'Science of Society', Established in The 19th Century
'Science of Society', Established in The 19th Century
'Science of Society', Established in The 19th Century
BRANCHES:
Anthropology is the holistic "science of man", a science of the totality of human existence. The
discipline
deals with the integration of different aspects of the social sciences, humanities, and human biology.
Came from anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the Greek for "human being" or "person."
Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most
humanistic of the sciences."
Cultural anthropology studies living human cultures in order to create a cross-cultural understanding of
human behavior.
Archaeology has the same goal as cultural anthropology, but uses data from the physical remains of past
cultures to reach it.
Linguistic anthropology studies the interrelationships between language and other aspects of culture and
how languages have changed over time.
Physical anthropology studies the emergence and subsequent biological adaptations of humanity as a
species.
Communication studies- Communication studies deal with processes of human communication,
commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning.
Pre 21st Century
30,000 BC – In ice-age Europe, people mark ivory, bone, and stone with patterns to keep track of
time, using a lunar calendar.
Prior to 3500BC – Communication was carried out through paintings of indigenous tribes.
3500s BC – The Sumerians develop cuneiform writing and
the Egyptians develop hieroglyphic writing.
16th century BC – The Phoenicians develop an alphabet.
AD 26–37 – Roman Emperor Tiberius rules the empire from the island of Capri by signaling
messages with metal mirrors to reflect the sun.
105 – Tsai Lun invents paper.
7th century – Hindu-Malayan empires write legal documents on copper plate scrolls, and write
other documents on more perishable media.
751 – Paper is introduced to the Muslim world after the Battle of Talas.
1250 – The quill is used for writing.
1305 – The Chinese develop wooden block movable type printing.
1450 – Johannes Gutenberg finishes a printing press with metal movable type.
1520 – Ships on Ferdinand Magellan's voyage signal to each other by firing cannon and raising
flags.
1792 – Claude Chappe establishes the first long-distance semaphore telegraph line.
1831 – Joseph Henry proposes and builds an electric telegraph.
1836 – Samuel Morse develops the Morse code.
1843 – Samuel Morse builds the first long distance electric telegraph line.
1844 – Charles Fenerty produces paper from a wood pulp, eliminating rag paper which was in
limited supply.
1849 – Associated Press organizes Nova Scotia pony express to carry latest European news for
New York newspapers.
1876 – Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson exhibit an electric telephone in Boston.
1877 – Thomas Edison patents the phonograph.
1889 – Almon Strowger patents the direct dial telephone.
Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and
consumption of wealth.The word "economics" is from the Greek οἶκος [oikos], "family, household,
estate," and νόμος [nomos], "custom, law," and hence means "household management" or "management
of the state."
Economics has two broad branches: microeconomics where the unit of analysis is the individual
agent,and macroeconomics, where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole.
Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills. To educate means 'to draw out', from the
Latin educare, or to facilitate the realization of an individual's potential and talents.
- An application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and
learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science,
linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology.
Close0470 BC - 0399 BC
SOCRATES: A man of legend in not only the educational world, but in most of the intellectual world
today, Socrates was one of the Western world's first great philosophers. No actual writings from Socrates
himself have been found, but Socrates's predecessors and students, Xenophon and Plato, wrote down most
(we hope all) of his great ideas. The method of teaching that Socrates came up with, the creatively named,
"Socratic Method," involves the teacher asking a series of questions which leads the student to a certain
conclusion. This method is extremely effective in not only allowing a student to memorize knowledge,
but also being able to apply the knowledge and formulate that knowledge into a refined answer.
AGE OF PERICLES: When many of the Greek city-states created their own versions of formal
education. The Greek city-state Sparta used education to gear children towards becoming effective
military support. The aims of Spartan education centered on developing such ideals as courage,
patriotism, obedience, cunningness, and physical strength.
PLATO: Plato, a disciple / student of Socrates, wrote many of Socrates's ideas down and took some of
his ideas one step further. Plato suggested that society should contain three classes of people: artisans (the
working class), soldiers (people to defend society), and the philosophers (or the government, needed to
rule society). Plato believed that each person in a society should be well educated in their specific, chosen
role, allowing the society as a whole to benefit. Schools today have been heavily influenced by Plato's
ideas toward education and his breakdown of the different classes that people can choose to be part of.
ARISTOTLE: a student of Plato's and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristotle believed that a person's
most important purpose in life was to serve and improve humankind. He believed that the quality of a
society had such a direct correlation to the quality of that societies education system, that it was a must
for a society to make education a top priority. Aristotle, unlike Socrates and Plato, took a very scientific
and practical approach to education. People who like to get hands on with the world instead of just
thinking up things in their big brains have a lot to thank Aristotle for.
Geography- two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography.
Human geography focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and
managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. This may involve
cultural geography, transportation, health, military operations, and cities.
Physical geography examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation
and life, soil, oceans, water and landforms are produced and interact.
Some Brief Facts:
The Shortest place name is ‘Å’ it is located in both Sweden and Norway. In Scandinavian languages, ‘Å’
means “river”.
The Vatican city is the smallest country in the world at only .2 square miles. That is smaller than the
average city!
The largest country is Russia.
The largest city in the world – based on surface area, is Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia which is 263,953 km
squared.
The hottest temperature recorded on earth is El Azizia Libya at 136 F, the coldest was -134 degrees
fahrenheit in Vostok Antarctica. The hottest average temp is in western Australia, it is 96 degrees year
round on average.
San Marino claims to be the world’s oldest constitutional republic – it was founded in 301 by a Christian
stonemason fleeing persecution under Emperor Diocletian. Its constitution of 1600 is the oldest written
constitution in the world.
Though Mt. Everest is the highest altitude in terms of sea level on the planet, Mount Chimborazo is the
closest to the moon.
The Marianas Trench is the lowest place on earth.
Alaska is the most Northern, Eastern, AND Western state in all of America. It is the only state that enters
the “Eastern Hemisphere” making it also the most eastern lying and
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the Longest mountain chain on earth (at 40 thousand kilometers). It is located
along the middle of the Atlantic. Iceland is the only part of this chain that is above water.
The Andes form the longest exposed mountain range at 7,000 kilometers.
Mount Circeo on Cape Circaeum on the western coast of Italy was once called Aeaea (5 vowels in a row
with no consonants). It was believed in mythology to be the home of the witch Circe. Two other vowel-
only geographic locations
are the town of Aiea in Hawaii, and Eiao – one of the Marquise Islands.
Glaciers store between 70% and 80% of all the freshwater on the planet. 99% of those glaciers are in the
Arctic and Antarctic.
In 1811 and 1812, three earthquakes measuring around 8 on the richter scale, caused the Mississippi
River to flow backwards. These earthquakes also created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee.
The deepest hole ever drilled by man is the Kola Superdeep
About 90% of the world’s population lives in the Northern Hemisphere.
History - the continuous, systematic narrative and research into past human events as interpreted through
historiographical paradigms or theories.
Evolution Of Man
Evolution Of Man - Concepts in Evolutionary Theory
The currently-accepted theory of the evolution of man rests on three major principles. These principles
hinge on the innate ability which all creatures have to pass on their genetic information to their offspring
through the reproductive process. An alternative explanation for homology is a common designer.
According to this reasoning, the similarities in anatomical features between species point to a blueprint
used by a Creator/Designer.
The first tenet is microevolution, the occurrence and build-up of mutations in the genetic sequence of an
organism. Mutations are predominantly random and can occur naturally through errors in the reproductive
process or through environmental impacts such as chemicals or radiation.
The second tenet of evolution is natural selection. Natural selection is a natural mechanism by which the
fittest members of a species survive to pass on their genetic information, while the weakest are eliminated
(die off) because they are unable to compete in the wild. Natural selection is often termed "survival of the
fittest" or "elimination of the weakest."
The third tenet is speciation, which occurs when members of a species mutate to the point where they are
no longer able to breed with other members of the same species. The new population becomes a
reproductively isolated community that is unable to breed with its former community. Through
speciation, the genes of the new population become isolated from the previous group.
