PlaneandSolidAnalyticGeometry 10003429

THE M AC M I LLAN C O M PAN Y
NE W Y ORK B O S TO N C H IC AG O D ALLAS
ATLAN TA S AN F RAN C I SC O
M A C M I LLA N CO .
, L I M IT E D
L ON D O N B O MB A Y C ALC UTI A
‘
M E LB O U RN E
M A C M I LLAN C O . OF C AN ADA , LTD .
TO R O NTO
PLAN E AN D SO LI D
AN ALY TI C G E O M E I R Y
' ‘
W I L L I AM F . O SG O O D , LL I). .
P E RK INS PR O F E SS O R O F M A T H E M A T I C S
HA R V A R D U NI V E R S I T Y
C
IN
AN D
W I L L I A M C G . R A U S T E I N , P H D . .
A SS I S T A N T P R O F E SS O R O F M A T H E M A T I C S
I N H A R V A R D U N I VE R S I T Y
C O P Y RI G HT, 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 2 1 ,
BY THE M A C M I LLA N C O M P A N Y .
Se t u p a nd e l e c t ro ty p e d . Pu b l i s h e d Ju l y , 1 92 1 .
Norma n wrap s
J S
. . C u s h i ng
Co . B erw i ck Sm i th C O .
N or w oo d , M ass , U S A
. . . .
P R E FAC E
TH E obj e ct ofa n el e m e nta ry c o l le ge co u rs i n Ana ly t i c: e G m eo
e try i s tw ofol d : it i s t o a cq u a i n t t h e t u d nt with n w nd

s e e a
in t er es ting a n d i m p o rt a n t g e o m e tri c a l m te ri l nd t pr v id a a , a o o e
h i m with p ow e rfu l t o o l s f or th e s tu d
y no t , nl y f g m t rv
o o eo e
a n d p u r e m a th e m a tic s b u t i n n o l e s s m a s u r
, e fphy s i s i n t h
e o c e
br oa des t se nse ofth e t er m in cl u di ng e n gi ne ri ng

, e .
To a tt a i n t his O b j e ct th e ge o m e tric a l m a t ri a l s h u ld I
, e o
p r e s e n t e d i n t h e s i m p l e s t a n d m os t c o n c r e t e f r m with o m ph s i
,s e a
o n t h e g eo m e tric a l c o n t e n t a n d i l l u s tr a t e d wh ne v r ss i b l e e
, , p o e ,
b y i ts r e l a ti o n to p hy sic s .This p ri ncip le h a b n b s rv d s ee o e e
t hr ou gh ou t th e b ook Thu s i n tre a ti ng th e e lli pse t h m th ds

.
, , e e o
a ct u a ll y u s e d i n t h e d r afti n g r o o m f o r d r a wi n g a n lli p fr m e se o
t h e d a t a c o mm o nl y m e t i n d e s c ri p tiv e ge o m e try a r gi v n a e e
l e a di n g p l a c e . Th e th eo re m th a t t h e t a nge nt m a k s q u l e e a
a ngl es wi t h t h e fo c a l r a d ii i s p r o v e d m e ch a ni a lly a r p
c whi h o e e
p a sses t h r o u g h a p u ll e y h a s i t s e n ds ti e d a t t h f ci nd i s d r w n
e o a a
t a u t by a l in e fa s t e n e d t o t h e p u l l ey M re v e r t h m a ni ng
. o o ,
e e
o f f o ci i n O p tic s a n d a c o u s ti c s i s c l e a r l y s e t f o rth Ag i n th r . a ,
e e
i s a c h a p t er o n th e d efo r m a ti o n s o fa n e l a s ti c p l a n e u nd r s tr ss e e ,
with i ndic a tion s a s to th e thr ee d i m e ns io na l c a s e (pu r str i n

- e a ,
Th e m e o ds of
t h a n a l y tic g e o m e tr y e, v e n i n th ir s i m p l s t e e
r v r t t i i o c m pr
’
fo m s m a k e se e e d e m a n d s o n t h e s u d e n s a b l t v t o e
,
he nd th e r e a soning of hi gh er m a th e m a ti cs C o
. n s q u n tyl i n e e
r e se n ti n g t h e m f or t h e fir s t ti m e p r y u e l a l g e b r a i c d iffi u l t i es c ,
p ,
s u ch a s a r e c a u s e d by l it e r a l c oeffi ci e nt s a n d l o n g f r o m a l c m p u o
t a t i on s sh ou l d b e a v oi d e d
,
Th.
e a u th r h v f
o s a o l l w d
e t hi s o e
ri ci c i t t gi i g h w b j t f t h r l y
a
e
p n p l e o n s s e n l y b ,
e n n n e a c n e s u c e o e
c h a p t e rs wi th th e dis c u ssi o n of a si m p l b l
p i
l e s c a e u t t v p ,
i ea .
giv g i m m d i t l t t h l f t h p a r a g r a p h
c a se , a nd i n e a e y a e c s e o o e
Vl P RE FAC E
im p l e e xa mpl e s of t h e s a m e s ort Th ey h a v e not howe v e r
—
s .
, ,
s t op p e d h e r e , b u t thr ou gh c a r efu ll y gr a d e d p r ob l e m s b o t h of
,
g eo m e tcr i a n d o f a n a l y tic c h a r a,ct e r h a v e l e d t h e s t u d e n t t o
t h e m o r e d iffic u l t a p p l ic a ti o n s of t h e m e t h od s a n d c oll e cti ons

,
o f e x a m p l e s a t t h e c l os e o f t h e c h a p t e r s c o n t a i n s u c h a s p u t
t o t h e t e s t t h e i ni ti a tiv e a n d o rigi n a l ity o ft h e b e s t s t u d e n t s .
As a r e su l t of this pl a n th e p r e s e n t a ti on i s e x tr a or d i n a rily
e l a s tic
. I t i s p oss ib l e t o m ak e th e tr e a t m e n t ofa ny giv e n t op ic
b ri ef wit ho u t r e n d e ri n g th e tr e a t m e n t o f l a t e r t o p ic s u n i n
t e ll i gi b l e a n d thu s t h e i n s tru ct o r c a n w o r k o u t a c o u r se ofa ny
,
d e sir e d e x t e n t . F o r e x a m p l e o n e fr e shm a n c o u r s e a t Ha rv a r d
,
d e v o t e s a b o u t thirty p e ri o d s t o a n a l y tic g eo m e try a n d t h e m a

t e r i a l c o v e r e d c o n si s t s of t h e e s s e n ti a l p a rt s o f t h e fir s t ni n e
c h a p t e rs. An o t he r fr e sh m a n c our se giv e s twic e th e ti m e t o
a n a l y tic g e o m e tr y (th e s tu de n t s h a vin g a l re a dy h a d trigo
n o m e tr y ) t a k i n g u p d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d t h e d e s cri p tiv e p r o p e rti e s
,
o fth e q u a d ric sur f a c e s a n d a l s o d e v o ti n g m o r e ti m e t o t h e l e s s

,
e l e m e n t a ry a p p l ic a ti o n s o f th e m e t h o d s o f a n a l y tic g e o m e try .
Th e a d v a n c e d c o u r se s i n th e c a l c u l u s a n d m e c h a n ic s r eq u ir e th e
m a t e ri a l oft h e l a t e r c h a p t e rs . I n fa ct a t h or o u gh e l e m e n t a ry
,
tr e a t m e nt ofth e r u dim e nt s of Sol id An al y tic G e o m e try i s i n

d is p e n s a b l e f o r t h e u n d e rs t a n d i n g o fs t a n d a r d t ex t s o n a p p l i e d
m a t he m a tic s . I t i s tr u e th a t th e s e t e x t s a r e chi efl y C o n ti n e n t al
.
B u t w e sh a l l n e v e r h a v e Am e ri c a n tr e a ti se s whic h a r e u p t o th e
b e st s cie ntific s t a nd a r ds oft h e d a y u n til th e su b j e cts a b o v e m e n
t i o n e d a r e a v a i l a b l e i n s i m p l y i n t ell igib l e f o r m f or t h e u nd e r
gr a d u a t e .
Th e s u b j e ct ofl o ci i s brou gh t i n e a rl y th r ou gh a bri ef intro

d u c t ory c h a p t e r a nd p r ob l e m s i n l o ci a r e s p r e a d throu gh ou t
,
t h e b oo k . A l a t e r ch a p t e r i s d e v o t e d t o a c a r efu l e xp l a na tio n
o f t h e m e th o d o f a u xi l i a ry v a ri a b l e s . Th er e i s a c ha p t e r on
d e t er m i na n t s wit h a p p l ic a ti o n s b o t h t o a n al y tic g eo m etry a n d
,
t o l in e a r e q u a tio n s . D i a m e t e rs a n d p ol es a n d p ol a r s i n t h e
p l a n e a n d i n s p a c e r e c e iv e a th or ou gh tr e a tm e n t C y l indric al
.
a n d Sp h e ric a l c o Or di n a t e s a n d q u a d ric s u rfa c e s a r e i ll u m i n e d b y
t h e c o n c e p t o ftripl y o rt h og on a l sy s t e m s ofs u rfa c e s . Th e r e

P RE FAC E
du ction oft h e ge ne r a l e q u a ti o n o ft h e s e c nd de gr i n pa c
o ee s e
t o n or m a l for m s b y tr a ns la ti o ns a n d r o t a tio ns i s s k t c h e d a nd e
illu str a t e d b y nu m e ric a l e x a m pl e s .
Th e q u es ti on m a y b e a ske d :I n s o e xt e nsiv a tr a t m nt f e e e o
a na l y tic g e o m e try s h o u ld n o t , f o r e xa m p le h m g ne u s e
, o o e o o
o rdin a t e s fi nd a pl a ce ? Th e a u th o rs b li v t ha t t h st u d nt
e e e e e ,
b efor e p r o c e e d i n g t o t h e e l ab o r a t e m e th o ds fm d r n g m t rv
o o e eo e ,
s hou ld h a v e a t h o r o u gh k n owl e d g e b o th o ft h e m a t ri a l a nd t h e e
m e t h o d s whic h m a y fa i r l y b e c a ll e d e l e m e nt a ry a nd t h y f lt ,
e e
t h a t a b ook which a voidi ng th e c o nci se nes s o f s o me o f t h

,
e
c u rr e n t t e x t s a n d th e l oos e n e ss o fo t h e r s i s c l e a r b e c a u s
, i t is e
rigo rou s will m e e t a r e a l ne e d .
This b ook i s d e sig ne d t o b e a t o nc e a n i ntro d u cti n t t h o o e
s u b j e ct a nd a h a ndb ook o ft h e e l e m e nt s . M a y i t s rv a li k e e e
t h e n ee ds oft h e fu t u r e s p e c i a l i s t i n g e o m e try t h e a n a l v s t t h e
, ,
m a th e m a tic a l p h y sicis t a nd th e e ngi nee r

,
.
H AR V A RD U NI V E R S I TY
Ap ri l 1 9 2 1
,
C O N TE N TS
PL AN E AN ALY TI C G EO M ETRY
I N TR O D U C TI O N
D IRE C T E D L IN E SE G M EN TS PR O JE C TI O N S —
.
AR T .
1 . D i r t d L i n S gm nt
ec e e -
e e s
2 . Al g b r i R p re nt ti n fD i r t d Li n S gm t
e a c e se a o o ec e e-
e en s
3 . Pr j e ti n f B r k n Li n
o c o o a o e e
CH AP TER I
CO O R D I N AT E S CU RVE S AN D . E Q U AT I O N S
D efi ni t i n fR t n g l r C rdi n t
o o ec a u a oo a es
Pr j t on
o ec i f D i r t d Li n S gm nt
s o a ec e e -
e e on th e
Di t ns a b tw n Tw P i nt
ce e ee o o s
Sl p
o e of Li n a e
M i d P i n t f Li n S g m n t
-
o o a e -
e e
D i vi i on f Li n S gm nt i n An y R ti
s o a e -
e e a o
C rv P l tti ng
u e E q ti n f C rv
o . ua o o a u e
P i nt
o fI nt r
s o ti n fTw C rve sec o o o u es
E rci e
xe n C ha p te r I
s s o
CH AP TER II
THE S T R A I G H T L I NE
E q u a ti o n ofL i ne thro u gh Two Poi nts

O n e Poi nt a n d th e Sl op e G i ve n
Th e G e n era l E q u ati on ofth e Fi rst D e gree
In terce p ts
Th e I nterce p t F or m fth e E q o u a ti o n o f Li
a ne
Pa ra ll el a n d Perp e n d i c l a r L i ne u s
An gl e b e twee n Tw o L i ne s
D i st an ce ofa P oi nt fro m a L i n e
ix
X C O N TE N T S
ART .
9 . Ar ea ofaTri a ngl e
10 . Ge neral Theory ofParall el s a n d Perp en di cul ars I denti cal .
Li nes
11 . Se c on d M e thod o fF i ndi n g Pa ra ll e l s and Perp e ndi cu l ars
E xerci ses on C ha p ter I I
CH AP T
ER I II
APP L I CAT I ON S
Ce rtai n Gen era l M e thod s
Th e M e di a n s Tri a n gl e
ofa
C on ti nu a ti on Th e G eneral C a se
.
Th e Al ti tu d e s ofa Tri a n gl e
e
.
Th e Perp e ndi cu l ar Bi se ctors ofth e Si d s ofa
Three Poi nts on a Li ne

E x erci se s on C ha p te r III
CH AP TER IV
.
THE C IR C L E
"! t
E q u a i on ofth e C i r cl e
5
0 A Secon d F orm o fth e t
E q u a i on
3
9 Ta ngen ts
P C i r cl ethrou gh Three Poi nts
Ex erci ses on C ha p t er I V
CH AP TER V
I N T R O DUC TO RY P R O B L E M S I N LO C I . S Y MM E T RY OF
CU RVE S
1 . Locus Prob l em s
2 . Sy mme try
E xerci ses on C ha p ter V
CH AP TER VI
THE P AR AB OL A
1 . D efi t
ni i on
2 . E q u a ti on o ft h e Pa rab ol a
3 . Tangen ts
C O N TE N T S xi
AR T .
4 . O p ti c a l Pr op e rty o fth e P a ra b o l a
E x erci ses on C ha p te r VI
CH AP TER VI I
THE E LL I P S E
D efi t
ni i on
Ge ometri cal C onstru cti on

E q u a ti o n ofth e E lli p s e
Ta ngents
O p ti ca l a nd Ac ou sti ca l M e a ni n g o fth e Fo r e
Sl op e a n d E q u a ti o n ofth e Ta n ge nt
A N e w Lo cu s Probl e m
D i scu ssi on ofth e C a se < 1 Th e D i re ctri ces
e .
Th e P arab ol a a s th e Li mi t ofE l li p e s s
N ew Ge om e tri ca l C onstru cti on f o th E l li p r e se . Pa r

a me ri ct
R e p re s e n ta ti on .
E xerci ses on Chap ter V II
CH AP TER V III
THE H Y P ER B O L A
D efi t
ni i on
E q u a ti on o fth e Hy p erbol a
A e s E cc e ntri ci ty F oca l R a di i
x , ,
Th e Asy mp totes
T a n ge n t s
N ew D e fi ni ti on . Th e D i re ctri ces
Th e P a ra b ol a a s th e Li mi t ofHy p erb ol as Su mmary .
Hyp e rb ol s
a w i th F oc i o n t h e A i s o fyxC o n j u ga t
.e H yp e r bo l as
P ara m e tri c R ep re se nta ti on

C on i c Se cti on s
C o nfo ca l C oni cs
r
E x e ci se s on C a p h ter V III
C H AP TER I X
C ERTA I N G EN ER A L M E TH O D S
1 . Ta n ge nts
2 . C onti n u a ti on . I mp l i ci t E q u at onsi
xi i C O N TE N T S
Th e E q u a t i on u kv O
Th e E q u a t i on uv O
Ta n gents wi th a Gi ve n Sl op e D i scri mi n a n t ofa Qu a dra ti c
.
E q u a ti on
General Formu l a s for Tangents wi th a Gi ve n Sl op e
Ta n gents to a C oni c fro m an E xtern al Poi nt
E xerci ses on C ha p te r I X
CH AP TER X
P OL AR C O O R D I N AT E S
Defini i ont
C i rcl e s
Stra i ght L i nes
Graphs ofE q u a ti ons
C oni cs
Tra nsform a ti on to a nd from C a rtesi a n C oordi na te s
E xerci ses o n C ha p ter X
CH AP TER XI
T R AN SF O R MAT I ON OF C O O R D I NAT ES
Pa ra l l e l A esx
R ota ti on ofth e Axes

Th e Gen era l C a se
D e termi n a ti on ofth e Tra nsform a ti on fr
o m th e E q
u a ti ons
th e N ew Ax es
R e vers al o fO n e Ax i s
E xerci ses on C ha p t e r X I
C H AP TER X I I
THE G EN ER AL E Q UATI O N OF THE S E C O N D D E G REE

C ha n ge ofO ri gi n ofC oordi na te s
R ot a ti o n o fAx e s
C o n ti n u a ti o n . G
e n eral C a se
Th e e era l q u a t o ,
G n E i n 3 2
4 AC ah 0
Th e e n era l E q u a ti o ,
G n B 2
4 AC 0
Su mm a ry . I nv a ri a n ts
E x erci se s on C h a p ter X II
C O N TE N T S
CH AP TER XIII
A SE C O ND C HAP T ER ON L OC I A U XI L IARY
. A A
V R I B LE S .
IN E Q U ALI TIE S
AR T .
1 . Ex tensi on ofth e M e thod fo th e D t rm i na ti n ofL i

r e e o oc
2 . O n e Au i li ary V a ri a b l e
x
3 . C oOr di n a te s of a Po i n t Tra i ng a C u rv e c Au i l i a ry , as x
V ari bl ea s
O ther Prob l e m I nvol v i n g Tw o o M re A i l i ry V ri a b l

5
4 . s r o ux a a es 2 72
. U se ofth e F orm u l a f or th e Su m o ft h e R oo ts o f Q u d ra t i c a a
E q u a ti on
6 L o ci ofI ne q u al i ti e s
7 . L ocu s ofTw o or M ore Si mu l t n eou s I ne q ali ti ea u s
8 B i s e ct ors ofth e An gl e s b e twee n Tw o Li ne s
E xer ci se s on Cha p ter XIII
CH APTER X IV
D IA M ET E R S PO L E S
. AN D PO L AR S
D i a m e t ers o fa n E lli p s e
j
C on u ga te D i a m e ters ofa n E ll i p se
D i a m e t e rs o fa Hy p erb ol a
j
C onu ga t e D i a m et ers ofa Hyp erb ol a
D i a m e te rs o fa P ara b ol a
tr
E x e mi e a t i s n d L e n gth s o f C o n u g a t ej D i a m e te rs
P h y s i ca l M e a ni n g o f C o n u ga tje D i a m e te r s
Harm oni c D i v i si on
P ol ar ofa Poi nt
P ol e ofa Li n e
Prop e rt i e ofP ol e s a n d Pol ars
s
l
Re a t i v e P o s i t i o n s ofP ol e a n d P ol ar
C on tru cti o n Probl e m s

s
E xerci ses on C ha p ter X IV
CH AP TER XV
T RAN SF O R M A T I ON S OF THE P LAN E ST RAIN

.
1 . Tran sl ati ons

2 . R o t a ti o n s
3 .
r f
T a ns o m a r t i on o fSi
s mi l i tu d e
4 . R e fle cti o n s i n th e Axe s
xi v C O N TE N T S
Si mp l e E l ongati ons a nd C omp re ssi ons

Th e eneral Affine Tra nsform a ti o n
G
F a ct ori z a ti on ofPa rti cu l a r Tra n sform a ti ons
Si m p l e She a rs
Se cond M e thod of F at ri ti
c o za on . Homoge neou s
E xerci se s on C hap te r X V
CH AP TER X VI
D E TE R M INAN T S AN D T HEIR APP L I CAT I O N S

I . D E TE R M I N A N TS
Si mul t ane ou s Li ne a r E q u a ti ons

Tw o a n d Thre e R owe d D e te rmi n ants
-
D e te rmi na nts ofth e F our t h a n d Hi gher O rders

