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Module 5 - Part 1 (Ce 361 - Advanced Concrete Technology)
Module 5 - Part 1 (Ce 361 - Advanced Concrete Technology)
of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module V
MODULE 5
Syllabus:
Durability of concrete: Durability concept; factors affecting, reinforcement corrosion; fire resistance;
frost damage; sulfate attack; alkali silica reaction; concrete in sea water, statistical quality control,
acceptance criteria as per BIS code.
Non‐destructive testing of concrete: Surface Hardness, Ultrasonic, Penetration resistance, Pull‐out
test, chemical testing for chloride and carbonation‐ core cutting ‐ measuring reinforcement cover.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Durability is the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion or any other
process of deterioration while maintaining its desired engineering properties. Different concretes
require different degrees of durability depending on the exposure environment and the properties
desired. Concrete ingredients, their proportioning, interactions between them, placing and curing
practices, and the service environment determine the ultimate durability and life of the concrete. For
many conditions of exposure of concrete structures both strength and durability have to be considered
especially at the design stage.
A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactorily under anticipated exposure conditions during its
service life span. The materials and mix proportions used should be such as to maintain its integrity
and, if applicable, to protect embedded metal from corrosion. One of the main characteristics
influencing the durability of concrete is its permeability to the ingress of water, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, chloride, sulphate and other potentially deleterious substances.
Most of the durability problems in the concrete can be attributed to the volume change in concrete.
Volume change in concrete is caused by many factors. The entire hydration process is nothing but an
internal volume change, the effect of heat of hydration, the pozzolanic action, the sulphate attack, the
carbonation, the moisture movement, all type of shrinkages, the effect of chlorides, corrosion of steel
reinforcement and host of other aspects come under the preview of volume change in the concrete
which results in cracks. It is the crack that promotes permeability and thus it becomes a part of cyclic
action, till such time that concrete deteriorates, degrades, disrupts and eventually fails.
SIGNIFICANCE OF DURABILITY:
i. A durable concrete has long term ability to resist wear & tear to resist chemical attack and to
resist polluted atmosphere and so negligible loss on repair & maintenance.
ii. Durability increases the increased life of concrete structures.
iii. A durable concrete surface does not require special care and time to time repair and maintenance.
FACTORS TO BE PROPERLY CONTROLLED TO ACHIEVE DURABILITY:
i. The structural design
ii. Study of environment in which the structure is constructed. Temperature humidity and chemical
conditions to be examined.
iii. Selection of material for concrete and good mix design.
iv. Concrete specification such as max water cement ratio max cement content type of cement and
grade of concrete.
v. Quality of concrete cover.
vi. Workability and cohesiveness of concrete mix
vii. Batching mixing transporting placing compacting and most important curing. Care should be taken
to avoid segregation
viii. Maintenance and usage in service life
CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology 1 | Page
Module V Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC
Deterioration in concrete can take place basically due to porosity.
Concrete has porosity in several types
Capillary pores
Entrapped air
Honey combs
Cracks
PERMEABILITY
When we talk about durability of concrete, generally we start discussion from the permeability of
concrete, as it has much wider and direct repercussion on durability than that of W/C ratio. For
example, micro‐cracks at transition zone is a consideration for permeability whereas W/C ratio may
not get involved directly. It may be mentioned that micro‐cracks in the initial stage are so small that
they may not increase the permeability. But propagation of micro‐cracks with time due to drying
shrinkage, thermal shrinkage and externally applied load will increase the permeability of the system.
Permeability of Cement Paste
The extent and size of capillary cavities depend on the W/C ratio. It is one of the main factors
contributing to the permeability of paste. At lower W/C ratio, not only the extent of capillary cavities
is less but the diameter is also small. The capillary cavities resulting at low W/C ratio, will get filled up
within a few days by the hydration products of cement. Only unduly large cavities resulting from higher
W/C ratio (say more than 0.7) will not get filled up by the products of hydration, and will remain as
unsegmented cavities, which is responsible for the permeability of paste.
