See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/263458567

Applying Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and peer collaboration to

pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties and severe learning
difficulties: two case studie...

Article · January 2011

CITATIONS READS

3 2,652

2 authors:

Clare Chalaye Dawn Bernadette Male

University College London UCL/IOE
4 PUBLICATIONS   3 CITATIONS    43 PUBLICATIONS   335 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

PhD - What Makes for a Good Life for Children with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties View project

Quality of life of children and young people with profound and multiple learning dificulties. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Clare Chalaye on 07 March 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

SLD Autumn 2011_Layout 1 15/11/2011 14:53 Page 13

the SLD experience

Applying Vygotsky’s zone of

proximal development and
peer collaboration to pupils
with profound and multiple
learning difficulties and
severe learning difficulties:
two case studies
‘Vygotsky’s
Clare Chalaye and Dawn Male ethnic minority against whom prejudice was work with
common). This was a time when the First
Introduction World War (1914–1918) and the Russian children and
This article focuses on aspects of the work of revolution/civil war (1917–1923) tore families young people
the Russian psychologist, Lev Vygotsky, and its apart and left many children with disabilities.
applicability for children and young people with special
identified as having profound and multiple Vygotsky worked with and studied many educational
learning difficulties (PMLD) and severe children with disabilities, ranging from
learning difficulties (SLD); in particular, it blindness and deafness, to what he called needs (SEN)/
focuses on Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of ‘mental retardation.’ During and following the disabilities
proximal development (ZPD) and peer wars and dissent in Russia many of these
collaboration. A case study approach is used to children were abandoned (Warford, 2011). impacted on
discuss applicability. The two case study pupils Vygotsky classed mental retardation in three his thinking
attend a special school for pupils identified as degrees of severity: ‘idiots’ (most severe, with
having PMLD, SLD and other complex an average mental age of up to 2 years, but about
learning difficulties, including autistic no use of tools or spoken language); pedagogy and
spectrum conditions (ASC). The school caters ‘imbeciles’ (with an average age of 2–7 years,
for pupils aged 4–19 years. The peer use of some language and an ability to carry education in
interactions of the two pupils, one identified as out simple work, under supervision); ‘debiles’ general,’
having PMLD and one SLD, were observed or ‘morons’ (average mental age of a 12 year
over a term, in their classroom, and other areas old with limited higher processing abilities)
of the school. (Rieber & Carlton, 1993). Clearly, these
terms are not used in today’s society in the
Vygotsky: the man, his work and UK, due to the negative connotations implied
its applicability for education by the words themselves, but in Vygotsky’s
Vygotsky, one of the most prominent time and culture these terms would have been
developmental psychologists of the 20th acceptable. However, the first two terms
century, focused his work and studies on child respectively (ie, ‘idiots’ and ‘imbeciles’) could
development and pedagogy (Warford, 2011). be said to equate to children and young
He was a prolific writer, despite only living to people today who have been identified as
age 37, and believed that socialisation and having PMLD or SLD.
culture were critical to the development of the
mind. Vygotsky’s work with children and young
people with special educational needs
Vygotsky’s experience of social and cultural (SEN)/disabilities impacted on his thinking
influence in his own life and that of others about pedagogy and education in general, and
around him was significant (Smidt, 2009; his observations of the limited interaction
Blanck, 1990). He was born in 1896 in Orsha between children with SEN/disabilities and
and grew up in Gomel (both now part of people around them were seen by him as
Belarus) as a member of a Jewish family, (an increasing the impact of their disability:

Autumn 2011 13
SLD Autumn 2011_Layout 1 15/11/2011 14:53 Page 14

the SLD experience

‘A disability in and of itself is not a tragedy. to be able to perform complicated calculations