The mechanism that Charles Darwin proposed for evolution is natural selection. Because resources are
limited in nature, organisms with heritable traits that favor survival and reproduction will tend to leave
more offspring than their peers, causing the traits to increase in frequency over generations.
Chronology of World History
Law in common parlance, means a rule that (unlike a rule of ethics) is capable of enforcement through
Institutions. The noun law derives from the late Old English lagu, meaning something laid down or fixed
and the adjective legal comes from the Latin word lex
Political science- an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics
and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior.
Herbert Baxter Adams - coined the phrase "political science" while teaching history at Johns Hopkins
University.
Here are a few terms to get you started:
adjective law (or procedural law): That area of the law that deals with procedural rules of evidence,
pleadings and practice.
administrative law: The area of law that concerns government agencies.
cause of action: The reason for which a plaintiff files a complaint or suit against someone. This can be
negligence, breach of contract, malpractice or defamation, to name a few. A cause of action is divided
into elements, and each element must be proved to win the case.
civil law: 1) A generic term for all non-criminal law, usually as it applies to settling disputes between
private citizens or entities. 2) A body of laws and legal concepts derived from Roman law instead of
English common law. (English common law is the basis of state legal systems in the U.S., with the
exception of Louisiana.)
compensatory damages: Damages that are recovered for injury or economic loss. For instance, if
someone is injured in a car accident and the party who injures them has to pay compensatory damages,
the party at fault must cover cost of things such as the ambulance, doctors’ bills, hospital stays, medicine,
physical therapy and lost wages.
constitutional law: Law prescribed by the written federal and state constitutions, as well as the
interpretation and implementation of this law.
contract: An agreement between two or more parties to do or refrain from doing something; this often
involves a promise of something in return for something of value. There are both written and oral
contracts, though in some states oral contracts have little or no standing.
demurrer (dee-muhr-ur): A formal response to a complaint filed in a lawsuit, pleading for dismissal and
saying, in effect, that even if the facts are true, there is no legal basis for a lawsuit. Examples include a
missing necessary element of fact, or a complaint that is unclear. The judge can agree and “leave to
amend,” giving the claimant the opportunity to amend the complaint. If it is not amended to the judge’s
satisfaction, the demurrer is granted. (Some states use a motion to dismiss.)
depose: To testify or give under oath or sworn affidavit.
diligence: Reasonable care or attention to a matter; for instance, looking both ways before proceeding
after stopping at a stop sign, washing your hands before cooking food in a restaurant or operating in a
hospital or checking brakes and other mechanical components on tour buses at regular intervals. Due
diligence denotes what a normal, responsible person would do under the same conditions.
felony: A serious crime punishable by death or at least one year in a state or federal prison. Felonies
include arson, rape, perjury and homicide. When theft is involved, the value of that which was stolen
determines whether the offense is considered a misdemeanor or felony.
laws: A system of regulations governing the conduct of a community, state, society or nation in order to
provide consistent order and justice. In the United States, laws can be statutes, ordinances or regulations,
and are usually enacted by the legislative branch at a state or federal level, or by a branch of the
government with authorization from a law already established.
malfeasance: Doing something illegal or morally wrong. Malfeasance includes dishonesty and abuse of
authority.
mens rea (menz ray-ah) Latin for a “guilty mind”; mens rea is used to describe a culpable state of mind,
the criminal intent of the individual when committing an criminal act. For some crimes, this intent must
have been present for a person to be guilty of the crime.
misdemeanor: A crime less serious than a felony, punishable by or imprisonment for less than a year.
prima facie (pry-mah fay-shah): Latin for “at first look,” or “on its face,” prima facie refers to what can
be presumed after the first disclosure.
prima facie case: A case where, upon first look, the facts themselves prove the case.
provisional remedy: A temporary court order to protect someone from further or irreparable damage
while further legal action is pending. For example, a temporary restraining order is a provisional remedy
to help keep someone safe until a hearing to decide if a permanent restraining order is needed; likewise, a
temporary injunction to stop the destruction of a building can keep it from being destroyed while the court
decides whether it is a landmark.
punitive damages: Damages awarded over and above compensatory damages for punishment. If the act
causing the injury was committed out of negligence or malice, punitive damages serve not only as a
punishment, but as an example or deterrent to others. It also helps put the injured party on a level playing
field. For instance, an individual who loses a leg when hit by a drunk driver cannot be awarded a new leg,
but a monetary award can help that person face the resultant obstacles.
stare decisis: Latin for “to stand by things decided,” to adhere to precedents of earlier cases as sources of
law. When an issue has already been ruled upon by a court, other cases involving the same issue must
receive the same response from that court or lower courts.
statute: A written law passed by Congress or another legislative body.
title: The legal basis ownership of real or personal property or a document that serves as serves as
evidence of this ownership. Deeds for real estate, and titles for cars and boats are examples of titles.
title abstract: A history of ownership that establishes the present state of a title.
title search: An examination of public records to determine the state of a title and confirm that the seller
of a property is its legal owner. A cloud on the title such as a lien, an unrecorded owner or differing
property descriptions on previous deeds can be a reason to cancel a purchase on a property.
tort: From the French word for “wrong,” a tort is a wrongful or illegal act, whether intentional or
accidental, in which an injury occurs to another. An intentional tort may also be a crime, such as battery,
fraud or theft. Tort law is one of the largest areas of civil law.
wobbler: Sometimes referred to as a “felony wobbler,” a wobbler is a crime that can be classified as
either a felony or a misdemeanor. In some states, even if an offender is charged with a felony in a
wobbler case, the judge may have the authority to reduce the conviction to a misdemeanor.
Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behavior and mental processes.
Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity,
including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness.
The word psychology comes from the ancient Greek ψυχή, psyche ("soul", "mind") and logy ("study").
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was the founder of experimental psychology
The man behind Pavlovian conditioning was educated in natural sciences in St Petersburg, Russia. His
primary interest was physiology and it was while researching the digestive system in dogs that he made
his most famous discovery – he noted that dogs would salivate before the delivery of food. Pavlov rang a
bell when feeding the dogs which they soon learnt to associate with food. After some time the dogs
salivated in response to the bell alone. Pavlovian conditioning has a number of real-life applications
including in the treatment of phobias and for aversion therapy.
The founding father of psychoanalysis first qualified as a doctor of medicine at the University of Vienna.
Freud went on to work in cerebral anatomy and his fascination with the brain developed from there. Freud
died in 1939 but his legacy lives on with many of his theories providing the basis for modern clinical
psychology.
Austrian psychoanalyst, Melanie Klein reached academic fame in the early 20th century for her work on
psychoanalytic child psychology. Klein’s ideas included a strong belief in the therapeutic effects of child
play. Klein proposed that play afforded an opportunity for children to express their experiences and
feelings. Kleinian psychoanalysis is one of the major school’s in psychology and an area you’ll cover if
studying the subject at university.
Best known for her work on neurosis and feminine psychology, Horney was educated at the University of
Freiburg, University of Göttingen and the University of Berlin. Horney’s theory of neurosis stipulated
that there are ten types of neuroses, which are used to cope with anxieties caused by interpersonal
relations a theory that remains prominent today. Horney also famously opposed Freud’s views on female
psychology and used the scientific method to prove that societies encourage women to be dependent on,
and overvalue men.
Daughter of the illustrious Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud has certainly found her own voice in the world of
psychological discovery. She and Melanie Klein are considered the founders of psychoanalytic child
psychology. Anna’s work, specifically emphasised the importance of the ego in serving and opposing
subconscious behaviour.
Initially educated in natural history and philosophy at the University of Neuchatel, Switzerland, it wasn’t
until later that he turned his hand to theoretical psychology. Piaget’s work on child psychology and
intellectual development has proved monumentally influential, being used to inform educational methods
around the world to this day. In reference to Piaget’s observations on children’s intellectual growth,
Einstein is quoted as saying “it’s so simple that only a genius could have thought of it.”