E va l u a ti on ofa D e te rmi na n t b y M i nors
Si mp li fied E val u ati on b y M i nors
F u n d a me n tal Prop erti e s O fD e termi n a nts
I n tercha n ge s o fR ows a n d ofC ol u m ns
C ra m er s R u l e
’
Thr ee E q u a ti ons I n Tw oU nkno wns C omp a ti b i li ty .
Hom ogene ou s Li ne ar E q u a ti on s
II . AP P LI C A TI O N S
11 . Th e Strai ght Li ne
12 . Th e C i rcl e a n d th e C oni cs
E x e rc i s e s on C ha p ter X VI
SO L I D AN ALY TI C G E O M E TR Y
CH APTER X V II
P R O JE C T I O N S . CO O R D I NAT ES
D i r e t d Li n S gm n t
c e e -
e e s
Pr j ti n f B r k n Li n
o ec o o a o e e
Th An gl b tw n Tw D i r t d Li ne
e e e ee o ec e s
V al fth Pr j ti n f D i e t d Li n
ue o e o ec o o a r c e e -
Se gme nt
C oOr di n a tes .
Pro j e cti ons ofa Di re cte d Li n e Se gm ent on th e Axes -
D i sta nce b etwee n Tw o Poi nts

C O N TE N T S XV
AR T .
8 . M i d Poi n t
-
L i n e S e g m e nt
o fa -
9 . D i vi si on ofa Li ne Se gm e n t i n a -
Gi v en Ra i o t
E xe rci s es on C ha p te r X V II
X V III CH AP TER
D IR E C TI O N CO S I NE S D IRE C T I O N COMPO NEN TS .
D i re t i n C i n
c o f D i r te d L i n
os es o a ec e
An gl e b tw n Tw D i r t d L i n
e ee o ec e es
D i r ti n C m p n n t
ec o o f n U n d i r t d Li n
o e s o a ec e e
F rm u l
o f th U
as orfD i r ti n C m p n nt
e se o ec o o o e s
Li n P rp ndi l r t Tw G i v n L i n
e e e cu a o o e es
Thr L i n P r l l l t
ee es Pl n
a a e o a a e
E r i e
xe c s s o n C h p t r X V III a e
CH AP TER X IX
THE P L A NE
Su rfa ce s a nd t
E q u a i on s
Pl a n e throu gh a P oi nt w i th Gi ven D i re cti o n ofi t N rm s o a ls
Th e Gen era l E qu a ti on ofth e Fi r t D egree s
I nter ce p ts
I n te rce p t F orm ofth e E q u a ti on ofa Pl a ne
Pl a n e throu gh T hree Poi nts .
P e rp e n di cu la r P a ra l l el a nd I d enti c l Pl a nes Angl e b tw

, ,
a . e ee n
Tw o Pl a n es
Pl a n e s P a ral l el
r cul r to a G i ve n P l
or Pe p e ndi a a ne
D i st n c e o fa Poi n t fro m a Pl a ne
a
Poi n t o fI nterse cti on o fThre e Pl a n es

E xerci s es on Cha p t er X I X
CH AP TER XX
THE ST R A I G H T L I NE
‘
! E q u a ti ons ofa C u rve
N Li n e ofI ntersecti on ofTw o Pl a nes
W Li n e thro u gh a Poi nt wi th G i ve n D i recti n C m p ne nt o o o s
P Li ne throu gh Tw o Poi nt s
Li n or Pl a ne i n Gi ve n R el ti o n hi p t G v n L n
0
‘ a s o i e i es or
P e
Pl anes
x v1 C O N TE NT S
AR T .
6 . Angl e b etwee n Li n e a n d a Pl a n e
a
7 . P oi nt ofI nte rsecti on ofa Li ne a n d a Pl a ne

8 . Pa ra me tri c R e p re se nt a ti on ofa C u rv e
E erci ses on C ha p te r XX
x
CH AP TER XX I
THE P L ANE AN D THE S T R AI G H T L I N E . AD VANC E D

M ETHO D S
Li nea r C om bi na ti on ofTw o Pl ane s
Three Pl an es throu gh a Li ne Th re e Poi nts on a Li ne .
L i n e i n a Pl a n e
F ou r P oi n ts i n a Pl a n e Fou r Pl a n e s throu gh a P oi nt
.
Tw o I nterse cti ng Li nes

D i s ta n ce of a P oi nt from a L i ne D i st a n ce b etween
.
L i ne s
Are a ofa Tri a n gl e V ol u m e ofa Te trahe dron
.
E xerci ses on C ha p t er XX I
CH AP TER XXII
S P H E R ES
C Y LI N D ER S C O N E S
, , . S URF AC ES OF
RE VOL U T I O N
E q ti n fth Sp h r
ua o o e e e
G n r l F rm fth E q ti n
e e a o o e ua o
Sph r th r gh F r P i nt
e e ou ou o s
T n g n t Pl n t
a e Sph r
a e o a e e
Th C i r l
e c e
C y li n d r e s
C o ne s
r
Su face s o fR e vol u ti on
E xe rci s es on C ha p ter XXII
CH AP TER XXIII
Q U AD RI C S URF A C ES
Th e E lli p soi d
m
e
Th e Hy p erb ol oi d s
o
s Th e Parab ol oi ds
R u li ngs
PLANE ANALY TIC GEOMETRY
I N TR O D U C TI O N
DI R E C TE D I
L NE S -
E GM E NT S . P R OJE CTI ONS
E l e m en ta ry G e om e try, it i s s t u d i e d i n th e high s ch ool
as
t o d a y h a d a tta in e d i t s p r e s e n t d e v e l o p m e n t a t t h e ti m e wh n
-
, e
G r ee k c u l tu r e w a s a t i ts h e ight Th e fir s t sy s t e ma ti c trea t
.
m en t of th e s u bj e ct which h a s c om e d o w n to u s w as writ te n
by E u cl i d a b ou t 300
Al g ebra on th e oth e r h an d w a s un kno w n to th e G re e ks
, ,
.
I t s b e gin n i n g s a r e f ou n d a m on g th e H in d u s t o wh o m th e ao ,
ca ll e d Ar a bic sy s t e m of nu me ra l s m a y a l s o b e d u e I t ca m e .
in t o W e st e rn E u r op e l a t e a n d n ot ti l l th e c l os e o f th e m id d l e
,
a g e s w a s it ca rri e d t o th e p oi n t which i s m a r k e d by a n y s ch oo l
book ofto d a y tha t tr ea t s thi s su bj e ct

-
.
Wh en s ch ol a r s h a d on c e p os s e sse d th e m se l ve s of th e s e t w o
su bj e ct s G e om e try a n d A l g e br a — th e n e x t s t e p w a s q u i c k l y
ta k en Th e r en own ed p hi l osoph e r a n d m a th e ma ti cia n R e n é
. ,
c rt
Des a e s i n h s G i eo m e tri e o f 1 6 3 7 s h,
o w e d h o w t h e m e th od s
,
of a l e g br a c ou l d b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s t u d y o f g e o m e try H . e
thu s b e ca m e th e f ou n d e r ofAn al ytic G e o m e try .
Th e o rigi
“
n al s an d t
”
h e l o c u s p r o b l e m s o f E l e m e n t a ry
G e om e try d e p e n d for th e ir so l u ti o n a l m o s t wh o l l y o n in g e n u
Th r g r
en e a l m e th d wh r by o n e ca n b e s u r e
i ty . e e ar e n o o s e e
A l G m
o f sol v in g a n e w p r ob l e m o f thi c yti try
s l a s s . n a c e o e ,
me
C artesi an G try fr t r
o m
om i ni z e d f o fh i s na
*Al s o call e d e o me ,
t h e La ,
C art esi us .
2 AN ALY T I C G E OM ET RY
on th e ther han d fu rni she s u n iv e r sa l m ethod s for th e tr eat
o ,
m en t of su ch p r ob l e m s ; m or e ov e r th e se m e th od s ma k e p os,
s ib l e th e s tu d y of f u rth e r pr ob l e m s n ot th ou ght of by th e
a n ci e n t s b u t l yin g a t th e h ea rt of m od e rn m a th e m a tic s a n d
,
m a th e m a tica l p hy s ic s I n d eed th ese tw o gr ea t s u bj e ct s ow e

.
,
th eir v e ry e x i s t en c e to th e n ew geom etry a n d th e Cal cu l u s

~
.
Th e qu es ti on of h o w to m a k e u se i n g e om e try of th e n e ga r
tiv e a s wel l a s th e p ositiv e n u m b e r s i s a m on g th e fir s t which

, ,
m u s t b e a n s w e r e d i n a pp l yin g a l g e bra t o g e om e try Th e s ol u .
ti on of thi s p r obl e m wil l b e c om e cl ea r i n th e fol l owin g

p a ra gra p h s .
1 Di r ected Li ne Segments
.
-
Le t a n in d e fin it e s tr a ight l in e ,
.
L , b e giv en , a n d l e t t w o p oi n t s , A a n d B , b e m a r k e d on L .
A B
Th en th e p o rti on of L which i s
G
b ou n d ed by A an d B i s wha t i s
C B c a ll e d i n P l an e G e om e try a l i n e
s egm en t a n d i s writt e n a s AB , .
L e t a thir d p oi n t 0 b e m a r k e d
C A B , ,
on L Th en thr ee c a se s a ri se
.
,
F 1 I G"
a s in d ic a t e d i n th e figu r e C or .
r esp on di n g t o th e s e thr e e c a se s w e h a v e
( )
a AB B0 AO ;
( )
b AB CB AO ;
Three oth e r ca se s wil l a ri se if th e origina l p oin t s A an d B a r e

t a k en i n th e op p os it e or d e r on th e l in e Let th e s tu d en t .
writ e d own th e thr ee c orr esp on d in g e qu a ti on s .
A u n ific a ti on of a l l th e se c a se s can b e e fie cte d by m ean s of

a n e x t e n s i on of th e c on c e p t o f a l in e se g m en t W e n o l on g e r -
.
c on sid e r th e l in e se g m en t s AB an d B A a s id en tica l b u t w e
°
d i s tin gu i s h b e tw een th e m by givin g e a ch a d i r ecti on or sen se .
Thu s AB Shal l b e d ir e ct ed fr om A to B an d B A shal l b e

,
d ir e ct ed fr om B to A i e opp os it e l y t o AB
,
. . Th ese d i r ected .
IN T R O D U C T I ON 3
li ne -
seg men ts w e d en ot e by A B and B A, to d i s ti ng u i s h th e m
fr om th e r d i na ry
ir e ct e d l i ne s e g me n t s
.
o ,
or u n d -
, .
W e m a y for th e m om e n t i n t e r p r e t th e d ir e c te d l i n s e g
, , e -
m e n t AB a s th e a ct Of wa l k i n g fr o m A t B ; th n IJA r r o e
p e o
s e n t s th e a ct of w a l k in g fr o m B to A With thi s i n mi nd l t .
e
,
u s r e tu r n to F i g 1 a n d c on s i d e r th e d ir e c te d l i n e s e g m nt s
.
-
A B B C and AC W e h a v e i n a l l thr ee ca s es r e p re s e n te d b y
’
, , .
,
F i g 1 a n d a l so i n th e oth e r thr e e
.
,
AB + B 0 = A Q
i c e wa l k in g fr om A to B a n d the n wa l ki n g fro m B to C i s
s n
e qu i v a l e n t with r e fe r en c e to th e p oi n t r ea che d to wa l ki ng
, ,
fr om A to 0 .
Acc o r d in g l y w e u n ify a l l s i x c a s e s by d e fin i n g a s th e su m
, ,
o f th e d ir e ct e d l in e s e gm e n t s AB a n d B C th e d ir e cte d l i n e
-
s e g m en t A O
(n AB + B C = A G
F r om thi s d e fi n iti on it f ol l ow s tha t if ,
A, B , C ,
an d D a re
any fou r p i o n s ofL , t

AB BC CD AD
( )
2 .
by fir s t ter m s in i s A C, a nd ,
F or , th e su m of th e tw o ( )
2
by th e d e fi n iti on , th e s u m of A C a n d CI) i s A l ) .
S i m i l a r l y if ,
th e po n s i t M M 1, M 2, M _1 , N n
a r e a ny p o n ts i
o fL w e h a v e,
M M l i M I J‘
I2 i i M i M N : JI N
( )
3 n—2
—
”
n— l
“
I
“ " " "
‘ ‘
i
“
iv ir
G e n tw o d e e d l n e s e ct i g m e n t s o n t h e sa
- m e l i n e o r o n
r l l l l i w th a t th e s e t w o d ir e c t e d l i n e s e g m e n ts
t w n e s a y
-
a a e es
o p ,
a l if th e y h a v e e q u a l l e n gth s a n d t h e sa m e d ir e c ti o n or
are e qu ,
8 6 11 8 6 .
t t i f D ir t d L i n S g m e n ts O n
2 Al geb r a i e e
R n a on o e c e -
ep r es e
.
. c
d e n s e s be
i
th e l n e L l e t on e Of t h e t w o O p p o s it e ir e c ti o n s o r s
chosen a rbitra ril y and d efine d a s th e p os i t i v e d i r e c ti o n o r rum se
th r b c l l d th n ti v e d i r ec t i o n o r s e n se
ofL ; a n d l e t th e o e e a e e e g a .
4 AN ALYT I C GE O M E TR Y
A d ir e ct ed l i n e -
se g m en t AB , which li es on L, i s then call ed
p os i ti ve if i ts s en se i s th e sa m e a s th e p os itiv e s ense ofL and
, ,
n ega ti v e if i t s se n s e i s th e sa m e a s th e n e g a tiv e s en se ofL

,
.
To su ch a d ir e ct e d l i n e se g m e n t AB w e a ss ign a nu m be r
-
which w e shal l a l so r ep r e se n t by AB a s f ol l ow s I f I i s th e ,
.
l en gth o fth e o r d in a ry l in e se g m e n t AB th e n -
AB I, if AB i s a p o s itive l in e se gm en t -
AB I, if AB is a ne ga tiv e l in e se g m en t -
.
I f AB = l , th e n BA l; an d if AB — l
,
th en B A= Z .
In e ith e r ca s e
1
( ) AB + BA = O or AB — BA .
Sin c e th e wa l k in g fr om A to B i s n u l l ifi e d by th e a ct
a c t of
ofw a l k in g fr om B to A w e m ight h a v e a rriv e d a t e qu a ti on s

,
( )
1 fr o m c on s i d e r a ti on o fth e l i n e s e g m e n t s th e m se l v es in s t e a d
-
ofby u se o f th e n u m b e r s which r e p r e se n t th e m .
I t i s ea s y t o v e rify th e fa ct th a t e qu a ti on s and
( )
3
of th e p r e c e d i n g p a r a gr a p h which r e l a t e to d ir e ct e d l in e s e g
,
-
m en t s h ol d for th e c o rr e s p on d in g n u m b e r s
,
C on s e q u en tl y .
,
n o e rr o r o r c on fu s i on a ri se s fr o m u s in g th e sa m e n ot a ti on AB
for b oth th e d ir e ct e d l i n e se g m en t a n d th e n u m b e r c orr e sp on d

-
i n g t o it W e s h a l l h ow e v e r a d op t a s ti l l s i m p l e r n ota ti on
.
, , ,
d r op p in g th e d a s h a l t og e th e r a n d writi n g h en c e forth AB to
d en ot e n ot m e r e l y th e d ir e ct ed l i n e s e g m e n t or th e n u m b e r
“
c orr e sp on d in g to it b u t a l s o th e l in e se g m en t it sel f s ta tin g

,
-
e x p l icit l y wh a t i s m ea n t u n l e ss th e m e a n i n g i s c l ea r fr om th e
,
c on t ex t .
Abs ol u te Va l u e
.
ften c on v en i en t to b e a bl e to ex p r e s s
. It i s o
m e r el y th e l ength of a d ir e ct e d l in e se g m en t AB Th e n ota -
,
.
ti on for thi s l en gth i s | AB | ; r ea d : th e a b sol u t e va l u e of “
AB .
”
Th e nu m e rical o r a b sol u te v a l u e of a
, ,
nu m be r , a, is
d en ot e d i n th e sa m e w a y :[ a Th us
I 3 ] ,
3 . O f c ou r s e,
[ ]
3 3 .
IN T R O DU C T I ON 5
3 . Pr oj ecti on ofa Br ok en Li ne B y th e p roj ecti o n o fa o i nt
p
.
P on a l i n e L i s m ea n t th e foot , M , o f th e pe r pe nd i c u la r
d r opp e d fr om P on L . I f P l i es on L, it i s i ts own
p
r o j e
c ti on
on L .
Le t P Q be an y d ir e ct e d l i n e -
g m e n t a nd l e t L b e a n a rb i
se
,
tr a r y l i n e . Le t M and N be r e s p e ctiv e l y th e p roj e ctio ns o f

P and Q L Th e p r oj ecti on
on .
Q
o f th e d ir e ct ed l i n e se g
m PQ
e n t -
on L s h a l l b e d efi n e d a s th e d i
r e c te d l i n e se g m e n t M N
-
o r th e
j
n u m b e r which r e p r e se n t s IV IN al i
b
g e b r a i ca l l y S in c e M N. N M , M
it fol l ow s tha t
P r oj P Q
. P r oj .
QP .
I f P Q l ie s on a l i n e p e r p e n d icu l a r to L , th e p oi nt s M a nd
N c oin ci d e ,
a n d w e s a y th a t th e p r oj e cti on M N o f P Q o n L i s
z e ro Su ch a d ir e ct e d l i n e s e g m en t M N wh os e e n d p o i n t s a re
.
-
,
-
i d en tica l w e m a y c a ll a n i l s egment ; to it c orre s pond s th

