The Continuous-Time Fourier

Series
 Representing a Signal

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 Linearity and Superposition

If an excitation can be expressed as a linear combination of

complex sinusoids, the response of an LTI system can be

expressed as a linear combination of responses to complex

sinusoids.

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 Real and Complex Sinusoids

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 Real and Complex Sinusoids

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 Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier

3/21/1768 - 5/16/1830

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 Conceptual Overview

The Fourier series represents a signal as a sum of sinusoids.

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal below using

only a constant is the solid

line. (A constant is a

cosine of zero frequency.)

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 Conceptual Overview

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal using a constant

plus one real sinusoid of the same fundamental frequency as the

dashed-line signal is the solid line.

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 Conceptual Overview

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal using a constant

plus one sinusoid of the same fundamental frequency as the

dashed-line signal plus another sinusoid of twice the fundamental

frequency of the dashed-line signal is the solid line. The frequency

of this second sinusoid is the second harmonic of the fundamental

frequency.

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 Conceptual Overview

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal using a constant

plus three harmonics is the solid line. In this case (but not in
general), the third harmonic has zero amplitude. This means that no
sinusoid of three times the fundamental frequency improves the
approximation.

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 Conceptual Overview

The best approximation to the dashed-line signal using a constant

plus four harmonics is the solid line. This is a good approximation
that gets better with the addition of more harmonics.

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 Continuous-Time Fourier Series
Definition

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 Orthogonality

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 Orthogonality

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 Orthogonality

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 Orthogonality

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 Orthogonality

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 Continuous-Time Fourier Series
Definition

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 CTFS of a Real Function

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 The Trigonometric CTFS

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 The Trigonometric CTFS

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 CTFS Example #1

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 CTFS Example #1

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 CTFS Example #2

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 CTFS Example #2

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 CTFS Example #3

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 CTFS Example #3

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 CTFS Example #3

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 CTFS Example #3

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 Linearity of the CTFS

These relations hold only if the harmonic functions of all

the component functions are based on the same

representation time T.

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 CTFS Example #4

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 CTFS Example #4

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 CTFS Example #4

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 CTFS Example #4

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 CTFS Example #4

A graph of the magnitude

and phase of the harmonic

function as a function of

harmonic number is a good

way of illustrating it.

Notice that the magnitude

is an even function of k

and the phase is an odd

function of k.

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 The Sinc Function

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 CTFS Example #5

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 CTFS Example #5

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 CTFS Example #5

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 CTFS Example #5

The CTFS representation of this cosine is the signal

below, which is an odd function, and the discontinuities

make the representation have significant higher harmonic

content. Although correct in the time interval from zero

to 7.5 ms, this is a very inelegant representation.

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 CTFS of Even and Odd Functions

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 Convergence of the CTFS

For continuous signals,

convergence is exact at

every point.

A Continuous Signal

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 Convergence of the CTFS

Partial CTFS Sums

For discontinuous signals,

convergence is exact at

every point of continuity.

Discontinuous Signal

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 Convergence of the CTFS

At points of discontinuity

the Fourier series

representation converges

to the mid-point of the

discontinuity.

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Numerical Computation of the CTFS

How could we find the CTFS of a signal that has no

known functional description?

Numerically.

Unknown

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Numerical Computation of the CTFS

Samples from x(t)

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Numerical Computation of the CTFS

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Numerical Computation of the CTFS

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 CTFS Properties

Linearity

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 CTFS Properties

Time Shifting

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 CTFS Properties

Frequency Shifting

(Harmonic Number

Shifting)

A shift in frequency (harmonic number) corresponds to

multiplication of the time function by a complex exponential.

Time Reversal

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 CTFS Properties

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 CTFS Properties

Time Scaling (continued)

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 CTFS Properties

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 CTFS Properties

Change of Representation Time

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 CTFS Properties

Time Differentiation

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 CTFS Properties

Time Integration

Case 1
Case 2

is not periodic

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 CTFS Properties

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 CTFS Properties

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 CTFS Properties

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 Some Common CTFS Pairs

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 CTFS Examples

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 CTFS Examples

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 CTFS Examples

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LTI Systems with Periodic Excitation

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LTI Systems with Periodic Excitation

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LTI Systems with Periodic Excitation

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LTI Systems with Periodic Excitation

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The Continuous-Time Fourier
Transform
 Extending the CTFS

•  The CTFS is a good analysis tool for systems with

periodic excitation but the CTFS cannot represent
an aperiodic signal for all time

•  The continuous-time Fourier transform (CTFT)
can represent an aperiodic (and also a periodic)
signal for all time

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 CTFS-to-CTFT Transition

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 CTFS-to-CTFT Transition

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 CTFS-to-CTFT Transition

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 CTFS-to-CTFT Transition

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 CTFS-to-CTFT Transition

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 Definition of the CTFT

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 Definition of the CTFT

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 Definition of the CTFT

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 Some Remarkable Implications
of the Fourier Transform

The CTFT can express a finite-amplitude, real-valued, aperiodic

signal, which can also, in general, be time-limited, as a summation

(an integral) of an infinite continuum of weighted, infinitesimal-

amplitude, complex-valued sinusoids, each of which is unlimited in

time.

(Time limited means “having non-zero values only for a finite time.”)

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 Frequency Content

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 Some CTFT Pairs

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 Convergence and the
Generalized Fourier Transform

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 Convergence and the Generalized
Fourier Transform

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 Convergence and the
Generalized Fourier Transform

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 Convergence and the
Generalized Fourier Transform

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 Convergence and the Generalized
Fourier Transform

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 More CTFT Pairs

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 Negative Frequency

This signal is obviously a sinusoid. How is it described

mathematically?

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 Negative Frequency

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 Negative Frequency

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 CTFT Properties

Linearity

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 CTFT Properties

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 CTFT Properties

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 CTFT Properties

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 The “Uncertainty” Principle

The time and frequency scaling properties indicate that if a signal

is expanded in one domain it is compressed in the other domain.

This is called the “uncertainty principle” of Fourier analysis.

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 CTFT Properties

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 CTFT Properties

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 CTFT Properties

In the frequency domain, the cascade connection multiplies

the frequency responses instead of convolving the impulse

responses.

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 CTFT Properties

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 CTFT Properties

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 CTFT Properties

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 CTFT Properties

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 CTFT Properties

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 CTFT Properties

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Numerical Computation of the CTFT

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