Solomon Asch became interested in psychology as he was nearing the end of his undergraduate studies,
so much so that he went on to pursue his graduate degree in the topic at Columbia University. Asch soon
became involved with Gestalt psychology and social psychology, becoming famous for his conformity
experiments in which he proposed that group pressure can cause humans to entirely change opinion in
spite of obvious facts.
Stanley Milgram 1935–1984
Milgram began his university career with an undergraduate degree in political science, moving on to
pursue his passion in social psychology by studying for a Ph.D at Harvard. He became renowned for his
work regarding the “Behavioural Study of Obedience”. In this study, Milgram measured the willingness
of subjects to obey an authority figure, despite ordering the participants to perform acts conflicting with
their conscience. He found that 26 of the 40 subjects seemingly delivered electric shocks of up to 450
volts to another person, when ordered to do so. The shocks were fake but the experiment has been used to
suggest why humans are willing to commit the most appalling atrocities in times of war. Despite a
backlash from the scientific community the experiments are still considered hugely influential today.
Zimbardo completed an MA and Ph.D in Psychology at Yale University back in the swinging sixties. He
accepted the position as Professor of Psychology at Stanford University in 1971 and soon after conducted
the famous Stanford prison study. Zimbardo used subjects to examine the psychology of prison life with
half the participants being assigned the role of guard and the others the role of prisoner. The planned two
week experiment ended after only six days as the guards became sadistic, and the prisoners showed
extreme passivity and depression. Zimbardo concluded that certain situations have a higher influence over
our psyche then we expect.
Sociology is the systematic study of society and human social action. The meaning of the word comes
from the suffix "ology", which means "study of", derived from Greek, and the stem "soci", which is from
the Latin word socius, meaning "companion", or society in general.
Sociology was originally established by Auguste Comte [Father of Sociology] (1798–1857) in 1838.
French thinker, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical
social research
Max Weber and Georg Simmel, developed sociological antipositivism
Auguste Comte
August Comte is known as the founder of positivism and is credited with coininging the term sociology.
Comte helped shape and expand the field of sociology and placed a great deal of emphasis in his work on
systematic observation and social order.
Karl Marx
Karl Marx is one of the most famous figures in the founding of sociology. He is known for his theory of
historical materialism, which focuses on the way social order, like class structure and hierarchy, emerges
out of the economic system of a society. He theorized this relationship as a dialectic between the base and
superstructure of society. Some of his notable works, like "The Manifesto of the Communist Party," were
co-written with Friedrich Engels. Much of his theory is contained in the series of volumes titled Capital.
Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and in a 1999 BBC poll
was voted the "thinker of the millennium" by people from around the world.
Emile Durkheim
Emile Durkheim is knows as the "father of sociology" and is a founding figure in the field of sociology.
He is credited with making sociology a science. One of his most famous pieces of work includes Suicide:
A Study In Sociology, and another important work of his that focuses on how society functions and
regulates itself is The Division of Labor in Society.
Max Weber
Max Weber was a founding figure of the field of sociology and is considered one of the most famous
sociologists in history. He is known for his thesis of the "Protestant Ethic" as well as his ideas on
bureaucracy. Take on how Protestant religious values combined with the early capitalist economy in the
American colonies to create the ideological and economic foundation of the U.S., and here to read about
his famous theory of the "iron cage."
Harriet Martineau
Though wrongfully neglected in most sociology classes today, Harriet Martineau was a prominent British
writer and political activist, and one of the earliest Western sociologists and founders of the discipline.
Her scholarship focused on the intersections of politics, morals, and society, and she wrote prolifically
about sexism and gender roles.
W.E.B. Du Bois
W.E.B. Du Bois was an American sociologist best known for his scholarship on race and racism in the
aftermath of the U.S. Civil War. He was the first African American to earn a doctorate degree from
Harvard University and served as the head of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People (NAACP) in 1910. His most notable works include The Souls of Black Folk, in which he advanced
his theory of "double consciousness," and his massive tome on the social structure of U.S. society, Black
Reconstruction.
Alexis de Tocqueville
Biography of Alexis de Tocqueville, a sociologist best known for his book Democracy in America.
Tocqueville published many works in the areas of comparative and historical sociology and was very
active in politics and the field of political science.
Antonio Gramsci
Antonio Gramsci was an Italian political activist and journalist who wrote prolific social theory while
imprisoned by Mussolini's fascist government from 1926-34. He advanced Marx's theory by focusing on
the role of intellectuals, politics, and media in maintaining the dominance of the bourgeois class in a
capitalist system. The concept of cultural hegemony is one of his key contributions.
Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault was a French social theorist, philosopher, historian, public intellectual and activist best
known for revealing through his method of "archaeology" how institutions wield power by creating
discourses that are used to control people. He is one of the most widely read and cited social theorists, and
his theoretical contributions are still important and relevant today.
C. Wright Mills
C. Wright Mills is known for his controversial critiques of both contemporary society and sociological
practice, particularly in his book The Sociological Imagination (1959). He also studied power and class in
the United States, as displayed in his bookThe Power Elite (1956).
Patricia Hill Collins is one of the most revered sociologists alive today. She is a ground-breaking theorist
and research in the areas of feminism and race, and is most well known for popularizing the theoretical
concept of intersectionality, which emphasizes the intersecting nature of race, class, gender, and sexuality
as systems of oppression. She has written numerous books and scholarly articles. Some of the most
widely read are Black Feminist Thought, and the article "Learning from the Outsider Within: The
Sociological Significance of Black Feminist Thought," published in 1986.
Pierre Bourdieu
Pierre Bourdieu was a French sociologist and philosopher who contributed a great deal in the areas
of general sociological theory and the link between education and culture. He pioneering terminologies
such include habitus, symbolic violence, and cultural capital, and he is known for his work
titled Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste.
Robert K. Merton
Robert K. Merton is considered one of America's most influential social scientists. He is famous for his
theories of deviance as well as for developing the concepts of "self-fulfilling prophecy" and "role model."
Herbert Spencer
Spencer was a British sociologist who was one of the first to think of social life in terms of social
systems. He saw societies as organisms that progressed through a process of evolution similar to that
experienced by living species. Spencer also played an important role in the development of the
functionalist perspective.
Charles Horton Cooley is best known for his theories of The Looking Glass Self in which he declared that
our self-concepts and identities are a reflection of how other people perceive us. He is also famous for
developing the concepts of primary and secondary relationships. He was a founding member and eighth
president of the American Sociological Association.
George Herbert Mead is well-know for his theory of the social self, which is based on the central
argument that the self is a social emergent. He pioneered the development of symbolic interaction
perspective and developed the concept of the "I" and "Me." He is also one of the founders of social
psychology.
Erving Goffman
Erving Goffman is a significant thinker in the field of sociology and in particular the symbolic interaction
perspective. He is known for his writings on the dramaturgical perspective and pioneered the study of
face-to-face interaction. His notable books include The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, and Stigma:
Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. He served as the 73rd President of the American
Sociological Association and is listed as the 6th most-cited intellectual in the humanities and social
sciences by The Times Higher Education Guide.
Georg Simmel
Biography of Georg Simmel, a sociologist best known for his neo-Kantian approach to sociology, which
laid the foundations for sociological anti positivism, and his structuralist styles of reasoning.
Jurgen Habermas
Jurgen Habermas is a German sociologist and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and
pragmatism. He is known for his theory of rationality and for his concept of modernity. He is currently
ranked as one of the most influential philosophers in the world and is a prominent figure in Germany as a
public intellectual. In 2007, Habermas was listed as the 7 th most-cited author in the humanities by The
Higher Times Education Guide.
Anthony Giddens
Anthony Giddens is a British sociologist best known for his theory of structuration, his holistic view of
modern societies, and his political philosophy called the Third Way. Giddens is a prominent contributor
to the field of sociology with 34 published books in at least 29 languages.
Talcott Parsons
Biography of Talcott Parsons, a sociologist best known for laying the foundation for what would become
the modern functionalist perspective. He is regarded by many as the twentieth century's most influential
American sociologist.
Social Theory
Critical theory is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across
social sciences and humanities disciplines.