,
-
e
n u mb e r z e r o I t i s e vi d e n t th a t i n ta k i n g th e su m Of a n u m
.
b e r of d ir e ct e d l i n e s e g m en t s a n y of th e m whi ch a r e n i l
-
s e g m en t s m a y b e d i s r e g a r d e d j u s t a s i n t a k i n g t h e s u m o f a
, ,
s e t o fn u m b e r s a n y o fth e m ,
which a r e z e r o m a y be d i s re
g a r d ed .
C on s i d e r a n a r b i t r a ry
Q br ok en l i n e P P P P _ Q I 2 fl , .
By i ts p r oj ecti o n o n L i s
m e a n t th e s u m o f t h e p r o
FI G ' 3
j e cti on s o fth e d ire c te d l i ne
se g m en t s PP l , P 1 P 2 , R H Q ,
MM1 + MM + + M — 1N 1
Thi s s u m h a s th e sa m e v a l u e a s M N , th e p r oj e c ti o n on L
of th e d ir e ct e d l i n e s e g m e n t P Q ; cf
- . l , ( )
3
JUN .
6 AN ALYT I C G E O M E T RY
H en c e th e th eor e m
THEOREM 1 . Th e s u m ofth e p r oj ecti on s on L of th e s eg men ts
PP ] ,
P 1 P2, P n_ 1 Q o
f a br oken l i n e j oi n i ng P w i th Q is e qu a l
to th e p r oj ecti on on L ofth e d i r ected Z i ne -

s egme n t PQ .
I f, c on dl y th e s a m e p oi n t s P an d Q b e j oin ed by an oth er
se ,
br ok en l in e P E P ; ,
th e pr oj e cti on of th e l a tt e r on
L wi l l a l s o b e e qu a l to M N
MM ; M m+ M '
i 1 N = MN .
H e n c e th e th e or em :
THEOREM 2 . G i v en tw o br ok en l i n es h a v i ng the sa me e x tr e mi
ti es ,
a nd
L e t L be an a r b i tr a r y s tr a i gh t l i ne . Th en th e su m
f th e p r o
o
j ecti on s o n L o f th e s eg ments P P 1 , P 1 P 2 ,
,
Q of wh i ch th e
,
fir s t br oken l i n e i s m a de up , is eq u a l to th e co r r esp on d i ng s u m
f or th e s econ d broken l i ne .
8 AN ALYT I C GE O M E T R Y
p os iti on of th e a x es which c on for m s t o th e d efin iti on i s l egi ti
m a t e th e e s s en ti a l thi n g b e i n g s ol e l y tha t th e a x e s b e t a k en
,
pe rp en d i cu l a r t o e a ch o th e r .
E v e ry p oi n t P i n th e p l an e h a s d efi n it e c oor d i na t e s (x y)
, , , ,
.
C on ve r s e l y t o a ny p a ir of n u m b e r s x a n d g c orr e sp on d s a
, , ,
p o i n t P wh o s e c o o r d in a t e s a r e (x y ) Thi s p o
,
i n
. t ca n b e co n
s tr u ct e d by l a yi n g of f OM x on th e a x i s of x e r e ctin g a e
p r ,
p e n di c u l a r a t M t o th a t a x i s a n d th e n,
l a yin g o ff M P = g .
W e m igh t e qu a l l y w e l l h a v e b e gu n by l a yi n g O f f ON g o n
th e a x i s of y (of F i g . a n d th e n e r e ct e d a p e r en d ic u l a r t o
.
p
tha t ax i s a t N an d l a id Off on i t
NP = x I t sh a l l b e u n d e rs t ood th a t
.
th e p os i tiv e se n s e on a n y l in e p a ra l l e l
t o on e of th e c oor d i na t e a x es su ch a s ,
x th e p e r p en d icu l a r to th e a x i s of x a t
Ill s h a l l b e th e s a m e a s th e p os itiv e
,
F G 2I
se n se o f th a t a x i s F or o th e r l in e s
.
of th e p l a n e th e r e i s n o g en e r a l p rin ci p l e g ov e r n i n g th e ch oic e
ofth e p o s itiv e s e n s e .
Th e c oor d in a t e s of th e orig i n a r e (0 E v e ry p oi n t on
'
th e a x i s of x h a s 0 a s i ts o r di na t e a n d th e s e a r e th e onl y ,
p o in t s o f t h e p l a n e f o r which thi s i s tr u e H e n ce t h e a x i s of
.
x is r ep res ented by th e equ a ti on
y 0 ( i , ) a x s ofx .
Si m il a rl y th e a x i s ofy
,
i s r e p r e s en t e d by th e e qu a ti on
a x i s ofy
x 0 ( , ) .
Th e ax es d iv i d e th e p l an e i n t o fou r r e gi on s cal l ed qu a dr a n ts ,
.
Th e firs t qu a d r a n t i s th e r e gi on in cl u d e d b e tw e en th e p os itiv e
a x i s of x a n d th e p o s itiv e a x i s of y ; th e s econ d qu a d r a nt th e ,
r e gi on b e tw een th e p ositi v e a x i s of y an d th e n eg a tiv e ax i s of

x ; e tc I t i s cl ea r tha t th e c o or d in a t e s of a p oin t i n th e fir s t
.
qu ad ran t a r e b oth p os itiv e ; tha t a p o in t of th e s e c on d qu ad

ran t h a s i ts a b s ci s sa n e ga tiv e an d i ts or d i na t e p ositiv e ; e tc .
Th e sy s t e m of c o or d in a t e s j u s t d es crib ed i s kn own a s a sys

'
tem f
o r ecta ngu l a r or Ca rtes i a n coor d i na tes .
C O OR D I N AT E S . C UR VE S AN D E Q U ATIO N S 9
E X E R C IS ES
Th e s tu d e n t sh ou l d p r ovi d e hi m s e l f wi th s o m s q u a red e
p a p e r for w or k in g th ese a n d m a n y o f th e l a te r x r i s e s i n e e c
thi s b ook P a pe r r u l e d to c e n ti me te r s a nd s u bd ivid e d t m i l

. o
l i m e t e r s i s p r e fe r a b l e .
1 . P l ot th e f oll owin g p o n s, i t ta ki ng 1 c m . as th e un it
( )
a ( )
b () c
( ,
1
5
( ) (
d 1 , () e — 1, (f) ( 9 ,
(g) ( 0 ,
— 2% — 3 7, -
() (
f 4 ,
(j ) — 4, ( )
k ()
l 1 l ) ,
.
2 . D e t e r m i n e th e c oor d i na t e s o f th e p oi n t P i n F i
g . 1 wh en
1 in ta k e n
. is as th e u n it Of l e n gth ; a l s o wh e n 1 c m . i s th e
u n it ofl e n gth .
3 . Th e sa m e for th e p o n i t ma r k e d by th e p e ri od in
“
Fi g .
Pr oj ecti ons ofa Di rect ed Li ne Segment on -

th e Ax es . Le t
h th e c oor d in a t e s (x and P 2 ( x2 1, ,
be an y t wo
p i t
o n s o f th e p l a n e C on .
s i d e r th e d ir e ct e d l i n e se g
“
m en t P 1 P I t i s r e qu ir e d 2 .
to fi n d i t s p r oj e cti on s on th e
ax e s .
To do thi s ,
d ra w th e
br ok en l in e P l OP z . By In
t r od u cti on , 3, Th 1 th e.
,
Fla 3
p r oj e cti on s of thi s br ok en .
l in e On th e a x e s a r e th e
m P 1 3
He nc e ,
sa m e a s th o se Of th e d ir e ct g t
e d l i n e s e e n -
1 2 .
ta k in g fir s t th e p r oj e cti on s on th e a x i s ofx w e ha ve ,
P r oj P l O P rOj O P2
P r oj P 1 P 2
.
.
.
P r Oj . 0 P 1 + P PO j . O PQ .
a n ah
fr tl y se th i s rt r tt i o n, P2 ya) as
'
sh o e no a ,
W e sh all equ en u
b r evi at i on for P 2, wi th th e oord i n t c a es

B u t th e t e rms i n th e l a s t r
e x p e s s on i are by d efi niti on
a nd x2 . So
( )
1 P r oj P 1 P 2
. on x a x s-
i x2 x1 .
Si m il a r l y ,
( )
2 P r oj P 1 P 2
. on g
-
i
ax s
Th e p r oj e cti on s oi P I P 2 on tw o l in e s d ra wn p a ra l l e l
_ t o th e
ax e s a r e obvi ou sl y giv en by th e s a m e e x p r ess i on s .
EX E R C I S ES
1 P l ot P 1 P 2 w h en P I i s th e p oi nt (a ) of E x 1 ,
. 1 , and P2 .
D e t e r m in e th e p r oj e cti on s fr om th e f or e g oin g f or m u l as ,
is ( )
b .
a nd v e rify d ir e ctl y fr om th e fig u r e .
2 . Th e sa m e , w h en
i) P ] is ()
e an d P2 i s (f) ;
ii) P I is ()
c an d P2 i s ( )
d
iii) P I is ()
i an d P2 i s ()
l .
3 . i sta nce b etw een Two Poi nts . Le t th e p oin t s b e P ,,

1 th th e c oor d in a t es (x1 ,
an d ( P2 Thr ou gh P
x2 , gz) .
l
d ra w a l i n e p a r a l l el t o th e a x i s of x a n d thr ou gh P 2 a l in e ,
p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s of
y; l e t Q
m2 ) d en ot e th e p oi n t of in t e r se cti on o f
th e s e l in e s Th en by th e P y th a
.
,
g o r e a n Th eo r e m ,
( )
1 P 1 P2 2 = P 1 Q2 + QP 2 2
;
or
FIG . 4
( )
2 D 2
( )
2
x2 x1 +
wh e r e D d en ot e s th e di s t an c e b e tw een PI an d P2 . H en c e
I n th e y si s w
for e g oin g e hav e u sed H Q (a n d s i m il a rl y
a na l , ,
QP 2) i n tw o s en s es n a m el y i) a s th e l ength of th e or d ina ry
, ,
l
l in e se g m en t P Q ofE l e m en ta ry G eom e try ; ii a s th e a l g ebra ic

)
-
I
C ooR D I N ATE s CU R V ES AN D E Q U AT IO N S 11
.
r i
ex p ess on x 2 x f o r th e
p r oj e
1 cti on P Q o f t h e d ir e c te d l i
n l e
s e g m e n t P 1 P 2 on a r t o th e a x i s o f x
p a a l l e l S i n c e ho we v r .
, e
,
th e s e tw o n u mb e r s d iffe r a t m os t i n s ig n th ir q ua r s a re ,
e s e
e q u a l a n d h e n c e e q u a ti on 2 e q u iva l e n t t ti
, ( ) i s e
q u a on o
I n p a rtic u l a r P P 2 m a y b e p a ra l l e l to a n a x i s e t h i
, 1
g e a x s ,
. .
o fx H e r e y2
.
y a n d 3
( )
,
b e c om e s
,,
Th e s tu d e n t mu st n ot , h ow e v e r ha s til y i n fe r tha t
,
D £132
I t may b e tha t x2 x1 is ne ga tiv e ,

a nd th e n
D =
A s in gl e for mu l a which c ov e r s b oth ca s e s ca n be

r
te m s of th e a bs ol u te va l u e of I n tr od u cti o n
( .
,
2) as
( )
4 D = | x2
EX E R C IS ES
1 . F i n d th e d i s ta n c e s
b e tw e en th e fol l owi n g pa ir s o fpoi nts ,
e x p r e ss in g th e r e su l t c orr e ct to thr e e s ig n i fic a n t fig u r e s D ra w .
a fig u r e e a ch ti m e sh owi n g th e p o in t s a n d th e l i n e conn e ct i n g
,
th e m a n d v e rify th e r e su l t by a ct u a l m ea su r e m e nt
,
.
( ) (2 1 ) an d 2, ( )
b 7 , e) a nd ( ,
2
5
a ,
() (
c 1 3 , ) an d 2, ( )
d ( 7 ,
3 ) and ( ,
1 2
() (
e 4 ,
8) and
( ;
4 (f) 1 , 2) a nd 1,
2 . F i n d th e l en gth s of th e s id e s of th e tria n g l e wh os e ver
th e p o in t s 2, — 2, ( ,
4
tj
ce s a r e .
3 . H o w fa r a re th e v e rtic e s of th e tria n g l e i n q u e s ti on 2
fr om th e o rigin I
9“
Th e re i s no contradi cti on h ere o ,
r co nfli c t wi th th e o rd i n ry l w f
a a s o
a l ge b ra F o th . i g n lw y s a l l
r, e -
s a a for th e p os i t i ve sq u a re oo
c s r t th at ,
b e i ng t h e d e fin i t i on
~ oft h e sy m b ol ,
— a nd w e m us se e to i t i n a nt
y g i ve n
case th at w e fu l fil l th e con tract .

12 AN ALYT I C G E O M E TR Y
J4 . F in d th e l e n gth s o f th e d i a g ona l s of th e c on v ex qua d ri c
l a t e ra l wh os e ve rtic e s ar e th e p oi n t s (4 ( 1 3 , , ,
2,
4 . Sl am ofa Li ne . B y th e slop e , A, of a l i n e i s m ea n t th e
trigon om e tric tan g en t of th e an gl e , 0, which th e l i n e m a k e s
with th e p os i ti v e i
a x s o fx :
( )
1 A ta n 9 .
To fin d th e mp e of th e l in e ,
l et P I , with
c oor d ina t e s ( x 1
th e ,
a nd P 2 : tr m iti
(x2 g g ) b e th e e x ,
e e s
o f a n y d ir e ct e d l i n e se g m e n t P P 2 -
on th e l i n e Th en .
ta n 0 _ QP 2 _ 3/2
—
y1
,
FIQ 982 — 371
‘
01
_
3 A _ y2 y1 .
2 2 — 90 ,
in s t ea d of P P w e h a d ta k en i ts opp os it e P 2 P ” w e
I f, , ,
s h ou l d h a v e Obt a in e d for A th e v a u e
l (y 1 x2 ) B ut .
thi s i s e qu a l to th e va l u e of A giv en by Thu s A i s th e ,
s a m e wh e th e r th e l in e i s d ir e ct e d i n th e on e se n se or i n th e
,
»
o p p os it e s e n se H en c e w e thin k of A a s th e s l op e of th e l in e
.
with ou t r e ga r d to s en se .
Va r i a ti on of th e S l op e . C on s i d e r th e s l op e s , A, of d if
fe r en t
l in e s, L, thr ou gh
giv en p oi n t P Wh en L i s p a ra l l e l t o th e
a ,
.
a x i s of x , A h a s th e v a l u e z e r o Wh en L r ota t es a s s h own i n
.
th e fig u r e A b e c o m e s p o s itiv e a n d in cr e a s e s s t ea d i l y i n val u e
,
.
As L a pp r oa ch e s th e v e rtica l l in e L A b e c om e s v e ry l a rg e '
, ,
in cr ea s in g with ou t l i m it .
Wh en L p a s se s b e y on d L A chan g es s ign b e in g s til l nu

’
, ,
m e r i ca l l y l a rg e As L c on tinu e s t o r ota t e A in cr ea se s a l ge
.
,
br a i c a lly thr ou gh n e ga tiv e v a l u es F i n a l l y wh en L h a s a ga in

.
,
b e c om e p a ra l l el to th e a x i s ofx A h a s in cr ea s e d a l gebra ica l l y

,
thr ou gh a l l n e ga tiv e v a l u e s a n d b e c om e s a ga in z e r o .
C O OR D I N AT E S . C U R VE S AN D E Q U AT I ON S 13
Wh en L i s i n th e p o siti on of L 0 i s 9 0 a n d ta n 0 = A i s '
,
°
u n d e fi n e d th a t i s h a s n o v a l u e H en c e L h a s n o s l op e '
, , One
.
.
Oft en s ee s th e ex p r e ss i on :ta n 9 0 00 a n d i n a cc o r d a n c e with

°
, ,
it on e m ight writ e h e r e A 0 Thi s d oe s n ot m ea n tha t D h a s

, ,
z 0 .
a s l op e which i s i n fi n it e f infi n ity i s n ot a n u mbe r I t “ ”

, or , .
i s m e r e l y a br i e f a n d
s y m b ol ic w a o f d e sc ri b
y —1
i n g th e b e h a vi o r of A for
a l i n e L n ea r t o bu t n ot
, ,
c o i n ci d e n t w i th L ; it '
sa y s th a t f or su ch a l i n e
A i s n u m e ric a l l y v e ry
l a rg e ; a n d fu rth e r th a t ,
wh en th e l i n e L a p
r oa ch es L a s i ts l i m it
'
p ,
A i n cr e a s e s n u m e rica l l y
with ou t l i m it tha t i s
,
F G 6
, I .
in cr ea se s nu m e rica l l y b e
y on d a n y p r ea s sign e d nu m b e r a s or I a nd
, ,
s ta y s n u m e ric a l l y a b o v e it .
Th e An gl e I n m ea s u ri n g th e
g l e fr om on e l in e to a n an
oth e r i t i s essen ti a l fir s t o f a l l t o a gr e e on which d ir e cti on

, , ,
Of r ota ti on Sha l l b e c on s i d e r e d a s p osi ti v e W e sha l l ta k e .
a l w a y s a s th e p os i ti v e d ir e cti on of r ot a ti on th a t fr om th e p os i
tiv e a x i s ofx to th e p os itiv e a x i s ofg ; s o tha t th e a n gl e fr om

th e p os itiv e a x i s of x t o th e p os itiv e a x i s o f y i s an d
n ot
Th e c omp l e t e d efin iti on of 0 i s, th en ,

as f ol l ow s :The s l op e
a ngl e 0 fo a l i n e i s th e a ngl e f m th e p osi ti v e

ro a xi s f
o x to th e
d i r ecti on ofth e Th e r e a r e i n g en e ra l tw o p ositiv e v a l u e s

l i ne .
for 9 l ess th an if th e s m a l l e r ofth e m i s d en ot ed by 9 th e ,
o th e r i s 1 80 6
°
Which of th e se a n gl e s i s ch os en i s i m ma
.
te r i a l s in c e ta n (1 80 9 ) = ta n 0 ; thi s r e s u l t i s i n a gr e e m e n t
°
, .
with th e p r e vi ou s on e to th e e ffe ct tha t th e sl op e p e rta i n s to

,
th e u n d ir e ct e d l i n e with ou t r e g a r d to a s en se on it .
Th e s tu d en t sh ou l d ri e ty of l in es i n d ica tin g
n ow d ra w a va ,
for ea ch th e a n gl e 0 a n d a s su r e hi m se l f tha t th e d e d u cti on of

,
f or m u l a (3) h ol d s n ot m e r el y wh en th e qu an titi e s x2 x an d
, 1
y z y a1re
p o s itiv e b u t a l so wh e n o n e o r b,
o th a r e n e g a ti v e .
R i gh t H a n d ed
-
a nd Left H a nd ed Coor d i n a te S ys tems
-
. F or th e
ch oic e of a x e s in Fi g 1 , th e p os itiv e d ir e cti on for
. an gl e s is
c ou n t e r cl oc k wi se d ir e cti on B u t for
th e -
.
x s u ch a ch oic e a s i s in d ica t ed i n th e
p r es e n t fi g u r e — a ch oic e e qu a l l y l e i t i
g ,
mate it i s th e c l oc k wi s e s en s e which i s
,
p os iti v e .
Th e ab ov e f or m u l a s appl y t o e ith e r
Fl a , 7 sy s t e m of a x es Th e fir s t sy s t e m i s .
ca l l ed a r i gh t h a nd ed s y s t e m th e o th e r
-
, ,
a lefi h a n d ed sy s t e m W e s ha l l o r d in a ri l y u se a righ t h an d e d
.
-
s y s t em .
P RO B L EM . To dr aw a l i ne th r ou gh a gi v en p o i n t h a v i ng a
gi v en s l op eI n p ra ctic e ,
. thi s p r obl e m i s u su a l l y t o b e s ol v e d
on s qu a r e d p a p e r Th e . s ol u ti on wi l l b e su ffici en tl y c l ea r l y
in d ica t e d by a n e x a m p l e or tw o .
E xa mp l e 1 . To d ra w a l in e thr ou gh th e p oin t 2 , 3) h a v
i ng th e s l op e 4 4 .
P r o c ee d a l on g
ra ll el to th e x a x i s thr ou gh th e give n
th e p a -
p o i n t by a n y c on v e n i e n t d i s t a n c e a s 1 u n it t owa r d th e l e ft fi
“
, ,
Th e n go u p th e l in e thr ou gh thi s p oin t p a r a l l el to th e y ax i s ,

-
by 4 ti m e s th e for m e r d i s ta n c e — h e r e 4 u n it s Thu s a s e c , ,
.
,
on d p oi n t on th e d e s ir e d l i n e i s d e t e r m in e d a n d th e l i n e ca n ,
n ow b e d ra wn with a ru l e r .
I f th e giv en p oi n t l a y n ea r th e e d g e of th e p a p e r s o tha t ,
th e ab ov e c on s tru cti on i s in c on v e n i en t it wi l l d o j u s t a s w e l l ,
to p r o c e e d fr om th e fir s t p oin t t ow a r d th e r i gh t by 1 u n it an d ,
th en d own by fou r u n it s .
is Th e t
t wi ll
s u d en fol l o w th ese co ns tru cti on ste p s by t
s e p on a p i e ce
ofs qu are d p ape r .
oi nt of a Li ne Segment
-
Le t P I , with th e coor d i
.
e th e e x tr e m iti e s o f a l in e s e g
s ( 931 , yl ) , an d P2 (x 2 , y2
) b -
m en t . I t i s d e s ir e d t o fin d th e
(x2 , y2 )
c oord in a t e s ofth e p oin t P w h i ch
bi s e ct s P 1 P 2 .
Le t th e c o or d in a t e s of P b e
( x y ) ,
I t i s e vi d e n
. t th a t th e
d ir e ct e d l i n e s e g m e n t P I P i s -
e qu a l t o th e d ir e ct e d l in e s e g -
m en t P P 2 H e n c e th e p r oj e c .
ti on of P 1 P on th e ax i s of x or .
x x1 , mu s t e qu a l th e p r o j e cti on o fP P 2 on th a t a x i s or x 2 x ,
x x1 x2 x .
H en c e
C
Z?
“31 5
02
,
2
S i m il a r c on sid e ra ti on s a pp l y t o th e p r oj e cti on s on th e ax si
ofy, a n d c on se qu en tl y
2 .
W e h a v e thu s obta in e d th e fol l owi n g r e s u l t :The coor d i n a tes
(x,y) o fth e p oi n t P w h i ch b i s ects th e l i n e -

segm en t P 1P 2 are g i v en
by th e equ a ti ons :
( )
1
EX E R C IS ES
1 . D e t e r m i n e th e
c oor d i n a t e s of th e m i d p oi n t Of ea ch Of -
th e l i n e s e g m e n t s giv e n by t h e p a ir s o f p oi n t s i n E x 1
-
3 .
,
.
D ra w fig u r e s a n d ch e c k y ou r a n s w e r s .
w e F i n d th e m i d p oi n t s ofth e s i d e s o fth e tri a n gl e m e n ti on e d