It is only an occasion to provoke tragedy.’ in their head to ensure that when running a
(Vygodskya, p 330) mini-enterprise business, selling sweets on the
streets, they make a profit (Woolfolk, 2001). It
The zone of proximal is unlikely that children in the UK of the same
development and peer age could do this successfully.
collaboration
Vygotsky believed that cognitive development Vygotsky also believed that cognitive
occurs through ‘social constructivism’; that it development occurred in two parts: biological
is through the mediation of one or more other and social with social being most powerful. By
people that pupils make intellectual progress biological development Vygotsky meant
(Loyd, 2007). Vygotsky was the second of reflexes and responses, cause and effect type
eight children, the first male, and it is learning and what he considered to be lower
suspected that he would have taught and been level thought processes such as intelligence,
taught by his peers, in a naturalistic family memory and attention. Social cognitive
setting in which education was highly valued development, according to Vygotsky, involved
(his mother was a teacher, his father in higher mental functioning that is consciously
‘Vygotsky banking). This peer teaching or collaboration used by the learner, such as planning, abstract
placed great may have been the starting place for one reasoning, decision making and targeted
aspect of Vygotsky’s theory, which he called attention (Smidt, 2009). Vygotsky theorised
emphasis the ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ (ZPD). that social learning and development happens
on many This encompasses the development of through collaboration with others; either adult
children’s higher mental functions through teachers or more expert others, such as peers.
aspects of collaboration with an ‘expert’ other, be this an The development/learning does not take place
development adult or a peer who is cognitively in advance of through imitation, but through a refining of
the learner (in the area that they are working) initial responses by the less competent partner
which involved (Smidt, 2009). due to the interaction with their more
reference to competent peer (Tudge, 1990). These
He described the ZPD as the difference interactions would be determined by the
the roles of between a child’s: culture and cultural tools surrounding the
‘others’, learners, particularly language. In a special
‘Actual developmental level as determined school the interactions could be in the form of
including by independent problem solving and the Makaton signs, Braille, or symbols (for
thought and higher level of potential development as example).
determined through problem solving under
language, adult guidance or in collaboration with Vygotsky used the ZPD as a metaphor in
imitation, more capable peers.’ (1978, p 86) which he described the difference between the
learner’s actual developmental level (ADL)
higher mental Vygotsky placed great emphasis on many and the level of potential development (LPD)
functions, aspects of development which involved (Daniels, 2001). He assessed this by
reference to the roles of ‘others’, including calculating the level at which a child
society and thought and language, imitation, higher mental performed individually when problem solving
the use of functions, society and the use of cultural tools. – ADL, and then the level at which they could
It is, however, necessary to talk about culture perform when supported by an adult or expert
cultural tools.’ as all of Vygotsky’s theories revolve around the other – LPD (Vygotsky, 1978). The ZPD was
concept that development is culturally specific. viewed by Vygotsky as evolving, rather than
He referred to ‘cultural tools’, which would being fixed, which he demonstrates when he
include real tools such as abacuses, looms and states that:
rulers as well as more symbolic tools like
language, Braille, mathematical systems, letters ‘The zone of proximal development defines
and numbers. The tools used by the culture those functions that have not yet matured
surrounding a child as they grow and develop but are currently in the process of
dictate what they learn. For example, currently maturation, functions that will mature
in the UK many children competently use tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic
tools such as computers and i-Pods at three state. These functions could be termed the
years old, begin to read and write by five years “buds” or “flowers” of development.’
and are able to interpret abstract non-verbal (Vygotsky, 1978, p 86)
reasoning tests at 11 years to pass inter-school
tests. These skills and competencies may be In order for the learner to progress their
well beyond the remit of their counterparts in cognitive development from buds or flowers to
countries such as Brazil, but it would not be fruit, mediation from the adult or more able
uncommon for unschooled Brazilian children learner between the less able learner and the
14 Autumn 2011
SLD Autumn 2011_Layout 1 15/11/2011 14:53 Page 15

the SLD experience

enable staff to offer their own scaffolding input

more easily than in mainstream schools.