Dialectical materialism is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic of
Hegel and joining it to the materialism of Feuerbach.
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse; it aims to
understand the nature of gender inequality.
Marxist theories, such as revolutionary theory and class theory, cover work in philosophy that is strongly
influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or is written by Marxists.
Phronetic social science is a theory and methodology for doing social science focusing on ethics and
political power, based on a contemporary interpretation of Aristotelian phronesis.
Postcolonial theory is a reaction to the cultural legacy of colonialism.
Postmodernism refers to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and
design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion
in the late 20th century.
Rational choice theory is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and
economic behavior.
Social constructionism considers how social phenomena develop in social contexts.
Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance,
mythology) as a complex
WORLD FACTS
Largest Religions In The World
ISLAM
1. Islam is the name of the religion. A person who practices Islam is known as a Muslim. The adjective
“Islamic” usually refers to objects and places, not people. The
term “Mohammedanism” is an outdated term for the faith and is usually considered insulting.
2. Islam is an Arabic word that means “peace,” “security,” and “surrender.”
Muslim means “one who peacefully surrenders to God.” Anyone from any race could be Muslim; in other
words, “Muslim” does not refer to a particular race.
3. Famous Muslims in America include Janet Jackson, Muhammad Ali Famous Muslims in America
include Janet Jackson, Muhammad Ali, Shaquille O’Neal, Mara Brock Akil (writer/producer of the series
“The Game” and “Girlfriends”), Mos Def (Yasiin Bey), Mike Tyson, Kareem AbdulJabbar, Ice Cube,
Akon, and Anousheh Ansari, the first Muslim woman in space.
4. Mohammad’s flight (the Hegira) from Mecca in A.D. 622 is the beginning of the rise of Islam. It also
marks the beginning of the Islamic, or Hijri, calendar.
5. Mohammad ibn Abd Allah was born around A.D. 570 in Mecca, Arabia (present day Saudi Arabia) and
died on June 8, 632, in Medina, Arabia. He claimed that when he was 40 years old, he received his first
revelation from God.
6. The Islamic Golden Age, which is traditionally dated as being the 8th–13th centuries, was marked by
the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasids were influenced by the Quran’s injunction that “the
ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of the martyr.” During this time, the Arab world became an
intellectual center for science, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, philosophy, medicine, and
education.
7. The Muslims created a House of Wisdom (BaitulHikmat), which was active during the 9th –13th
centuries, where both Muslim and nonMuslim scholars sought to translate the world’s knowledge into
Arabic. Many classic works of antiquity that might have otherwise been lost were preserved in Arabic and
Persian and later translated into Turkish, Hebrew, and Latin. Here, scholars synthesized and significantly
advanced knowledge gained from the Roman, Chinese, Persian, Egyptian, Greek, Byzantine, and
Phoenician civilizations.d
8. Muslim scholars Ibn Rushd and Ibn Sina were primarily responsible for saving the works of Aristotle,
whose ideas would later dominate both the Christian and Muslim worlds.
9. Inventions that emerged from the Islamic world include the discovery of citric acid (Jābir ibn Hayyān),
arabesque architecture, the minaret, the bridge mill, the verticalaxle windmill, teaching hospitals,
marching bands, early torpedoes, the guitar, the lute, the water pipe (hookah, narghile,or shisha), early
attempts at gliding, algebra, the pinhole camera, the laws of refraction, coffee, and more.
10. Muslim scholar Ibn alHaytham (Alhazen), who was born in A.D 965, formulated the scientific
method and has been referred to as “the world’s first true scientist.” He is also often regarded as the first
theoretical physicist. Additionally, he developed what is called celestial mechanics, which lead to the
eventual work of Europeans such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton.
11. The basic beliefs one must have in order to be considered a Muslim include a belief
in 1) the One God; 2) all the prophets of God; 3) the original scriptures revealed to Prophets Moses,
David, Jesus, and Muhammad; 4) the angels; 5) the Day of Judgment and the Hereafter; and 6) the divine
decree or destiny.
12. There are an estimated 1.6 billion Muslims (last updated 2014) in the world, which is about 1/5 of the
world’s population. Due to birth and conversion rates, Islam is considered to be the fastest growing
religion in the world today.
13. Islam is the second largest faith community, after Christianity.
14. Although Muslims are often associated with the Arab world, fewer than 15% of Muslims are Arabs.
Muslims are found among virtually all ethnic groups, nationalities, and countries.
15. In November 2013, Marvel announced that a 16year old Pakistani Muslim American girl, Kamala
Khan, from New Jersey will be one of their lead superheroes.
16. Many academic traditions, including the distinction between graduates and undergraduates began at
the Islamic university AlAzhar (“the resplendent”) University in Cairo. The university was founded in the
10th century and is renowned for its philosophical and theoretical scholarship.
17. A Muslim woman retains her own family name upon marriage, rather than taking the
name of her husband. This symbolic act emphasizes that she remains her own person, with her own valid
identity.
18. Scholars such as Ibn Sina (9801037), known in the West as Avicenna, developed the work of the
ancient Greeks in both medicine and philosophy. When Christians came into contact with the Muslim
world during the crusades, they brought back Muslim scholarship which, in turn, helped spark the
European Renaissance.
19. Islamic astronomy became highly advanced during the Middle Ages. Astronomy was important to
Muslims because it could be used to figure out
Quran- The Quran stresses coexistence rather than competition with other faiths
20. The Islamic world produced the first skilled, specially trained pharmacists, who made
their own medicines and worked closely with physicians.
21. A 13thcentury Islamic writer described the circulation of blood some 400 years before this was
“discovered” in Europe.
22. Algebra, from the Arabic aljabr, originated in the Islamic world.
23. While originally Muslims had an “unguilty” approach to sex, this openness has been lost over time
and discussions about sex have become taboo. Hoping to change this, Indian American Muslim activist
Asra Nomani has written an “Islamic Bill of Rights for Women in the Bedroom” to “uphold women’s
right to pleasure.” Additionally, a new chicklit novel called No Sex and the City features a Muslim
heroine. Both books show Muslim women having open discussions about sexuality, its role in their
identity, and their fears and aspirations.
24. One famous hadith (Islamic saying) is “Allah is beautiful and loves beauty” Beauty has always been,
therefore, very important to Muslims, and developments in the visual arts such as architecture,
calligraphy, painting, textiles, metal work, and ceramics were encouraged. However, because of strict
laws against idolatry, traditional Islamic art avoided images of humans or animals.
25. The Quran stresses that there should be tolerance between Muslims and nonMuslims. Jews and
Christians—people who, like Muslims, believe in the One God—are given particular respect in the
Quran. Islam does not advocate forced conversion.
26. Discharge of blood, from a man or a woman, exempts a Muslim from prayer and fasting. This is not
only a health precaution, but the presence of blood itself is also considered a violation of ablutions. The
bleeding person is not considered unclean, only the blood itself.
27. Muslims do not describe Islam as a religion. Rather it is a deen, which comes from
the Arabic for “way of life.” Muslims believe that Islam is more than a religious belief —it is a way of
living in accordance with one’s religious faith.
28. Muslims believe that everything on earth that follows God’s natural law is “muslim,” in a sense that it
follows God’s will.
29. Islam is one of the three Abrahamic faiths that share many of the same prophets, beliefs, and historical
accounts as the other two: Christianity and Judaism.
30. Muslims believe that Islam, or peaceful submission to God, was the message of Abraham and, thus,
Islam technically dates back to the Abraham, who lived before Muhammad (7th century A.D.).
31. The Islamic empire once stretched into modern day Europe, particularly in Spain and the Balkans.
Today, there are an estimated 12–20 million Muslims in Europe.
32. During the Middle Ages, the Muslim world had two enormous business advantages: 1) they had a
huge range of contacts, so they could trade everything from African gold to Chinese porcelain to
European amber and furs, and 2) Muslim craft workers were highly skilled, which meant their goods
always found a ready market. Without Muslim merchants, Europeans would have had no rice, sugar, or
coffee.