.
-
i n Ex 2 3 a n d ch e c k by a fig u r e
.
, , .
3 D e t e r m in e th e c oor d i n a t e s of th e m i d p oin t of th e l i n e
.
-
j oin in g th e p oin t s (a b a ) an d (a b b) , ,
.
4 Sh ow tha t th e d i a g on a l s of th e p a ra l l e l o gra m of E x 4
. .
,
4 bi s e ct e a ch o th e r .
C O OR D I N AT E S . CUR VE S AN D E Q U AT I O N S 17
(f
I
6 . Di v i si on ofa Li ne Segment i n Any R ati ofi Le t it b e r e

-
“
qui r ed to fin d th e c oord i n a t es (x , y) of th e po i n t P which

d ivi d es th e l in e s e g m en t -
P 1P 2 i n an a rbitra ry ra ti o ,
ml /m2 z
’
r
P 1P m1
PP2 m2
O bvi ou s l y th e p r oj e cti on s o fP 1 P a n d P P 2 on th e ax s i of x
m u s t b e i n th e s a m e ra ti o, m l /m z, a n d h e n c e
a) x1 ml
932 x 7m ,
On s ol vin g thi s e qu a ti on for x, it is f ou n d tha t

x
5I
7732 131 “ '
5
77 1 1 0 2
m2 m1
Si m i l a r
c on s i d e ra ti on s a pp l i e d t o th e p r oj e cti on s on th e
,
a x i s of y l e a d t o th e c o rr e s p on d in g f o r m u l a f
,
o r y a n d thu s ,
th e c oor d i n a t e s o fP a r e s h own to b e th e f ol l owin g
7”s ‘
I
‘
771 1 932 m 2 3/1 m i yz
( )
1
m2 mi m2 mi
I f m1 an d mg qu a l th e s e for m u l a s r e d u c e to those of
5
are e ,
E x ter n a l D i vi s i on It i s al so i b l fin d i t P on
'
.
p o ss e to a p o n
th e in d efin it e s tra ight l in e thr ou gh P I an d P2 and l yi n g ou t s i d e

th e l in e se g m e n t P P 2 which m a k e s
-
1 ,
EP _ m1
,
P 2P m2
whe r e m l a n d m2 a r e any tw o une qu a l p o s itiv e nu m bers . H e re ,

x m1
(132 5
5m 2
at
Th i s p a ragraph m ay wel l be o m i tte d
‘
ti l l th e res l ts
u ar e n ee d e d in
la ter work .
TTh e i v
g en nu m b ers m g m ay b e p re ci se l y th e l e ngths P 1 P
m1 and
ge n e ral th e y r y pr p r r p tv y
and PP2 ; b ut i n a r e m e e l o o t i o n a l e s e c i e l t o
th em , i e h ey ar e
. .
t th es e l e n gth s , e a ch i m u l ti p li e d b y th e sa m e p o s i ti ve or
tv
n e ga i e n u m b e r .
On vin g thi s e qu a tion for x a n d th e c orr e s p on d in g on e

s ol for
y, w e fin d a s th e c o or d i n a t e s of th e p o i n t P th e fol l owin g
, ,
( )
2
m2
The p o n i t P is h e re
i d t o d ivi d e th e l in e P 1 P 2 exter n a lly i n
sa
th e ra ti o m / m2 ; a n d i n d i s tin cti on th e d ivi s i on i n th e e a r l i e r

1 , ,
ca se i s ca l l ed i nter na l d ivi si on B oth for m ul a s (1 ) a n d .

,
ca n b e wr itt e n i n th e f o r m (1 i fon e c a r e s t o c on s i d e r e x t e r n a l
)
d ivi si on a s r ep r e s en t e d by a n e ga tiv e r a ti o m m 2 w h e r e th e n , 1 , ,
~
on e o f th e n u m b e r s m m2 i s p os itiv e th e oth e r n e ga tiv e

l, , , .
EX E R C IS ES
F in d th e
c oor d ina t e s of th e p o in t on th e l in e se g m en t
5
1 .
-
j oin in g 1 2 ) with ( ,
4 ) whi ch i s twic e a s fa r fr om th e
,
fir s t p oin t a s fr om th e s e c on d D ra w th e figu r e a ccu ra t el y .
a n d v e rify .
2 Fin d th e p oi n t on th e l in e thr ou gh th e p oin t s giv en i n

.
th e p r e c e d i n g p r obl e m which i s ou t s i d e o f th e l in e se g m en t
,
-
b ou n d ed by th em a n d i s twic e a s fa r fr om th e fir s t p o in t a s
fr om th e s e c on d .
3 F i n d th e p oin t which d ivi d e s in t e rn a l l y th e l in e se g m e n t

.
-
b ou n d e d by th e p oin t s (3 8) a n d 6 2 ) i n th e r a ti o
,
an d ,
l i e s n e a r e r th e fir s t of th e s e p o in t s .
4 Th e sa m e q u e s ti on for e x t e rn a l d ivi s i on
. .
7 . Cu r ve Pl otti ng . Equ a ti onof a Cur v e . S in c e th e subj e ct

of gra p h s i s n ow v e ry g en e ral l y ta u ght i n th e s chool c ou r se
i n Al g e br a m os t st u d en t s wi l l a l r e a d y ha v e m e t s om e of th e
,
t op ic s tak en u p on th e f or e g oin g p a g e s a n d m or e ov e r th ey ,
wi l l ha ve p l ott ed nu m e r ou s S im p l e cu rv e s on s qu a r ed p a p e r
fr om gi v en e qu a ti on s Thu s i n pa rticul a r th ey wil l b e fa m i l
.
, ,
i a r with th e fa c t th a t a l l th e p o i n t s wh o s e c o or d in a t e s s a ti s fy
a l i nea r equ a ti on i e a n equa ti on ofth e fi r s t d egr e e l i k e
,
. .
,
( )
1 2x — 3y
C O OR D IN AT E S . C U R VE S AN D E Q U AT I ON S 19
li e on tra ight l in e th ou gh th e y m ay n ev e r hav e s een a

a s ,
for m a l pr oof .
A n u m b e r of p oi n t s wh os e c oor di n a t es s a ti s fy e q u a ti on
,
ca n b e d e t e r m in e d by givi n g t o x S i m l e v a l u e s c m ti g
p o p u n ,
th e c orr es p on d i n g v a l u e s of y fr om a n d th en l o tti n g t h
p e
p oin t s (x y) Thu s , .
if x 0, y 4 , an d i n t i s (0
th e p o ,
i fx = 1 , an d th e p oin t i s
if x 2, y 1, an d th e p oin t i s (2 ,
1)
if x 1, y 1, and th e p oi n t i s 1,
et c .
O f c ou r se , if it i s k n ow n th a t (1 ) r ep r e sen t s a s tra ight l ine ,
— i . thug a l l th e
e .
p o i n t s wh ose
c oor d in a t e s sa ti s fy (1 ) l i e on a
s tr a ight l i n e — i t i s su ff ici en t
,
t o d et e r m in e tw o p oin t s a s a b ov e ,
and th en t o d ra w th e l i n e
thr ou gh th em .
Thi s p r oc e s s of d e t e r m i n in g a
l a rg e n u m b e r Of p oi n t s wh os e
c oor di na t es sa ti s fy a giv en e qu a Fm , 9
ti on a n d th en p a s si n g a s m ooth
cu rv e thr ou gh th e m i s kn own a s “
p l o ttin g a c u rv e fr om i ts
e qu a ti on
”
.
Th e m a th emati ca l T fi ned
by a n e qu a ti on i n x a n d
cu r v e de
y con s i sts ofa l l th ose p oi n ts a n d on ly th os e p oi n ts w h os e cob r d i

’
n a tes , wh en s u bsti tu ted for x a nd y i n th e equ a ti on , sa ti sfy it .
Su p pose , for ex a m pl e, tha t th e e qu a ti on is
Q) y = fl o
Th e p oin t (2 ,
4 ) l ie s on th e cu rve d efi n e d by b e c au s e wh en ,
‘
it ti c G e om etry th e term c
I n An al y u rv e i n cl u d es s trai gh t l i nes as w
ell
as crook e d c rves u .
1 Th i s c rve i s s om eti m e call ed t h e

u s l ocu s of th e eq u a ti on .
x 1 s s et e q u al to 2 a nd y i s s et e q u al to 4 i n th e r esu l tin g
e qu ati on ,
4 4,
is tru e . W qu a ti on (2 ) i s s a ti sfi ed by th e c oor d ina te s of

e sa y , e
th e p oi n t (2 or th a t t h e
, p oi n t ( 2 4 ) l i es on th e c u r v e 2
( ) ,
O n th e o th e r h an d th e p oi n t , 1 for ex a m p l e d oes n ot , ,
l i e on th e c u rv e d efi n e d by F or if w e s e t x 1 an d ,
y 2 e
,
q u a ti on b e c o m es
Thi s i s n ot a tr u e e qu a ti on ; i . e . e qu a ti on (2 ) is ti sfi ed
n ot s a
by th e c oor d ina te s ofth e p oi n t 1, an d so thi s p oin t d oe s

n ot l i e on th e cu rv e
E qu a ti on f o a Cu r v e . A cu rv e m a y b eby s i m l
p e d etermi n ed
g e om e tric c on d iti on s ; a s for e x a m pl e tha t al l of i t s p oi n t s
, ,
b e a t a d i s ta n c e o f 2 u n it s fr o m th e origin Thi s i s a circl e .
with i ts c en t e r a t th e o rigin an d h a vin g a r a d iu s ofl en gth 2 .
I t i s ea s y t o s t a t e a n a l ytic a l l y th e c on d iti on which th e c oo r

d i n a te s of a n y p oi n t (x y) on th e circl e m u s t sa ti s fy
,
Si n c e .
by 3 th e d i sta n c e ofan y p oin t (x y) fr om th e origi n i s ,
th e c on d iti on tha t (x y) ,
be a p o m t o f th e cu rv e is c l ea rl y thi s ,
tha t
V5
3
2
y
?
y
or tha t
( )
3 x
2
y
2 4 .
E q u a ti on ( )
3 i s ca l l ed th e equ a ti on o fth e cu rv e in qu es ti on .
Th e e qu a ti on f
o a cu r v e is a n e qu a ti on in x a nd y w h i ch i s
s a tzf
s fi
e d by th e coor di na tes of ev er y p oi n t o f th e cu r ve, a n d by
th e co or d i n a tes ofn o oth er p oi n t .
In thi s b ook w e Shal l b e e n ga g e d for th e m ost p a rt i n fin d

i n g th e e qu a ti on s which r e p r e sen t th e s i m p l e r a n d m ore i m
p o rt a n t c u rv e s a n d i,
n d i s c o v e ri n g a n d p r ov in g fr om th e se ,
e qua ti on s p r op e rti e s ofth e c u r v e s

,
.
C O OR D I N AT E S . C U R VE S AN D E Q U AT I O N S 21
N e v e rth el es s , th e s tu d e n t Sh ou l d a t th e o u t s e t ha v e c l ea rl y
i n m in d th e fa ct tha t an
y e q u a ti on b e tw e e n x a n d l i k
y e ,
y = x 3
y = l og x , = si n x ,
, y
r ep r e sen t s a p e rfe ct l y d efi n it e m a th e m a ti ca l c u rv e which h e ,
ca n p l o t on p a p e r M or e ov e r h e i s i n a p os iti on to d e t e r m i n e
.
,
wh e th e r i n th e ca s e of a ch os en on e of th e s e c u rv e s a giv e n
, ,
p oi n t l i e s o n it H e wi l l fin d it d e s ira bl e to p l ot a fr e s h a fe w
.
s i m p l e c u rv e s a n d t o t e s t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o th e r m a tt e r s
,
t a k en u p i n thi s p a ra gr ap h by a n s w e ri n g th e qu es ti on s i n th e
f ol l owin g e x e rci s es .
EX ER C IS ES
1
-
Wha t doe s ea ch of th e fol l owi n g e qu a ti on s r e p r e s e n t ?

{
.
D aw a gr a p h i n ea ch c a s e .
=
— 0; () 2x
5 5
y e
A b) 2 a + 3 = 0 ; ( )
d 2 w + y = 0; / ( f)
x + 8y
P l ot th e fol l owin g cu rv e s on s qu a r e d pap e r .
2 .
Tak e 2 cm . or 1 in . as th e un it of l e n gth . U se a ta bl e of
s qu a r e s .
3 .
Tak e th e sa m e u n it a s i n qu e s ti on 2 an d u se a t a bl e of s q u a r e
r o ot s .
4 . Sh ow tha t wh en ,
on e of th e cu rv e s ofE x s 2 a n d 3 h a s
.
b e en p l ott ed fr om th e tabl e s ,
th e o th e r ca n b e p l ott e d fr o m
th e fir s t with ou t th e t abl es .
W or k th e c orr es p on d in g ex e rci se s for th e fol l o w i n g cu rv e s .
/
5y .
3
(E . 8 9
3
5
3
2
9 Pl o t th e cu rv e
10 8 10 93
fr om a tab l e ofl o ga rith m s for '
v a l u e s of x fr om 1 to 1 0 , ta kin g
1 cm . as th e un it .
10 . Which of th e s tra ight l in e s of E x 1 go . thr ou gh

o rigin
. 11 . S h ow tha t th e cu rv e
si u x
( )
a y
g oe s thr ou gh th e origin .
D o th e c u r v es
( ) y
b ta n x,
() c y c o s x,
g o thr ou gh th e o rigin
12 . D o th e fol l owi n g p oi t
n s li e on th e cu rv e
xy = 1 ?
— 1
( )
a ,
— 1) ( )
6 () e s
c ,
( )
d ‘
g
‘
i ( ) (2
e ) (f) ( O )
13 . F in d th e
qua ti on s ofth e f ol l owin g cu rv es
e .
( )
a T h e l i n e p a r a l l e l t o th e ax i s ofx a n d 8 u n it s a b ov e it .
( )
b T h e l i n e p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s of y a n d 1
% u n it s t o th e
l e ft of it .
( )
c T h e l in e bi se cti n g th e a n g l e b e tw ee n th e p o s itiv e a x i s
ofy a n d th e n e g a tiv e a x i s o fx .
( )
d T h e circ l e c e n t e r i n th e origin r a d i u s p
, , .
( )
e T h e circ l e c en t e r i n th e p oi n t ( 1
,
r a d iu s 3 ~
,
.
An s .
( x + (y f 9 .
8 . Poi nts of I nter secti on of Two Curv es . C on s i d e r , for ex
a mpl e , th e p r obl e m Of fi n d in g th e p o in t Of in t e r s e cti on of t h e
l in e s
L 2x — 3 y = 4,
L “
3x + 4y _ 11 .
(
L et y ) xl , 1 c oo r d i n a t
b e th e
e s o f thi s u n k n o wn p oi n t P I ,
.
An y p oin t P with th e c o or d in a t es (x y) which l i e s on L h a s

, , ,
x
i t s x a n d y sa ti s fyi n g th e fi r s t ofth e a b o v e e qu a ti ons H en c e .

,
i n p a rtic u l a r s in c e P l i e s on L x a n d y m u s t sa ti s fy th a t
, I , 1 1
e qu a ti on o r ,
( )
1 2 x1 — 3y 1 = 4 .
c oor d in a t e s of a s i n gl e p o i n t, or of s e v e a l r p o n si t ; but of
‘
i sol a ted a n d not v a r i abl e p o n s i t .
EX E R C IS ES
D e t e r m in e th e p oin t s ofi n te r s e cti on ofth e f oll owin g c u rv e s ;

C h e c k y ou r r e su l t s by p l ottin g th e c u r v e s a n d r e a d i n g ofi a s
a cc u ra t el y a s p o ss ibl e th e c oor d ina t es of th e p o i t
n s Of
i n t e r se cti on .
1 . Th e s tra ight l in e s (a ) an d
( )
d o fE x . 1, 7 .
Th e s tr a ight l in e s (c) an d ( )e o fE x . 1, 7 .
3 . Th e s tra ight l in e s ( e) and (f) o fE x . 1, 7 .
(9
27 - 4 5
17,
x +y = 3
w + y = 1 3,
2 2
= 6
5
xy .
I w2 + y2 = 2 ,
{
n a u se a -
4 1 44 .
I x2 + y
9 °
4m
[ y
— 1 An s ‘ 17 1
Sh ow tha t th e cu rv es
y = 10 g mw, w+ y = 1 ,
in t e r se ct i n th e p oin t (1 ,
Sh ow t h a t th e cu rv e s
x
2
+ y = 2 2
5,
3 x — 4y= 0
in t e r se ct i n t h e p o in t ( ,
4 an d a l so in 4,
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R I
1 . , S h ow th at i n t s (2 , ( 0
th e p o ( 1 3 1 3) , ,
are
ve rtic e s ofa n e q u i l a t e r a l t ri a n gl e .
th e tri an g l e with v e rtic e s i n th e p oi n t s (1 ,
i sos c el es right triangl e .