Permeability of Concrete
Theoretically, the introduction of aggregate of low permeability into cement paste, it is expected to
reduce the permeability of the system. Compared to neat cement paste, concrete with the same W/C
ratio and degree of maturity, should give a lower coefficient of permeability. But in practice, it is seen
from test data, introduction of larger size of aggregates increase the permeability considerably.
Permeability of concrete is often referred as the root cause for lack of durability. But it can be seen
that volume change that takes place in an otherwise impervious concrete due to heat of hydration or
internal manifestation can crack the concrete affecting durability. Microcracks in transition zone even
in initially impermeable concrete, can start the cycle of deterioration process in concrete. Therefore,
these three factors, one follows the other two, like day follows the night, are responsible for affecting
durability of concrete and concrete structures
The factors governing permeability:
The Quality of constituent materials
The quality of pore structure which is based on the water cement ratio admixtures used and
degree of hydration.
The quality of interfacial transition zone.
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Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module V
The degree of compaction
The adequacy of curing
DURABILITY & IMPERMEABILITY:
Two important aspects to be considered in the case of concrete are durability and impermeability.
Concrete used for water tank shall be impermeable and durable whereas for buildings durability is
more important.
The low durability we see in certain structures which get manifested in the form of cracking and spalling
due to poor quality of materials or workmanship and corrosion of steel is principally due to inferior
design specification or construction.
IMPACT OF WATER CEMENT RATIO ON DURABILITY
A durable concrete is prepared with lower w/c ratio. With low w/c ratio the micro structure changes
are different as compared to high w/c ratio. The lower w/c ratio in concrete is responsible for the
following
i. With low w/c ratio the permeability decreases to such a level that these concrete are impervious
to water.
ii. Low water cement ratio concrete is less sensitive to carbonation.
iii. Low w/c ratio concrete has less external attack and other detrimental effects that cause the
durability of concrete.
iv. Low w/c ratio concrete makes the reinforcement more corrosion resistant.
Volume change in concrete results cracks and the cracks are responsible for disintegration of concrete.
Use of higher water‐cement ratio leads to Permeability → volume change → cracks → disintegra on
→ failure of concrete is a cyclic process in concrete. With low water cement ratio the permeability
decreases to such a level that these concretes are impervious to wear. Low water cement ratio is less
sensitive to chemical attack. The water available can only hydrate the surface of cement particles and
there exist plenty of unhydrated particles which can play an important as they contribute strength in
reserve.
W/c ratio is the fundamental point for concrete durability.
CAUSES OF INADEQUATE DURABILITY
The various actions causing inadequate durability may be
1. Physical
a. Effects of high temperature
b. Difference in thermal expansions of aggregates and of hardened cement paste.
c. Alternating freezing and thawing
2. Chemical
a. Alkali‐silica reaction
b. Alkali‐carbonate reaction
c. External chemical attack
3. Other
a. Impact
b. Abrasion
c. Erosion or cavitations
It is essential that every concrete structure should continue to perform its intended functions to
maintain its required strength and serviceability during the specified or traditionally expected service
life. Concrete must be able to withstand the process of deterioration to which it can be expected to
be exposed. Such concrete is said to be durable.
CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology 3 | Page
Module V Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC
FIRE RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE
In fire, concrete performs well – both as an engineered structure, and as a material in its own right.
Fire resistance of concrete structure is determined by three main factors—the capacity of the concrete
itself to withstand heat and the subsequent action of water without losing strength unduly, without
cracking or spalling; the conductivity of the concrete to heat; and coefficient of thermal expansion of
concrete. In the case of reinforced concrete, the fire resistance is not only dependent upon the type of
concrete but also on the thickness of cover to reinforcement,
Because of concrete’s inherent material properties, it can be used to minimize fire risk for the lowest
initial cost while requiring the least in terms of ongoing maintenance. In most cases, concrete does not
require any additional fire‐protection because of its built‐in resistance to fire. It is a non‐combustible
material (i.e. it does not burn), and has a slow rate of heat transfer. Concrete ensures that structural
integrity remains, fire compartmentation is not compromised and shielding from heat can be relied
upon.