33. Ten percent of the population of Copenhagen, Denmark, is Muslim. In Sweden, Muslims account for
4% of the population. If present trends continue, Muslims will make up 10% of the entire population of
Europe by 2020.c
34. In former Yugoslavia, over 200,000 Bosnian Muslims were killed as part of a widespread ethnic
cleansing campaign in the mid1990s.
35. Approximately 5–8 million Muslims live in the United States, and there are over 1,200 mosques.
Muslims have been a part of the cultural landscape in America for the past two hundred years.
36. Most historians agree Columbus was not the first person to “discover” America and that explorers,
including Muslims from West Africa, arrived several centuries before Columbus. In fact, when Columbus
made his historical journeys, he relied on the maps and geography studies of the 12thcentury Muslim
scholar AlIdrisi.
37. The first mosque built in the U.S. was the “Mother Mosque of America,” which was built in Cedar
Rapids, Iowa, in 1934. It is still used for worship today.
38. In the United States, about 30% of Muslims are African Americans and 33% are South Central
Asians descending from Indian, Pakistani, or Afghani immigrants.
Muslims of Arab descent make up about 25%, and immigrants from the African continent make up
another 5%. There are also sizable groups of American Muslims of Iranian, Turkish, Southeast Asian, and
European descent. Between 17% and 30% of American Muslims are converts to the faith (nearly 2/3 are
African Americans).
39. The vast majority of Muslims do not speak Arabic as their native tongue. Most Muslims are not Arab.
40. Indonesia has the largest number of Muslims (120 million), followed by Pakistan, India, and
Bangladesh.
41. The preIslamic period in Arabia is commonly called Jahiliyyah, which means “the days of
ignorance.” Before Islam, the main religion of the Arabian Peninsula was pagan idolatry.
42. In Arabic, Mecca means “the place of the drinking cup” which, according to Muslims, was the place
where a spring appeared to sustain Hagar and her son Ishmael. When Abraham later returned to visit his
son Ishmael, they built a stone building together and dedicated it to the worship of the “one True God.”
The building today is known as the Ka’aba, or “the cube.”
43. Muslims hold that there have been over 124,000 prophets sent to mankind through history, beginning
with Adam and ending with Muhammad. Only 25 are mentioned by name in the Quran.
44. Mary, the mother Jesus, is a prominent figure in Islam and is the only woman mentioned by name in
the Quran. Mary is mentioned more times in the Quran than in the entire New Testament, and more
biographical information about her is contained in the Quran than in the New Testament.
45. Muslims accept the original and unaltered Torah and the original Bible as God revealed them;
however, since none of their original texts is in existence today in its entirety, Muslims follow what they
consider to be the final and preserved word of God: the Quran.
46. Muslims do not believe in vicarious atonement but, rather, the law of personal responsibility. In other
words, Islam teaches that each person is responsible for his or her actions. On Judgment Day, Muslims
believe that everyone will be resurrected and will have to answer to God for every word, thought, and
deed.
47. In Europe, Muslim trade goods were a sought after status symbol. Arabic style, wealth, and power
were similar to a Gucci logo or the Nike “swoosh” today.b
48. Islam’s tradition of oral recitation developed into an efficient vehicle for massproduced handwritten
literature. A single Muslim reciter would read a book out loud to a group of scribes, who copied his
spoken words simultaneously. Europe, in contrast, used a much slower system: monks copied books,
individually and one at a time.b
49. Gutenberg’s movabletype printing press (1450) was ill suited for cursive Arabic and was only slowly
adopted by Muslims. However, when lithography was invented in Germany in 1796, which used drawing
on stone with ink to produce illustrations, Muslims eagerly adopted this method of printing. It replaced
handcopying to make multiple copies of Qurans and Arabic newspapers and books.
50. In 10thcentury Cordoba, an Umayyad (Islamic dynasty) city in Spain with over 70 libraries, the palace
library alone had over 60,000 volumes, all written by hand. At the time, the best Latin library in Europe
had only 600 parchment books.b
51. While the Chinese invented paper sometime before the 2nd century B.C., Muslims were the first to
mass produce paper on an intercontinental scale, developing a culture dependent on its abundance. As the
price of paper dropped, literacy rose and booksellers and libraries became integral parts of every Muslim
city.
52. The 15thcentury Mongol warlord Tamerlane (Timur) created a richly decorated 5′x7′ Quran, with
seven lines of type per page. Wealthy Muslims often used paper to show off.
53. Muslim caliphs would use thin, ultralight “bird paper” attached to birds to quickly send and receive
messages across the empire. It was the email of the day.i
54. Islamic advances in the use of paper are the primary reason we read books rather than scrolls today.
55. Arabic numerals, the numbers the Western world uses today, were developed by the Muslims.
56. Contrary to the biblical tradition (Genesis 22:12), most Islamic scholars designate Ismail rather than
Isaac as the intended victim in the story of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son at God’s command
(Quran 37:99113).
57. Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam originated in the Middle East.
58. Quran (Koran) means “recitation” in Arabic.
59. Muslims believe that the Quran, as well as the Torah and the Gospels, is based on a tablet written in
Arabic that exits in heaven with God.
60. Muslims believe they are members of a worldwide Muslim community, known as the ummah, united
by a religious bond that transcends tribal, ethnic, and national identities.
61. Jesus is an important figure in the Quran. Like Christians, Muslims believe in the virginal conception
of Jesus by God’s spirit; however Muslims do not believe Jesus is the Son of God. He is one in the long
line of righteous prophets and second only to Muhammad in importance. For Muslims, the concept of the
Trinity represents a form of polytheism.
62. Muslims do not believe in the concept of original sin, so there is no theological need for the allatoning
sacrifice of Jesus through his crucifixion and resurrection. Muslims believe we will be held accountable
before God for our own actions and responsible for our own salvation. We will not be able to rely on
anyone else, not even Jesus or Muhammad to save us from our sins.
63. Muslims believe God took Jesus to Himself in a manner similar to Elijah.
64. Muslims celebrate two great Islamic holidays. The first is Eid alFitr, the Feast of the Breaking of the
Fast of Ramadan, and the second is the Eid alAdha, the Feast of Sacrifice.
65. Islam does not have an ordained clergy or representatives of a church hierarchy in the way that
Christianity does. Any Muslim can lead the prayer or officiate at a wedding. However, every mosque has
an imam, or the one who “stands in front” to pray and deliver the sermon.
66. Although there are no denominations in Islam like those that exist in Christianity (Roman Catholic,
Methodist, Episcopalian, Lutheran, etc.), like all faiths, Islam has developed divisions, sects, and schools
of thought.
67. After the death of Muhammad, Islam split into two major branches, Sunnis (85% of all Muslims) and
Shiites (15%). There is also a small, radical branch called the Kharijites. The split occurred due to
disagreements about who should be the successor to the Prophet Muhammad.
68. Sunnis make up 87%–90% of the worldwide Muslim population. Shiite Muslims make up about 10%.
69. A number of basic beliefs in the Black Muslim movement (which was in response to what was viewed
as the “white supremacy” of Christianity) differ significantly from mainstream Islam, which teaches
equality among all the races.
70. The Quran states that “There is to be no compulsion in religion” and that God has created not one but
many nations and peoples.
71. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—in contrast to Hinduism and Buddhism—are all monotheistic faiths
that worship the God of Adam, Abraham, and Moses. They share a common belief in the oneness of God,
sacred history, prophets, divine revelation, angels, and Satan. All stress moral responsibility and
accountability, Judgment Day, and eternal reward and punishment. All three emphasize their special
covenant with God—for Judaism, through Moses; Christianity, through Christ; and Islam, through
Mohammad.d
72. To become Muslim, a person of any race or culture must say a simple statement, or creed: the
Shahada, which bears witness to the belief in the singularity of God and in Muhammad as His prophet.
73. There are 25 countries in which more than 95% of the population is Muslim.d
74. Muslims believe there are five actions that they should perform. These are known as
the Five Pillars of Islam: 1) Shahada (the declaration of faith), 2) Salat (the duty to
pray five times a day), 3) Zakat (giving to charity), 4) Siyam (fasting during the month of Ramadan), and
5) Hajj (making a pilgrimage to Mecca).
