Human Health & Diseases

Bio Human Health & Diseases Prof.
Umesh Phulpagare Sir
Human Health & Diseases

High lights of this
topic:
A. Concepts of Immunology: Types of Immunity.

B. Structure of antibody, Antigen-antibody complex, Antigens on blood cells.
C. Pathogens & Parasites (Ameobiosis, Malaria, Filariasis, Ascarisis, Typhoid, Pneumonia,
common cold and ring worm.
D. Cancer and AIDS
E. Adolescences, drug and alcohol abuse
Que: What is health according to early Greeks like Hippocrates & Indian Ayurveda?
Ans: Health was considered for a long time, as a state of body and mind where there was a
balance of certain ‘humors’ (mood or state of mind). This is also explained by early
Greeks like Hippocrates as well as Indians Ayurveda system of medicine.
Que: Define health according WHO?
Ans: According to WHO (world health organization), Health does not simply mean ‘absence
of disease’ or physical fitness. It could be defined as a state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being and not merely an absence of disease or infirmity.
Que: What is hygiene? How would you maintain good health?
Ans:
1. Hygiene is a science of health. Its main aim is preservation, maintenance and
improvement the health of an individual or the community as a whole.
2. To maintain good health, a balanced diet, personal hygiene, regular exercise, right
attitude of mind and good habits are very important.
Que: What is disease? What is immune system?
Ans:
1. Disease is a condition in which, one or more organs or systems of the body functioning
disrupted or deranged to cause infection, defecting diet or heredity.
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Snehdip Science Classes Laxminagar, Chalisgaon. (8411812781)
Bio Human Health & Diseases Prof. Umesh Phulpagare Sir
Due to constant exposure of various foreign bodies, including infectious agents like
bacteria, viruses etc. disease occurred.
2. Immune system: Some people constant exposure to variety of pathogens, till remain
healthy because human body has ability to resist almost all types of these foreign bodies.
The system of resistant protects us from various infections agents called immune system.
A. Concepts of immunology:
Que: What is immunity? Explain in brief the concepts of immunology.
Que: Define the following terms: i) immunology ii) immunity
Ans: The word immunity is derived from the Latin word “Immunis”. It means exempt of
freedom. It protects us from more serious diseases and becomes backbone of human
health.
1) The concept of immunity is believed & started by English physician Edward Jenner
(1790) in England he developed cowpox vaccine for protection against small pox. He
is called the father of immunology.
2) Susceptibility: lack of resistant to diseases (vulnerability) is called as susceptibility.
3) Immunology: It is the science which deals with the study of immune system,
immune responses to foreign substances and their role in resisting infection.
4) Basic immunology: The study of structure and functions of immune system is called
basic immunology.
5) Other branches are Clinical immunology (i.e. vaccination/ immunization, organ
transplantation / organ grafting, blood banking, immunopathology), Laboratory
immunology (testing of cellular and humoral immune function), Serology etc.
6) The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, widely distributed
cells and molecules like antibodies.
 Peculiar characteristics of immune system:
Que: Explain in brief Peculiar characteristics of immune system.
Ans:
a) Discrimination: It can differentiate between self i.e. own body cells or molecules and
non-self i.e. foreign molecules).
b) Memory: It possesses immunological memory.
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c) Antigen: Any foreign substance invading body and capable of stimulating an immune
response, is called an antigen.
d) Antibodies: The protective chemicals produced by immune cells in response to antigens
are called antibodies.
e) Immune system: It is a complex system including cellular and molecular components
which provide defence against infections agents.
f) The term immunity: (L.immunis - exempt or freedom) refer to the general ability of a
body to recognize, neutralize / destroy and eliminate foreign substances or resist a
particular infection or disease.
 Types of Immunity:
Que: What is immunity? Describe different types of immunity?
Que: Explain role of innate immunity.
Que: Explain four barrier of innate immunity with suitable examples.
Que: Describe various defence mechanisms.
Ans: Immunity is classified in two basic types: A) Innate immunity B) Acquired immunity
A) Innate immunity:
1) It is also called Innate or natural immunity.
2) It is present since birth & has inborn capacity of the body to resist the pathogen.
3) It does not depend on previous exposure to foreign substances. It is also called non-
specific immunity (not a particular disease like cholera), because it contains of all
defence elements.
4) It contains four types of barriers:
1. Anatomical
2. Physiological
3. Phagocytic
4. Inflammatory barriers.
1. Anatomical barriers (Physical barriers)
a) Skin and mucous membrane: These barriers line of first defence, prevent entry of
pathogenic microorganism into the body. They consist of skin and mucous membrane.
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b) Mucous membrane secretes mucus and the mucus coating of the epithelial lining of the
respiratory, gastrointestinal and urinogenital tracts help in trapping microbes entering the
body.
Note: Ciliary lining of respiratory tract removes the mucus along with dust & bacteria.
2. Physiological barriers:
a) Physiological barriers line of first defence, like body temperature, pH and body secretions
prevent growth of many invading pathogenic micro-organisms.
b) Elevated body temperature i.e. fever inhibits the growth of many pathogens.
c) Acidity of gastric juice (HCL) in stomach kills most of the ingested micro-organisms.
d) Lysozyme is a bacteriolytic enzyme, prevent in all tissue fluid like tears, mucus and
saliva except cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Which digests bacterial cell walls.
e) Interferons: Interferons make the surrounding cells resistant to viral infection.
Note: Body temperature (fever)
a) Oil and sweat secreted by glands are acidic (pH 3-5) and destroy harmful microbes on
the skin.
b) The fever is caused because the toxin released from pathogen & pyrogens (fever
controlling substance) is released by WBCs i.e. leucocytes to control defence mechanism
growth of pathogens & regulated defense mechanism. However very high fever is
dangerous.
3. Phagocytic barriers (cellular barriers):
a) These are second line of defence & bring about phagocytosis of invading microbes.
Phagocytosis is an important mechanism of innate immunity.
b) Neutrophils (soldier of body) and monocytes are Phagocytic leucocytes which engulf
and destroy invading microbes.
c) Macrophages or scavenger cells (monocytes) are large irregular-shaped cells that engulf
microbes and cellular debris, e.g. Kupffer’s cells of liver, Clara cells in lungs etc.
4. Inflammatory barriers:
a) An infection or tissue injury often causes redness, swelling, pain and the production
of heat that may result in fever, Such localized Manifestation is called inflammatory
response.
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b) At the site of infection, release of certain chemicals such as histamines and

prostaglandins, by damaged mast cells of connective tissue and basophiles of blood.
c) These chemicals dilate and make the blood capillaries more permeable in the region
off tissue injury. The vascular fluid comes out of the blood vessels & result
inflammation or swelling.
d) This fluid, which comes out of blood capillaries, contains serum proteins which kill
bacteria i.e. line of second defence starts.
B) Acquired Immunity:
Que: Explain the difference between inborn and acquired immunity.
Que: What is an acquired immunity?
Ans: The immunity or resistance of individual acquires during life is called acquired
immunity. It is also called adaptive immunity or specific immunity.
1) Acquired immunity is found only in vertebrates. It supplements the production
provided by innate immunity. It requires several days to become activated.
2) Specific resistance: Ability of the body to defend itself against invading foreign agents
like bacteria, viruses, toxins and transplanted tissue is called specific resistance.
3) Acquired immunity forms third line of defence mechanism, extremely power full and is
found only in vertebrates.
 Unique features of acquired immunity:
Que: Explain the unique features of acquired immunity.
Ans:
a) Specificity: It has ability to differentiate & distinguish various foreign molecules. It is

specific for each type pathogen.
b) Diversity: It can recognize a vast variety of diverse pathogens or foreign molecules.
c) Discrimination between self and non-self: it can differentiate between own cells (self)
and foreign cells (non-self) of the animals.
d) Memory: the immune system remains the memory of this first encounter and eliminates
the invader. As a result, a second encounter with the same bacterium or pathogen brings
about quicker and stronger immune response.
 Types of acquired immunity:
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Que: What is acquired immunity? Explain, in details, acquired active and passve
immunity.
Que: Which kind of immunity is provided by vaccination?
Que: Differentiate the following and give examples of each:
Ans:
a) Innate and acquired immunity
b) Active and passive immunity
Acquired immunity may be active or passive.
(A) Acquired active immunity:
a) Immunity active immunity is the resistance developed by an individual due to antigenic
stimulus of invading pathogens or vaccine.
b) This immunity is acquired by activating immune system of the body and results in
production of antibodies. It is of two types:
1) Natural acquired active immunity;
a) Immunity acquired due to infection is called natural acquired active immunity. It is
developed after entry of pathogens in the body.
b) For e.g., person who has recovered from an attack of measles develops natural acquired
active immunity to measles for the life time.
2) Artificial acquired active immunity:
This immunity is acquired artificially by vaccination. Vaccines contain dead or live but
attenuated (artificially weakened) pathogens or toxoids consisting of microbial components
or toxins secreted by the pathogens.
Vaccine is introduced into the body to stimulate the formation of antibodies by the immune
system.
E.g. Polio vaccine, BCG (bacillus calmette guerine) vaccine, etc.
(B) Acquire passive immunity:
Que: What is acquired passive immunity? Describe its types with examples.
Ans: Passive immunity is acquired when ready-made antibodies are received by the body.
Passive immunity can be acquired either naturally of artificially.
1) Natural acquired passive immunity:
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Que: Why is the mother’s milk considered the most appropriate food for a new born
infant?
Ans:
a) Before birth material antibodies are transferred from mother to foetus through placenta.
b) After birth antibodies are transferred from mother remain in the body for a short time.
Therefore, natural acquired passive immunity is short lived.
2) Artificial acquired passive immunity:
Here, antibodies that produced in one animal are introduced into other animal. In this
immunity readymate antibodies (gamma globulin) are obtained from hyper immune serum of
animal for e.g., antibodies obtained from hyperimmunised horse are injected to human
against rabies pathogens.
 Cells of acquired or specific immune system:
Que: Which major groups of cells are involves in acquired immunity?
Que: Which are the chief of acquired immune system?
Que: Lymph nodes re secondary lymphoid organs. Explain the role of lymph nodes in our
immune response.
There are two major groups of cells are involved in acquired immunity:-
A) Lymphocytes & B) Antigen presenting cells.
A) Lymphocytes:
Acquired immunity is most powerful. Protective mechanism, which is developed by
lymphocytes. These are the chief cells of specific immune system of the body. A healthy
man possesses a trillion lymphocytes.
There are two types: T-lymphocytes (T-cell) and B-lymphocytes (B-cells).
1) Haematopoiesis: these two types of lymphocytes are produced from stem cells in the
bone marrow by a process called haematopoiesis.
2) Differentiation of stem cells: the some immature lymphocytes (stem cells), destined to
become thymocytes, migrate to the thymus via the blood & mature as T-lymphocytes by
thymosine hormone.
3) The other stem cells i.e. B-lymphocytes divide and mature in the bone marrow itself.
The mature lymphocytes circulate in the body fluids and many of them reside in
lymphoid organs such as the lymph nodes, spleen etc.
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4) On being sensitized both types of lymphocytes undergo division. A sensitized T.

