a process and may be written,
verbal or electronic. Each data flow may be referenced by the processes or data stores at its head and tail, or by a
 description of its contents.

Data Store

                             
A data store is a holding place for information within the system:
It is represented by an open ended narrow rectangle. 
Data stores may be long-term files such as sales ledgers, or may be short-term accumulations: for example batches
of documents that are waiting to be processed. Each data store should be given a reference followed by an arbitrary
number.

Resource Flow

                               
A resource flow shows the flow of any physical material from its source to its destination. For this reason they are
sometimes referred to as physical flows. The physical material in question should be given a meaningful name.
Resource flows are usually restricted to early, high-level diagrams and are used when a description of the physical
flow of materials is considered to be important to help the analysis.

 
 
 
 
 

A review of Basic flow diagramming Techniques:-

1. Control flow diagram

2. Data island
3. Functional flow block diagram
4. Function model
 5. System context diagram
6. Structured Analysis and Design Technique
7.  Activity diagram

1) A control flow diagram (CFD) is a diagram to describe the control flow of a business

process, process or program. Control flow diagrams were developed in the 1950s, and are
widely used in multiple engineering disciplines. They are one of the classic business process
modeling methodologies, along with flow charts, data flow diagrams, functional flow block
diagram, Gantt charts, PERT diagrams, and IDEF.

Example of a so called "performance seeking control flow diagram" A control flow diagram can
consist of a subdivision to show sequential steps, with if-then-else conditions, repetition, and/or
case conditions. Suitably annotated geometrical figures are used to represent operations, data, or
equipment, and arrows are used to indicate the sequential flow from one to another.

2) A data island is a data store, such as on a PDA or other computing device, that has non-
existent or limited external connectivity. This limits the ability of the user
to synchronize with or copy the data to other devices. Though new data can be added to the
system, the ability to move that data elsewhere is impractical or impossible. Data islands, in
general, contain a very huge set of data relative to its small physical space that it occupies.
 The connectivity here does not necessarily imply a hardware interface. For example, it may
be a result of poorly written system interface software. A data island is a subset of entities
that are connected to each other via relationships, but that are independent of other entities
within the same data store.

3) A Functional Flow Block Diagram (FFBD) is a multi-tier, time-sequenced, step-by-step

flow diagram of a system’s functional flow. The FFBD notation was developed in the 1950s,
and is widely used in classical systems engineering. FFBDs are one of the classic business
process modeling methodologies, along with flow charts, data flow diagrams, control flow
diagrams, Gantt charts, PERT diagrams, and IDEF. FFBDs are also referred to as Functional
Flow Diagrams, functional block diagrams, and functional flows.

4) A function model or functional model in systems engineering and software

engineering is a structured representation of
the functions(activities, actions, processes, operations) within the modeled system or subject
area.[1] A function model, also called an activity model or process model, is a graphical
representation of an enterprise's function within a defined scope. The purposes of the
function model are to describe the functions and processes, assist with discovery of
 information needs, help identify opportunities, and establish a basis for determining product

and service costs.

5) A System Context Diagram (SCD) in software engineering and systems engineering is

a diagram that represents the actors outside a system that could interact with that system.
[2]
 This diagram is the highest level view of a system, similar to Block diagram, showing a,
possibly software-based, system as a whole and its inputs and outputs from/to external
factors.

6) Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT) is a methodology for

describing systems as a hierarchy of functions. Structured Analysis and Design Technique
 (SADT) is a diagrammatic notation designed specifically to help people describe and
understand systems[1]. It offers building blocks to represent entities and activities, and a
variety of arrows to relate boxes. These boxes and arrows have an associated
informal semantics. SADT can be used as a functional analysis tool of a given process, using
successive levels of details. The SADT method allows defining user needs for IT
developments, which is very used in the industrial Information Systems, but also to explain
and to present an activity’s manufacturing processes, procedures. The SADT supplies a
specific functional view of any enterprise by describing the functions and their relationships
in a company. These functions fulfill the objectives of a company, such as sales, order
planning, product design, part manufacturing, and human resource management. The SADT
can depict simple functional relationships here and can reflect data and control flow
relationships between different functions.