C O O R D I N AT E S . CUR VE S AN D E Q U AT I O N S 2 5
Sh o w tha t p oin t s
5
3 th e 1,
. -
( ,
4 a nd
3, ) are th e v e rtic e s o fa p a ra l l e l o gra m .
iv i t A B O with c o or d i n a t e s
5
4 G th e
'
en n 7,
.
p o s , ,
1 1
3 , ( ,
B y p r ovi n g th a t
AB + B O = A a
s h ow tha t thr e e p oin t s l i e on a l i n e

th e .
h ow th a t th e thr e e p oi n t s o f th e p r e vi ou s r b lem li e
p o
e by p r o v i n g th a t AB an d A C h a v e th e sa m e s l o e
’
5
p .
6 P r ov e th a t th e t w o p oin t s (
. 3) and 10 6 ) l i e on , ,
a l in e with th e o rigi n .
7 P r o v e th a t th e tw o p o in t s (x yl ) (x y ) l i e o n a l i n e
.
1, , 2, 2
wi th th e or i gI n wh e n a n d on l y wh e n the ir c oord in a te s a r e
, ,
r
p po o rti on a l
e rm in e th e p o in t on th e i
a x s of x which is equ i di s
th e t w o p o i n t s ( ,
3 2,
2) and 3, 2 ) are tw o v e rtic e s of a n e qu i l a t e ra l

ch c on ta in s withi n it th e origin wha t ,
are th e co
o r d i n a t es o f th e thir d v e rt e x
0 . I f (3 , 1
( , 5
) a re th i e e v e rtic e s
'
of a
f ou rth l i e s i n th e fifs t q u a d ra n t fin d
‘
a l l e l o gr a m and th e ,
th e c o or d i n a t e s o ft h e f o u rth An s ( 8
. .
,
,
1 12 I f P i s th e m i d p oi n t Of th e s e g m e n t P P a n d P an d
5
” -
1 2,
P I h a v e c o or d i n a t e s ( 8 3 ) r e s p e ctiv e l y wh a t a r e
, , ,
th e c oor d i n a t e s of P 2
12 I f P d ivi d es th e s e g m en t P I P 2 i n th e r a ti o 2 1 a n d P I
.
,
a n d P h a v e c o or d i n a t e s (3 8 ) a n d ( 1 1 2 ) r e s p e ctiv e l y d ete r
‘
, , ,
m i n e th e c o or d i n a t e s o fP 2 . An s (0 .
,
13 F in d th e r a ti o i n which th e p o i n t B of E x 4 d ivi d e s
.
.
th e s e g m e n t A O o f th a t e x e rci s An s 2 3
e . .
A p oin t with th e absci sSa6 l i e s o

‘
h e l i n e j oi n i n g t h e
14
t
f -
n d i t s Oi di nat e
f
'
tw o p oin t s (2 i
'
( 8 ,
F ,
.
AN ALYT I C GE O M E T R Y
Su gg e s ti on . D e t e r m in e th era ti o i n which th e p oin t d ivid e s
th e l in e s e g m en t b e tw e e n th e tw o giv en p o in t s
-
15
.
. P r ov e th a t th e su m o f th e s q u a r e s of th e d i s ta n c e s of
a n y p o i n t i n th e p l a n e of a giv e n r e ct a n g l e t o tw o O p p o s it e
v e rtic e s e qu a l s th e su m Of th e s qu a r e s ofth e d i s tan c e s fr om it

to th e tw o o th e r v e rtic e s .
Su gg e s ti on . C h oo se th e a x e s of c o o r d i n a t e s s k i l l f u l l y
.
16 . I fD i s th e m i d p o in t of th e s i d e B C Of a tri a n g l e AB C
-
p r o v e th a t
AB 2
AC 2
2 AD 2
2 BD 2
.
17 . S h ow tha t th e l in e s j oi ni n g th e m i d p oin t s of op p os i t e
-
s i d e s o fa qu a d ri l a t e r a l bi s e ct e a ch o th e r.
1 8 P r ov e tha t th e l in e s j oi n in g th e m i d p oin t s o f a d j a c e n t
.
-
s i d e s Of a qu a d ri l a t e r a l f o r m a p a r a l l e l o gr a m
.
19 . P r ov e th a t if th e d i a g on a l s ofa p a r a l l e l ogra m a r e e qu a l
,
th e p a ra l l el ogra m i s a r e c ta n g l e .
I f tw o m e d ia n s of a tri a n g l e a r e e q u a l s h o w th a t th e
,
tr I a n gl e i s i s os c e l e s
.
r
If: I.
C H A P TE R II
THE S TR AI GHT LI NE
of L ne i thr ou gh Tw o P oints . Le t P 1 :
( x 1, y1 )
( x2 , y2 ) b e tw o giv en p oin t s an d l e t it
, be r e qu ir e d to
fin d th e e qu a ti on of th e l in e thr ou gh
th e m .
Th e s l op e of th e l in e , by Ch . I,
4, i s
FIG . 1
Le t P , with th e c oor d in a t e s (x y) , ,
be an y p oin t on th e l i n e o th e r th a n PI . Th e n th e s l op e of
th e l i n e i s a l s o giv e n by
H en c e
— —
1 ll y1 _ y2 yi
( )
x x1 x2 x1
C on v e r s el y , ify) P :
(x ,
i t whiso se c
a ny
o o r d in a t es
p o n
s a ti s fy e qu a ti on thi s e qu a ti on th en sa y s tha t th e sl op e of
th e l in e P I P i s th e sa m e a s th e S l op e of th e l in e P P 2 a n d 1
h en c e tha t P l i e s on th e l in e P 1 P 2 .
A m o r e d e s irab l e f or m ofe qu a ti on ( 1 ) i s obta in e d by m u l ti

p l yi n g e a ch S i d e by (x W e th e n h a v e
931 3/ ll l
I
971 yr:
E qu a ti on (1 ) i s ti sfi
e d by t h e c o o r d i n a t es o fth o se p o in t s a n d
sa
on l y thos e p o in t s which l i e on th e l i n e P P ) C on se q u e n t l y 1 .
,
27
by Ch 1 , . 7 , (I ) i s th e equ a ti o n o fth e l i n e th r o u h
g th e tw o gi v en
p oi n ts .
E x a mp l e 1 . F in d th e e qu a ti on of th e l in e which p a s s e s
thr ou gh th e p o i n t s (1 ,
2) an d 3,
H er e
x1 = 1, yl
— 2 — 3, y2 = 4 .
By ( I ) th e e qu a ti on o f th e l in e i s
x — 1 _ y + 2
3 — 1 4 -
4 6
On cl ea rin g of fra c ti on s and r e d u cin g ,

th e e qu a ti on b e c om e s
3x 2y 1 0 .
Le t th e t
s u d en t s how tha t if (x 1 , , y1 ) h ad b e en ta k en a s
sa m e e q u a ti on w o u l d h a v e
3, 4) an d ( x2 , y2 ) as
( ,
1 th e
r e su l t e d .
E x a mp l e 2 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on Of th e l in e p a s s n i g thr ou gh
th e rigin a n d
o th e p o in t ( a ,
b) .
H e r e (xl , ,
0) and ( x2 , b) , an d ( )
I b e c om e s
“7
y, bx — ay = 0 .
a b
Li n es P a r a ll e l to th e Axes . I n d e d u cin g ( )
I w e ta citl y as
su m e d tha t
y2
—
.
y ¢
1 0 an d x1 ¢0;
for o th e rwi se we c oul d n ot ha v e d ivi d e d by th e se q u a n
titi e s .
I f y2 y 1
= 0 ,
th e l i n e i s p a r a l l e l t o th e ax s i of x .
,
I ts
e qu a ti on i s , th e n , ob vi ou s l y
2
( ) y vi
S i m il a r l y , if x2 x 1 0 , th e l i ne i s p a ra l l e l t o th e ax s ofi y
an d h as th e e qu a ti on
The se tw o sp e cia l ca ses ar e n ot in cl u d ed i n th e r e su l t em

THE S TR AI G HT L IN E 29
b od i e d i n qu a ti on ( I )
e . W e see, h o w e v e r tha t th e y , a re so
si m pl e , tha t th e y ca n b e d ea l t with d i r e c tl y fi “
E x a mp l e 3 F in d th e qu a ti on l in e pa s s i n g thro u gh
5) 5
. e o fth e
th e tw o p o n i ts ,
1 and ,
c fig r th t thi i r fr om
r
5 it i t t fr it
I t i s l ea th e u e a s l ne i s pa a l l el to th e
ax si of y and un s d s an om to th e
‘
le ft Acc r i g y b ci v ry i t
5c v r y v ry i t wh
. o d n l ,
th e a s s sa of e e p o n
it
5i
on is ; on e sel ,
e e p o n os e
ab ci s it Th r f r
s sa is q — l es on . e e o e, i ts e ua
ti is
5
on
x (I) 0 .
EX E R C IS ES I
D ra w th e f ol l owin g l i n e s and fin d th e ir e qu a ti on s .
1 Thr ou gh (1 1 ) a n d (3 Ans 3x 2y 1 0
5
. . .
, ,
2 Thr ou gh ( 3 ) a n d 8
5 5
, ,
.
3 Thr ou gh ) an d 2, An s x +2y 10 0
/
. . .
Thr ou gh th e o rigin a n d 1,
Thr ou gh th e o rigin a n d 2,
Thr ou gh (2 3) an d ,
4, An
s y . 3 0 .
it
It i s n ot ficu l
di f t torep l a ce (1) by an e qu a ti on w h i ch h old s i n al l
c a s es , n am e l y , th e fol l owi n g
( I '
) (9 2 91) ( x 5)
131 ( 932 931 ) (y 11 1 )
p rWe fe r eh o w ev e r t h e,
O ri gi n l f rm ( I ) F , ( I ) i s m r co m p t a o . or o e ac
a nd as i r t o r e m mb r a n d t h
e e Sp e i l c
e s n ot i n l d d i n i t
e ,
b t e c a ase c u e ar e es
h n d l d w i th o t
a e f rm l u a o u a .
I I n s b s ti t t i n g
u n m r i l v
u l es f ( x y )u n d ( x
e y )cai n
( )
I t h a u or 1, 1 a 2, ? ,
e
t d e nt wi ll d o well to b egi n wi th a fr m w rk ofth form

s u a e o e
x _ y
an d th e n fi l l i n a ch p l a ce i n wh i ch x occ rs n e t
e 1 u x ,
e a ch p l a ce i n w h i c h
v occ
l rs ; a n du s o n W h e n x oy i s n g a t
.
i ve l or l e ,
su b s ti t t e
u it first in
p a r e n th es e th us i f x
s 3 b egi n b y wri ti ng
, 1 ,
—3
)
( ,
0
p a r
a l l e l t o th e i
a x s of y .
p a r a l l e l to th e ax is o fx .
( ,
b a
) . An s . x y
( ,
0 b) .
a b
Poi nt and th e Sl ope Gi v en Le t i t b e r e qu ir e d to fi

. nd
i on o f th e l in e which p a s s e s thr ou gh a giv e n p oi n t
PI (
x1 , y1 ) and h as a giv en sl op e A ,
.
I fP :
( x y
) ,
be an y s e c on d p o in t on th e l in e ,
th e s l o p e o f th e
l in e wil l b e, by Ch I ,
. 4,
x — x
1
B u t th e s l o p e o f th e l in e i s giv en as A . H e n ce
or
( )
I I y y, A(x
Th e s tu d en t can n ow S h ow c on v e r s el y tha t a n y p o in t whose

, , ,
c oord ina t e s (x y) sa ti s fy ( I I ) l i e s on th e giv e n l in e H en c e

, , .
i s th e e q u a ti o n of th e l i n e p a s s in g thr ou gh th e giv en p o in t
( )
I I
‘
,
a n d h a vin g th e giv e n s l op e .
E x a mp l e F i n d th e qu a ti on l in e
which g o e s thr ou gh
5
. e ofth e
th e p o in t (2 3 ) a n d m a kes
,
an an gl e of 1 3 with th e p os i°
tiv e ax i s ofx .
H e re A ,
1 a n d (x 1, A
n d h e n c e by I
( )I , ,
th e
e qu a ti on o fth e li n e i s
y 3 1 (x 2)
(I? y 1 0 .
S l op e I n tercep t F or m fr q u e n t l y con v e n
'
-
o E
f q u a ti on I t i s e .
i e n t t o d e t e r m in e a l i n e by i t s s l op e A, a n d th e y c oor d ina t e -
ofth e po n i t in which it cu t s th e a x s ofyi .

to n e ith e r i i ts e qu a ti on i s o f th e for m (I ) 1 — an e qu a
a x s, , ,
ti on of th e fir s t d e gr ee i n x a n d y I f th e l i n e i s p a ra l l e l to .
h
t e a x i s o f x i t s e q u
, a ti on i s o f t h e f o r m y = y1
— a s p e c i a l ,
e qu a ti on of th e fir s t d e gr e e i n x a n d y i n which it h a pp e n s ,
tha t th e t e r m i n x i s l a ck in g Si m il a rl y if th e l in e i s pa ra l l el
.
,
to th e a x i s of y i ts e qu a ti on i s of th e f or m x
, x l — a n e qu a ,
ti on of th e fir s t d e gr e e which l a c k s th e t e r m i n y Gon s e .
qu en tl y w e can say :Th e equ a ti on ofevery s tra i gh t l i n e i s of th e

,
fir s t d egr ee i n x a nd y .
G iv en c on v e r s el y th e gen er a l e qu a t i on of th e fi r s t d egree i n
, ,
x a n d y n a m el y
,
( )
1 B y + O = Or '
wh e r e A B C , ,
a r e any thr e e c on s ta n t s ,
of which A an d B a re
n ot b oth z e r o th i s equ a ti on r ep r es en ts a l w a ys a s tr a i gh t l i ne .
Th e Ca se B ¢ 0 I n g en e ra l , B wil l
. n ot be r
z e o a nd we
ca n d ivi d e e qu a ti on (1 ) thr ou gh by it
and th en s ol v e for y
g x + y+
g
4 93 C
B B
B u t thi s e qu a ti on i s p r e ci s e l y oft h e f or m (I I I ) ,
2, wh e r e
A C
’
B B
'
Th e r e for e it r ep r e sen t s a s tra ight l i n e wh os e sl op e i s A/B

,
a n d wh ose in t e rc e p t on th e a x i s o fy I S C/ B .
Th e Ca se B 0 I f h ow e v e r B i s z e r o th e e qu a ti on ( 1 )
.
, , ,
b e c om e s
Ax C: 0 .
N ow , A cann ot b e z e r o S in c e th e c a se th a t b oth A a nd B a r e
,
z e r o w a s e x c l u d e d a t th e ou t se t W e can th e r e f or e d ivi d e by .
,
,
A an d th en s ol v e for x :
=
C
C
B
A
is I n d e a li n g w i h t e qu a ti on n ow and h e n cefo rth , we sh all al ways
as su m e th at A a nd B a r e n ot b ot h ze o r .
THE ST R AI G HT L IN E 33
Thi s i s i on of a s tra ight l i n e p a r a l l e l to th e

Of y if 0 7 5 ,
: C 0 it i s th e e q u a ti on o fthi s a x i s
, .
Thi s c om pl e t th e p r oof th a t e v ery e q u a ti on of th e

Q
d e gr e e r e p r e s e n t s a s tr a ight l i n e I n a c c o r d a n ce with .
r
p p o e rty s u ch a n ,e q u a ti on i s fr e q u e n t l y c a l l e d
a l i n ea r e q u a ti on .
E xa mp l e . Wh a t l i n e is r e p r e s e n t e d by th e
e qu a ti on
I fw e sol v e for y, w e Obt a in

y — 2 £IJ
1
3
.
F IG . 4
H e n c e th e qu a ti on r e p r e s en t s th e l i n e of
e
2 with i n t e rc e p t
,
1
1;
on th e a x i s of y . th e s e d a ta
m a y d r a w th e l i n e .
EX E R C IS ES
F in d th e p e s an d th e in t e rc e p t s on th e
sl o i
a x s of y o f th e
l in e s r e p r e s en t ed by th e f ol l owin g e qu a ti on s . D ra w th e l i n e s .
\ =
T
1 4x + 2y 2x — 1
y .
3 . 2 x — 5 y = 0 . x = 3 —
y .
F i n d th e s l op e s o fea ch o f th w i n g l in es .
7 . An s .
2 ° 2y
= y+1 2 = 3y
5 5
x . x .
9 . 3 — 2 x= y . x = y + 1 .
0 . 2x — 3y= 4 . bx + ay = ab .
4 . I nter c ep ts .
p r
I n th e p r gr a p h w e l e a r n ed to a a
p l o t th e l i n e r ep r e s en t e d by
a g i v e n e q u a ti on fr o m t h e v a l u e s ,
o f i t s s l op e a n d i t s i n t e rc e p t on th e a x i s o f y a s f ou n d fr o m ,
th e e qu a ti on I t i s o ft en S i m p l e r h ow e v e r i n th e c a se o f a
.
, ,
l i n e which cu t s th e a x e s i n t w o d i s ti n ct p oi n t s t o d e t e r m i n e ,
fr om th e e qu a ti on th e c oor d i na t e s ofth e se tw o p oin ts a n d th e n

to p l o t th e p oi n t s a n d d ra w th e l i n e thr ou gh th e m .
Th e p o n i t i t r cti on
of n e s e o fa l in e , for e x a m pl e,
2x
( )
1
with th e a x i s of x h a s i t s y c oo r d in a t e e qu a l to 0
-
C on s e .
qu en tl y to fin d th e
,
x c oo r d in a t e o f th e p o in t , w e h a v e b u t t o
-
se t y 0 i n th e e qu a ti on of th e l in e a n d s ol ve for x . In thi s
ca se we ha v e th en
, ,
2x + 4 = 0, x = — 2 .
Si m i l a r l y , th ec oo r d in a t e of th e p oint of in t e r se cti on of
x -
th e l i n e with th e a x i s o fy i s 0 a n d i t s y c oor d i na t e i s obta i n e d

,
-
by s e ttin g x 0 i n th e e qu a ti on of th e l in e a nd s ol vin g for y .
I n th e p r e s en t c a se thi s giv es
Th e p o n i t
i t r s e cti on of th e l in e (1 ) with th e ax es of
s of n e
c oor d ina t e s a r e th en ,
2 0 ) a n d (0 g
,
W e n ow p l ot th ese
, ,
p oin t s an d d ra w th e l in e thr ou gh th e m .
W e r e c ogn i z e th e n u m be r as th e
in t e rc e p t of th e l in e (1 ) on th e a x i s of y ;
th e n u m b e r 2 w e c a l l th e in t e rc e p t on
F 5 IG .
th e a x i s o f x W e h a v e p l ott e d th e l in e
th en by fi n d in g i t s in t e rc ep t s
.
.
,
I n g e n e r a l th e i n ter cep t of a l in e on th e a x i s o f x i s th e
,
x c oor d i n a t e o fth e p o in t i n which th e l i n e m e e t s th a t a x i s

-
Th e .
in t e rc ep t on th e a x i s of y i s s i m il a r l y d efi n e d Th e s e d efin i .
ti on s a d m it ofex t en s i on t o an y cu r v e Thu s th e circl e ofCh I .

,
.
,
7 h a s tw o i n t e rc ep t s on th e a x i s of x n a m el y
,
2 an d 2 , ,
.
An ax i s or a l i n e p a r a l l e l t o a n a x i s h a s n o in t e rc e p t on tha t
.
ax i s E v e ry oth e r l i n e h a s d e fin it e in t e rc e p t s on b oth a x es
.
,
a n d th e s e i n t e rc e t s d e t e r m in e th e s iti n o f t h e l in e u n l e ss
p p o o
th ey a r e b oth z e r o tha t i s u n l ess th e l in e g oe s thr ou gh th e

, ,
o rig i n .
EX E R C IS ES
D e t e r m in e th e in t e rc e p t s of th e f ol l owin g l in e s on ea ch of
th e c oord in a t e ax e s, so fa r as su ch in t e rc e t s e x i s t a n d d r a w
p ,
th e l in e s .
THE S T R AI G HT L I N E 3 5
5
2 x + 3y 6 . 2 33 3 O .
An s 3, 2 An s 1
5
. . . n on e ,
x 8 — y = 0 .
3x x = 0 .
4 . x + y= a .
2dx — 3 by = ab .
I ntercept For m ofth e E qu ati on of a Li ne . G iv e n a
iti on i s d e t e rm in e d by i ts in t e rc ep t s Le t th e
e p os .
in t e rc ep t on th e a x i s ofx b e a a n d l et tha t on th e a xi s of y b e
,
b. TO fin d th e e qu a ti on ofth e l i n e i n t e r m s ofa a n d b .
Si n c e on e p oin t on thi s l in e i s (a 0 ) a n d a s e c on d i s (0 b) , , ,
w e h av e by (I ) ,
1 , ,
x — a —
O
y
’
O— a b — O
IV
Onl y l in e s which in t e r se c t th e a x e s i n tw o p oin t s tha t a r e

d i s tin ct can h a v e th e ir e qu a ti on s writt e n i n thi s f o r m A l in e .
thr ou gh th e origin i s a n e x c ep ti on b e c au se on e or b oth i ts ,
in t e rc e p t s a r e z e r o an d d ivi si on by z e r o i s i m p os sib l e Al so a .
l in e p a ra l l e l to a n a x i s i s a n ex c e p ti on s in c e it h a s n o in t e r ,
c e p t on tha t a x i s .
EXE R C IS ES
F in d th e qu a ti on s ofth e f ol l owin g l in e s
5
e .
With i n te rc e p t s a n d 3 .
With in t e rc e p t s 2 g a n d 8 .
With i n t e rc e p t s a n d
4 Th e d i a g on a l s
. of a s qu a r e l i e a l on g th e c oor d ina t e a x e s ,
a n d th e ir l e n gth i s 2 u n it s F in d
. th e e qu a ti on s o f t h e f ou r
s i d e s p r od u c e d )
( .
Ans = 1 ; — = 1 —x —
y =
. x + y x y ;
trian g l e h a s i ts v e rtic e s a t th e p oin t s (0 2 , ,
D ra w th e tri a n g l e a n d fi n d th e e q u a ti on s of i t s s i d e s
(p r o d u c e d ) . U se f o r m u l a I V)
( wh e n p o ss ib l e , .
6 . A tri a n g l e h a s i ts v e rtic e s a t th e p oin t s ( a ( b O ) , , ,
( 0,
F in d th e e qu a ti on s Of th e s i d e s
(p r o d u c e d ) .
A l in e g oe s thr ou gh th e o rigin a n d th e m i d p oin t of th a t