lymphocyte produces a clone of T-cells having different functions.
5) B-lymphocytes produce specific plasma cells which produce antibodies.
6) T-lymphocytes are responsible for cell-mediated or cellular immunity (directly attack o
pathogen) while B-lymphocytes generate antibody-mediated or humoral immunity
(attack by producing antibodies).
7) ”I” cells stimulate B-cells to produce more antibodies.
(a) Mechanism of action of T-lymphocytes to antigens:
Que: Explain in brief mechanism of T-lymphocytes (t-cells) & B-lymphocytes (B-cells).
Que: What does the term ‘memory’ of the immune system mean?
Que: What would happen to immune system, if thymus gland is removed from the body of
a person?
Que: Where are B-cells and T-cells formed? How do they differ from each other?
Ans: On coming in contact with an antigen T-lymphocytes forms a clone of T-cells which are
similar but they perform different functions. The clone has four types of T- lymphocytes:
a) Helper T-cells b) Killer T-cells c) Suppressor t-cells d) Memory T-cells.
A) Helper T-cells:
1) Sensitized helper t-cells produce lymphokines for performing several types of function
like proliferation of other t-cells, stimulation of b-lymphocytes to produce more anti
bodies, attraction of macrophages etc.
2) *these are called T4 lymphocytes due to presence of CD 4recceptor proteins on plasma
membrane.
3) *they are commanders of the immune responses 75% of total t-cells detect infection
and sound the alarm, initiating both t cells and b cells responses.
b) Killer T-cells or Cytotoxic T-cells:
1) They migrate to site & directly attack and destroy invading microbes, infected body cells
and cancer cells. Killer T-cells bind to infected cell and secrete perforins.
2) Perforins: they produce holes or pores in target cells & secrete lymphotoxins or
chemicals to kill them, hence, the name Cytotoxic.
3) *they attract phagocytes and stimulate them to feed on antigens more vigorously.
4) *they also release chemicals to attract other t-cells
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5) *recruited (selected) by helper T-cells, they are foot soldiers of the immune responses
and prevent competition of the life cycle of pathogens.
C) Suppressor T-cells:
1) These cells suppress entire immune system to prevent attack o the own body cells.
2) These cells suppress the activity of T and B-cells and also activity of killer T-cells and
prevent destruction of own body cells.
d) Memory T-cells:
1) *some of them became memory cells. These cells were previously sensitized and retain
the sensitization for future.
2) *these cells respond quickly and vigorously if the same foreign antigen reappears. They
are sensitive cells retain sensation for future memory.
(b) Mechanism of action of B-lymphocytes to antigens:
Que: Describe mechanism of B-lymphocytes.
Que: Explain cell mediated & antibody mediated immunity.
Ans:
1) B-lymphocytes are sensitized & are stimulated directly both by antigens as well as by
helper T-cells.
2) Activated B-lymphocytes multiple very fast to produce clone of plasma cells and
memory B-cells.
3) The plasma cells produce specialized glycoproteins called antibodies which are passed
through body fluids (humor immune) like blood and lymph.
4) Life span is short. There is no reaction to cancer & in transplant organs.
5) The antibody molecules may bind to a cell membrane or they may remain free.
6) The free antibodies have three main factions.
a) Agglutination of particulate matter, including bacteria and viruses. The immobilized
mass is then engulfed by phagocytes.
b) Opsonisation of coating of bacteria of facilitate their subsequent phagocytosis by
macrophages.
c) Neutralization of toxins released by bacteria e.g. tetanus toxin.
Each antibody is specific for a particular antigen.
b) Antigen presenting cells:
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Que: Explain in brief role of antigen presenting cells:

Ans:
1) Specialized cells: These are specialized cells: include macrophages (monocytes as blood
macrophages and histolytic as tissue macrophages); B-lymphocytes and dendritic cells
(e.g. Langerhans cells of epidermis of skin).
2) Process the antigens: Antigen presenting cells engulf invading pathogens and process
the antigens. Then the processed antigens are presented on their surface.
3) Co-stimulatory signal: These cells (processed) are able to deliver a co-stimulatory
signal that is necessary for helper T-cell activation.
B) Structure of Antibody:
Que: Sketch and label the basic structure of an antibody.

Que: Describe the structure of antibody.
Que: Define the following terms:
i. Antigen
ii. Antibody
Que: Why is an antibody molecule represented as H2L2?
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Ans:
1) Antibodies are glycoproteins which are highly specific to specific antigens. They are also
known as immunoglobulin (Igs).
2) Antibodies are produced by plasma cells of B-lymphocytes. The plasma cell produces
about 2000 molecules of antibodies per second on activation of antigen.
3) Antibody is a ‘Y’ shaped structure. It consists of four polypeptide chains, two heavy or
H chains and two light or L chains & represented as H2L2.
4) The vertical ‘stem’ of ‘y’ is called Fc (Fc=crystallizable fragment). The two arms of ‘y’
are called prongs.
5) Two identical heavy chains contain about 440 amino acids and two identical light chains
contain 214-220 amino acids.
6) The four polypeptide chains are held together by disulfide bonds (-s-s-) to form a ‘Y’
shaped structure.
7) Hings: The holdings arms and stem of antibody is termed as hinge.
8) V & regions: Each chain of the antibody includes two distinct regions, the variables (v)
region and the constant (c) region.
9) Paratope: Variables regions constitute the antigen-binding site called Paratope. This part
of antibody recognizes and binds to the specific antigen forming an antigen-antibody
complex.
10) Bivalent: Most antibodies carry two antigen binding sites or fragments (FAB), they are
said to be bivalent.
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Note:
1. The variables region (v) of light chain consists of 1 to 108 amino acids it forms antigen-
binding site and its constant region consist remaining amino acids i.e. from 109 to 214 or
220 amino acids.
2. The variables regions (v) of heavy chain composed of 1 to 118 amino acids, while
constant region is made up of 119 to 440 amino acids.
3. The heavy chains are about twice as long as the chains and along their length are attached
to carbohydrate moieties (sing. Moiety)
4. Different types of antibodies are produced in our body IgA, IgM, LgE, IgG are some of
them.
 Antigen-antibody complex:
Que: What are antigens? Give an account of antigens antibody reaction or antigen-
antibody complex.
Que: Distinguish between antigen and antibody.
Que: What is serology?
Ans:
Serology: A branch of immunology which deals with the study of antigen-antibody