75. Keeping clean is important in Islam. Muslims burn sweet smelling incense after cleaning their homes.
On special occasions, they sprinkle guests with rose-scented water.
76. Islamic law divides food and other products into three different types: 1) Halal (foods that are
allowed), 2) Makruh (foods that may be eaten but that are discouraged), and 3) Haram (forbidden foods,
such as pig, carnivorous animals, certain types of cheese, and anything that causes addiction, such as
alcohol).
77. Allah has 99 names. Each name has a meaning, such as AlRahman “the Merciful”; AlAziz, “the
powerful”; and AlHafi “the Protector.”
78. Mohamed left Mecca and traveled to Medina in the year A.D. 622. This event is called the Hegira
migration. The Hegira marked the starting point of the Muslim calendar and years are counted from this
event.
79. The Islamic year is 11 days shorter than the year used in the Western world. This is because the
Western year is based on the orbit of the Earth around the Sun instead of on the phases of the moon.
80. The Quran emphasizes modesty, although there is no specific prescription. Veiling women did not
become widespread in the Islamic empire until three or four generations after Muhammad’s death. It was
originally a status symbol— not to separate women from men but from the lower classes.
81. While some blame Islam for the oppression of women, others see it as a means to reform. The status
of women in Muslim countries differs as much as the countries themselves. Restrictions often originate
not from Islam, but rather from cultural customs sometimes wrongly justified under Islam.
82. As in Judaism, circumcision for males is required in Islam according to both tradition and
Muhammad’s example. Symbolically, circumcision represents the religious process of submission to
God’s will and commands, and the submission of base passions to the higher spiritual requirements of
Islam.
83. Muslim men are allowed to marry Christian or Jewish women because these women are “People of
the Book,” or those who have divine revelation. However, Muslim women must marry a Muslim or
someone who converts to Islam.
84. In contrast to Catholicism, marriage is a contract in Islam, not a sacrament. Islam has always
recognized the right to divorce under certain circumstances.
85. Dogs in the Islamic world are typically not allowed inside the house because they are considered to be
unclean. Many Muslims believe that if anyone comes into contact with a dog’s saliva, that person must
repeat the ritual ablutions (washings) prior to prayer.
86. Both alcohol and pork are forbidden in Islam.
87. Jihad (to strive or struggle) is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam, though it has no
official status. Its meaning is controversial, but most scholars agree it means both 1) the inner struggle
that one endures in trying to submit their will to the will of God, which is the “greater” jihad, and 2) the
physical struggle against persecution and oppression, which is the “lesser” jihad. Some
scholars suggest a third meaning, which is the struggle to build a good society.
88. The translation of jihad as “holy war” is incorrect. In Arabic, the phrase would be harbun muqaddasa
tur, a phrase that is not found in the Quran or in any other form of Islamic literature.
89. Islam and Islamic law have consistently condemned terrorism.
90. In Islam, as in Judaism, marriage between first cousins is quite common.
91. In Islam, homosexuality is considered abnormal. In some areas, it is treated as a crime punishable
under Islamic law; in others, homosexuality is tolerated but homosexuals are still set apart socially.
Today, some gay Muslims have pressed for recognition of their rights in their communities.
92. Muslim scholars agree that after the “ensoulment” (infusion of the soul) of the fetus (thought some to
occur at fertilization and by others at 120 days), abortion constitutes homicide and should be punished.
Abortions are generally approved when the health of the mother is at stake.
93. While the Quran does not address birth control, a few hadith (traditions) mention coitus interruptus.
However, the majority of ulama (Muslim legal scholars) in the 21st century believe that temporary birth
control is permissible as long as both husband and wife agree.
94. Islamic councils and jurists have ruled that there is nothing wrong with organ donation in Islam as
long as the procedure poses no danger to a living donor and is performed respectfully on the deceased
donor.
95. While Christians cite the New Testament injunction to render unto Caesar what belongs to Caesar and
to God what belongs to God (separation of church and state), Muslims believe that their primary act of
faith is to strive to implement God’s will in both their private and their public life. Through history,
Muslims have believed in an Islamic state government by Islamic law.d
96. Jerusalem is a revered city by all three of the great monotheistic faiths. For Muslims, Jerusalem was
the original qibla (location that all Muslims face when they pray) and Mohammad’s destination in his
Night Journey from Mecca.
97. The absence of democracy in the Muslim world today has led many people to ask if there is
something about the Muslim culture that is antithetical to democracy. The answer to this question lies
more in history and politics than in religion.
98. When it is time to pray, a man called a muezzin calls out from a minaret, which is a tower on or near
the mosque. Sometimes his call to prayer is played through a loud speaker. He will turn to the four
compass directions (north, south, east, and west) and at each turn will declare the Shahada, or Islamic
creed: “God is most great. There is no God but Allah. Muhammad is the prophet of God.”
99. Every Muslim tries to visit Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. This special visit is called a hajj.
More than 2.5 million pilgrims visit Mecca during the annual hajj.
Leyte Gulf, Philippine Sea, and Jutland are some of the largest naval battles of all time.
The Coastline Of Canada, The Longest In The World
The Canada coastline is approximately 151,019 miles long, the longest coastline in the world.
The most popular country in North America is the United States, followed by Mexico and Canada.
Where Is South Ossetia?
South Ossetia is located on the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountains.
OCT 26, 2017
The Kowloon Peninsula is a part of Hong Kong and lies to the southern part of Hong Kong.
Slums refer to informal settlements in urban areas that are densely populated.
Alaska was granted statehood by the United States of America on January 3, 1959.
Ethanol fuel is a form of ethyl alcohol that is used mostly to power vehicles, as bio-fuel and as an additive
for gasoline.
The United States has enacted a draft in the Civil War, World War I, World War II, and the Cold War.
OCT 24, 2017
What happens when a city decides to ban the use of automobiles within its borders?
What is the Difference Between a City and a Town?
Though commonly confused to mean the same thing, a city and a town are, in fact, different.
Which Country Contributes The Most To The Budget Of The European Union?
At 21.11%, Germany contributes the most to the overall budget of the European Union. France (16.63%),
UK (13.45%), Italy (12.49%), and Spain (8.55%) are the other top contributors.
Shirley Chisholm- Shirely was the first black Congresswoman in 1968. She used her time in Congress to
campaign for women and civil rights
Wangari Maathai- Won Nobel peace prize in 2004 for her grassroots activist campaigns to improve
environment and living conditions of those in Africa.
UN
The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945. It is currently made up of
193 Member States. The mission and work of the United Nations are guided by the purposes and
principles contained in its founding Charter.
1 January 1942 || The name "United Nations" is coined
The name "United Nations", coined by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt was first used in
the Declaration by United Nations of 1 January 1942, during the Second World War,
when representatives of 26 nations pledged their Governments to continue fighting together against the
Axis Powers.
1865 || 1874
States first established international organizations to cooperate on specific matters. The International
Telecommunication Union was founded in 1865 as the International Telegraph Union, and the Universal
Postal Union was established in 1874. Both are now United Nations specialized agencies.
1899 || 1902
In 1899, the International Peace Conference was held in The Hague to elaborate instruments for settling
crises peacefully, preventing wars and codifying rules of warfare. It adopted the Convention for the
Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which
began work in 1902.
1919
The forerunner of the United Nations was the League of Nations, an organization conceived in similar
circumstances during the first World War, and established in 1919 under the Treaty of Versailles "to
promote international cooperation and to achieve peace and security." The International Labour
Organization was also created under the Treaty of Versailles as an affiliated agency of the League. The
League of Nations ceased its activities after failing to prevent the Second World War.
In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on
International Organization to draw up the United Nations Charter. Those delegates deliberated on the
basis of proposals worked out by the representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and
the United States at Dumbarton Oaks, United States in August-October 1944.
The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was
not represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States.
The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter had been ratified
by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and by a majority of other
signatories. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24 October each year.