In mortar and concrete, the aggregates undergo a progressive expansion on heating while the hydrated
products of the set cement, beyond the point of maximum expansion, shrinks. These two opposing
actions progressively weaken and crack the concrete.
In general concrete can be treated as fire resistant because
Concrete is non combustible
The period of time under fire during which concrete continue to perform satisfactorily is
relatively high.
No toxic fumes are emitted.
Concrete cannot withstand hydrocarbon fires. In ordinary building fires, concrete typically achieves
excellent fire‐resistance ratings, unless it is too wet, which can cause it to crack and explode. For
unprotected concrete, the sudden endothermic reaction of the and unbound humidity inside the
concrete causes such pressure as to spall off the concrete, which then winds up in small pieces.
FREEZING AND THAWING
The lack of durability of concrete on account of freezing and thawing action of frost is not of great
importance to Indian conditions. But it is of greatest considerations in most part of the world.
However, certain regions in India, experience sub‐zero temperatures in winter.
The concrete structures particularly, the one which are exposed to atmosphere are subjected to cycles
of freezing and thawing and as such suffer from the damaging action of frost. The frost action is one of
the most powerful weathering action on the durability of concrete.
It is very well known that fresh concrete should not be subjected to freezing temperature. Fresh
concrete contains a considerable quantity of free water; if this free water is subjected to freezing
temperature discrete ice lenses are formed. Water expands about 9% in volume during freezing. The
fresh concrete once subjected to frost action, will not recover the structural integrity.
Therefore, the fundamental point to note in dealing with cold weather concreting is that the
temperature of the fresh concrete should be maintained above 0°C.
The fully hardened concrete is also vulnerable to frost damage, particularly to the effect of alternate
cycles of freezing and thawing. The severest conditions for frost action arise when concrete has more
than one face exposed to the weather and is in such a position that it remains wet for a long period.
Examples are road kerbs, parapets, concrete members in hydraulic structures just above water level
etc
4 | Page CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology
Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module V
SULPHATE ATTACK
Most soils contain some sulphate in the form of calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium.
Ammonium sulphate is frequently present in agricultural soil and water from the use of fertilizers or
from sewage and industrial effluents. Decay of organic matters in marshy land, shallow lakes often
leads to the formation of H2S, which can be transformed into sulphuric acid by bacterial action. Water
used in concrete cooling towers can also be a potential source of sulphate attack on concrete.
Therefore sulphate attack is a common occurrence in natural or industrial situations.
Solid sulphate do not attack the concrete severely but when the chemicals are in solution, they find
entry into porous concrete and react with the hydrated cement products. Of all the sulphates,
magnesium sulphate causes maximum damage to concrete. A characteristic whitish appearance is the
indication of sulphate attack.
The term sulphate attack denote an increase in the volume of cement paste in concrete or mortar due
to the chemical action between the products of hydration of cement and solution containing sulphates.
In the hardened concrete, calcium aluminate hydrate (C‐A‐H) can react with sulphate salt from outside.
The product of reaction is calcium sulphoaluminate, forming within the framework of hydrated cement
paste. Because of the increase in volume of the solid phase which can go up to 227 per cent, a gradual
disintegration of concrete takes place.
The rate of sulphate attack increases with the increase in the strength of solution. A saturated solution
of magnesium sulphate can cause serious damage to concrete with higher water cement ratio in a short
time. However, if the concrete is made with low water cement ratio, the concrete can withstand the
action of magnesium sulphate for 2 or 3 years.
Methods of Controlling Sulphate Attack
(a) Use of Sulphate Resisting Cement
The most efficient method of resisting the sulphate attack is to use cement with the low C3A
content.
(b) Quality Concrete
A well designed, placed and compacted concrete which is dense and impermeable exhibits a higher
resistance to sulphate attack. Similarly, a concrete with low water/cement ratio also demonstrates
a higher resistance to sulphate attack.
(c) Use of air‐entrainment
Use of air‐entrainment to the extent of about 6% (six per cent) has beneficial effect on the sulphate
resisting qualities of concrete. The beneficial effect is possibly due to reduction of segregation,
improvement in workability, reduction in bleeding and in general better impermeability of
concrete.