interactions is called Serology.
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1) Antigen (anti + against, genous = birth): It is any foreign substance, which stimulated to
produce specific antibody)
2) Immune system: It recognizes and distinguishes thousand of different antigens.
3) Specific: Each antibody is specific for a particular antigen.
4) Paratopes: Combining sites of antigen is called antigenic determinants or epitopes,
react with the corresponding antigens binding sites of antibodies called Paratopes.
5) Antigen binding sites: They located on the variables regions of the antibody. Small
variations in the variables regions make each antibody highly specific for a particular
antigen.
6) Antigen-antibody complex: Antigen binding sites of the antibody to recognize the
specific antigen and binds to specific epitopes of antigens to form lock and key manner &
form an antigen-antibody complex.
Note:
Que: Name the primary and secondary lymphoid organs.
1) Primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow and thymus where immature lymphocytes
differentiate into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
2) Secondary lymphoid organs: After maturation the lymphocytes migrate to secondary
lymphoid organs like spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Payer’s pataches of small intestine
and appendix. The secondary lymphoids organs provide the sites for interaction of
lymphocytes with the antigen, which then proliferate to become effector cells.
Note:
Types of Antibodies:
Que: Give role of antibodies LgA, IgD, IgE, IgG and IgM.
Ans: In human Igs are grouped into five classes or isotopes. IgA, IgD, IgE and IgM.
1) IgA:
a) It is the major immunoglobulin in colostrums (first milk secreted by a nursing
mother.)
b) It protects from inhaled and ingested pathogens. It functions as innate immunity.
2) IgD:
a) It prevents on the surface of B-lymphocytes, & are producing plasma cells.
b) IgD activates of B-cells to produce other antibodies.
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3) IgE: It mediates type-1 hypersensitivity anaphylaxis and IgE acts as mediator in allergic
response i.e. against infection of helminthes.
4) IgG:
a) This most abundant and is about 75% to 80% of total Igs.
b) Transported across the placenta and provides natural passive immunity in the
foetus and new born. It is also present in the Milk, protects body fluids it is warm
antibody.
5) IgM:
a) It is largest Ig. So called macroglobulin at least five times larger than IgG.
b) It activates B-cells. It is also earliest immunoglobulin to be synthesized by the
foetus, beginning about 20 weeks of age. It is about 5 to 8 %.
c) It cannot cross the placental barrier: But in neutralization of toxins and viruses. It
is cold antibody & is also called as millionaire molecule. It is less active than IgG.
Thus IgM protects the blood stream.
 Antigens on blood cells:
Que: Explain antigens on blood cell.
Ans:
1. There are several known antigens on the surface of human red blood cells. These
antigens give rise to different blood group.
2. There are many genetically determined blood groups systems like ABO, Rh, Duffy,
Kidd, Lewis, P, MNS etc.
 ABO blood groups:
Que: Explain ABO blood group.
Ans: The A, B and O blood
The A, B and O blood groups were discovered by kernel Landsteiner in 1900. Later on, the
AB blood group was discovered by Landsteiner’s student’s decastallo and sturli in 1902.
Landsteiner was honored with noble prize in1930 for his discovery.
1) He found two antigens or agglutinogens on the surface of human red blood cells and
named them an antigen A and antigen B. He also noticed the corresponding antibodies or
agglutinins in the serum called ‘a’ and ‘b’
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2) In ABO system the blood groups are determined by the presence or absence of antigen A
and antigen B, the blood group of person is classified into four groups A,B, AB and O.
1. Blood group A: individuals with ‘A’ antigen on the surface of their red blood cells
(RBCs) and ‘b’ antibodies in their plasma.
2. Blood group B: individuals with ‘B’ antigen on the surface of their RBCs and ‘a’
antibodies in their plasma.
3. Blood group AB: individuals with both antigens ‘A’ and ‘B’ on the surface of their
RBCs and no antibodies in their plasma.
4. Blood group O: individuals with blood group ‘O’ lack of both ‘A’ and ‘B’ antigens
on the of their RBCs and show presence of both ‘a’ and ‘b’ antibodies in their plasma.
 Genetic of ABO blood groups:
Que: Enlist alloeomorphic genes of ABO blood groups. State, L or I stand for.
Ans:
1) Bernstein (1925) proposed that inheritance of ABO blood groups in man is determined by
a series of three alloeomorphic genes.
2) The gene controlling blood group has been labelled as L or I(L-stands for Landsteiner ,I-
stands for Isoagglutinin). The gene I is autosomal gene present on chromosome number
9.
3) It exists in three different allelic forms such as I A =allele produces antigen on RBCs. The
genotype of blood also shown in table.
 Blood transfusion:
Que: Which blood groups are universal donor & recipient? Why?
Ans:
1) During blood transfusion only the compatible blood can be used. The one who gives
blood is called as donor and while the other one receives blood called recipient.
2) Individuals with blood group O can donate blood to anyone so, ’O’ is called as
universal donor, while those individuals with blood group ‘AB’ can receive blood from
any person ‘AB’ is called universal recipient.
 Chart: Different types of blood groups
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Blood group Genotype Antigen on Antibody in Can donate Can receive

RBCs stream donate blood to Blood from
A IAIA or IAIO A Antibody b A, AB A.O

B IBIB or IBIO B Antibody a B, AB B.O
AB IAIB AB Nill AB A.B.AB.O
Universal
acceptor
O IOIO O Both A, B, Universal O
Antibody ‘a’ AB, o. donor
and
Antibody ‘b’
 Rh factor:
Que: What is Rh factor?
Que: In which animal Rh factor was first discovered?
Que: What physiological circumstances lead to erythroblastosis foetalis?
Ans:
1) Rh factor was first discovered by Landsteiner and Wiener (1940) on the surface of RBCs
of Rhesus monkey (Macaca rhesus = Lion tailed Monkey), so it was named as Rhesus or
Rh factor. It is an antigen D present on surface of red blood cells.
+ve
2) Rh Rh-ve Blood groups: Persons having Rh factor (D antigen) are called Rh positive
(Rh +ve) and those lacking D antigen are called Rh negative (Rh-ve)
3) Later on, it was also found in about 85% of Americans and 93% of Indians and were
called Rh + v e, having ‘D’ antigen.
4) Rh factor is important in blood transfusion: Rh antigen induces a strong immunogenic
response when introduced into Rh-ve individuals.
5) HDN: Rh antigen result in haemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN), which is also
called erythroblastosis foetalis. It is characterized by increased destruction of Hb and
over production of bilirubin (foetal Jaundice).
6) To prevent such disease Rh-ve mothers are injected with defective anti Rh antibodies
like Rh-immunoglobulin (Rh-Ig) during all pregnancies that are carrying Rh+ve foetus.
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Note:
 Incompatibility and Rh factor:
Que: Why erythroblastosis foetalis or HDN is produced?
Que: Explain incompatibility of Rh factor.
Ans:
1) The Rh + ve male and Rh-ve wife produce Rh +ve child because child receives antigen
of father (D).
2) During pregnancy or child birth Rh + ve antigen of such foetus many enter into
mother’s blood.
3) The Rh+ve antigen of foetus stimulates to produce anti Rh antibodies in mother &
these antibodies remains effective in mother body for several month or year.
4) Generally first baby does not cause harm of anti Rh antibodies of mother and normal
childbirth takes place.
5) But during next pregnancies the accumulated anti Rh-antibodies of mother enter from
mother’s blood to foetus blood, which result in clumping agglutination and destruction of
erythrocytes (RBCs) in the foetus blood and produce severe anemia leading immediate
death of baby.
6) During blood transfusion, antibody of recipient is considered.
7) If Rh –ve individual received Rh +ve blood, the recipient becomes Isoimmunised
C. Pathogen & Parasite:
1. Pathogen:
Que: Define pathogen, parasite & pathogenicity.
Ans: The pathogen term is used disease causing organisms or living agents like, viruses,
rickettsiae, bacteria, fungi, yeasts, protozoa, helminthes and certain insect larval stages.
Pathogenicity is the ability of an organism to enter a host and cause disease.

1. Parasite:
Que: What are parasites? State its types with examples.
Ans:
1. The term “parasite” came from the Greek word “parasitos” meaning “eating at the side of
or at the same table.”
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2. Parasite is an organism that lives in or on and takes its nourishment from another
organism. A parasite cannot live independently.
3. They are of two types’ ectoparasite and endoparasite.
Parasitic diseases include infections by protozoa, helminthes, and arthropods etc.
E.g.
1) Ectoparasite: The arthropods insects and arachnids (Spiders, etc.), can act as vectors
(carriers) of parasitic diseases.
2) Endoparasites: Malaria is caused by plasmodium, a protozoan, a single-celled
organism that can only divide within its host organism. Schistosomiasis is caused by a
helminth (a worm).
1. Amoebiosis:
Que: Describe modes of transmission and pathogenicity of amoebiasis and Typhoid
Que: What is Amoebiasis? Explain its mode of transmission.
Que: Name causative organism of amoebiasis & its symptoms.
Ans: Amoebiasis or Amebiasis is known as amoebic dysentery. Amoebiasis infection caused
due to harbouring (Shelter) the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica. It is infected
to gastrointestinal tract & affects 15% of Indian population.
 Mode of Transmission:
1) Faecal-oral route: It is usually transmitted indirectly by the faeco-oral route.
2) Intake of contaminated food and water & dirty contaminated hands or objects as well as
by anal-oral contract.
3) Sexual transmission by oral sexual contact especially among homosexuals.
4) Infection spreads through ingestion of the cyst form of the parasites.
5) Vectors like flies rodents, cockroaches etc. are capable to carry cysts & contaminate food
& drinks.
6) Any non-encysted amoebae or trophozoites die quickly after leaving the body. These
are rarely the source of new infections.
7) Gastrointestinal infection of amoeba may or may not be symptomatic and can remain
latent in an infected person for several years. Amoebiasis is estimated to cause 70,000
deaths per year worldwide.
8) Incubation period about 2 to 4 week
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 Symptoms of Amoebiasis:
Que: Give symptoms of amoebiasis.
Ans:
1) Symptoms include constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess
mucous and blood clots.
2) It can range from mild diarrohea to dysentery with blood & mucus in stool.
3) Amoebic colitis: Severe amoebiasis infections (known as invasive or fulminant
amoebiasis) causes amoebic dysentery or amoebic colitis.
4) Liver abscesses: If the parasites reach the bloodstream it can spread through the body,
most frequently ending up in the liver where it causes amoebic liver abscesses.
5) Carrier: When no symptoms are seen, the infected individual is a carrier. He is able to
spread the parasites to others through poor hygienic practices.
6) Abscesses (swollen area) may be formed in liver lungs & brain.
 Prevention:
Que: Give preventive measures of amoebiasis.
Que: What measure would you take to prevent water-borne diseases?
Ans:
1) Proper sanitary & disposal of faecal matter: It can be prevented by proper sanitary &
disposal of faecal matter around the home:
2) Cleaning hands with soap and hot running water for at least 10 seconds after using the
toilet or changing a baby’s diaper, and before handling food.
3) Clean bathrooms and toilets often & pay particular attention to toilet seats and taps.
4) Avoid human faeces as fertilizer for the growth of row vegetables.
5) Drink boiled water & avoid eating unhygienically prepared foods.
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6) Good sanitary practice, as well as responsible sewage disposal or treatment, are

necessary for the prevention of E. histolytica infection on an endemic level.
7) Sedimentation and filtration of water: E. histolytica cysts are usually resistant to
chlorination; therefore sedimentation and filtration of water supplies are necessary to
reduce the incidence of infection. There is no vaccine immunization.
2. Malaria:
Que: What is sporozoite & schizonts? Describe life cycle of malaria parasite.
Que: Why malaria is the oldest & most destruction disease & is known for centuries?
Que: Which body part malaria species infect? Enlist types of plasmodium.
Ans:
Malaria is the oldest & most destructive disease & is known for centuries. It is a
mosquito-borne infections disease of humans, caused by protest Plasmodium known as
malarial parasites.
1) It is still greatest health problems of world particularly widespread in tropical and
subtropical regions, including much of sub-Saharan Africa Asia and America. The name
malaria means bad air.
2) The disease results from the multiplication of malaria parasites within red blood cells,
causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases progressing
to coma, and death.
3) Four species of Plasmodium can infect and be transmitted by humans. Severe disease
is largely caused by plasmodium falciparum & also caused by Plasmodium vivax,
plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariae.
 Transmission of Maleria:
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Que: Explain mode of transmission of maleria.