5
7 .
-
s i d e o f th e tri a n g l e of E x which l i e s i n th e fir s t qu a d ra nt
. .
F i n d i ts e qu a ti on .
8 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on s o f th e l in e s thr ou gh th e o rigi n a n d
m i d p oin t s of th e s i d e s o f th e tri an gl e Of E x 6
-
. .
a nd Per p endic ul a r Li nes . P a r a l l el s . G iv en tw o

t o th e tha t b oth ha v e s l op e s Th e
i
ax s of y, s o .
l in es a r e p a ra ll e l if a n d onl y if th e y h a v e e qu a l s l op e s
, ,
F or .
,
if th e y a r e p a r a l l el th e ir s l op e a n gl e s a n d h en c e th eir S l op es
, , ,
a r e e qu a l ; a n d c on v e r s e l y .
TO fin d ti on in e thr ou gh
'
E xa mp l e 1 . th e e qu a of th e l th e
p oi t (1
n ,
2 ) p a ra l l el to th e l i n e
( )
1 3x
Th e s l op e o f th e l in e (1 ) i s Th e r e q u ir e d l in e h a s th e
s a m e s l op e a n d p a s s e s thr ou gh th e p o i nt 1
( B
, y ( )
I I ,
2,
i ts e qu a ti on is
y 2 ”
g( x
3x
I fth e g i v en l in e i s p a r a l l el to th e a x i s ofy it h a s n o mp e a n d ,
h e n c e th e m e thod ofE x a m p l e 1 i s i n a p p l ica bl e B u t th en th e .
r e qu ir e d l in e m u s t a l so b e p a ra l l e l to th e a x i s of y a n d i ts
e qu a ti on ca n b e writt e n d o w n d ir e ct l y F or e x a m p l e if th e .
,
giv en l in e i s 3 x 8 0 a n d th e r e i s r e qu ir e d th e l in e p a ra l l el
,
t o it p a s s in g thr ou gh th e p oin t it i s cl ea r tha t th e

r e q u ir e d l i n e i s a r a l l e l t t h e a x i s of y a n d 8 u ni t s t o th e l e ft
p o
of it a n d c on s e qu e n t l y h a s th e e q u a ti on x
,
8 or x 8 0 ,
.
P erp e ndi cu l a r s .G iv en tw o l in e s ob l iqu e t o th e a x e s S O th a t ,
b oth h av e Sl op es n e ithe r ofwhich i s z e r o Th e l in e s a r e p e r

,
.
THE S T R AI G HT L IN E 37
p e n d i cu lar if ,
an d on l y if the ir , s l op e s , AI a nd A2 , a re n ega ti ve
r e cip r oca l s of on e a n o th e r
1 1
2 , , A1 ¢ 0 , A2 ¢ 0
AI
.
( 2
F or , if th e l in e s ar e r p en d icu l a r on e o f th eir Sl o p e a n g l e s
p e , ,
91 and 02 , m a y b e t a k en a s 9 0 gr ea t e r tha n th e oth e r v i z

°
02
0
91 90 ,
an d h en c e
A2 t al l 02 ta n ( 1
6 90
0
) CO t 91
1
K1
C on v e r s e l y , if thi s l ast e qu a ti on i s va l i d th e s t e p s ,
ca n be
r e tra c e d and th e l i n es s h own t o b e p e r p en d ic u l a r to ea ch
o th e r .
E x a mp l e 2To find th e e qu a ti on of th e l i n e thr ou gh th e

.
p o i nt (1 2 e
) p p
,
r e n d ic u l a r t o th e l in e
Th e s l op e of (1 ) i s H en c e th e r e qu ir e d l i n e h a s th e sl op e
W e h a v e th e n t o fi n d th e e q u a ti on of th e l i n e thr ou gh
g .
, ,
th e p oin t (1 2 ) with S l op e
,
B y (I I ) § 2 thi s e q u a ti on i s , ,
( x
2 x + 3y — 8= O .
I fth e giv en l in e i s p a ra l l e l to a n ax i s it h a s n o sl op e or i ts ,
S l op e i s z e r o .I n e ith e r c a s e e qu a ti on (2 ) a n d th e m e th od o f
,
E x a m p l e 2 a r e i n a p p l ic ab l e B u t th e n th e r e qu ir e d l i n e m u s t
.
b e p a r a l l e l t o th e oth e r a x i s a n d it i s ea s y to writ e i t s e q u a ti on .
Su pp os e for e x a m p l e th a t th e giv e n l in e
, ,
i s 2 y
— 3 = 0 — a ,
l i n e p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s o fx a n d th a t th e r e q u ir e d l i n e p e r
,
e n di l r t o it i s t o g o thr ou gh th e p oi n t (3 Th e n thi s
p cu a ,
l i n e m u s t b e p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s o f y a n d a t a d i s t a n c e o f
3 u n it s t o t h e righ t o f it C on s e qu en t l y i t s e q u a ti on i s
.
,
x 3 0 .
Th e m e th od s of thi s p a ra gra p h a r e a p pl ica bl e to al l p r ob l e m s

in which it i s r e qu ir e d to fin d th e e q u a ti on of a l in e which
p a ss e s thr ou gh a giv e n p o i n t a n d i s p a r a l l e l o r e
p pr e n d ic u l a r,
, ,
to a giv en l i n e .
EX E R C IS ES
In ch ofth e fol l owin g ex e rci s e s fin d th e e qu a tion s of th e

ea
l in e s thr ou gh th e giv en p oi n t p a r a l l el a n d p e rp en d icu l a r to '
th e giv e n l i n e .
5
L i ne
0 4 x — 8y =
7 ‘
,
An s . x — 2
y
X 2 x — = 1 ( , )
0 0
5
.
y ,
7 3 + 13y 2
( ,
5
. x
3x + = 0,
5
y
5
i 2 x = 3, ( ,
An s .
y = 0; x + 2 = 0 .
— x = 0,
F in d th e qu a tion s O f th e titu d e s tria n gl e

'
al
5 5
8 . e of th e of
,
Ex . .
F in d th equ a tion s of th e p e rp en d icu l a r bi s e ct or s of th e

5 5
9 . e
S i d e s o f th e tri a n g l e of Ex ,
. .
10 Sh ow th a t th e e qu a ti on ofth e l in e thr ou gh th e p oi n t
.
( x1 y, ) p a r a
1 l l e l t o th e l i n e
( )
3 Ax By 0
Ax By Axl B yl .
11 . Sh o w th a t th e e qu a ti on of th e l in e thr ou gh th e p oin t
(x1 , e
p pr en d ic ul a r t o th e l i n e 3 Of E x 1 0 i s
( ) .
Bx Ay E xl Ayl .
7 .
g l e b etw een T w o Li n e s L e t LI . an d L2 b e tw o giv en
l in e s , wh ose sl op es a r e , r e sp e ctiv el y ,
’
A1 ta l l 01 , an d A2 ta n 92 .
To fin d th e an gl e , c ,t f m L
ro I to L2 .
Then L i s r i in cl in e d
5
I p a a ll e l to th e ax s of y, an d L2 i s at an
a n gl e of 4 itive i ce A2 : 1
5
of x ,
°
t o th e p o s ax s Si n . Gon se
qu e n t l y 1 ,
<) 13
°
EX E R C IS ES
In ea ch f ol l owin g ex e rci s e s d e t e r m i ne wh e the r th e

of th e
giv en l in e s a r e m u tu a l l y p a ra l l el or p e r p en d icu l a r a n d i n c a se ,
th e y a r e n e ith e r fin d th e a n g l e fr om th e fi r s t l in e to th e s e c on d
, .
x + 2y z 4
2x . 4x — 2y = 0 .
x — y = 1 ,
x + y = 2 .
6x — 3y
5 3x —
y = 0 ,
2 x + y == 0
2x + y
9 x — 3y = 5
8 2x — 3y = 1 , x
9 w + y = 0, = 0
-
10 . 2x 3x 4y — 1 = O .
11 . B y th e m e th od thi s p a r a gr a p h d e t e r m in e ea ch of th e
of
an gl e s Ofth e trian gl e wh ose s i d e s ha v e th e e qu a ti on s

x — 2y 2x + y 3x
C h e ck y ou r r esu l t s by a dd in g th e a n gl e s .
L I2 . P r ov e th a t if L I a n d L 2 a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by th e e qu a ti on s
o
Al x l B l y —l
- -
Azx By Cz 0,
5
ta n ( 1
A1 B 2
AI A4 2
A2 B 1
B 1B 2
Wha t can y ou sa y of LI an d L2 if A1 B 2 A2 B 1 = 0 ? I f
1 41 1 42 B 1E 2 0
c as e , we t k e th e ngl fr m L t o L as 0
a a e o 1 2
°
n ot a s 1 80 as is ncei v
co
ab l e . Hen e a ri ses th e Si gn 3 ( l ss th n
c e a or e q u al t o) i n t h e p l a c e i n
w h i ch i t tan d s i n th e d ou b l e i n e q u al i ty
s .
THE ST RAI G HT LIN E 41
13 . Sh o w th a t th e fo r m u l a o f E x 1 2 for ta n p i s v a l id ev e n . c
if on e o r b oth of th e l i n e s h a s n o Sl op e i e i s pa ra l l e l to th e ,
. .
ax s i Of y .
c
an e of a Poi nt fr om a Li ne . Le t P :
( x 1, be a
11
p oi n t an d l et
L Ax + B y + C
be a giv en l in e . To fin d th e d i s R u b y”
ta n c e D ofP fr om L
, ,
.
D r op a p e r p e n d icu l a r fr om P
o n th e a x i s Of x a n d d e n o t e th e ,
p o i n t i n w hi ch it c u t s L by
Q .
Th e a b s ci s sa of Q i s x D e n ot e 1 .
i ts o r di na t e by y Q Th en . FI G . 8
Q P = y1
_
yQ °
S in c e :
Q ( x 1, yQ) l ie s on L, i ts c oor d in a t e s sa ti sfy th e e q u a ti on
o fL ; thu s
S ol v in g thi s e qu a ti on for y , w e
Q
fin d
Ax1
‘
C
‘
B
H en c e
L e t 9 b e th e gl e Of L a n d f o r m th e p r odu ct QP cos 0
s l op e a n -
.
O n e or b oth of th e fa ct or s of thi s p r od u ct m a y b e n e ga tiv e ,
a cc o r di n g t o th e p os iti on s of P a n d L B u t a l w a y s th e
*
.
n u m e ric a l v a l u e ofth e p r od u ct i s e qu a l t o th e d i s t a n c e D
( )
2 D |QP c os dI .
Thi s is cl ea r in ca s e P an d L are s it u a t ed as in Fi g . 8;
at
Th e re ar e fou r ess nti l l y d i ff r t p o i ti on fo P nd L f
e a e en s s r a ,
or L may
have a p osi ti ve o r a n egati ve s l op e a n d P m a y li e o n t h e o n e
,
or on th e
oth er si d e ofL .
th e t
s u d en t shou ld d r a w th e o th e r ty p ical figu r e s and s h ow
tha t for th e m a l so (2 ) i s va l id
, , .
S in c e th e s 10 p e ofL i s
we hav e
2
0 1
”
s ec ta n 6
C on s e qu en t l y,
( )
3 co s 0 i
It i s i m m a t e rial which S ign i n (3 ) i s th e p r op e r on e

to us .
F or a cc o r d in g t o w e ha v e n ow t o m u l ti p l y t og e th e r th e
‘
v a l u e s of QP a n d co s 0 a s giv en by nd n d ta k e th e
( )
1, a a
n u m er i ca l v a l u e of th e
p r o d u ct T h e r e su l t i s th e d es ir e d
.
f or m u l a :
wh e r e ,
i n th e c on d f or m ul a tha t S ign
se ,
i s to b e ch ose n which
m a k e s th e right han d s id e p os itiv e
-
.
E x a mp l e . Th e d i s ta n c e Of th e p o in t (3 ,
2) fr o m th e l in e
3 113 4g 7 0
Th e d edu cti on f or mu l a (4 ) in v ol v e s d i y i si on by B a n d
of
h en c e ta cit l y a ssu m e s tha t B 0 t e tha t L i s n ot p a ra l l el to ,

. .
th e a x i s of y Th e for m u l a h ol d s h ow e v e r e v en wh e n L i s
.
, ,
p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s of
y F o r i n thi
. s c a se it i s c,
l e a r fr om a
figu r e tha t
D
an d ( )
4 r e d u c e s p r e ci se l y to thi s wh e n B 0 .
THE ST RAI G HT LIN E 43
EX E R C IS ES
In ea ch ofth e fir s t s e v en ex e rci ses fin d th e d i s ta n c e of th e

giv en p o i n t fr o m th e giv e n l i n e .
P oi n t Li n e
1 . 3x 4y 6 0 .
An s . 2g .
2 .
E1 6, 3x i c An s
5
y . . or
4 .
( ,
3 3x + = 0 .
2, 1 0 .
6 . O rigi n , x y 1 0 .
O rigin , 3x + 2y
F in d th e l e n gth s of th e al tit u d e s of th e tri an gl e with
th e p oin t s 2
( , ( ,
3 1,
ofa Tri angl e . Le t a trian g l e be giv en by m ea n s of
10 8 8
To fin d r
i ts a ea .
D r op a p e r p e n d icu l a r fr o m on e
o f th e v e r tic e s a s (x3 y3) ,
on th e , ,
o p o s it e s i d e Th e n th e r e qu ir e d
p .
a r ea i s
A % DE ,
FI G . 9
wh e r e D _ d e n ot e s th e l e n gth of
th e p e r p e n d icu l a r and E , th e l e n g th of th e s ide in qu es ti on .
B y Ch . I, 3, w e ha ve
E V6 02 370
2
D i s th e d i s t a n c e ( of ) fr o m th e l in e j o in i n g
x3 , y3
an d (
x2 , Th e e qu a ti on of thi s l in e a s giv en by (I ) ,
1 , m ay b e u t in t o th e f o r m
p
012 (
902
W
931 x i yz “
i “
0
C on s e qu e n t l y , by 8, w e fin d
A i 2[ ( y2 90 933
( 932 931
) y3 9321
91 ]
‘
Th e r e su l t may b e writt en m or e s y mm e trica ll y in e ith e r of
th e form s
( )
1 A 21 :EKG 1 / 97
9 33 (932 a3s
) yl ( x3
( )
2 A it 2[ ( y1 3 2
2
973
“
I
”
( 92 19 9 931 (9 3
wh e r e i n e a ch c a se tha t S ign i s to b e ch osen which ma k e s th e
r ight h a n d s i d e os itiv
p e
-
.
EX E R C IS ES
F in d th e r
a ea of th e tri an gl e wh ose ve rtic e s are i n th e
p o n i t
s
1) 2)
3, 2,
( , ( , ( ,
5g
3 . 1 2 0
J
F i n d th e a r ea of th e tria n gl e W h ose sid e s 11 a l on th e l ines

—
y = Q x +y= Q 2 x + y
x + y x x — 2y
i
6 . F in d th e a r ea o f th e c on v ex qu a d ril a t e ra l wh ose v e rtic e s

a r e i n th e p o in t s 1, 3,
7 Wha t d o for m u l a s (1 ) a n d (2 ) b e c om e wh en on e
. of th e
v e rtic e s sa y (x3,
i s i n th e o rig i n
,
An s A j:%< x 1 y2 .
10 . Gener al Theor y of Pa r all el s a nd Per p endi cul ar s . I den

ti cal Li nes .
*
Th e l i ne thr ou gh th e p o i n t (x 1 , y1 ) p a a ll erl to
th e l in e °
( )
1 Am + B y C,
h a s th e e qu a ti on ,
a cc or d in g to 6 , E x 1 0, .
Ax By Ax l B yl .
Th e d i scuss i on i n th e r
cl as s— oom ofth e s u b e c s j t tr t d i n th i n d th
ea e s a e
w
foll o i ng p a ragraph m ay well b e p ostp on ed un ti l th n d f th m ri
e ee or e a s es .
THE ST RAI G HT LIN E 4 5
Thi s e qu a ti on is o fth e f or m
i ce
s n th e c on s tan t Ax1 + B y1 m a y b e d e n ot e d by th e i gl e
S n
l e tt e r C ’
.
C on v e r se l y , qu a ti on s (1 ) a n d
e for C C a l wa y s r e p r e
’
,
s en t p a ral l el l in e s F or if B ¢ 0 th e l in e s h a v e th e s a m e
.
, ,
S l op e ,
A/ B ; i f B = 0 A c a n n ot b e z e r o a n d th e l i n e s a r e
.
, ,
p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s o fy a n d h e n c e t o ea ch o th e r .
THEOREM 1 . Tw o l i n es a re p a r a ll el w h e n a nd on ly w h en th e i r
or m s
equ a ti on s ca n b e w r i tten i n th e f ( )
1 d w h er e C C ’
a n
Th e l in e thr ou gh th e p o n i t (x l , y l ) , p e r pend ic u l a r t o th e
l in e h as th e e qu a ti on 6, E x . 11)
Bx Ay B x1 Ayl ,
and thi s e qu a ti on is o f th e f or m
( )
3 Bx Ay C ’
.
Let th e t t S h ow c on v e r s e l y tha t e qu a ti on s (1 )
s u d en , , and
( )
3
a l w a y s r e p r e s e n t p er pen d icu l a r l i n e s .
THEOREM 2 . Tw o l i n es a re p e rp en d i cu l a r w h en a nd on ly
w h en th ei r e q u a ti o n s ca n be w r i tten i n th e for m s ( )
1 a nd
Th e e qu a ti on s of tw o p a ra l l e l l in e s ca n a lwa y s be writt en
i n th e f or m s (1 ) and B u t th ey n e ed n ot b e so written .
Thu s th e l in es ,
2 x — — 1,
y
6 x 3y 2,
are p r
a a l l eth ou gh th e e qu a ti on s a r e n ot i n th e f or m s (1 ) a n d
l ,
Th e c oeffici en t s of th e t e r m s i n x a n d y a r e n ot r es p e c
ti v e l y e qu a l Th ey a e h w v r p r p rti
. r o e e o o o
,
n a l : — 1 — 3 ,
.
Thi s c on d iti on h ol d s i n a l l c a se s F or th e tw o l ine s .
L1 A1 33 B 1y 01 0,
L2 Azm i B 2y i 0 2“ " " "

Or
w e m ay t t
s a e th e th e or e m
46 AN ALY TI C G E O M E TR Y
THEOREM 3 . The l i nes L I a nd L2 are p a r a ll el i fa n d only if
A1 3 A2 = B 1 3 B 2 .
F or , L I a nd L2 ar e p a a l r
l e l if a nd on l y if th e gl e 4;
an be
twe en th e m ,
as d efi n e d i h ro ; b u t 7, i s ze 7 , a cc o r d i n g to
'
,
Ex . 12, p,
( or b e tt e r tan i s z e r o whe n a n d on l y w h en
, ,
A1 B 2 A2 B 1 0 .B u t thi s e qu a ti on i s e qu iv al e n t to th e p r o
po rti on AI A2 B, B2 .
bta i n
i
As a c
s e on d c on s e qu e n c e of 7 , Ex 12 , we
. o th e fol
l owin g
the or e m .
THEOREM 4 Th e . l i ne s L I a nd L2 a re p erp end i cu l a r if a nd

on l y if
4 41 1 42 Bl O .
I d en ti ca l L i n es Tw o e qu a ti on s d o n ot ha v e to be i d en tica l l y
.
th e sa m e in o r d e r t o r ep r e s e n t th e sa m e l i n e F or e x a m p l e .
,
th e e qu a ti on s ,
2 C
E y + 1 0,
6 x 3y 3 0,
sa m e l ne Th e c orr e sp on d in g c on s tan t s in
[ i
e qu a l ,
but th ey ar e r
p po o rti on a l . W e ha v e ,
or , what a m ou n t s to th e sa m e thin g ,
2 :
T hi s c on d iti on i s g en e ra l W for m u l a t e it th eor e m
5
. e as a
THEOREM Th e li nes L I
. and L2 a re i d enti ca l i fa n d only if
A1 :
A2 = B 1 :
B2 CI :
C2 ,
F or , L I an d L2 ar e th e sa m e l in ewh en a n d onl y wh en th ey
h av e th e sa m e sl op e an d th e sa m e i n t e rc ep t on th e a x i s ofy ,
tha t i s wh en an d on l y wh en
,
A1 A2 01 02
’
RI B B1 B2
O r, i n a s i ngl e cas e , t
i d e n i c al . C f Th
. .
By 1 0, Th . 2 , th e d e s ir e d e qu a ti on can be writt en i n th e
f or m
( )
3 Ex Ay o, '
wh e r e C i s to b e d e te r m in ed by a pp l yin g th e fu rth e r c on d iti on .
Thi s c on d ition d oes n ot a l wa y s h av e to b e tha t th e l in e '
sh ou l d g o thr ou gh a giv e n p oi n t I t m a y b e a n y s in gl e c on .
d iti on n ot a fie cti n g th e sl op e Of th e l in e which it s ee m s d e