7) Activity diagrams are graphical representations of workflows of stepwise activities and

actions with support for choice, iteration and concurrency.[1] In the Unified Modeling
Language, activity diagrams can be used to describe the business and operational step-by-
step workflows of components in a system. An activity diagram shows the overall flow of
control.

Influence Diagrams:-

An influence diagram is a simple visual representation of a decision problem. Influence diagrams

offer an intuitive way to identify and display the essential elements, including decisions,
uncertainties, and objectives, and how they influence each other.

This simple influence diagram depicts a variable describing the situation, a decision "What do
we do?", a chance variable "What's the outcome?", and our final valuation "How do we like it?".
These four node types are the building blocks of decision problems.  The influence diagram
gives a high-level conceptual view on which the analyst may build a detailed quantitative model.

Multiple Cause Diagrams:-

Format for a multiple cause diagram

Purpose

This type of diagram is used to explore why a given event happened or why a certain class of
events tends to occur. It is not intended to predict behaviour, but may be used to develop a
list of factors to bear in mind when considering comparable circumstances in the future. It is
also useful for finding out why something went wrong or keeps recurring, e.g. through a
causal loop, so that steps can be taken to prevent its recurrence. It can be derived from an
influence diagram or developed anew.
Elements:

 system boundary (optional);

 phrases;
 arrows (which may occasionally be labeled);
 Title.

Guidelines

1. In constructing such a diagram you normally begin at the factor/event to be explained and
work backwards. A diagram should include more than one such end factor only if
contributory factors were related, and explaining both events is important.
2. It is not necessary to put blobs around phrases, although if it improves clarity you can.
Boxes, with their activity sequence diagram implications, are best avoided.
3. It helps in checking a draft to ensure that each individual relationship makes sense. If the
meaning is not obvious then be more specific or insert any necessary intermediate
causes.
4. Take care not to combine two factors into one e.g. battery is flat and car won’t start. This
can prevent your identifying differences in their causes or consequences, and therefore
potential points of intervention.
5. This type of diagram does not distinguish between necessary and/or sufficient causes (for
example, in the figure above, Event aaa and Event bbb may both be necessary if Event
ccc is to occur; or either may be sufficient to cause Event ccc). If the distinction is
important for your purpose you will need to annotate your diagram to indicate this.
6. It is not essential to indicate a system boundary on a multiple-cause diagram, particularly
if it has been developed from an influence diagram that already has one. Drawing such a
diagram may well, however, develop your ideas about where to draw a boundary and so
identify a system of interest.
7. It is important to remember that this diagram type, while superficially resembling an
influence diagram, is different in that the words at either end of an arrow represent events
that may happen or values that may change. In an influence diagram these words
represent components of a system e.g. people or sub-systems.
 Unit 4

OD Interventions

Intervention refers to a set of planned change activities intended to help an organization to

increase its effectiveness.
 Based on valid information (accurate organizational diagnosis)
 Opportunity for free and informed choice (employees’ active involvement)
 Gain members’ internal commitment (employees accept ownership of the intervention
and its implementation)

Planning Organizational Development Strategy:-

Background and Context

The demands on local government are constantly changing, driven by user expectations
and government initiatives particularly the new Local Government Bill, the sub regional review,
the neighborhoods agenda, CPA/CAA and efficiency targets. To date the Council has responded
well to this continuous change agenda, maintaining its position as a 4 star authority. The pace of
change nationally is now increasing and to respond Councils, and their public sector partners, has
to develop different solutions to meet these complex needs. Innovative thinking and new ways of
working will keep successful Councils at the cutting edge. In addition there are significant local
drivers for change that must influence organizational development and effectiveness. These
include:

 Annual efficiency targets

 Further developing our approach to partnership and multi-agency working via
 Service improvement initiatives
 Preparation for assessment
 Responding to survey results
 Ensuring community cohesion and workforce diversity
 Building internal capacity to manage change effectively

The Organizational Development Strategy provides a coherent framework for our corporate
improvement activity. A broad approach to organizational development has been taken ensuring
that we consider whole Council improvement and not just individual service or personal
development within the Council. Eight themes or activity areas have been identified as a
framework for the Council’s Organizational Development strategy. Our strategy also recognizes
that we are not starting from scratch; the Council has successfully implemented major change
programmes as part of its organizational development and continuous improvement activity.
Accordingly, this strategy pulls together work previously identified, work in progress as well as
supporting the development of future improvement actions.