Ans:
1) Intermediate host: Life cycle of the malaria parasite genus Plasmodium is complicated
and involves two hosts i.e. humans and female Anopheles mosquito is an intermediate
host (insect vector).
2) The disease is transmitted to human when an infected Anopheles mosquito bites a
healthy person and injects the malaria parasites (sporozoites) into the blood.
(1). Life cycle of malaria parasites in Anopheles mosquito:
Que: Explain in brief Life cycle of malaria parasites in Anopheles mosquito.
Ans:
1) Mosquitoes first ingest the malarial parasites while feeding on an infected human.
2) The ingested, the gametocytes get differentiated into male or female gametes and fuse
in the mosquito’s gut.
3) The Fusion produces an ookinete that penetrates the gut lining and produce an oocyst
in the gut wall. When the oocyst ruptures, it releases sporozoites that migrate to the
salivary glands.
4) The sporozoites are injected into skin, when the mosquito bites a normal person.
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5) Only female mosquitoes feed on blood while male mosquitoes feed on plant sap, thus
males do not transmit the diseases.
(2) The life cycle of material parasites in the human body:
Que: explain in brief life cycle of malaria parasite in the human body.
Ans:
Malaria develops via two phases: they are pre- erythrocytic and an erythrocytic phase.
1) The pre-erythrocytic phase involves infection of the liver. While the erythrocytic and
an erythrocytic phase involves infection of the erythrocytes, or red blood cells.
2) When mosquito bites a person sporozoites enter the bloodstream, and migrate to the
liver. They infect liver cells (hepatocytes), where they multiply into merozoites.
3) They rupture the liver cells, and escape into the bloodstream. Then, merozoites infect
red blood cells, where they develop into ring forms, trophozoites and then schizonts
which in turn produce further merozoites.
4) Inside the erythrocyte, the parasites multiply asexually periodically breaking out of their
hosts in invade fresh blood cells. Several such amplification cycles occur.
5) Thus classical description of waves of fever arises from simultaneous wave of
merozoites escaping & infecting RBCs.
 Sings & symptoms:
Que: Write symptoms of maleria.
Ans:
1) Symptoms of malaria include fever, shivering, arthralgia (joint pain), vomiting, anemia
(caused by hemolysis) hemoglobinuria, retinal damage, and convulsions.
2) The classic symptom of malaria is cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by
rigor (shivering) & then fever and sweating lasting four to six hours, occurring every two
days in P. vivax and P. ovale infections, while every three for P. malariae.
3) Severe malaria almost exclusively caused by p.falciparum infection. Splenomegaly
(enlarged spleen), severe headache, cerebral ischemia (reduce blood supply),
hepatomegaly (enlarged liver) hypoglycemia, and hemoglobinuria with renal failure may
occur.
 Preventation:
Que: Give preventive measures of malaria.
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Ans:
1) Mosquito nets and insect repellents: Malaria transmission can be prevented from
mosquito bites by mosquito nets and insect repellents.
2) Spraying insecticides: By using mosquito control measures such as spraying insecticides
and draining standing water where mosquitoes lay their eggs.
3) Fill ditches & ponds where mosquitoes breed & prevent breeding in draining swampy
places.
4) Gambusia fish: The mosquito larvae can be controlled by release of Gambusia fish.
5) The WHO is collaborating with our country in our National Maleria Eradication
Programme (NMEP) to control Maleria.
3. Filariasis:
Que: Write note a) Filariasis b) Malaria c) Pneumonia & d) Ringworm
Que: What is Filariasis? How many known filarial nematodes?ia timori.
Que: What is causative organism of Lymphatic Filariasis? Explain its life cycle.
Que: What is elephantiasis?
Ans: Filariasis is caused by thread-like filarial worm nematodes (round worms). It is an
infections tropical parasitic disease.
1) Adult worm live in lymph vessels & lymph glands in the form of coils
2) There are nine known filarial nematodes use humans as their definitive host.
3) These are into 3 groups according to the niche within body that they occupy ‘lymphatic
Filariasis’, ‘subcutaneous Filariasis’, and ‘serous cavity Filariasis’.
4) Lymphatic Filariasis is caused by the worms Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and
Brugia timori.
 Lifecycle:
1) Complicated life cycle: Human filarial nematode worms in primarily consists of five
stages.
2) Juvenile microfilariae: After mating of male and female worms, the female gives birth
to system in to blood vessels of human body.
3) Sucked vector insect: The microfilariae are sucked or taken up during a blood meal of
man by the vector insect (mosquito intermediate host).
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4) 3rd larvae stage: In the intermediate host, the microfilariae moult (shed shell second
stage) and develop into 3rd stage (infective) larvae.
5) The intermediate host vector: Insect injects the infections larvae into the dermis of the
skin, during taking another into the blood meal.
6) After about one year, the larvae moult through two more stages, maturing into the adult
worms.
 Signs and symptoms:
Que: Write symptoms & preventive measure of Filariasis.

Ans:
1) Block the lymphatic systems: There is an accumulation of living & dead Wuchereria
blocks the lymphatic systems that result inflammation of lymph glands.
2) The most spectacular symptom of lymphatic Filariasis (elephantiasis) is edema with
thickening of the skin and underlying tissues.
3) Elephantiasis: It affects mainly the lower extremities, due to obstruction of lymph
vessels. When the parasites lodge in the lymphatic system it result elephantiasis.
4) Wuchereria bancrofti: There are different species of filarial worms tend to affect
different parts of the body. Wuchereria bancrofti can affect the legs, arms, vulva, breasts,
and scrotum (causing hydrocele formation).
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5) Management of Filariasis is done by detection of microfilaria in endemic areas and

treatment with diethylecarbamacine 100 mg twice a day for 3 weeks and for 5 days every
six months.
6) Avoiding mosquito bites, such as by using insecticide-treated mosquito bed nets, also
reduces the transmission of lymphatic filariasis.
 Preventation & control measures: Eradication of mosquitoes, chemotherapy &

protection from mosquito bite.
4. Ascarisis:
Que: What is Ascarisis? Enlist causative organism.
Que: Give mode transmission of following diseases a) amoebiasis b) malaria c) Ascarisis.
Ans: Ascarisis is a disease in which infection is caused to intestinal tract by the parasitic adult
roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides
1) These are long, slender and almost featureless externally, tapered at both ends.
2) Cuticle: the body is covered with a thick extracellular cuticle secreted by a cellular or
syncytial epidermis.
3) The gut is complete with terminal anterior mouth and subterminal posterior anus.
Life cycle: the life cycle of Ascaris involves only one host.
Que: Explain in brief cycle of Asacasris.
Ans:
1) It is an endoparasite, present freely in the cavity in gastro intestinal tract and faecal
matter of man (host).
2) Route of infection: ingestion of infective eggs from contaminated vegetables and water
is the primary route of infection.
3) Adult worms live in the lumen of the small intestine. A female worm may produce
approximately 200.000 eggs per day, which are passed with the faeces. Unfertilized eggs
may be ingested but are not infective.
4) Fertile eggs develop in to embryos and become infective after 18 days to several weeks
depending on the environmental conditions (optimum-moist, warm, shaded soil).
5) Larvae hatch: after infective eggs are swallowed the larvae hatch and, invade the
intestinal mucosa, and are carried via circulation to lymphatic’s and the lungs.
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6) The larvae mature further in the lungs (10 to 14 days), penetrated the alveolar walls,
ascend the respiratory tract to the throat, and are swallowed.
7) On reaching the small intestine, they develop into adult worms. two-three moths are
required from ingestion of the infective eggs to oviposition by the adult female. Adult
worms can live for 1 to 2 years.
8) First appearance of eggs in stools is after 60-70 days. In larval Ascarisis, symptoms
occur 4-16 days after infection .one female lay about 15,000 to 2, 00,000 eggs per day.
 Symptoms:
Que: Explain in brief symptoms & preventive measures of ascariasis.
Ans:
1) Gastrointestinal discomfort, vomiting, fever, colic pain, diarrohoea, slight temperature
and observation of live worms about 500 to 5000 adult worms in stools single host.
2) Pulmonary symptoms: Some patients may have pulmonary symptoms or neurological
disorders during migration of the larvae.
3) A bolus of worms may obstruct the intestine; migrating larvae may cause pneumonitis
and esoinophilia (allergic symptoms).
4) Infection is more common in children & it dulls the mental capacity & stunt growth.
1) Incubation period about 2 months.
 Prevention:
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1) Use of toilet facilities: It includes, use of toilet facilities, safe excreta disposal, protection
of food from dirt and soil, thorough washing of hand.
2) Food dropped on the floor should never be eaten without washing or cooking,
particularly in endemic areas.
3) Pharmaceutical drugs that are used to kill round worms are called ascaricides or anti
Ascaris medicine include, Mebandazole and Albendazole.
5. Typhoid:
Que: Diseases like dysentery, cholera, typhoid etc., are more common is overcrowded
human settlement. Why?
Que: Why typhoid is a common worldwide illness? Enlist causative organism.
Que: Diseases like dysentery, cholera, typhoid etc. are more common in overcrowded
human settlements. Why?
Ans: Typhoid is infectious bacterial is the most serious Typhoid fever. It may occur
epidemically or endemically.
1) Typhoid fever is a common worldwide illness. It is transmitted by the ingestion of food
or water contaminated with the faeces of an infected person, which contain the enteric
bacterium Salmonella typhi.
2) Salmonella typhi is a rod shaped, motile, pathogenic, gram negative bacterium &
predominantly found in the intestinal lumen. The name “typhoid” was given by Louis in
1829, as a derivative from typhus.
 Pathogenicity:
Que: Explain pathogenicity of typhoid.
Ans:
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1) Its pathogenicity is due to an outer membrane consisting largely of lipopolysaccharides