Due to the powers vested in its Charter and its unique international character, the United Nations can take
action on the issues confronting humanity in the 21st century, such as peace and security, climate change,
sustainable development, human rights, disarmament, terrorism, humanitarian and health emergencies,
gender equality, governance, food production, and more.
The UN also provides a forum for its members to express their views in the General Assembly, the
Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, and other bodies and committees. By enabling
dialogue between its members, and by hosting negotiations, the Organization has become a mechanism
for governments to find areas of agreement and solve problems together.
EU
The European Union (EU) is the present state of the so-called “European Community” that has developed
over the last seven decades following World War 2, an affair that ravaged the European continent. The
European Union, whether directly through itself or by way of its constituent and/or affiliated bodies, aims
to regulate and foster the economic betterment of its constituent national and multilateral markets, protect
human rights, carry out civil and social justice, and increase the ease and efficacy in the movement of
capital, goods, services, and humans across national borders of its member states. Beginning with the
“Inner Six” in the 1950s, the EU has continually expanded since to reach a zenith of 28 member states,
which was reduced to 27 with the departure of the United Kingdom following a June 23rd, 2016 national
referendum.
Saudi Arabia launched air strikes in late March against its neighbor Yemen with the help of nine other,
mainly Arab, countries. The move came after Houthi rebels captured Yemen’s capital Sanaa and drove
Yemeni President Abdu Rabbu Mansour Hadi into exile in Saudi Arabia. The Houthis, who belong to
a minority Shiite sect, receive support from Iran, Saudi Arabia’s mortal enemy. The Houthis also have the
support of forces loyal to former Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was ousted during the Arab
Spring and who once had good relations with Riyadh. The Saudi-led intervention put the United States in
a bind. Washington feared that the intervention could become a quagmire and worried that al-Qaeda in
the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), an enemy to the Houthis as well as the United States, would benefit from
the ensuing chaos. But the desire to prevent a rift with Riyadh prevailed, and Washington provided
intelligence information, weapons, and aerial-refueling capabilities while urging the Saudi-led coalition to
minimize civilian casualties. The civilian toll in Yemen has nonetheless been substantial, as air strikes
and a maritime blockade have intensified Yemen’s many existing problems. As predicted, AQAP has
used the fighting to its advantage, as has ISIS. In a potentially positive development, a seven-day
ceasefire went into effect this month so that peace talks could begin.
China claims much of the South China Sea—the bulk of which lies far from the Chinese mainland—
through its so-called nine-dash line. Beijing is trying to give substance to its claims, which the five
countries with coastlines on the sea vigorously dispute, by creating artificial islands around reefs and
submerged rocks. It is in turn building airstrips and military installations on the newly formed islands.
The United States takes no position on the merits of China’s claims in the South China Sea. But the U.S.
insists China’s claim that the 12-mile zone around these new islands constitutes its territorial waters
has no basis in international law. Washington—and most governments in Southeast Asia—worry that
Beijing will eventually use the new islands to choke off freedom of navigation in the area. In October,
after repeated official statements about how “the United States will fly, sail, and operate wherever
international law allows,” a U.S. Navy destroyer sailed through waters China claims as its own in a
freedom-of-naval-operations (FONOPS) mission. China protested the maneuver as “a very serious
provocation politically and militarily.” The stakes in the dispute are enormous. More than $5 trillion in
trade passes through the South China Sea each year, and its waters contain rich fisheries and potentially
vast oil and mineral deposits. And then there is the question of whether China will supplant the United
States as the dominant power in the region.
Beijing sent shock waves through global financial markets in August when it devalued its currency,
variously called the yuan or renminbi, against the dollar. Chinese officials said the move was intended to
bring the yuan in line with its market value, something Western governments had been urging for years.
Many investors took the devaluation as a sign that the Chinese economy was slowing down faster than
reported and that Beijing was using its currency to try to reignite growth. The Shanghai stock
market plunged in late August, further unsettling global markets and shaking confidence in China’s
handling of economic policy. In October, China reported that third-quarter growth hit 6.9 percent, which
was higher than expected but well below the 10-percent growth China has averaged over the past three
decades. And doubts exist about the accuracy of the numbers that Beijing reported. Despite the bad
economic news coming out of China, the International Monetary Fund in December designated the
renminbi as a major world currency, which opens the door to its greater use in global financial
transactions. But investors and governments remain nervous that China’s economy, which has been a
major driver of global growth in recent years, will continue to slow, and as a result, so will economic
growth around the world.
The stakes in the dispute are enormous: More than $5 trillion in trade passes through the South China Sea
each year.
The world’s climate is changing, in good part because of human activity. But governments around the
world have been slow to address the potentially catastrophic threat. The landmark 1992 Kyoto
Treaty failed to deliver its promised emissions cuts, and not just because the U.S. Senate declined to
provide its consent. The 2009 Copenhagen climate summit opened to much fanfare but was laced with
acrimony and produced little. The 195 countries that turned up in Paris in late November for a new
climate-change summit avoided that fate. After two weeks of intense talks, they produced the Paris
Climate Accord, the first to commit nearly every country to reduce its emissions of heat-trapping gases.
The 31-page document hardly solves the climate-change challenge, however, which is why some climate-
change activists criticized it for being too little, too late. To get the deal, negotiators left a lot of the details
to be worked out later. Even if agreement is reached on those details, the success of the Paris Climate
Accord ultimately depends on national governments taking, and enforcing, steps to reduce reliance on
fossil fuels. Domestic politics could be a major hurdle on that front.
The four-year-long Syrian Civil War, which has killed more than 200,000 peopleand forced as many as 9
million to flee their homes, took a turn in September when Russia without warning began conducting air
strikes from bases in Syria. Moscow insisted it intervened to join the fight against the self-proclaimed
Islamic State, but in practice its planes targeted Syrian rebel groups looking to topple Russia’s longtime
ally, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. Russia’s military operations were not coordinated with those the
United States and its allies were conducting against the Islamic State, raising concerns about an
unintended confrontation between the two sides. A version of those fears materialized in late November
when Turkish F-16s shot down a Russian fighter jet, killing one of the pilots. Turkish officials insisted
that the Russian plane had ignored repeated warnings not to enter Turkish airspace. Russian
officials disputed those claimsand accused Ankara of a “planned provocation.” On the diplomatic side,
Russia’s intervention prompted an effort to find a negotiated settlement to the Syrian conflict. Despite
significant fanfare and high-level participation on all sides, the talks stumbled over a core disagreement:
Moscow wants Assad to stay, Washington and its allies want him to go.
If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again. That old saying could be the motto of the Iran nuclear
negotiations.
After seven years of negotiations, the United States and 11 other countries finally reached agreement in
October on the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), the largest regional trade deal in history. The agreement,
which is a critical part of the Obama administration’s rebalance to Asia, would set trade rules
governing roughly 40 percent of the global economy. The deal was made possible when the U.S.
Congress voted in June to give President Barack Obama Trade Promotion Authority (TPA), which among
other things restricts Congress to a simple up-down vote on trade deals. U.S. negotiating partners had
refused to make major concessions in the TPP negotiations until they knew that Congress could not revise
the deal that they negotiated with the president. In a sign of how controversial trade deals can be on
Capitol Hill, just 41 Democrats voted for TPA. Now that Obama has TPP, he has to persuade Congress to
pass the bill to put it into effect. Critics are already marshaling their arguments for why Congress should
vote down the implementing legislation. A vote on TPP likely won’t happen until after the 2016 elections,
if it happens at all.
“I fought the law and the law won.” Alexis Tsipras learned the hard way what the Bobby Fuller Four only
sang about. Tsipras became the Greek prime minister in January 2015 by pledging to get Greece better
repayment terms on its massive debt. Despite appealing to other debt-burdened European countries for
solidarity and trying to isolate EU power Germany by dredging up memories of Nazi atrocities, the
European Union refused to give Tsipras what he wanted. He then tried to strengthen his hand by calling a
July referendum in which 61 percent of Greeks voted against accepting the EU’s offer. The EU
nonetheless held firm, insisting that Greece would get help only if it agreed to significant, and painful,
economic reforms. Tsipras blinked. A week after the ‘no’ vote, and faced with the imminent collapse of
the Greek economy, he accepted the EU’s offer. Despite not delivering the relief that he promised,
Tsipras and his Syriza Party won new elections in September. But Greece’s economy remains troubled.