Organizational Development Strategy is concerned with making the entire organization fit for
purpose. The National Pay and Workforce Strategy (2005) define organizational development as:

“The practice of planned interventions brings about significant improvements in organizational

effectiveness.”

Key Objectives

In developing our strategy we have identified 3 overarching objectives:

 To improve Council services by developing effective performance improvement plans,

ensuring that change is sustainable and effective.

 To increase customer satisfaction and improve the overall wellbeing of those working
for, or with, the Council.

 To ensure that Blackburn with Darwin Council, its partners and the wider sub region can
respond effectively to future challenges.
Organizational Development Themes

The following themes have been included to reflect our local change agenda and ensure we
maintain focus on priority improvement areas that make a difference to organisational
effectiveness and partnership working:

 Improving Community Engagement – ensuring we respond to the government reform

paper empowering citizens to shape their communities.

 Improving Organizational and Service Performance – ensure a consistent approach is

taken to performance management across the Council and embed a performance
management culture

 Developing Leadership and Management Capacity – developing skills required to

deliver transformation in service delivery.

 Developing Customer Excellence – ensuring a customer focused approach that is open

and responsive to the needs of our customers.

 Culture Change Program – create a new vision and set of organizational values to
support the organization in moving to a transformational approach to change
management and service improvement.

 Effective People Management – the key to translating priorities and objectives into
reality and central to the Council’s performance management regime.

 Improving Internal Communication – ensuring that employees, at all levels have up to

date and relevant information to provide knowledge that enables them to work more
effectively.

 Building Better Partnerships – develop an understanding of successful partnership

working to ensure that our partnerships, within the borough and across the region, deliver
the required outcomes and efficiency targets.
Lead officers have been identified to develop and implement improvement actions for each
theme area. To date work has been undertaken to identify high level improvement actions for
the next three years (2007 – 2010) for each theme area. Further work will be undertaken, once
the strategy has been agreed, to priorities improvement activity over the three year period.

Guiding Principles

We will follow and adhere to agreed guiding principles throughout the development and
implementation of the organizational development improvement programmed:

 All improvement actions must support the achievement of Council priorities, the
Performance Agreement and the medium term Financial Strategy.

 Develop collaborative working both internally and externally

 Make better use of technology

 Encourage innovation and new ways of working

 Recognize and embrace diversity

 Support our workforce through effective management of the change program

 Build capacity for organizational development within the Council

OD Strategy Implementation

The Chief Executive has overall responsibility for co-coordinating the development and
implementation of the strategy and organizational development improvement programmes via
the Organizational Development Steering Group. The Leader of the Council will maintain an
overview of organizational development activity through regular progress reports.

A corporate Organizational Development implementation group will be set up to co-ordinate

organizational development and improvement activity within directorates and service areas. In
addition, each Director will be responsible for ensuring that an appropriate co-ordination and
monitoring group is set up within directorates to ensure implementation of any policies,
procedures and improvement actions arising from the Strategy.

OD Monitoring and Review

The strategy will continue to evolve and reflect the Council’s objectives and continuous
change program. Quarterly monitoring reports covering all Organizational Development theme
areas will be prepared and presented to the Organizational Development Steering Group so that it
can monitor progress on overall improvement actions. In addition, it is proposed that the Policy
and Review Scrutiny Committee nominate and set up a cross party task group to monitor
delivery of improvement actions and outcomes. There will be an annual review to ensure the
strategy continues to reflect Council priorities including any external and internal drivers for
change. The Organizational Development Steering Group may also commission or receive
reports on specific organizational development theme issues or improvement actions.

ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA:-

In today's highly turbulent business environment, 'change' has become an inevitable part
of life. Organizations that do not change when needed or are not sensitive to the need for change
do not survive long. The revolution in the form of IT is reshaping the core competencies needed
in a knowledge environment. Organizations, in order to be successful, need to place a high
priority on proactively and systematic understanding of organizational issues and on responding
to current and future external customer needs. Workforce mobility and diversity are creating new
employee needs along with new expectations about the work culture, and these needs, too, have
to be systematically understood and responded to. HR leaders are challenged to become effective
strategic partners in the creation of world class learning culture.
Indian organizations are no exception to these compulsions. Today, they face numerous
challenges and complexities, operating, as they do, in a highly volatile political and economic
environment. For decades, the Indian mindset that has governed Indian organizations is less
systems-driven and more people and relationship-oriented. With the opening up of the economy,
standing up to global competition with borrowed technologies & insecure and relationship-
driven employees, organizations need to bring in change rapidly; and hence the acute need for
O.D. in Indian organizations.

Evolution of O.D. in India

In India, O.D. and planned change started in the early 1960s. A group of Indian professionals
trained at the National Training Laboratories (NTL) at Bethel, Maine, USA, brought out a good
deal of O.D. technology in India. Grid programs were initiated and widely used in the Small
Industries Extension Training (SIET) Institute, Hyderabad, State Bank of India and in the Indian
Institute of Management (UM) programs in the mid 1960s. Unfortunately these remained
isolated efforts and did not take O.D. to its logical conclusions.
In the mid-1970s, O.D. was first introduced in India in Larsen and Toubro as a formal and
structured part of the HRD department. It was expected that the change process would get
institutionalized and more O.D. specialists would be developed. Unfortunately, this did not
happen as the corporate sector in the country has a very protected and secure environment and
there were very few compulsions to change. Hence O.D. remained mostly in academic
institutions - the forte of a few specialists and largely limited to T-group training and other
training based interventions. That it has a slow growth is indicated by the fact that even after 25
years of existence, the Indian Society for Applied Behavioral Science (ISABS), an associate of
NTL, produced less than 100 process specialists in the vast country.
There have been several efforts to apply O.D. approach and associated techniques in India but it
has not created the desired impact. According to Srinivasan (1994), one plausible explanation for
this is that O.D. as it has emerged to date is culture specific, that it cannot be simply applied to
locations outside the US. The issue of non-transferability of OD technology to cultures such as
India has arisen because of the fear or distrust of its techniques of confrontation. The general
practitioner or the change agent style of informality and an attitude of openness is also not suited
to the Indian context. However, a deeper examination of values embedded in Indian religion and
psycho-philosophy suggests that the cultural values are indeed largely supportive of
organizational renewal and change. The rich cultural heritage also contains a paradigm of
change, based on which new approaches and designs of O.D. interventions may be possible. And
such designs are likely to be accepted more readily in the country.
The scenario has changed thanks to an increasing number of applied behavioral scientists and T-
group trainers, the HRD movement and establishment of HRD departments, contributions of
multinationals in India and the influence of Western education. Professional bodies such as
ISABS (Indian Society for Applied Behavioral Sciences), Indian Society for Individual and
Social Development (ISISD), Indian Society for Training & Development (ISTD), and the HRD
Network, and academic institutions such as the IIMs (Indian Institute of Management) have
further facilitated this. In the post liberalization period, everyone has been forced to seek change.
As a result, the application of O.D. technology has increased.
Experiences of Indian Organizations with Various O.D. Interventions
Among available O.D. interventions and tools, the most prevalent ones and those that have met
with reasonable success in effecting the desired change are:
* Training
* Action research
* Survey feedback
* HRD and HRD Audit
* Role focused interventions
* Person focused interventions
Training as an O.D. Intervention
Training, today in organizations is viewed as continuously evolving, dynamic networks of
interactions between different participants and interest groups within and around the
organization. This doctrine is very much different from the past perception of training as an static
and mechanistic activity to address deficiencies. Training raises the consciousness of
participants, makes people aware of the gaps between reality and ideals, provides a common
language to articulate shared problems and difficulties, generates ideas for change, and creates
greater energy for change. As a consequence of such dynamic and multifaceted approach,
training has proved to be an effective O.D. intervention. One finds that in-house training
programs are commonly held at various levels of the hierarchy, whether or not the organization
has formally launched any O.D. efforts.