(LPS), which protect the bacteria from the environment.
2) The LPS is made up of an O-antigen, polysaccharide core, and lipid A.
3) Lipid A is made of two phosphorylated glucosamines which are attached to fatty acids.
These phosphate groups determine bacterial toxicity.
4) Animals carry an enzyme specifically removes these phosphate groups in an attempt to
protect themselves from these pathogens.
5) O-antigen is on the outermost part of the LPS complex is responsible for the host
immune response and makes it difficult for antibodies to recognize.
6) It is characterized by typhoid fever, which has received various names, like as gastric
fever, abdominal typhus, infantile intermittent fever, slow fever, nervous fever,
pathogenic fever, etc.
7) It is food and water borne disease: Flying insects feeding on faeces may occasionally
transfer the bacteria from poor hygiene habits and public sanitation conditions.
Source: Bacteria are found in the small intestine, lymph nodes, spleen and pelvis of kidney
and faeces of infected persons.
 Symptoms:
Que: Write symptoms of typhoid fever.
Ans:
1) Typhoid fever is characterized by a slowly progressive fever as high as 40 0C (104 0F),
profuse sweating and gastroenteritis.
2) Less commonly, a rash of flat, rose-colored spots may appear.
3) Four individual stages: Classically, course of untreated typhoid fever is divided into
four individual stages, each lasting approximately for one week.
(a) First week:
1) In the first week, there is a slowly rising temperature with relative bradycardia, malaise,
headache and cough.
2) A bleeding nose (epistaxis) is seen in some of cases and abdominal descend & pain is
also possible.
3) *Tongue is coated with raw tips. Teeth and lips covered with brownish deposits and
appetite is poor.
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4) There is leucopenia, a decrease in the number of circulating white blood cells, with
eosinopenia and relative lymphocytosis, a positive diazo reaction and blood cultures are
positive for Salmonella typhi or paratyphi.
o Diagnosis: The classic Widal test for the diagnosis.
Note:
Que: What is convalescent carrier? Explain symptoms of second & third week.
Ans:
(b) * Second week:
1) Enlargement of spleen & palable (felt when touch with hand), no headache; skin becomes
dry.
2) Cough the blood pressure tends to fall, diarrhoea and temperature is high.
(c) *Third week: Intestinal haemorrhage and intestinal perforation & sudden drop in
temperature, a weak and rapid pulse. A dark discharge from the bowel.
 In severe case:
a) Typhoid state largely due to severe electrolyte imbalance.
b) It is characterized by tendency to slip to foot of bed, delirium or stupor (disorder state of
mind) with half open eyes.
c) Muscular twitching and picking of bedclothes with urine and faeces.
d) Death may result from toxic myocarditis.
(d) *Forth week: Convalescence (recover from illness) Persistent infection of gall bladder,
patient is carrying pathogens called convalescent carrier.
 Incubation period is usually 10 to 14 days.
Note:
Que: Enlist names of two vaccines according to WHO as preventive measures.
Ans:
1) There are two vaccines currently recommended by the World Health Organization for
the prevention of typhoid. These are the live, oral Ty21a vaccine (sold as Vivotif Berna)
and the injectable Typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur
and Typherrix by GlaxoSmithKline).
Que: Who is typhoid Marry?
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Ans:
2) Mary Mallon was a cook in New York. She was a carrier of typhoid for 3 years &
known as typhoid Marry. Soper was scientist; found that Mallon had worked at seven
jobs in which 22 people had become ill, including one young girl who died with typhoid
fever (from 1900 to 1907).
6. Pneumonia:
Que: What is pneumonia?
Que: Write note on pneumonia?
Ans: Pneumonia is an acute respiratory infection. It produces inflammatory condition of the
lung. Especially inflammation of the alveoli (microscopic air sacs in the lungs)
 Mode of infection:
Que: What is pneumonia? Explain mode of infection?
Ans:
1. Infection of Pneumonia: It is the most common infection & is caused by May bacteria,
viruses, fungi, or parasites. Chemical burns or physical injury to the lungs can also
produce Pneumonia.
2. Viral pneumonia is commonly caused by viruses such as influenza virus, respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV), adenovirus, and Para influenza.
3. Bacterial pneumonia is caused by bacteria Streptococcus-pneumoniae, a common cause
of pneumonia.
4. Occurs in all age groups: Pneumonia is a common disease that occurs in all age groups.
It is a leading cause of death among the young, the old, and the chronically ill.
Que: Give mode transmission of pneumonia.
Ans:
 Mode of Transmission by direct person to person contact by inhaling droplets released
by infected person or even sharing cloth & utensils.
 Main symptoms:
Que: Explain in brief main symptoms pneumonia.
Ans:
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1) Inflammatory condition: It produces inflammatory condition of the lung, especially

inflammation of the alveoli (microscopic air sacs in the lungs) or when the lungs fill with
fluid is called consolidation and exudation & is difficult in respiration.
2) Pneumonia infections people often have a cough, producing greenish or yellow sputum
or phlegm and a high fever that may be accompanied by shaking chills.
3) Shortness of breath is also common, along with sharp or stabbing chest pain during
deep breaths or coughs.
4) Less frequent symptoms of pneumonia include coughing up blood, headaches, sweaty
and clammy skin.
5) Loss of appetite, fatigue, blueness of the skin, nausea, vomiting, mood swings, and joint
pains or muscle aches.
6) In severe cases lips & finger nails may turn bluish grey colour.
Que: Give preventive measures of pneumonia.
Ans:
1) Prevention: reduction of pollution of smoke, improve living condition, better nutrition &
hygiene.
2) Vaccination:
a) It is important for preventing pneumonia in both children and adults.
b) Vaccinations against haemphilus influenzae and streptococcus pneumoniae in the
first year of life have greatly reduced the chances of causing pneumonia in children.
c) Outbreak influenza occurs, medications such as amantadine, rimanatadine, zanamivir,
and oseltamivir can help to prevent influenza.
7. Common cold:
Que: What is common cold? How is it differed from pneumonia?
Ans: The common cold is an acute viral infection caused by primarily group viruses.
1) The viruses are rhinoviruses and coronavirsues infect to the upper respiratory system.
2) Common cold is also known as nasopharyngitis, acute viral rhinopharyngitis, acute
coryza, or a cold (Latin: rhinitis acuta cataarrhalis)
 Symptoms:
Que: Give symptoms of common cold.
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Ans:
3) Common symptoms include a cough, sore (inflammation) throat, running nose, and
fever.
4) There is currently no known treatment that shortens the during.
5) Lasting symptom: However, Symptoms usually resolve spontaneously in 7 to 10 days,
with some symptoms possible lasting for up to three weeks.
6) Average in men & child: The common cold is the most frequent infections disease in
humans with the average adult contracting two to four infections and the average child
contracting between 6-12 infections in a year.
 URTI:
Que: What is URTI? Give the symptoms.
Ans:
1) URTI: Collectively, colds, influenza, and other upper respiratory tract infections (URTI)
with similar symptoms are included in the diagnosis of influenza like illness.
2) Symptoms are cough, sour throat, runny nose, and nasal congestion; sometimes this may
be accompanied by conjunctivitis (pink eye), muscle aches, fatigue, headache, shivering,
and loss of appetite.
 Prevention:
Que: Write preventive measures of common cold.
Ans:
1) Staying away: The best prevention for the common cold is staying away from people
who are infected, and places where infected individual have staying.
2) Hand washing with plain soap and water is recommended i.e. personal hygiene.
3) The mechanical action of hand rubbing with pain soap, rinsing (washing with clean
water). And drying physically removes the virus particles off the hands.
4) Alcohol-based hand sanitizers provide very little protection against upper respiratory
infections, especially among children.
5) Incubation period 3 to 7 days.
8. Ring worm:
Que: What is dermatophytosis?
Que: Write note on Ringworm.
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Ans:
1) Ringworm or dermatophytosis is fungal infection of the skin in humans, pets such as
cats, and domesticated animals such as sheep and cattle.
2) Misnomer: The term “ringworm” is a misnomer, since the condition is caused by fungi
of several different species and not by parasitic worms.
3) Dermatophytes: The fungi cause parasitic infection (Dermatophytes) feed on keratin, the
material found in their interiors.
4) In pets, the fungus responsible for the diseases survives in skin and on the outer surface
of hairs.
 Mode of transmission & infection:
Que: Enlist common causative agents & symptoms of ringworm.
Ans:
1) The most common causative agents of Dermatophytes are the fungi belong to genera
trichophyton, microsporum & epidermophyton.
2) They acquired from soil or by using towels, clothes or comb of infected person.
3) These fungi attack various parts of the body and lead to the following signs and
symptoms.
 Symptoms:
1) Lesions: Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts of the body and lead to the
following signs and symptoms.
2) Itching: Lesions accompanied by intense of itching.
3) Raised red rings: infections on the body may give rise to typical enlarging raised red
rings of ringworm.
4) Infections on the skin of the feet may cause athlete’s foot and in the groin jock itch.
5) Onychomycosis: Involvement of the nails is termed Onychomycosis, and they may
thicken, discolour, and finally crumble and fall off.
 Prevention:
Que: Give preventive measures of ringworm.
Ans:
1) Avoid sharing clothes, sports equipment, towels, or sheets.
2) Washing clothes in hot water with fungicidal soap after suspected exposure to ringworm.
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3) Avoid walking barefooted; instead wear appropriate protective shoes in locker rooms
and\ sandals at the beach.
D. Cancer & Acids:
9. Cancer:
Que: What is cancer? How is a cancer cell different from the normal cell? How do normal
cells attain cancerous nature?
Que: How is a cancerous cell different from a normal cell?
Que: Write a note on cancer
Que: What are the methods of cancer detection? Describe the common approaches for
treatment of cancer.
Ans: Cancer is abnormal & uncontrolled growth of cells to form tumour in any part of body.
The word cancer is derived from Greek word, “Karkinos” means crab.
1) There are over 100 different types of cancers, and each is classified by the type of cell
that is initially affected.
2) Cancer harms the body when damage cells divide uncontrollably to from lumps or
masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer prohibits
normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream).
3) Tumors can grow and interface with the digestive, nervous, and circulatory system and
they can release hormones that alter body function.
Que: Differentiate between benign tumor and malignant tumor.
Que: Explain what is meant by metastasis.
Que: Explain terms: -angiogenesis, metastasis, oncogenes neoplastic cell, neoplastic cells &
carcinogen.
Ans:
1) Benign tumour: Tumors that stay in one spot, not spread and demonstrate limited
growth are generally considered to be benign.
2) Malignant tumour is more dangerous, from when two things occur:
a) Invasion: a cancerous cell manages to move throughout the body using the blood or
lymph system, destroying healthy tissue in a process called invasion.
b) Angiogenesis: when a cell manages to divide and grow, making new blood vessels to
feed itself in a process called angiogenesis.4
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3) Metastasis: when a tumour successfully spreads to other body part and grows as new
tumour, invading and destroying other healthy tissue it is said to have metastasized. This
process is called metastasis; the new cells are in tumour called as neoplastic cells. It is
serious condition very difficult to treat.
4) Oncologists: physicians and researchers who specialize in the study, diagnosis,
treatment, and prevention of cancer are called oncologists.
5) Oncogenes: the genes which are responsible to produce cancer in the human body called
oncogenes.
6) Carcinogen: the cancer producing agent like nicotine called carcinogen.
Que: Explain in brief classification of cancer with examples.