, ,
s ir a b l e t o a pp l y W e giv e a n ex amp l e i l l u s tra tin g th e m e th od

.
i n su ch a ca se .
E xa mp l e . TO find th e e qu a tion of th e l i n e p e r p e n d ic ul a r to
y 4: O
an d cu ttin g fr om th e fir s t qu ad ra n t a trian gl e wh ose a r ea is 16 .
E q u a ti on (3) ma y i n thi s ca s e b e w ritt en a s

, ,
( )
4 x 2
+ y = k .
W e ar e t o d e t e r m in e It so th a t th e l in e
cu t s fr om th e fir s t ( )
4
qu a d ran t a trian gl e ofa r ea 1 6 Th e in t e rc e pt s Of th e l in e (4 )
.
a r e k and o a n d h en c e th e a r ea o f th e tri a n g l e i n qu e s ti on i s
y ,
A cc or d i n g l y 1 6 nd k 8 B u t th e l in e c u t s
i h % k
2 2
. a , j , ; .
th e fir s t qu a d ra n t on l y if k i s p os itiv e an d s o w e m u s t ha v e ,
I: 8
'
Th e e qu a ti on Of th e d e s ir e d l in e i s th en
.
, ,
2 — 8 = O
x + y .
E X E RC IS E S
1 . Wor k E x s 1 —4 8 9 Of 6 by thi s m e th od
.
, ,
.
Th e r e a r e tw o l ine s pa ra l l el to th e l in e
X 2 .
‘’
x 2y C 1
a
n d f or m in g with th e c o o r d in a t e a x e s tri a n g l e s Of a r ea 9 .
F i n d th e ir e qu a ti on s .
'
3 F i n d th e e qu a ti ons Of th e l in e s p a r a l l el to th e l i ne o f
.
E x 2 a n d 3 u n it s d i s ta n t fr om it
. .
Su gg e s ti on Writ e th e e qu ati on of th e r e qu ir ed l in e i n th e
.
for m (2 ) a n d d e m an d th a t th e d i s ta n c e fr om it Of a ch os e n
p oin t Of th e giv en l in e b e 3 .
THE S T R AI G HT L IN E
F i n d th e e qu a ti on s Of th e l ine s l l r
l to t h e l ine
5
p a a e
x 12 y 3 O
a nd 2 un it s d i s ta n t fr om rigi n th e o
5Th e sa m e a s E x 2 if th e l ine s a r e to b e
.
. .
, pe
r p en d i cu l a r ,
p a ra l l e l to th e giv e n l i n e
, .
sa m e a s E x 4 if th e l i n e s a r e t o b e e r p e n d ic u l a r
p
.
,
,
p a r a l l e l to th e giv en l i n e
, .
A l i n e i s p a r a l l e l t o th e l i n e 3 x 2y 6 O, a nd for m s
a n g l e i n th e fir s t q u a d r a n t with th e l i n e s
,
x — 2y= 0 and 2 x — y = 0,
wh o se a r e a i s 21 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on Of th e l i n e .
An s . 3x 2y 28 = O .
E X E R C IS E S O N C HAP TE R II
1 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e l in e wh os e in t e rc ep t s a re twic e
th os e Of th e l in e 2 x 3 y 6 O .
2 F in d t h e equ a ti on o f th e l in e h a vin g th e s a m e in t e rc e p t
.
on th e a x i s o fx a s th e l in e V3 x i g with
'
y 3 0 b u t m a k n ,
tha t a x i s h a l f th e a n g l e .
3 F in d th e e qu a ti on Of th e l in e j oi n in g th e p oi n t ( 7 — 2 )
.
wit h tha t p oin t Of th e l in e 2 x y :8 wh ose o r d in a t e i s 2 z .
e
p p r e n d ic u l a r fr o m th e o rig i n m e e t s a l i n e i n th e p o i n t
Wha t i s th e e qu a ti on Of th e l in e .
Th e c oor d in a t es ofth e f oot Of th e p e r p en d i cu l a r d r opp e d x
th e o rigi n on a l in e a r e ( a b) Sh ow th a t th e\e qu a ti on
,
.
e is
“
ax by a
2
b2
5
.
l in e thr ou gh th e p oin t ( ,
-
3 ) p e r p en d icu l a r t o a
m e e t s it i n th e p o in t F i n d th e e q u a ti on
l i ne .
7 . P r ov e
tha t th e l i n e with i n t erc e p t s 6 a n d 3 i s p e r p e n
d i cu l a r t o th e l i n e with i n t e rc e p t s 3 a n d 6 I s it a l s o p e r .
e n d i c l a r t o th e l in e with i n t e rc e p t s 3 an d 6
p u
5 0 AN ALYT I C GE O M E T R Y
8 . with in t e rc ep t s a a n d b i s p e r p en
P r ov e th a t th e l i n e
di cu l a r to th e l i n e with in t e rc e p t s b a n d
5
a
5
.
9 Sh o w tha t th e tw o p oin t s ( 2 ) a n d ( 6
. 1 ) su bt e n d a
, ,
r i ght a n g l e a t th e o rigi n .
P r o v e th a t th e tw o p om ts (x 1 y ) a n d (x2 y2 ) su bt en d a
, , , , ,
right a n g l e a t th e origin wh en a n d on l y wh en x 1 x2 + yrs/2 O

'
, , ,
11 D O th e p oin t s (6
. 1 ) an d ,
3 4 ) s u bt e n d a right ,
a n g l e a t th e p o i n t 4
( A t t h e p oi n t
,
4 ,
12 Giv e n th e tria n gl e wh o s e s i d e s l i e a l on g th e l in e s
.
,
x 2x —
y = 3 ,
x +y — 3 = O .
F in d th e c oor d in a t es Of th e v e rtic e s a n d th e e qu a ti on s of th e
l in es thr ou gh th e v e rtic e s p a ra l l el t o th e O p p os it e s id e s .
13 . Tw o s i d e s Of a p a ra l l el ogra m l i e a l on g th e l in es ,
2 x + 3y — 6 = O, 4x —
y = 4 .
A v e rt ex i s a t th e p oin t 2 ,
F i n d th e e qu a ti on s Of th e
o th e r t w o s i d e s r u ce d
(p o d ) .
14 O n e s i d e Of a r e cta n g l e l i e s a l on g th e l i n e ,
5
.
x + 4y — 9 = O .
A v e rt ex on thi s s id e i s a t th e p o in t ( 1 1 ) a n d a s e c on d v e rtex
,
is at
( ,
2 F i n d th e e qu a ti on s Of th e oth e r thr e e s i d e s
(p r o d u c e d )
5F
.
M
"
1 . o rwha t v a l u e Of A wi l l th e tw o l in e s ,
( )
a b e p a ra l l e l ? ( )
b b e p e r p e n d icu l a r
2 6 . F or wha t v a l u e ,
or va l u e s Of ,
m wi l l th e tw o l in e s ,
4x
( ) b
a e p a r a l l e l ?
( )
b b e p e r p en d icu l a r ?
F or wha t v a l u e of m wil l th e tw o e qu a ti on s
m+ y + 5
,
x = O ,
4x + my + 1 0 = 0 ,
r e p r e sen t th e sa m e l in e
lx ‘
1 1
r e p r e sen t th e sa m e l in e
19 . Th e e qu a ti on s Of th e s i d e s Of a c on v e x q u a d ri l a te ral a re
y = 4 , y = x, 2y = x .
F in d th e c oord in a t es o f th e v e rtic e s an d th e e qu a ti on s Of th e
d i a g on a l s . t
.
20 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on Of th e l in e thr ou gh th e p o n i t Of
i n t e r s e cti on Of th e l in e s
5
,
3x —
y
— 11 = O, 2x — 7 y = 11,
5 Y
an d ha vin g th e in t e rc ep t on th e ax s i Of y .
21 F in d th e e qu a ti on Of
. th e l in e thr ou gh th e p o in t of i n
te r secti on ofth e l in es
5
,
2x + y = 4 ,
3x
an d p e r p en d icu l a r to th e fir s t Of th e s e tw o l i n e s .
F in d th e d i s t an c e b e tw e en th e t w o p a ra l l e l l i n e s ,
Su gg e s ti on . F i n d th e d i s t a n c e Of a ch osen p o n i t o f th e fir s t
l in e fr om th e se c on d .
Let
Ax + B y + O = O an d
be any t w o p a ra l l e l l in e s . Sh o w tha t th e d i s ta n ce b e tw e en
th e m is
C
’
C
x/A + l
13 2
Th e r e a r e tw o p oi n t s on th e a x i s of x which a r e a t th e
'
i t
d s an e 4c fr o m th e l i n e 2 x 3 y 4 0 Wh a t a r e th e ir .
c oor d in a t e s
2 5F n d th e o o
.
i c r d i n a t e s Of th e p o i n t o n t h e a x i s Of y which
i s e qu i d i s t a n t fr om th e tw o p oi n t s (3 2 , ,
26 . Th e r e ar e tw o l in e s
thr ou gh th e p oin t ( 1 ,
ea ch
cu tti n m th e fir s t qu a d ran t a trian gl e wh ose a r ea i s 2?
sl op e s . Ans . 2 .
F in d th e equ a ti on Of th e l in e thr ou gh th e p oin t

su ch tha t thi s p oin t bi s e ct s th e p orti on of th e l in e b etw een
th e ax e s . An s . 7x 3y 42 0 .
28 . Th e origin l i e s on a c e rta in l in e a n d i s th e m i d p oin t Of

-
tha t p o rti o of th e l in e in t e rc e p t ed b e tw e en th e tw o l in es
5
,
3x —
y = 6,
qu a ti on Of
e th e l in e . An s . x 6y O .
Th e l i n e
3x — 8y + 5 = 0
g oe s thr ou gh th e p oin t (1 F i nd th e e q u a ti on Of th e l i n e
,
thr gh thi m i if g fr m
5 ( )
( )
2 ou s s a e p o n t t h e a n l e o,
t h e l i n e 1 t o
th e l in e (2 ) i s 4 An s l i x
°
y 6 o. .
30 F in d th e e qu a ti on s Of th e t w o l i n e s thr ou gh th e origin
.
mak in g wi th th e l i n e 2 x 3y O a n gl e s Of
C HAP TE R I I I
APP LI CATI ONS
1 . Certai n Gener al Methods . L i n es th r ou gh a P oi nt . In

m an y th e or e m s a nd p r ob l e m s Of P l an e G eom e try th e qu e s ti on
18 h ow tha t th r ee li nes p a ss th r ou gh a p oi n t P l an e G e om
to s .
e tr y a ffor d s h o w e v e r n o g en e r a l m e th od f
, , or d e a l in g with thi s
qu e s ti on E a ch n e w p r obl e m mu s t b e d i s cu s sed a s if it we r e
.
th e fir s t Of thi s c l a s s to b e c on si d e r e d .
An a l ytic G e om e try on th e oth e r h an d a ffor d s a u niv e r sa l

, ,
m e th od wh e r eby i n a n y gi v e n c a se th e qu e s ti on ca n b e s e tt l e d
, .
F or fr om th e d a t a Of th e p r ob l e m th e e qu a ti on of ea ch Of th e
, ,
l in e s ca n b e f ou n d Th e s e wi l l a l l b e l in ea r a nd can b e writ
.
,
t e n i n th e f o r m
L1 A1 93 By 01 0,
A2 5
!
L2 0 E zy 02 0,
L3 A3 5
1; B 3? 03 O
Th e c oo r d ina t e s Of p Of i i
n t e r se cti on Of tw o of th e s e
th e o nt
l i n es a s L I a n d L 2 c a n b e f ou n d by s ol v i n g th e c orr e s p on d i n g
, ,
e qu a ti on s r e g a r d e d a s s i mu l t a n e ou s f
,
or th e u n k n o wn qu a n ti ,
ti e s x an d y Let th e sol u ti on b e writt en a s

.
w = w,
'
y = y
’
.
Th e th i r d l i ne, L 3 , w i l l p a s s th r ou gh th i s p oi nt (
’
x , if a n d
onl if th e coor d i n a tes f th e l tte s a ti s fy th e equ a ti on o L
f 3;
y o a r
i . e .
i fa nd on ly if
A333 ,
B 3y
’
03 0 .
P oi n ts on a L i ne . A c
s e on d qu es ti on which p r e sen t s it sel f
in p r obl em s of P l an e G eom e try i s to d e t e r m i n e wh en th r ee
5
‘
3
p o i n ts li e on a s tra i gh t li ne . H e re , a ga i n ,
th e repl y of An al ytic
G e om e try i s m e th od ica l ive r sa l F r om th e d a ta Of
and u n . th e
p r ob l e m it wi ll b e p o ss ib l e i n a n y giv e n c a s e t o Ob ta i n th e
c oord in a te s ofth e thr e e p oi n t s Cal l th e m .
yo ) ( 372 ) y3) °
N o w , w e k n o w h o w to writ e d ow n th e
qu a ti on Of a l in e e
thr ou gh tw o Of th e m a s , (x 1 y1 ) a n d
, (x 2 y2 ) Thi s e q u a ti o
,n .
wi l l a l way s b e l i n ea r a nd ,
ca n b e writt en i n th e f or m
The th i r d p oi n t, w i ll l i e on th i s l i ne if a n d o n ly i f i ts
coor d i n a tes sa ti sf h e qu a ti o n o f h l i i ifa n d on ly if
‘’
y t e t e n e ; . e .
Ax3 + B y3 +
Th e stu d en t s h ou l d t e st h i s r t
u n d e s an d n i g Of th e for eg oing .
th eory by w or k in g E x s 1 — 6 a t . th e en d Of th e chap t e r .
2 . Th e M edi ans Tr i angl e W e r e cal l th e p r op ositi on

of a .
fr om P l an e G eom e try tha t th e med i a ns ofa tr i a ngl e meet i n a

,
p o i n t . T h e p r oo f th e r e
giv en i s s i m pl e p r ovi d e d,
on e r e m em b e r s th e con
s tr u cti on l i n es it i s d e s ir
a bl e to d r a w .B y m ean s ,
h owe v e r of Anal ytic G e

,
om e tr y w e ca n e s ta b l i s h
th e p pr o os i ti on n
,
o t by
a r ti fi ce s b u t by th e n a tu r a l
,
an d d ir e c t a pp l ic a ti on of
th e g en e ra l p ri n ci p l e e n u n
c i a te d i n th e p r e c e d in g A: (
p a r a gr a p h .
Th e fir st st ep c on s i sts i n
th e ch oic e of th e c oor d in a te a x e s Thi s ch oic e i s wh ol l y i n .
ou r h a n d s a n d w e m a k e i t i n su ch a w a y a s to s i m p l ify th e
,
c oord in a t e s Of th e giv en p oin t s Th u s c l ea rl y it wi l l b e w el l

'
.
, ,
56 i
L
“
AN ALY TI O
‘
GE O M E T R Y
On su b stitu tin g for x thi s e qu a ti on
in th e v al u e 2
3,
and for y
th e v al u e 2, we are l ed to th e e qu a ti on
a 2 — c= c
g+
Thi s is a tru e e qu a ti on a n d h en c e ,
th e thr ee l in e s L I , L2 , and
L 3 p a ss thr ou gh th e sa m e p oin t .
R ema r k . It h own by th e f or m u l a s Of Ch I § 6
ca n be s .
, ,
tha t th e a b ov e p o in t
(g )
2 tri se ct s ea ch Of th e m e d i a n s AA
'
‘
, ,
CC
' "
BB ,
an d .
EX E R C IS ES
1 .T a k in g th e sa m e tri an g l e a s b e fo r e ch oos e th e a x i s Of x ,
a l on g t h e s i d e AB b u t t a k e th e a x i s o f y thr ou gh A
,
Th e .
c oor d ina t e s Of th e v e rtic e s wil l th en b e
P r ov e th e th eor em for thi s trian gl e :

Th e v e rtic e s Of a tria n gl e l i e a t th e p oi n t s (0 ,
O) , 3 O
( , ),
P r ov e tha t th e m e d i an s m ee t i n a p oin t .
3 . Conti nu ati on . Th e Gener al Ca se . W e n ow p r o c e e d to

pr ov e th e th e or e m ofth e m e d i an s for any trian gl e ,
A B C . Le t
th e ax e s be ch osen as i n th e t ex t of 2 . Th en th e c oor d i n at e s
of A wil l be (a, wh e r e a m ay b e a ny n u m b e r wh a t e v e r ,
AP P L I C AT I ON S 5 7
p os itiv e n e ga tiv e or z e r o Th e c o or d in a t e s Of
, , . B wi l l be
wh e r e b m a y b e a ny nu mb e r d i s tin ct fr om a
b % a, a — b t fi
“
F i n a l l y , th e
c oor d in a t e s of C ca n b e writt e n a s (0 c) wh e r e c , ,
i s a n y p os itiv e n u m b e r .
N ex t fi n d th e c o or d i n a t e s Of A
, B O Th ey a r e a s shown '
,
'
,
'
.
i n th e figu r e .
Th e e qu a ti on Of L i s giv e n by C h I I (I ) wh e r e
1 .
, ,
(A. ui >= as . ( a s. a )
a — O
y
3
0
— 0
2
cx + (2 a — b) y = ac .
Th e e qu a ti on Of w or k e d ou t i n a s i m i l a r m ann e r
L2 ca n be .
B u t it i s n o t ne c e s sa ry t o r e p ea t th e s t e p s s in c e in t e rch a n gi n g ,
th e l e tt e r s a a n d b i n t erch a n g e s th e p oi n t s A a n d B a n d a l s o ,
’
A and B Thu s L I p a s s e s ov e r in t o L2 Hen c e th e e qu a ti on
’
. .
Of L2 i s
L2 cx + (2 b
Th e l in e L, i s d e t e r m i n e d by i ts i n t e rc e p t s § (a ,
b) a nd c ;
by Ch 1 1 ( I V) i ts e qu a ti on i s f ou n d to b e :
.
, ,
L3
TO fin d c oor d in a te s Of th e p oin t i n which LI an d

th e L2 i n
t er s e ct , s ol v e a s s i m u l t a n eou s th e e q u a ti on s Of L I a n d L 2
Th e r e su l t is
if
Th e figu re h as b ee n d r wn fo
a r th e c as e i n w h i ch a i s n ega i t ve a nd (1
t ve
p osi i .
AN AL Y T I C G E O METR Y
F in a l l y , t o s h o w tha t thi s p o n i t , l i es on L3 , su b
s ti t u t e i ts c oord in a t e s i n th e e qua tion o fL 3 ,
Sin c e th i s i s a tru e e qu a ti on th e p oin t l i e s on th e l i n e a n d w e

, ,
ha v e p r o v e d th e th e o r e m th a t th e m edi a ns of a tr i a ngl e p a s s
th r ou gh a p o i n t .
Th a t thi s p o in t tri s e ct s ea ch m ed ian ca n b e p r ov ed a s i n th e

s p e ci a l c a se Of th e p r e c e d in g p a ra gra p h by m e an s ofC h , . I, 6 .
Th e d e ta il s a r e l e ft to th e s tu d en t .
EX E R C IS E
P r ov e th e the or e m Of th e m ed ia n s by ta k in g th e c oor d ina t e

ax e s a s in th e fir s t ex e rci s e Of th e p r e c e d in g p a ra gra p h H e re .
,
th e v e rtic e s ar e
wh e r e a m ay b e any nu m ber n ot 0, b be r wh a t e v e r
a n y nu m ,
a nd c a n y p os itiv e n u m b e r D ra w . th e figu r e an d writ e i n th e

,
c oor d in a t e s Of e a ch p oin t u sed

‘
4 . Th e Al ti tu des of a Tr i angl e An othe r p r op os i ti on Of .
P l a n e G eom e try i s t h a t th e p erp en d i cu l a r s d ropp ed f

,
r om th e
v er ti ces o f a tr i a ngl e on th e op p os i te s i d es meet i n a p oi n t .
Th e p r oof Of th e p r op o s iti on by An a l ytic G eom e try i s d ir e ct

an d impl e
s . L e t u s b e gin with a n u m e rica l ca s e , ta ki n g th e
tri an gl e Of F i g 1 O n e Of th e p e r p en d icu l a r s i s then th e
. .
, ,
a x i s Of y a n d s o a l l th a t i s n e c es s a ry to s h ow i s th a t th e o th e r
,
tw o m e e t on thi s a x i s o r th a t th e x—c oor d in a t e o f th e ir p oin t

,
Of in t e r se cti on i s O .
Th e e qu a ti on Of th e l in e B 0 can b e writt en d o wn a t on c e i n
t e r m s Of i ts in t e r ce p t s
f
? 3 3 5+ 2 y = 1 2
13 .
AP P L I C AT I O N S 5 9
Th e sl op e of thi s l in e i s A g T h e s l o p e Of a n l i ne
y
.
e
p p r e n d i c u l a r to it i s A H e n c e th e e q u a ti on Of L , t h e
’
p e rp en d icu l a r which pa s s e s thr ou gh th e p oin t A : 2 O) i s , ,
In a s i m il a r m ann e r th e s tu d en t ca n Obta in th e e qu a ti on Of
th e p p d icul a r L 2 fr o m B on th e S i d e A C
r ’
e e n It i s .
,
L2 x + 3y — 4 =O .
On c o m p u tin g th e
c r d i na t e Of th e p o in t i n which L a n d
x— o o
I
L2 in t e r se ct it i s f ou n d th a t x
, O a n d h e n c e th e p r op os iti o n
,
i s es ta b l i s h ed for thi s tria n g l e .
R em a r k F or u se i n a l a t e r p r obl e m it i s n e c e s sa ry to
.
k n o w th e ex a ct p o in t i n which th e p e r p e n d icu l a r s m ee t It i s .
r ea d i l y sh own tha t thi s p o ni t is ( ,

0 g) .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . P r ov e t h e
b ov e p r op os iti on for th e Sp e ci al trian g l e c on
a
r e d ch o o s i n g th e c o or d i n a t e a x e s a s i n E x 1 Of 2
'
,
. .
P r o v e th e p r op os iti on for th e tri a n g l e Of E x 2 2 .