It has shrunk by 25 percent over the past five years, official unemployment is nearly 25 percent, and
doubts remain over whether Greece can ever repay its debts as long as it remains in the euro zone. So
“Grexit,” and its possible shock to the global financial system, could soon be back in the news.
In 2015, Europe hardly looked capable of handling its own problems, let alone running the world.
If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again. That old saying could be the motto of the Iran nuclear
negotiations. Conducted off and on since 2002, they finally produced a deal in July. Formally called the
Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), it wasn’t sealed until September, when 42 Democratic
senators voted to block a resolution to stop it. Neither the P5+1 nor Iran got all it wanted in the JCPOA.
Iran got sanctions relief, but it had to agree to give up 97 percent of its stockpile of enriched
uranium, slash its number of centrifuges by two-thirds, and shut down a heavy-water reactor. Iran also
had to agree to on-site inspections by the International Atomic Energy Agency. If Iran violates the
JCPOA, sanctions can be reimposed. To extract these concessions from Iran, the P5+1 agreed to let the
deal’s critical provisions expire after 10 or 15 years. The White House saysthe deal will prevent Iran from
acquiring a nuclear weapon for more than a decade and increase the “breakout time” should Tehran
decide to acquire nuclear weapons. The deal’s critics—and there are many, both at home and abroad—say
the deal failed to deliver the only acceptable outcome: dismantlement of Iran’s nuclear program.
When Obama told an interviewer on November 12 that “we have contained” the Islamic State, he had in
mind its geographical ambitions in the Middle East. A day later, the world discovered that the Islamic
State was taking its fight beyond its home territory. Three teams of ISIS terrorists struck at four locations
in Paris, killing 130 people. But ISIS’s efforts to take the fight to its enemies had begun even earlier. In
July, a suicide bomber loyal to the Islamic State killed 33 people in Suruc, Turkey, not far from the
border with Syria. Three months later, two suicide bombers, one the brother of the Suruc bomber, killed
102 people at a peace rally in Ankara. On October 31, a bomb brought down a Russian passenger airliner
over the Sinai, killing all 224 people on board. And then on December 2, a husband and wife who
had pledged allegiance to the Islamic State’s caliph, Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi, killed 14 people in a mass
shooting in San Bernardino, California. The attacks prompted renewed Western air strikes against the
Islamic State, redirected domestic politics in France and the United States, and raised ominous questions
about what 2016 might bring.
A decade ago, experts were writing books with titles like Why Europe Will Run the 21st Century. In 2015,
Europe hardly looked capable of handling its own problems, let alone running the world. Still struggling
to emerge from a deep economic recession, it was hit by a wave of nearly a million refugees. Most were
seeking to escape the horrors of the Syrian Civil War or instability and violence elsewhere. Others,
however, were economic migrants seeking better job opportunities. The influx of refugees provided heart-
wrenching images of people desperate to reach Europe,sometimes failing with deadly consequences,
but more often succeeding. The influx exposed Europe’s porous borders, highlighted differences within
Europe over how to handle immigrants, and gave new life to Europe’s many nationalist and anti-
immigrant parties. The refugee crisis also created political problems across the Atlantic. The Obama
administration announced in September that it would take in “at least 10,000” Syrian refugees in 2016.
But in the aftermath of the Paris and San Bernardino attacks, compassion quickly swung to concern, and
federal, state, and local politicians moved to block Muslim refugees from entering the United States or
relocating to their communities. As long as Syria’s civil war persists and the European economy attracts
job-seekers, the refugee and migrant pressure on Europe will continue.
Other stories of note in 2015 included Obama’s decision to reverse course and keep U.S. combat troops in
Afghanistan through the end of his presidency, ongoing peace negotiations in Colombia,
escalating tensions in the West Bankand Jerusalem, the discovery of debris from Malaysia Airlines Flight
370 on Reunion Island, a collapsed crane in Mecca and a deadly stampede at the Hajj, China’s decisions
to abandon a one-child policy in favor of a two-child policy, and the arrests (yes, there were more than
one) of senior officials at FIFA, the organization that oversees soccer (or “football”) around the world.
Foreign relations of the Philippines
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Australia 62 21 15 +47
Japan 56 22 21 +34
Norway 41 31 26 +16
Netherlands 40 31 26 +14
Trust rating of Seven countries, October 2016[1]
Taiwan 36 29 34 +3
China 22 22 55 -33
Issues
International disputes
The Spanish Administration governed various Pacific island colonies from Manila. These include the
present-day Guam, and parts of Micronesia, all of which were given separate administrations under
American oversight after Spain transferred power to the United States in accordance with the Treaty of
Paris. Spanish Manila also governed possessions in Borneo, Halmahera, Taiwan, Pulau Ternate and Pulau
Tidore, all of which transferred to non-American entities after the Spanish–American War.
Sabah
Sabah, the largest region which the Philippines claim, is now an integral part of Malaysia. On January 23,
1878, Sulu Sultan Jamalul Alam leased or ceded (depending on translation used) his territory in Borneo,
in which is now Sabah, to Austrian Gustavus von Overbeck. The Sultan was paid 5000 Malayan Dollars
per year for the agreement. In 1882, Sabah became a British Protectorate, became a British colony after
World War II, and joined the Federation of Malaysia in 1963.[90]
Philippine Presidents Diosdado Macapagal and Ferdinand Marcos openly claimed Sabah. The latter even
ordered Sabah to be put into the Philippine map. Despite challenges of the Philippine government to bring
the matter of the dispute to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), Malaysia still rejects those calls.
During 2002, violent mass deportations of illegal Filipinos residing in Sabah [91] resulted in more clamor
for the Sabah claim. Up to this day, Malaysia still pays the annual cession payment of 5,300 Malaysian
Ringgit to the Sultan's heirs.
Sulawesi Sea Islands
The case of Sipadan and Ligitan, which were in dispute between Malaysia and Indonesia, was taken into
the ICJ, in which the former won. Sipadan and Ligitan are technically part of Sabah state, and thus would
be part of the claim of the Sulu Sultanate's heir, the Philippines.
Macclesfield Bank
Macclesfield Bank, located east of the Paracel Islands, distantly southwest of the Pratas Islands and north
of the Spratly Islands, is claimed by China and Taiwan (Republic of China).
Some sources state that the Philippines claims this underwater feature. However, Jose Zaide, a Philippine
diplomat of ambassadorial rank, has written that the Philippines does not claim the Macclesfield Bank.
Scarborough Shoal
The Scarborough Shoal (Panatag Shoal), located west of Palauig, Zambales, are claimed by the
Philippines, the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China. The Philippines bases its claim on
its close proximity of the Scarborough Shoal to the Philippines. It also says that the Scarborough Shoal is
within the Filipino Exclusive Economic Zone and argues terra nullius. A Yuan dynasty map dated as
early as 1279 is the basis for the claim of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China. They
argue that the area was historically used by their fishermen.
Spratly Islands
The Spratly Islands are a group of islands, reefs, and rocks located about 300 kilometers West of Aborlan,
Palawan. The Philippines, along with the People's Republic of China, the Republic of
China, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Brunei expressed claims. The Philippines officially staked a claim to
some of the islands during the United Nations convention [when?], although it was first expressed in 1956,
when Tomás Cloma, a Philippine mariner, declared some of the eastern Spratlys as a protectorate of the
Philippines. Based on proximity and on the United Nations Archipelagic Doctrine, the Philippines can
claim some of the Spratlys as an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Whether these arguments (or any
other used by the Philippines) would hold up in court is debatable but possibly moot, as the PRC and
Vietnam seem unwilling to legally substantiate their claims and have rejected Philippine challenges to
take the dispute to the World Maritime Tribunal in Hamburg.