(d) Use of pozzolana
Incorporation of or replacing a part of cement by a pozzolanic material reduces the sulphate
attack. Admixing of pozzolana converts the leachable calcium hydroxide into insoluble non‐
leachable cementitious product
ALKALI‐AGGREGATE REACTION
Alkali‐aggregate reaction (AAR) is basically a chemical reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the pore
water within concrete and certain types of rock minerals which sometimes occur as part of aggregates.
Since reactive silica in the aggregate is involved in this chemical reaction it is often called alkali‐silica
reaction (ASR). It is recognized as one of the major causes of cracking of concrete
Aggregates used in large concrete construction should be suitably tested to detect tendency for alkali‐
aggregate reaction.
It is to be pointed out that alkali‐silica reaction takes place only at high concentrations of OH–
CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology 5 | Page
Module V Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE IN SEA WATER
There is evidence of early deterioration when concrete is subjected to marine environments. The sea
water generally contains 3.5% of salt by weight. The PH value of sea water is between 7.5 and 8.5
Concrete Exposed to sea water can be subjected to various chemical and physical actions.
Nature and causes of deterioration.
Deterioration of concrete in sea water is often not characterized by the expansion found in concrete
exposed to sulphate action. The presence and intensity of these various forms of attack depends on
the location of the concrete with respect to the sea level.
Salt weathering.
When concrete is repeatedly wetted by sea water with alternating drying the pure water
evaporates and leaves behind salts in the form of crystals. On subsequent wetting it deteriorates
the concrete. Such progressive surface weathering known as salt weathering occurs at high
temperature. The most severe attack of sea water occurs just above the level of high water. Salt
weathering can extend to millimeters of hardened cement paste and the embedded fine aggregate
particles are removed leaving behind protruding course aggregates. Unless the aggregates are
dense and has very low absorption the aggregates itself are liable to damage.
Corrosion of the reinforcement with subsequent spalling of the concrete.
Corrosion can occur if chlorides manage to penetrate to the surface of the reinforcement, either
through cracks in the structure or through concrete of high permeability. Chloride‐induced
reinforcement corrosion is one of the most common durability problems associated with
reinforced concrete structures exposed to marine environments. The time for corrosion initiation
depends on
i. how fast chloride ions penetrate the concrete cover to reach the reinforcement and
ii. the critical chloride concentration needed to deteriorate the steel reinforcement
Freezing and thawing.
Deterioration of concrete from freeze thaw actions may occur when the concrete is in marine
environment and critically saturated
Wave action.
The impact and mechanical force of wave action also contribute to the lack of durability of
concrete.
Abrasion by sand and floating bodies.
Sea water holds certain quantity of sand and silt particularly in the shallow end.
Remedies:‐
Rich concrete with low w/c ratio makes the concrete impervious to the attack of sea water.
Low permeability can be then obtained. Other factors which lead to low permeability are
appropriate choice of cementitious materials, good compaction, and absence of cracking due
to shrinkage, thermal effects or stresses in service.
Provision of adequate cover is another desirable step for increasing the durability of concrete.
Use of Pozzolana material is yet another desirable step.
Proper selection of materials
Practicing mix design
Proper detailing of reinforcement
Adopting appropriate construction techniques.
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Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module V
CORROSION PROTECTION
Corrosion of reinforcing steel and other embedded metals is the leading cause of deterioration in
concrete. When steel corrodes, the resulting rust occupies a greater volume than the steel. This
expansion creates tensile stresses in the concrete, which can eventually cause cracking, delamination,
and spalling.
Steel corrodes because it is not a naturally occurring material. Rather, iron ore is smelted and refined
to produce steel. The production steps that transform iron ore into steel add energy to the metal.
Steel, like most metals except gold and platinum, is thermodynamically unstable under normal
atmospheric conditions and will release energy and revert back to its natural state—iron oxide, or
rust. This process is called corrosion.