In many mainstream classroom settings,

children and young people work with peers,
whether in groups or pairs or with one pupil
designated as a peer tutor. In addition,
whether or not this collaboration is planned by
the teacher, often children talk and naturally
peer-tutor. In a special school, where the
children may have limited mobility,
communication difficulties and are likely to
have an increased staff to pupil ratio, it is likely
that interactions between peers, structured
Sharing a fun moment; looking
at an activity to their left.
situations in which to collaborate with peers
and natural peer mentoring situations are
somewhat reduced. Vygotsky was very aware of
the limited social interactions experienced by
children and young people with SEN and ‘Vygotsky
believed that many children with disabilities
(particularly physical) should be educated in believed that in
mainstream schools, rather than being addition to this,
segregated and subsequently further separated
from natural interactions with mainstream the level at
peers (Reiber & Carlton 1993). However, which the
where special education was in use, for
children with learning difficulties, Vygotsky teaching is set
believed that this should occur in: needs to be
‘… a specially designed setting where the within the ZPD,
Working together to access entire staff is able to exclusively serve the but nearer to
an activity panel. individual needs of a child with a disability.
It should be a special system that employs the LPD than
environment is necessary to ensure that they specific methodologies because pupils with the ADL as
receive (what was later termed as) ‘scaffolding’ disabilities require modified and alternative
opportunities (Bruner, 1966). By this Vygotsky methods of teaching.’ (Gindis, 2003, p 212) cognitive
refers to support in which the mediator
development
increases help if the learner experiences Case studies
difficulty and reduces levels of support when From January–April 2011 two pupils were will not occur
they achieve success. This responsive and observed working together. The older and by teaching a
adaptive collaboration, supported by language, more cognitively and physically able pupil was
provides optimum opportunity for internal given prompts from adults as to what to do child what they
cognitive development (Smidt, 1990). with her peer initially, in relaxed play and already know.’
Vygotsky believed that in addition to this, the snack time sessions, but over time also
level at which the teaching is set needs to be progressed to using her own initiative during
within the ZPD, but nearer to the LPD than interactions. Below are descriptions of Gemma
the ADL as cognitive development will not and Gary (real names are not used to ensure
occur by teaching a child what they already anonymity) and their peer collaboration.
know. The educational implications for the use
of peer mentoring within the ZPD in a Gemma
classroom setting therefore relies on the Gemma is aged six years. She has been
teacher as expert assessor of the ADL and identified as having SLD and is working at P-
LPD of each pupil, providing them level 4–6, across the curriculum. She has
opportunities for activities in which scaffolding cerebral palsy and has one significantly weaker
can occur with a peer of greater ability in an side which presents as a slight limp and limited
area of learning, aimed towards the pupil’s functioning and strength in her right
LPD. However, in a special school this may be arm/hand. Gemma has a fluctuating hearing
difficult to achieve (due, for example, to the loss which means that although she may hear
abilities of the pupils being similar and the things on one occasion she may not on
reduced natural interactions of the pupils). another. She uses Makaton signs as her main
Conversely, the small class sizes and high form of communication, although she is
staffing ratios found in special schools may beginning to use more single spoken words
Autumn 2011 15
SLD Autumn 2011_Layout 1 15/11/2011 14:53 Page 16

the SLD experience

and can name familiar objects. Gemma has reach out and touch the toys independently on
mild asthma and uses an inhaler if she is occasions and three months on he regularly
wheezy, which can have a negative impact on carries out short bursts of independent, self-
her behaviour. Gemma lives with her parents, initiated exploration with his hands.
her uncle and her brother and sister. Gemma
can be very caring towards others at times, but Gary’s limited periods of wakefulness, coupled
when she is confused about what is expected with Vygotsky’s theory that children with
of her or is not able to do what she wants to do disabilities are subject to limited social
in school, she may hit out towards adults or interaction, are likely to have reduced his
peers and sometimes spits at others. Gemma is opportunities to learn and develop in the past.
given considerable help to make sense of what Gemma provides him with mediation and
is going to happen next throughout her school learning opportunities that would be different
day through spoken and signed to those of adults in that her play is more
communication and a Makaton symbol ‘Now naturalistic and not goal directed. In these
and next’ chart, which helps her to remain situations Gemma is playing the role of
calm for much of the time. ‘teacher’ with Gary as her pupil.