Ans:
 Cancers are used to classify in five broad groups:
a) Carcinomas: They are characterized by epithelial cells that cover internal and external
parts of the body such as lung, breast, pancreas and colon cancer (ectodermic or
endodermic in origin). E.g. brain, skin, liver, lung, cervical and breast carcinomas, about
85% of the cancers are carcinomas.
b) Sarcomas: They are characterized by cells that are located in bone, cartilage fat,
connective tissue, muscle, and other supportive tissues. E.g. bone tumour.
c) Lymphomas: They are cancers of lymphatic tissue. That appears or begins in the lymph
nodes, spleen & reticuloendothelial tissue of immune system.
d) Leukemias: They are cancers that begin in the bone marrow and often accumulate in the
blood stream. It results excessive formation of WBCs or leucocytes in the bone marrow
& lymph nodes i.e. leukemia.
e) Adenomas: they are cancers that arise in the thyroid, the pituitary gland, the adrenal
gland, and other glandular tissues.
 Symptoms of cancer:
Que: Write symptoms of cancer.
Ans:
1) Symptoms depend: Symptoms are varied and depend on where the cancer is located,
where it has spread, and how big the tumour is.
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2) Some cancers can be felt or seen through the skin a lump on the breast or testicle can
be an indicator of cancer in those locations.
3) Melanoma: Skin cancer is often noted by a change in a wart or mole on the skin.
4) Some oral cancers present white patches inside the mouth or white spots on the tongue.
5) Metastasize cancer: When cancer spreads, additional symptoms represent in the newly
affected area. Symptoms of metastasis ultimately depend on the location to which the
cancer has spread.
6) Swollen or enlarged lymph are common and likely to be present early.
7) Cancer spreads to the brain; patients may experience vertigo (whirling or loose
balance), headaches, or seizures.
8) Spreading the lungs may cause coughing and shortness of breath.
9) Liver may become enlarged cause jaundice and bones can become painful, brittle and
break easily.
 Cancer treatment:
Que: Give treatment of cancer.
Ans:
1) It depends on the type of cancer, the stage of the cancer (how much it has spread), age,
health status, and additional personal characteristics.
2) There is no single treatment for cancer, and patients often receive a combination of
therapies and palliative care.
3) Treatments the following categories: surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, immunotherapy,
hormone therapy, or gene therapy.
Note:
Que: Explain following terms.
Ans:
a) Radio therapy or radiation therapy: In this type, cancerous part of the body is exposed
to ionising radiations like ‘X’ rays, cobalt radium which kill tumour cells more easily
from normal cells and is useful in cancer of skin, lips, mouth, and cervix.
b) Radioactive isotope: These are radioiodine and radio gold etc.
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c) Hormonal therapy: by this method, the hormone, which causes cancer, is neutralized by
using specific hormonal therapy, cancer of breast, prostate, uterus and thyroid respond to
hormonal treatment. E.g. testosterone hormone treats breast cancer.
d) Immunotherapy: Patients are given substances of biological modifier such as Y-
interferon; activate immune system &helps in destroying tumour.
e) Combine therapy: It includes the use of two methods at one time to treat the cancer of
late stage.
f) Surgery: Surgical removal of tumors.
10. AIDS:
Que: What is the mechanism by which the AIDS virus causes deficiency of immune
system of the infected person?
Que: If a patient is advised Anti Retroviral therapy, which infection is he suffering from?
Name the causative organism.
Que: Why is the virus called retrovirus? Can the infected cell survive while viruses are
being replicated and released?
Que: Write a note on AIDS.
Ans: AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome.
Human immune deficiency virus (HIV) causes AIDS. The virus attacks the immune
system and leaves the body vulnerable of life-threatening infections.
Source: HIV has been found in saliva, tears, nervous system tissue and spinal fluid, blood,
semen (including pre-seminal fluid, which is the) liquid that comes out before ejaculation),
vaginal fluid, and breast milk. However, only blood, semen, vaginal secretions, and breast
milk generally transmits infection to others.
HIV is caused by Retrovirus.
 The virus can be spread (transmitted):
Que: What are the various routes by which transmission of human immunodeficiency
virus takes place?
Ans:
1. Through sexual contact: including oral, vaginal, and anal sex
2. Through blood via blood transfusions or needle sharing
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3. From mother to child: (Transplacental) a pregnant woman can transmit the virus to her
foetus through their shared blood circulation, or a nursing mother can transmit it to her
baby from her breast milk.
4. Other methods of spreading the virus are rare and include accidental needle injury,
artificial insemination with infected donated semen, and organ transplantation with
infected organs.
 HIV infection is not spread by:
Que: Explain HIV infection is not spread by.

Ans: HIV is not spread by casual contact such as hugging, mosquitoes, participation in
sports, touching items previously touched by a person infected with the virus.
Que: What is HIV +ve or carrier?
Ans: HIV +ve or carrier: people infected with HIV ma have no symptoms for 10 years or
longer, but they can still transmit the infection to the others during this symptoms-free
period called HIV +ve or carrier.
If the infection is not detected and treated, the immune system gradually weakness and
AIDS develops.
Que: Explain terms:1) Progress to AIDS 2) Nonprogressors 3) Opportunistic infections.
Ans:
1) Progresses to AIDS: Acute HIV infection progresses over time (usually a few weeks to
months) to asymptomatic HIV infection (no symptoms) and then to early symptomatic
38 | P a g e
HIV infection. Later, it progresses to AIDS (advance HIV infection with CD4 T-cell
count below 200 cells/mm3 while in normal man 500-1500 cells/mm3).
If not treated will develop AIDS, a small group of patient develops AIDS very slowly, or
never at all.
2) Nonprogressors: almost all people infected with HIV, if not treated, will develop AIDS.
A small group of patients develop AIDS very slowly, or never at all. These patients are
called Nonprogressors, and many seem to have a genetic difference that prevents the
virus from damaging their immune system.
3) Opportunistic infection: The symptoms of aids are primarily the result of infection that
do not normally develop in individuals with healthy immune system. People infected
with Aids, their immune system is damaged by HIV and are very susceptible to these
opportunistic infections.
 Common symptoms are:
Que: Explain in brief common symptoms AIDS.

Ans:
Chills, fevers, sweats (particularly at night), swollen lymph glands, weakness and weight loss.
Note: *according to WHO (World Health Organization) has classified the symptoms in to two
types:
a) Major symptoms & b) minor symptoms
a) Major symptoms and asymptotic carrier:
1) Loss of weight about 10% of the body weight with unknown reason.
2) Unexplained diarrhoea for more than a month. Continuous fever for over a month.
3) Loss of co-ordination and memory.
4) Never cells are infected and produce neuropsychological disorders, known as AIDS
dementia complex.
5) More sweating at night, anorexia i.e. loss of appetite & lesions in the skin and mouth
b) Minor Symptoms:
1) Persistent cough, dermatitis i.e. itching of skin with pus information.
2) Recurrence (reappearance) of herpes infection enlarged spleen, lymph gland & sweat
glands.
3) Fungal infection in the mouth
39 | P a g e
4) Appearance of Kaposis sarcoma, in which purplish patches or nodules appeared over the
chest and abdomen.
5) According to WHO, at least two major and two minor, symptoms should be identified for
diagnosis.
 Treatment:
Que: Describe treatment of AIDS.
Ans:
1) No vaccine or drugs: at present, there is no vaccine or drugs to cure or treatment of HIV
infection i.e. there is no cure for AIDS at present.
2) The variety of treatments are available that can help to keep symptoms at bay and
improve the quality of life for those which have already developed symptoms.
3) Antiretroviral therapy suppresses the replication of the HIV virus in the body.
4) HAART: a combination of several antiretroviral drugs, called highly active antiretroviral
therapy (HAART), has been very effective in reducing the number of HIV particles in the
blood stream. This is measured by the viral load (how much virus is found in the blood).
Que: What should be done to prevent HIV?
Ans:
 Prevention: preventing the virus from replicating can improve T-cells counts &help the
immune system recover from HIV infection.
Que: Why is western blot is more reliable than elisa test for diagnosis of AIDS.
Ans:
 Diagnosis:
The tests are made to identify the antibodies in the blood. Two types of blood test
commonly used elisa test. & western blot test.
Western blot or immune blot test is difficult & expensive procedure. It is more reliable
and used as a confirmatory test for AIDS.
Que: What is incubation period of AIDS?
Ans: Incubation period: it is period between infection and the appearance of the first symptoms
of disease. It is variable and ranges from 3 to 10 years.
Note:
Que: Why Chandi brothers were expelled from four different schools?
40 | P a g e
Ans:
1) Discrimination: due to spread of HIV and AIDS there is increasing numbers of cases of
discrimination against persons living with HIV and AIDs.
2) Chandi brothers: the well known case is that Chandi brothers who were expelled from
four different schools because their parents died of AIDS.
Que: What is empathy?
Ans:
1) Empathy & compassion developed: in discussing such cases, certain degree of empathy
(power of identifying oneself) and compassion can be developed among the young
people.
2) Empathy is the ability to pt oneself in the situation of another person. It helps us to
understand all accept others.
Que: Insect bite (mosquitoes) cannot be transmitted HIV?