For corrosion to occur, these elements must be present:
There must be at least two metals (or two locations on a single metal) at different energy levels
an electrolyte
a metallic connection
In reinforced concrete, the rebar may have many separate areas at different energy levels. Concrete
acts as the electrolyte, and the metallic connection is provided by wire ties, chair supports, or the
rebar itself.
Corrosion is an electrochemical process involving the flow of charges (electrons and ions). At active
sites on the bar, called anodes, iron atoms lose electrons and move into the surrounding concrete as
ferrous ions. This process is called a half‐cell oxidation reaction, or the anodic reaction, and is
represented as:
2Fe → 2Fe2+ + 4e‐
The electrons remain in the bar and flow to sites called cathodes, where they combine with water
and oxygen in the concrete. The reaction at the cathode is called a reduction reaction. A common
reduction reaction is:
2H2O + O2 + 4e‐ → 4OH‐
To maintain electrical neutrality, the ferrous ions migrate through the concrete pore water to these
cathodic sites where they combine to form iron hydroxides, or rust:
2Fe2+ + 4OH‐ → 2Fe(OH)2
This initial precipitated hydroxide tends to react further with oxygen to form higher oxides. The
increases in volume as the reaction products react further with dissolved oxygen leads to internal
stress within the concrete that may be sufficient to cause cracking and spalling of the concrete cover.
Corrosion of embedded metals in concrete can be greatly reduced by placing crack‐free concrete
with low permeability and sufficient concrete cover. Low‐permeability concrete can be attained by
decreasing the water to cementitious materials ratio of the concrete and the use of pozzolans and
slag. Pozzolans and slag also increase the concrete resistivity thus reducing the corrosion rate even
after it initiates. Additional measures to mitigate corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete include
the use of corrosion inhibiting admixtures, coating of reinforcement (for example, with an epoxy
resin), and use of sealers and membranes on the concrete surface. Sealers and membranes, if used,
have to be periodically reapplied.
CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology 7 | Page
Module V Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC
LIMITS AS PER BIS CODE
As per IS 456 of 2000, the general environment to which the concrete will be exposed during its working
life is classified into five levels of severity, that is, mild, moderate, severe, very severe and extreme.
It is stressed time and again that the free W/C ratio is very important factor in governing the durability
of concrete. It should always be the lowest value. Appropriate values for minimum cement content,
the maximum free W/C ratio and the minimum grade of concrete are given in Table 5 of IS 456 : 2000,
for different exposure conditions.
The minimum cement content and maximum W/C ratio apply to 20 mm nominal maximum size
aggregate. For other sizes of aggregate, they should be changed as per Table 6 of IS 456 : 2000
8 | Page CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology
Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module V
Chloride content in Concrete
Whenever there is chloride in concrete there is an increased risk of corrosion of embedded metal. To
minimize the chances of deterioration of concrete from harmful chemical salts, the levels of such
harmful salts in concrete coming from concrete materials, that is, cement, aggregates water and
admixtures, as well as by diffusion from the environment should be limited. The total amount of
chloride content (as Cl) in the concrete at the time of placing shall be as given in Table 7.
Sulphates in concrete
The total water‐soluble sulphate content of the concrete mix, expressed as SO, should not exceed 4
percent by mass of the cement in the mix.
STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL OF CONCRETE
Concrete like most other construction processes, have certain amount of variability both in materials
as well as in constructional methods. This results in variation of strength from batch to batch and also
within the batch. It becomes very difficult to assess the strength of the final product.
It is not possible to have a large number of destructive tests for evaluating the strength of the end
products and as such we have to resort to sample tests. It will be very costly to have very rigid criteria
to reject the structure on the basis of a single or a few standard samples.
The basis of acceptance of a sample is that a reasonable control of concrete work can be provided, by
ensuring that the probability of test result falling below the design strength is not more than a specified
tolerance level.
The aim of quality control is to limit the variability as much as practicable. Statistical quality control
method provides a scientific approach to the concrete designer to understand the realistic variability
of the materials so as to lay down design specifications with proper tolerance to cater for unavoidable
variations. The acceptance criteria are based on statistical evaluation of the test result of samples taken
at random during execution. By devising a proper sampling plan it is possible to ensure a certain quality
at a specified risk.
CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology 9 | Page
Module V Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC
The compressive strength test cubes from random sampling of a mix, exhibit variations, which are
inherent in the various operations involved in the making and testing of concrete. If a number of cube
test results are plotted on histogram, the results are found so follow a bell shaped curve known as
“Normal Distribution Curve”. The results are said to follow a normal distribution curve if they are
equally spaced about the mean value and if the largest number of the cubes have a strength closer to
the mean value, and very few number of results with much greater or less value than the mean value.
However, some divergence from the smooth curve can be expected, particularly if the number of
results available is relatively small
Common Terminologies
The common terminologies that are used in the statistical quality control of concrete are explained
below.
(a) Mean strength:
This is the average strength obtained by dividing the sum of strength of all the cubes by the number of
cubes.
∑
Where, = mean strength
∑ = sum of the strength of cubes
N = number of cubes.
10 | Page CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology
Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module V
(b) Variance:
This is the measure of variability or difference between any single observed data from the mean
strength.
(c) Standard Deviation:
This is the root mean square deviation of all the results. This is denoted by S.
∑
1
100
With constant coefficient of variation, the standard deviation increases with strength and is larger for
high strength concrete.
Application
The standard deviation and the coefficient of variation are useful in the design and quality control of
the concrete. As the strength test results follow normal distribution, there is always may fall below the
specified strength. Considering this fact IS 456‐2000 has brought in the concept of characteristic
compressive strength.
In the design of concrete mixes, the target mean strength should be appreciably higher than the
minimum or characteristic strength if the quality of concrete is to comply with the requirements of
specifications. The expected variation in compressive strength is represented by a standard deviation
or coefficient of variation. From these it is possible to determine the target mean strength of the mix.
The target mean strength ft is obtained by using the following relation,
1.65
Where,
fck = Characteristic compressive strength after 28days
t = tolerance factor or probability factor = 1.65 where not more than 1 in 20 (5%) of test results
are expected to fail
S = Standard deviation
CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology 11 | Page
Module V Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC
If coefficient of variation is used,
1
100
Where, v = Coefficient of variation
However, the use of the coefficient of variation is not envisaged in IS 456‐2000
SAMPLING
To keep a control on the quality of concrete produced, it is required to cast a number of specimens
from random samples and test them at suitable intervals to obtain results as quickly as possible to
enable the level of control to be established with reasonable accuracy in a short time. IS: 450‐2000
stipulates that random samples from fresh concrete shall be taken as specified in IS:1199‐1959 and the
cubes shall be made, cured and tested at 28 days as described in IS:516‐1959. The random sampling
procedure is adopted to ensure that each concrete batch shall have a reasonable chance of being
tested, i.e. the sampling should be spread over the entire period of concreting and cover all mixing
units.
The minimum frequency of sampling of concrete of each grade will be as shown in Table below
At least one sample should be taken from each shift. In case of continuous production unit, e.g. ready
mixed concrete plant. Three test specimens should be made for each sample for testing at 28 days.
Additional samples may be required for 7 days strength or for finding out the strength for striking the
formwork etc.
The test result of a sample be the average of the strength of three specimens (constituting the sample).
The individual variation should not be more than ± 15 per cent of the average. If it is more, the test
result of the sample is invalid.
12 | Page CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology
Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module V
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
Compressive strength
The acceptance criteria given in IS 456 ‐2000 stipulates that the strength requirement is satisfied when
conditions given in following table is met,
Flexural strength
When both the following conditions are met, the concrete complies with the specified flexural
strength.
a. The mean strength determined from any group of four consecutive test results exceeds the
specified characteristic strength by at least 0.3 N/mm2
b. The strength determined from any test result is not less than the specified characteristic
strength less 0.3 N/mm2
*******************************
Prepared By
NAJEEB. M
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering
MEA Engineering College
CE 361 – Advanced Concrete Technology 13 | Page