Gary Vygotsky believed that play gives a child

Gary is aged five years. He has been identified opportunities to satisfy needs and incentives
as having PMLD, including severe visual and that these needs and incentives change as
impairment. He had infantile convulsions as a the child develops cognitively. Gary’s play is
‘Vygotsky baby and was prescribed medication to reduce currently exploratory whereas Gemma’s is
believed that these at around nine months old. This had a imaginary, though her play is still very much
severe impact on his responsiveness to stimuli dictated by the objects around her (Vygotsky,
play gives and made him sleepy for much of the day. In 1933). For example, Gemma will play with
a child the last year and a half he has been on a dolls and will pretend to give her ‘baby’ a
Ketogenic diet which has dramatically reduced bottle if there is one available. If there is not a
opportunities his seizural activity and he now only has one real bottle available she would not use another
to satisfy night-time dose of a medication that does not object in place of this (as an imaginary bottle)
induce drowsiness and lethargy. Until recently as developmentally she has not yet reached this
needs and Gary did not show much response to stimuli stage (Vygotsky, 1933).
incentives and around him and self-stimulated with his hands,
pushing his eyes, exploring his mouth, rolling Gemma helping Gary with eating
that these his eyes back in his head and often bringing his Gary has been gradually introduced to foods
needs and own feet to his face to feel with his mouth. that he was not able to have whilst on his strict
Gary was tactile defensive and was often diet, for example soft, potato based, crisps.
incentives reluctant to be touched or held by adults, Gary and Gemma sit together at the table for
change as the including personal care routines. Gary is able snack-time and although Gary holds his bottle
to sit independently but does not stand or walk to drink he has always been entirely dependent
child develops as yet. on others for food. An adult previously popped
cognitively.’ the crisps into Gary’s mouth at intervals, often
Gemma and Gary at play encouraging him to assist with this by holding
Gemma and Gary have been in the same class, his hand to the crisp. Gemma was encouraged
with six other peers, one teacher and three to help Gary to eat the crisps and has now taken
support assistants, since September 2011 and to giving these to Gary herself: she has her own
previously attended pre-school together. snack then feeds a crisp to Gary. Though
Initially, when being encouraged to work with Gemma clearly knows and understands the
Gary, Gemma was reluctant to do so, sequence of events in this activity, one
preferring the company of more able peers; she observation of Gemma indicated that she is
was, however, happy to spend time with Gary slower at doing this than an adult and can be
and an adult. Gary, Gemma and a teaching less accurate at moving the crisp towards Gary’s
assistant, or the class teacher, spent time mouth. This appears to have had a significant
playing with toys that spun, lit up or played impact on Gary as relatively soon after Gemma
music. Gary was encouraged to touch and spin took over giving food, Gary began to meet
the different toys and Gemma sat alongside to Gemma’s hand with his own as the crisp came
join in with the play. Gemma responded well to near to his mouth and would then guide the
adults making suggestions for things to do with crisp in. Over time he has begun to take the
Gary, such as ‘Help Gary to spin the spinning crisp from Gemma and pushes it into his
tubes’ or ‘Can you play twinkle, twinkle little mouth independently. Gary now does this
star together?’ and she would often take his consistently and Gemma holds the crisp out
hand to encourage him to explore the toys. around six inches in front of him for him to take
After a period of several weeks Gary began to (as shown by a supporting adult).
16 Autumn 2011
SLD Autumn 2011_Layout 1 15/11/2011 14:53 Page 17