Ans: Insect bite (mosquitoes) cannot transmit HIV due to an enzyme Lysozyme present in the
mouth secretion insect.
Que: Where slim disease or AIDS was first noticed?
Ans: Slim disease or AIDS was first noticed in New York and California (USA) in 1981by
central disease control (CDC).
Que: What is window period?
Ans: Window Period: The Diagnostic test gives result only 2 to 24 weeks after HIV infection
because antibodies are not form during his “Window Period".
Que: What is pandemic disease?
Ans: AIDS is pandemic disease because it is spreading throughout the world.
E: Adolescence, Drug and alcohol abuse.
Adolescence:
Que: What is the adolescence? Give the characteristics of adolescence.
Ans: Adolescence is a traditional stage of physical and mental development between puberty
and legal adulthood.
It is largely character and beginning and editing with teenage stage.
41 | P a g e
1) This period extend from puberty (external sign of sexual maturation) to complete sexual
maturity.
2) Adolescent is a person between the age of 13 and 19 years in Latin: adolescence meaning
“to grow up" and French world it is called “growing up"
 Characteristics of adolescence:
1) It is characterized by a number of cognitive (knowing), emotional, physical and attitude
changes.
2) It can be cause of conflict on one hand and positive personality development on the other.
3) It bridges linking childhood and adulthood.
4) It brings several biological and behavioral changes.
5) Adolescence is a vulnerable phase of metal and psychological development of an
individual.
6) Adolescent psychology is associated with notable changes in mood sometimes not as a
mood swings.
7) Adolescence who has a good relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in
various risk behavior such as a smoking, drinking, fighting and/ or unprotected sexual
contact.
8) Note:
Que: What should be needed to avoid adolescence children often surrender to negative
peer pressure?
1) During adolescence children often surrender to negative peer pressure is result in taking
to smoking and alcohol.
2) There is therefore a need to develop among young children to say no to smoking and
alcohol.
3) They need to develop communication skills to manage and handle pressure from their
friends.
 Drug & Alcohol abuse:
Que: What is drug abuse? What is the statistical analysis?
Que: Describe classification of drugs. Which is safeguard behavior?
Que: List the harmful effect caused by alcohol/ drug abuse.
42 | P a g e
Que: Do you consider passive smoking is more dangerous than active smoking? Why?
Que: “Prevention is better than cure". Comment.
Ans:
Drug abuse is defined as self administration of drug for non medical reasons.
1) Surveys and statistical analysis show that use of drugs and alcohol has been on the Rise
efficiency among the youth. This is really case of concern as it cloud result in many
harmful effects.
2) Proper educational and guidance would enable youth to safeguard themselves against
these dangerous behavior patterns and follow Healthy lifestyle.
3) Majority of these obtained from flowering plants. Some are obtained from fungi
The commonly abused drugs are opioids, cannabinoids, coca alkaloids & barbiturates.
Que: Explain the ill effects of appoints and cannabinoids on health.
Ans:
(A) Opioids (Opiate Narcotics):
1) They bind to specific opioid receptors present in our CNS and Gastro intestinal tract.
2) They act as a depressant and analgesic so called as painkiller.
3) Heroin commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmorphine. it is white, odorless, bitter,
crystalline compound. It is obtained by acetylating of morphine, which is extract from the latex
of poppy plant Popaver somniferum.
4) It is generally taken by snorting & injection. Heroine is depressant and slow down body
functions.
5) Brown sugar is curd heroine banned for medical use.
(B) Cannabinoids (Hallucinogens):
Que: Why cannabinoids are banned in sports and games?
Que: From which plant Cannabinoids are obtained? Name any two cannabinoids which
part of the body is affected by consuming their substances?
Ans:
1) They interact with receptors present principally in the brain.
2) It is naturally obtained from Inflorescence of Cannabis sativa & indica (Hemp plants),
flower tops leaves & resins are the source of cannabinoids.
43 | P a g e
3) Marijuana hashish, charas and ganja are also obtained from this plant by various
combinations
4) They generally taken in by inhalation and ingestion of these substances are known to
effect on cardiovascular system of the body.
5) LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide) is derived from Ergot fungus (Claviceps Purpurea) .It
is extracted fruiting body of fungus (C. Purpurea). Which is parasite on Rhye. It gives
Psychedelic effect.
(C) Cocaine or Coca Alkaloid (stimulants):
Que: Explain in brief Superman drugs or pep pills.
Ans:
1) It is obtained from coca plant - Erythroxylum coca. It is interferes with the transport of
the neuro-transmitter dopamine.
2) Cocaine commonly called Coke or crack is usually snorted (suck with noise). It has
potent stimulating action on CNS excessive causes hallucination.
3) Atropa belladonna and Datura. Also has hellucinogenic properties.
4) Superman drugs for pills: Cocaine, Amphetamines both are very strong stimulants is
called Superman drugs & also called as a pep mills which are used by truck drivers &
some sportspersons.
 Barbiturates (Sedative) used in medicine:
Que: Explain in brief LSD, barbiturates & sleeping pills.
Ans:
1) Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, lysergic acid diethyl amides
(LSD) (derived from hemp plant cannabis sativa except LSD) are normally used as
medicines to help patients cope with mental illness like mental depression & insomnia
are often abused.
2) Sleeping pills: It is patients to cope op with mental illness like depression and insomnia
(ability to sleep). It is synthetic sedative from barbituric acid and called sleeping pill.
3) Morphine is derived from opinion & is very effective sedative and painkiller and use for
patients who have undergone surgery.
44 | P a g e
4) Drug abuse: When these substances are taken for a purpose other than medical use, they
can cause adverse effect on one’s physical, physiological or psychological or
psychological functions and are called drug abuse.
 Causes of a adolescent substances abuse:
Que: What causes adolescent substance abuse?
Que: Do you think that friends can influence one to take alcohol/drugs? If yes, how may
one protect himself/herself from such an influence?
Que: If a regular dose of drug or alcohol is not provided to an addicted person, he shows
some withdrawal symptoms. List any four such withdrawal symptoms.
Ans:
1) Psychological establishment to be prone: Adolescents are widely considered by the
Psychological establishment to be prone (undergo) to recklessness (dangerous) and risk-
taking behavior, can lead to substance abuse, car accidents, unsafe sex & youth crime.
2) Biologically driven: There is some evidence that drug taking is biologically driven,
caused by the social & emotional part of the brain (amygdale – centre of anger &
emotion), developing faster than the cognitive (perceiving) – control part of the brain
(frontal cortex). There are many causes of adolescent drug problems.
3) Drug abuse develops over a long time; it does not start as full – blown abuse or
addiction.
4) There are different pathways or routes to the development of a teens drug problems.
Que: Why is that once a person starts taking alcohol or drugs, it is difficult to get rid of this
habit? Discuss it with your teacher.
Que: In your view what motivates youngsters to take to alcohol or drugs and how can this
is avoided?
Ans:
 Some of the factors that may place teens at risk for developing drug problems include.
1) Insufficient parental supervision and monitoring, lack of communication and
interaction between parents and kids, poorly defined and poorly communicated rules and
expectations.
45 | P a g e
2) Inconsistent and excessively severe discipline, family conflict, favourable parental

attitudes toward adolescent alcohol and drug use and parental alcoholism or drug use,
which make teens at risk.
3) The age – old adage (traditional) of ‘prevention is better than cure’ hold true here also.
4) It is also true that habits such as smoking, taking drug or alcohol are more likely to be
taken up at a young age and more during adolescence.
5) Some of the measures mentioned here & would be useful for prevention and control of
alcohol and drugs abuse among adolescents.
a) Avoid undue peer pressure: A child should not be pushed unduly to perform beyond
his/her threshold limits; be it studies, sports or other activities.
b) Education and counseling: Education and counseling him/her to face problems and
stresses, to accept disappointments and failures as a part of life. It would also be
worthwhile to channelize the child’s energy into healthy pursuits like sports, reading,
music, yoga and other extracurricular activities.
 Questions (from test book):
A. Long Answer Questions:
1) What is immunity? Describe different types of immunity.
2) Explain the difference between inborn and acquired immunity.
3) Describe various defence mechanisms.
4) Describe the structure of antibody.
5) Give an account of antigen antibody reaction.
6) Describe life cycle of malarial parasites.
7) Describe modes of transmission and pathogenicity of amoebiasis and Typhoid.
8) Write a note on AIDS.
9) Write a note on cancer.
10) What is an acquired immunity? Explain, in detail. Acquired active and passive
immunity.
11) Describe the basic structure of an antibody with the help of suitable diagram.
B. Short Answer Questions:
1) Explain role of innate immunity.
2) Explain antigens on blood cell.
46 | P a g e
3) Write a note on:

a) Malaria
b) Pneumonia
c) Ringworm
d) Filariasis
4) Distinguish between antigen and substance abuse?
5) Explain ABO blood group.
6) What causes adolescent substance abuse?
7) Define the following terms:
i. Immunology
ii. Immunity
8) Explain in brief the concepts of Immunology.
9) Explain the unique feature of acquired immunity.
10) Sketch and label the basic structure of a body.
11) Explain the ill effects of opioids and cannabinoids on health.
C. Very Short Answer Question:
1) Define immunity
2) Define pathogen and parasite
3) What is schizont?
4) What is elephantiasis?
5) What is dermatophytosis?
6) What is sporozoite?
7) What are antigens?
8) Which are the chief cells of acquired immune system?
9) What is Rh factor?
10) In which animal Rh factor was first discovered?
11) Which kind of immunity is provided by vaccination?
 Multiple types of Question
1) Study of interaction of antigen and antibody in blood is
a) Hematology
b) Serology
47 | P a g e
c) Cytology
d) Antilogy
2) Antigens are found
a) Inside cytoplasm
b) Inside nucleus
c) On nuclear envelop
d) On cell surface
3) Antiserum has…
a) Antigen
b) Antibody
c) W.B.C
d) R.B.C
4) Following is protozoan disease…….
a) Malaria
b) Typhoid
c) AIDS
d) Cholera
5) Infections stage of plasmodium is….
a) Trophozoites
b) Sporozoites
c) Cryptozoite
d) Metacercaria
6) Elephantiasis is caused by…
a) W.bancrofti
b) P.vivax
c) Bedbug
d) Elephant
7) Filaria belongs to…..
a) Arthropoda
b) Nematode
c) Chordate
48 | P a g e
d) Mollusca
8) Which disease is caused by nematode….
a) Malaria
b) Ascariasis
c) Leprosy
d) Amoebiasis
9) Typhoid is caused by ….
a) Salmonella
b) Plasmodium
c) Viriola
d) Tick
10) Ringworm is….
a) Fungal
b) Bacterial
c) Viral
d) Nematode
11) Passive immunity is
a) Acquired through natural overt or talent infection
b) Acquired through vaccination
c) Acquired through ready-made antibodies.
d) D. acquired by activating immune system of the body
12) Antigenic determinants of an antigen that are recognize by antibody are
a) Paratopes
b) Epitopes
c) Isotopes
d) Nondetermiants
13) Innate immunity is provided by….
a) Phagocytes
b) Antibodies
c) T-lymphocytes
d) B-lymphocytes
49 | P a g e
 MULTIPLE- CHOICE(from NCRT-chap-8)

1) The term ‘Health’ is defined in many ways. The most accurate definition of the health
would be:
a) Health is the state of body and mind in a balanced condition
b) Health is the reflection of a smiling face
c) Health is the state of complete physical, mental and social well-bring
d) Health is the symbol of economic prosperity.
2) The organisms which cause diseases in plants and animals are called:
a) Pathogens
b) Vectors
c) Insects
d) Worms
3) The Chemical test that is used for diagnosis of typhoid is:
a) ELISA-Test
b) ESR-Test
c) PCR-Test
d) Widal-Test
4) Diseases are broadly grouped into infections and non-infectious diseases. In the list given
below, identify the infectious diseases.
i. Cancer
ii. Influenza
iii. Allergy
iv. Small pox
a) i and ii
b) ii and iii
c) iii and iv
d) ii and iv
5) The sporozoites that cause infection when a female Anopheles mosquito bites a human
being are formed in:
a) Liver of human
b) RBCs of mosquito
50 | P a g e
c) Salivary glands of mosquito

d) Intestine of human
6) The disease chikunguniya is transmitted by:
a) House files
b) Aedes mosquitos
c) Cockroach
d) Female Anopheles
7) May diseases can be diagnosed by observing the symptoms in the patient.
Which group of symptoms are indicative of pneumonia?
a) Difficult in respiration, fever, chills, cough, headache.
b) Constipation, abdominal pain, cramps, blood clots
c) Nasal congestion and discharge, cough, sorethroat, headache.
d) High fever, weakness, stomach pain, loss of appetite and causing cancer are:
8) The genes causing cancer are:
a) Structural genes
b) Expressor genes
c) Oncogenes
d) Regulatory genes.
9) In malignant tumors, the cells proliferate, grow rapidly and move to other parts of the
body to form new tumors. This stage of disease is called:
a) Metagenesis
b) Metastasis
c) Teratogenesis
d) mitosis
10) When an apparently healthy person is diagnosed as unhealthy by a psychiatrist, the
reason could be that:
a) The patient was not efficient at his work
b) The patient was not economically prosperous
c) The patients shows behavioural and social maladjustment
d) He does not take interest in sports
51 | P a g e
11) Which are the following are the reason(s) for Rheumatoid arthritis? Choose the correct
option.
i. Lymphocytes becomes more active
ii. Body attacks self cells
iii. More antibodies are produced in the body
iv. The ability to differentiate pathogens or foreign molecules from self cells is lost
a) i and ii
b) ii and iv
c) iii and iv
d) I and iii
12) AIDS is caused by HIV. Among the following, which one is not a mode of transmission
of HIV?
a) Transfusion of contaminated blood
b) Sharing the infected needles
c) Shaking hands with infected persons
d) Sexual contact with infected persons
13) ‘Smack’ is a drug obtained from the:
a) Latex a Papaver somniferum
b) Leaves of Cannabis sativa
c) Flowers of Dhatura
d) Fruits of Erythroxyl coca
14) The substances produced by a cell in viral infection that can protect other cells from
further infection is:
a) Serotonin
b) Colostrum
c) Interferon
d) Histamine
15) Transplantation of tissues/organs to save certain patients often fails due to rejection of
such tissues/organs by the patient.
Which type of immune response is responsible for such rejections?
a) Auto-immune response
52 | P a g e
b) Humoral immune response

c) Physiological immune response
d) Cell – mediated immune response
16) Antibodies present in colostrum which protect the new born from certain diseases is of
a) Ig G type
b) Ig A type
c) Ig D type
d) Ig E type
17) Tobacco consumption is known to stimulate secretion of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline.
The component causing this could be:
a) Nicotine
b) Tannic acid
c) Curaimin
d) Catechin
18) Anti venom against snake poison contains:
a) Antigens
b) Antigen – antibody complexes
c) Antibodies
d) Enzymes
19) Which of the following is not a lymphoid tissue?
a) Spleen
b) Tonsils
c) Appendix
d) Thymus
20) Which of the following glands is large sized at birth but reducies in size with aging?
a) Pineal
b) Pituitary
c) Thymus
d) Thyroid
21) Haemozoin is:
a) A precursor of hemoglobin
53 | P a g e
b) A toxin from Streptococcus

c) A toxin from Plasmodium species
d) A toxin from Haemophilus species
22) One of the following is not the causal organisms for ringworm.
a) Microsporum
b) Trichophyton
c) Epidermophyton
d) Microsporum
23) A person with sickle cell anemia is
a) More prone to malaria
b) More prone to typhoid
c) Less prone to typhoid
Note:
Que: The following are some well-known abbreviations, expand each one to its full form
Ans: CMI: cell-medicated immunity (CMI)
MALT: there is lymphoid tissue also located within the lining of the major tracts (respiratory,
digestive and urinogenital tracts) called mucosal associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
NACO: in our country the national AIDS Control Organization (NACO).
Que: the following table shows certain diseases, their causative organisms and symptoms.
Fill the gaps.
Ans:
Name of the Disease Causative organism Symptoms
i) Ascariasis Ascaris --------
ii) ---------- Trichophyton Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on
various parts of the body
iii) Typhoid ------------ High fever, weakness, headache,
stomach pain, constipation.
iv) Pneumonia Streptococcus ------------
v) ----------- Rhino viruses Nasal congestion and discharge,
sorethroat, cough, headache
vi) Filariasis ------------ Inflammation in lower limbs
 EXCRESIES: (NCRT chap-9)
54 | P a g e
1. What are the various public health measures, which you would suggest as safeguard
against infectious diseases?
2. In which way has the study of biology helped us to control infectious diseases?
3. How does the transmission of each of the following diseases take place?
a) Amoebiasis
b) Malaria
c) Ascariasis
d) Pneumonia
4. What measure would you take to prevent water-borne diseases?
5. Discuss with your teacher what does ‘a suitable gene’ means, in the context of DNA
vaccines.
6. Name the primary and secondary lymphoid organs.
7. The following are some well- known abbreviations, which have been used in this chapter.
Expand each one to its full form:
a) MALT
b) CMI
c) AIDS
d) NACO
e) HIV
8. Differentiate the following and give examples of each:
a) Innate and acquired immunity
b) Active and passive immunity
9. Draw a well-labelled diagram of an antibody molecule.
55 | P a g e

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Bio Human Health & Diseases Prof.

Umesh Phulpagare Sir

Human Health & Diseases

A. Concepts of Immunology: Types of Immunity.

b) At the site of infection, release of certain chemicals such as histamines and

Que: Explain the unique features of acquired immunity.

a) Specificity: It has ability to differentiate & distinguish various foreign molecules. It is

4) On being sensitized both types of lymphocytes undergo division. A sensitized T.

Que: Explain in brief role of antigen presenting cells:

Que: Sketch and label the basic structure of an antibody.

Serology: A branch of immunology which deals with the study of antigen-antibody

Blood group Genotype Antigen on Antibody in Can donate Can receive

A IAIA or IAIO A Antibody b A, AB A.O

Pathogenicity is the ability of an organism to enter a host and cause disease.

6) Good sanitary practice, as well as responsible sewage disposal or treatment, are

Que: Explain mode of transmission of maleria.

Que: Write symptoms & preventive measure of Filariasis.

5) Management of Filariasis is done by detection of microfilaria in endemic areas and

 Preventation & control measures: Eradication of mosquitoes, chemotherapy &

1) Its pathogenicity is due to an outer membrane consisting largely of lipopolysaccharides

1) Inflammatory condition: It produces inflammatory condition of the lung, especially

Que: Give symptoms of common cold.

Que: Explain in brief classification of cancer with examples.

Que: Explain HIV infection is not spread by.

Que: Explain in brief common symptoms AIDS.

Que: Insect bite (mosquitoes) cannot be transmitted HIV?

2) Inconsistent and excessively severe discipline, family conflict, favourable parental

3) Write a note on:

 MULTIPLE- CHOICE(from NCRT-chap-8)

c) Salivary glands of mosquito

b) Humoral immune response

b) A toxin from Streptococcus

 EXCRESIES: (NCRT chap-9)

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