the SLD experience

A ZPD assessment of Gary would be: et al. p 552) in that children are able to
perform nearer to their PFL than their ADL.
● ADL – Gary can put his own hand to his
mouth. Gemma and Gary now
Gemma is now very caring towards Gary since
● PFL – He can move his hand to his
she has been helping him daily; in the case of
mouth whilst holding a crisp, with
helping with eating or in play/ learning, her
assistance.
behaviour has improved significantly. Gemma’s
nurturing side has developed considerably
With his peer (Gemma) scaffolding these
since working with Gary and she now
sessions and adapting her techniques in
spontaneously approaches other pupils to help
response to Gary’s improvements at assisting
or play with them. She has become more
her, Gary was able to internalise the new
independent and shows greater determination
sequence he needed to carry out to feed
with self help skills and taking part in pretend
himself and has moved forward
play with dolls and their accessories.
developmentally, ie he is now able to do what
was his previous PFL independently. This now
Gary has progressed with his eating, reaching
becomes his ADL for a new ZPD. As Gary’s
and use of his hands in general and, whereas
class teacher I (the first author) may see this
he previously frequently self-stimulated, this
new ADL and recommend that he begins to
work with Gemma on a new PFL – taking the
behaviour has been replaced with the ‘These case
exploration of external stimuli. He also enjoys
crisp from further away or from a table/ tray in
the company of others more, reaching out to studies are rich
front of him (with her assistance initially).
hold hands with adults or peers and being far in information
more tolerant of physical touch, particularly
Gemma and Gary trampolining and have
tickles!
On the trampoline Gemma bounces standing
up whilst Gary sits in front of her and works certainly
Concluding comments
on maintaining his seated position, using his
These case studies are rich in information and encouraged
core muscles. In this situation Gemma is
clearly the ‘expert other’, taking on the role of
have certainly encouraged the first author to the first author
increase opportunities for pupils to work in
teacher. She shows her knowledge of the
collaboration with peers and to share these to increase
routine carried out on the trampoline and
stops at intervals saying and signing ‘more’ to
findings with colleagues. With many pupils opportunities
working at extremely early levels of
Gary (sometimes putting his hands together to
development it may not be as relevant/ for pupils to
prompt him to sign). She then pauses briefly
to elicit a response from him. This sequence of
applicable for peer collaboration as it has work in
been with Gemma and Gary, but scaffolding
events would have been observed by Gemma
with adults as well as peers can also be collaboration
many times and she would have been
encouraged to sign/ speak herself in a similar
encouraged. with peers and
way.
Although regression has been discussed as a to share these
Vygotsky states that pre-school play (the level
possible outcome of being the more expert findings with
learner in peer collaboration, in this case and
that Gemma is likely to be working at) meets
in other research (eg, Tudge, 1990) factors colleagues.’
unsatisfied or currently unattainable needs and
such as self-confidence, behaviour
incentives; possibly Gemma would like to be
improvements, increased maturity and self
the teacher, and this interaction gives her a
esteem go un-measured; it would appear that
chance to do so. She keeps to the rules of the
Gemma has gained in many ways from
play situation she is in, and in role does not
mentoring Gary. Clearly, this is an area which
become aggressive, as she could out of role,
warrants further investigation.
and is always ‘sensible’ to the point that she
shows her understanding of, and uses, cultural
Feedback has been seen to be essential to
tools within her play to sign and say ‘more’ to
learners following a problem solving activity
Gary to encourage him in turn to sign back to
(eg, Tudge, 1990) and though this is often
her. Keeping within the rules is essential to the
given naturally without prompts it would be
play and Vygotsky describes this need to obey
recommended that teachers are made more
rules thus: ‘In play a child is free, but this is an
aware of the importance of this. Gemma and
illusory freedom’ (cited in Bruner et al, p 542).
Gary were both given feedback and praise for
Sticking so rigidly to rules at such an early
their achievements.
developmental level would be impossible in
daily life, but Vygotsky argues that in play this
One area of concern following observation
is achievable and therefore that ‘… play also
with peers with SLD and PMLD in a special
creates the ZPD of the child’ (cited in Bruner
school would be that, whilst Gary gained so
Autumn 2011 17
SLD Autumn 2011_Layout 1 15/11/2011 14:53 Page 18

the SLD experience

much from being mentored by Gemma (and Clare Chalaye is Head of the Primary
she, too clearly gained from this interaction) Department and a Class Teacher in a School in
she does not currently have peers within her London. She is also a part-time student at the
class who can act as peer-teachers to her. Institute of Education, University of Education,
Though the school carries out inclusion studying for a Master’s degree in Special and
sessions with mainstream peers on a regular Inclusive Education.
basis, Gemma does not experience regular
interaction with pupils working at a higher Dawn Male is a senior lecturer in psychology and
level than her as part of her daily routine. This special educational needs at the Institute of
is something to consider for future learning Education, University of London.
and development for Gemma and other
children who are the most able learners in References
their classes. It is possible that Gemma could
Blanck, G (1990) Vygotsky: The man and his cause in C Moll
be afforded increased opportunities to study or Vygotsky and Education New York: Cambridge University Press
play with pupils in other classes or that further
inclusion opportunities may be appropriate for Bruner, J S (1966) Towards a Theory of Instruction London:
‘The ZPD is her with children in mainstream schools. In
Harvard Press

probably the Vygotskian terms this is important as not Daniels, H (2001) Vygotsky and Pedagogy London and New
teaching pupils what they already know and York: Routledge/Falmer
most well ensuring that they are accessing higher mental Gindis, B (2003) Remediation Through Education; Sociocultural
known aspect including abstract thought (regardless of Theory and Children with Special Needs in A Kozulin, B Gindis, V
whether they yet understand these) is S Ageyev and SM Miller (Eds) Vygotsky’s Educational Theory
of Vygotsky’s necessary to keep children motivated to learn
in Cultural Context Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

theory of and develop. Vygotsky described this when he Loyd, D (2007) Vygostsky: the man, his ideas and their application
wrote: to individuals with an autistic spectrum disorder SLD Experience
mental 49, 25–33

development ‘Mentally retarded children are not capable Reiber, R S and Carlton, A S (1993) The Collected Works of
of abstract thinking, but a teaching system L.S. Vygotsky, Volume 2: Fundamentals of Defectology
and makes based solely on concrete principles means
(Abnormal Psychology and Learning Disabilities) New York:
Plenum Press
the most that they are never exposed to this higher
level thinking and teaching concrete Smidt, S (2009) Introducing Vygotsky: A guide for
significant principles is necessary but should be
practitioners and pupils in early years education London and
New York: Routledge
educational considered a stepping stone to higher more
abstract principles without which their Tudge, J (1990) Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development, and
contribution’ cognitive development will not have a
peer collaboration: Implications for classroom practice in C L Moll
Vygotsky and Education New York: Cambridge University Press
chance of ever moving towards to this
higher processing.’ (1978, p 89) Vygodskaya, G (1999) Vygotsky and problems of special education
Remedial and Special Education 20(6), 330–332

The ZPD is probably the most well known Vygotsky, L S (1976) Play and its role in the mental development
aspect of Vygotsky’s theory of mental of the child in J Bruner, A Jolly and K Sylva (Eds.) Play: Its role
in development and evolution New York: Penguin
development and makes the most significant
educational contribution (Daniels, 2001). Vygotsky, L S (1978) Mind in Society: Development of Higher
Most important with the utilization of the Psychological Processes Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press
ZPD in schools and special schools is the role
of teacher as assessor and if peer mentoring is Warford, M K (2011) The zone of proximal teacher
to be an effective tool in the 21st century development Teaching and Teacher Education 27(2), 252–258

special school then we must ensure that Woolfolk, A (2001) Educational Psychology (8th Edition)
through adequate teacher training for SEN London: Allyn and Bacon
teachers and further research in this field we
help our special children to help each other to
reach their full potential.

18 Autumn 2011

View publication stats