,
.
P r ov e th e p r op o s iti on for th e g e n e ra l c a se ch oo s i n g th e ,
ax es as i n Fi g 2 F ir s t S h o w th a t th e e q u a ti on Of th e p e r p e n
. .
d i cu l a r L I fr om A on B 0 i s
LI bx cy a b,
and tha t th e e qu a ti on Of r
th e p e p e n d icu l a r L fr om , B on AO i s
L2 ax cy ab .
Th en S h ow tha t th e s e l in e s i n t e r s e ct ea ch oth e r on th e ax s i
4 . S h ow th a t th e p o in t in which th e p e p e n d r ic u l a r s i n th e
p r e c e d in g q u e s ti on m eet i s
5P r. v e th e th e or e m Of th e a l titu d e s wh e n
o ,
th e ax es of
c oord in a t es a r e ta k en a s i n th e ex e rci s e Of 3 .
5T . h e Per p end i cu l a r Bi sector s of Tri angl e
th e Si des of a .
I t i s Sh own i n P l a n e G e om e try tha t th e s e l i n e s m ee t i n a
p o in t S
. in c e th e s t u d e n t i s n ow i n f u l l p o s s e s s i on Of th e
m e th od e m p l oy e d i n An a l ytic G e o m e try fo r th e p r oo f Of thi s

th eor e m h e wi ll fin d it a l t og e th e r p o s s ibl e to w or k ou t tha t
,
p r oo f with ou t f u rth e r s u gg e s ti on L e t h i m b e gi
. n with t h e
s p e ci a l tri a n gl e Of F i g 1 H e wi l l fi
. . n d th a t th e e qu a ti on s Of
th e p e rp e n d icu l a r bi se ct o r s Of th e s i d e s a r e th e f ol l owi n g :
2 x
x + 3y -
8 = O;
Th e s e l in e s a r e th en Sh own to m ee t i n th e p o in t (1 g) ,
.
H e can w or k fu rth e r s p e ci a l e x a m p l e s c o rr e s p on d in g to th e
e x e rci se s a t th e en d Of 2 if thi s s e e m s d e sir a b l e ;
F in a l l y l e t h i m w o r k o u t th e p r oof for th e g en e r a l ca s e ta k
, ,
i n g th e c oo r d in a t e a x e s as i n F i g 2 Th e thr e e l in e s wil l b e
. .
fou nd to hav e th e e qu a ti on s
LI bx % (
2
cy b
L2 %(
2
“ 93 03
1 a
5 0
i0
16
Th ey m ee t i n th e p o in t
EX E R C IS E
G i v e th e p r oof wh en th e ax es Of c oo rd ina t e s are t a k en as in

th e ex e rci s e of 3 .
6 .Th ree Poi nts on a Li ne Th e f or e g oi n g thr ee p r op os iti on s

.
a b ou t tri an gl e s h a v e l e d t o thr ee p o in t s n a m el y th e thr e e ,

,
,
p o i n t s Of i n t e r s e cti on Of th e thr e e l in e s i n th e va ri ou s c a s e s .
I n th e ca s e of th e s p e ci a l tri a n g l e Of F i g 1 th e s e p o i n t s a r e
‘
.
.
,
37
-
; ( ,
1 -
i)
AP P L I C AT I O N S 61
Th es e p oi n ts l i e on a s tr a i gh t l i n e Le t th e s tu d e n t tr y to
.
r o v e thi s th e o r e m by P l a n e G e o m e tr
p y .
Th e p r oof by An a l ytic G e om e try i s giv e n i m me d ia te l y a s a

d ir e ct a pp l ica ti on Of th e s e c on d Of th e g e n e r a l p ri n ci p l e s e nu n
c i a t e d i n th e o p e n i n g p a ra gra h Of th e ch a t e r
p p .
t it e d own th e e q u a ti on of th e l i n e thr ou gh tw o Of th e se
p o i n t s s
,
a y thr o u gh th e fir s t a n d t hi r d
, I t i s f ou n be .
3x Ar
Th e c o or di na t e s Of th e se c on d i t
po n ,
—
Zl R,
a r e s e en to sa ti sfy thi s e q u a ti on ,
and th e p r op ositi on i s p r o v ed .
EX E R C IS ES
1 P r o v e th e p r op os iti on for th e
. g e n e r a l c a se ( F i g . Th e
o in t s h a v e b e e n f ou n d t o b e
p
2 O n p l ottin g th e
. thr e e p oi n t s Obt a in ed i n th e S p e cial ca s e
di s cu s s e d i n th e t e x t
it i s Ob s e rv ed tha t th e l in e s e g m en t d e -
t er m i n e d by th e ex tr e m e p oi n t s i s d ivi d e d by th e i n t e r m e d i
l
a t e p oin t in th e r a ti o Of P r ov e thi s a n a l y tic a l l y I s it .
tru e i n g en e ra l ?
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R III
P r ov e tha t thr e e l i n e s
5
1 . th e ,
2 x — 3y — = O, 3x + 4y — 1 6 = O, 4x
go thr ou gh a p oin t .
2 P r ov e th a t th e thr e e l in e s
.
,
b = 1, bx = 1, — = 0
ax + y + y
a x y ,
gO thr ou gh a p oin t .
P r ov e th a t th e thr e e o n i t s (4 1, an d
3 . p
3) l i e l i ne
( ,
2 on a .
4 . P r ov e tha t th e thr e e p o n s i t ( a, b) , ( ,
b a
) ,
a nd
a, 2a b) l i e on a l in e
5F i
.
. nd th e c on d iti on tha t th e thr e e l in e s ,
—
bx + a y = 2 a b, 3x — =
2 y _O,
wh e r e a
2
qu a l t o b m e e t i n a p o i n t
is n ot e 2
,
.
6 F in d th e c on d iti on th a t th e thr e e p oi n t s (a b) ( b
.
, , ,
a n d (2 a b) wh e r e a i s n ot e qu a l to b l i e on a l in e
, , .
LI NE S THROU G H A P O I N T
Sh ow at th e l i n e d r a w n
thr ou gh th e m i d p oin t s Of th e -
r a tr a p e z o i d p a s ses thr ou gh th e p oi n t Of i n t e r
'
p a a l l e l S
Sid e s .
Sh o w th a t i n a tr a p e z oi d th e d i a g on a l s a n d th e l i n e
,
.
thr ou gh th e m i d p oin t s Of th e pa ra l l el s id e s m e e t i n a
-
A right tr i an gl e h a s i ts v e rtic e s A B a n d 0 i n th e p oin t s , ,
( 0 ,
an d
( O O) T h e p o in t s A
,
.
( 4 4 ) a n d B 3
’
,
’
,
ar e ma rke d P r ov e tha t th e l in e s A B B A a n d th e p e r
.
'
,
’
,
n d i cu l a r fr om 0 on th e hy p oth e n u se m ee t i n a o i n t
p e p .
G e n e r a l i z a ti on Of E x G i v e n a right tri a n gl e AB O
10 .
( .
with th e right a n gl e a t 0 O n th e p e r p en d icul ar t o GA i n .
th e p o in t A m ea s u r e O f fth e d i s tan c e AA e qu a l to GA i n th e ’
, ,
d ir e cti on a wa y fr om th e hy p o th e nu se I n a s i m il a r fa s hi on .
m a r k th e p oi n t B on th e p e r p e n d icu l a r to OB i n B s o th a t
’
,
P r ov e th at th e l i n e s AB B A a n d th e p e r p en
’
OB
’ ’
BB .
, ,
d i cul a r fr om O on th e hy p o th e n u se m e e t i n a p oin t .
11 . L e t P b e a n y p oi n t (a a ) O f th e l i n e x y :,
0 o th e r ,
than th e o rigin Thr ou gh P d ra w tw o l in e s Of a rbitra ry sl op e s

.
,
A1 a n d A2 i n t e r s e ct i n g th e x a x i s i n AI a n d A2 a n d th e y a x i s
,
- -
i n B 1 a n d B 2 r e s p e ctiv el y P r ov e tha t th e l i n e s A1 B 2 a n d
.
A2 B 1 wi l l i n g e n e ra l m ee t on th e l in e x + y = 0
, , .
12 . I f on th e thr e e S i d e s Of a tri a n gl e a s d ia g on a l s p a ra l
l el ogr a m s h a v i n g th e ir S i d e s p a ra l l e l to tw o gi v en l in e s a r e
, ,
20 . Le t 0 b e th e f o ot
titu d e fr om th e v e rt ex C of
of th e al
th e tri a n g l e AB C on th e s i d e AB Th en th e fee t Of th e p e r .
,
e n d i cu l a r s fr o m O on th e s i d e s B C a n d A C a n d on th e o th e r
p
t w o a l tit u d es l i e on a l i n e .
P r ov e thi s th e o r e m for th e tri an g l e AB C with v e rtic es i n

'
th e p oin t s (1 O) ,
4 O) (O
, , , ,
21 .P r ov e th e th e o r e m Of th e p r e c e d in g ex e rci s e for th e
trian gl e with v e rtic e s i n th e p oin t s (a O) (b O) (0 c) I t , , , , ,
.
wil l b e f ou n d tha t
of
2
a
2 ? l
(1 4-
0 (f
are th e c oor d in a t e s of th e f ou r p o n s i t which are to l i e on a
l in e , a n d th a t
(
c a b) x + (a b c
)y a bc
i s th e e qu a ti on Of th e l in e .
C HA P TE R I V
THE CI R CLE
1 . E qu ati on of th e Ci r cl e . Acc or d in g to C h . I, 7 , th e
e qu a ti on o ft h e circ l e wh ose c en t e r is at th e o rigi n ,
a nd whose
ra d i u s IS
p ,
1 8
1
( ) w +y2= P
2 2
In p rae ci se l y s i m i l a r m a n n e r th e e q u a ti on Of ,
a circ l e with
i t s c en t e r a t a n a rbitr a ry p oi n t
C:
y
( a 8 ),
Of
,
t h e pl an e t h e l e n gth ,
Of th e ra d iu s b e i n g d en ot ed by p i s ,
f ou n d to b e
2
( ) ( ) (y B) ? ?
a? a p
E x a mp l e . F in d th e e qu a ti on Of
th e circl e wh os e c en t e r i s a t th e Fm , 1
p o i n t g a n d wh os e r a d i u s
,
is
H er e a , g, 8 O a nd
p , ,
H en c e , fr o m (2 )
( 9
9 s
2 2
w 3 y
Thi s e qu a ti on be i m p l ifi e d f ol l o w s
‘
ca n S as
or , fi n al l y ,
EX E R C IS ES
F ind th e e qu a ti on s of th e f ol l ow i n g circ l e s a n d r e d u c e ,
th e
r e su l t s to th eir S i m p l e s t for m D ra w th e figu r e ea ch ti me .
.
1 .C en t e r a t (4 r a d iu s 3
, ,
.
A ns . x 2
+y
2 — 8x
C en e t r O ra d i u s 2 An s 2 2 4y O
( ,
5
2 . at ,
. . x y .
6
AN ALYT I C G E O M E TR Y
C en t e r at 3 , O) ; r a d iu s 3 ,
.
C en te r at ( ,
2 r a d iu s 8 ,
.
Cen t e r at
( ,
0 g) r a d iu s
5
,
Ce n te r at
( ,
3 ra d iu s
5
.
,
C en t e r at ,
r a d iu s 1 3 ,
.
t r
C en e at
(l
, g) r a d iu s 2 ,
.
C en t er at — 5
I g,
r ad iu s ,
Cen te r at ( a, O) ; r a d i u s a ,
.
C en t e r at
(0 ,
a ; rad iu s a
) ,
.
C en t e r at ( a ,
a ; r a d i u s a \/
) 2, .
2 . A Second F orm ofth e Equ ati on . E qu a ti on 2

( ) of 1 ca n
be e x p a n d ed a s f ol l o w s
— 2 — 2 =
By +
2 ? 2
x +y ax a + B
2 — 2
p 0 .
Thi s e qu a ti on is Of th e for m
1
( )
Le t us see wh e th e r c on v e r s e l y
, , e qu a ti on ( 1 ) al wa y s r ep r e
t
s en s a circl e .
E x a mp l e 1 . D e t e r m in e th e cu r v e r
r e p e s en edt by th e
e qua ti on
( )
2 + y + 2x
2 2
x
W e ca n r e writ e thi s e qu a ti on as fol l ows

( f
w 2 w 2
(v i — 6 31 — 6
Th e fir s t p ar en th e si s b ecom e s a p e rfe ct s qu a r e if 1 i s a dd e d ;
th e s e c on d if 9 i s a d d e d
,
TO k ee p th e e qu a ti on tru e th ese
.
,
nu m b e r s m u st b e a d d e d a l so to th e r ight h a n d s i d e Thu s -
.
Thi s e qu a tion
i s p r e ci sel y Of th e f or m 1, whe r e
a — 1
, B
= 3 , p
= 2 I t th e r ef or e r e p r e sen t s
. a cir c l e wh ose
c en t e r i s a t 1, a n d wh ose r a d i u s i s 2 .
THE C I R C LE 67
E x a mp l e 2 . Wha t c u rv e is r e p r e se n t ed by th e e q ua t i on
( )
3
It i s cl e a r tha t no p o ni t
i t wh ose c oor d i na t e s s a ti s fy thi s
ex s s
e qu a ti on F or x 2 a n d y2 ca n n e v e r b e n e ga tiv e
.
, Th e ir l ea s t .
va l u e s a r e 0 — n a m e l y for th e o rigi n (0 O) — a nd e ve n fo r
, , , , ,
thi s p oin t th e l e ft ha n d S i d e ofth e e qu a ti on h a s th e v a l u e 1

,
-
H en ce, th e r e i s n o cu r v e cor r esp on d i n

g to equ a ti on
E xa mp l e 3 . D i s c u s s th e e qu a ti on
( )
4 + y +2x
2 7
x
E vi d e n t l y , thi s e qu a ti on ca n be writt e n i n th e for m

5
( ) (5 0
(31 0
Th e c oor d in a t es Of th e p oin t 1 2 ) s a ti s fy th e e q u a ti on , .
B u t fo r a n y o th e r p oi n t (x y) a t l ea s t on e Of th e q u a n titi e s
, , , ,
x 1 an d y 2 i s n ot z e ro a n d th e l e ft h a n d s i d e Of th e e q u a
, ,
-
ti on i s p ositiv e Th u s th e p oin t . 1 2 ) i s t h e o n l y p oi n t ,
wh o s e c oor d in a t es sa ti s fy th e e qu a ti on H ence equ a ti on (4 ) .
rep r es en ts a s i ngl e p ai nt 1,
R em a r k . E qu a ti on 5
( ) ca n be r e ga r d e d as th e l i m iti n g ca se
Of th e e qu a tion
( 1 ) + (y
2 i
a? p ,
wh en p a pp r oa ch e s th e l i m it 0 Thi s e qu a ti on r e p r e sen t s a .
circl e Of r a d i u s p for a l l p os itiv e va l u es Of p Wh en p a p .
e circ l e S hrin k s d ow n t o w a r d th e p oi n t
5
p r oa c h e s O th ,
1 2 ) ,
a S i t s l i m it Acc or d in g l y e qu a ti on ( ) i s s om e ti m e s S p ok e n
.
,
Of a s r ep r e s en ti n g a circl e Of z e r o r a d iu s or a n u l l ci r cl e .
Th e G en er a l Ca s e . It i s n owc l ea r h o w to p r o c e ed i n th e
g en e r a l c a s e i n o r d e r t o
,.
d e t e r m in e wh a t c u rv e e q u a ti on ( 1 )
r epr e sen t s Th e e qu a ti on
. ca n b e writt e n i n th e f o r m
( +
w 2
Ax + + By + :B
l -
Z
) = C+ i A + i t
BZ
A + B
2 f—
4 (J
4
I f th e right ha n d s i d e
-
i s p os itiv e , i . e . if
A 2
B 2 40 0,
th e n e q u a ti on (1 ) r ep r e s e n t s a circ l e whos e c en te r ,
is at th e
p oin t A a n d wh os e r a d i u s i s
4 E )
B ,
I f,h ow e v e r A B ,
4C 2
0 th en e qu a ti on (1 ) r e p r e s e n t s
2
,
j u s t on e p oin t n a m el y A — O I if on e r f r
% % )
B e s a
‘
, p e , , , ,
,
circl e Of z e r o ra d iu s or a nu l l circ l e .
F in a l l y wh en A
,
2
B 2 4C 0 th e r e a r e n o p oin t s wh os e ,
c oord in a t e s sa ti s fy TO su m u p th en ,
E qu a ti on ( )
1 r ep res en ts a c i r cl e, a s i n gl e p oi n t, or th er e i s n o
p oi n t w h os e coor d i n a tes sa ti s fy a ccor d i n g a s th e exp r es s i on
A 2
B 2
4C
i s p os i ti ve, z ero , o r n ega ti ve .
C on s i d e r , m o r e g e n e ra l l y ,
th e e qu a ti on
( )
6
I fa 0 , bu t b a n d c a r e n ot b oth 0 , th e e qu a ti on r e p r e s en t s
a s tra ight l in e .
I f h owev e r a
,
0 th e e qu a ti on ca n
, ,
b e d ivi d e d thr ou gh by
a, a n d it thu s t a k e s on th e f o r m :
a a
Thi s i s p r e ci sel y th e f or m Of e qu a ti on and h en c e th e a b ov e

d i s cu s s i on i s a pp l ic a b l e t o it .
EX E R C IS ES
D e t e r m in e wha tf ol l o win g e qu a ti on s r e p r e sen t Ap p l y

th e .
ea ch ti m e th e m eth od Of c o m p l e ti n g th e s q u a r e a n d e x a m i n in g
th e right h a n d s i d e Of th e n e w e qu a ti on
-
D O n ot m e r e l y s u b .
s ti tu te n u m e rica l v a l u e s i n th e f o r m u l a s d e v e l op e d i n th e t e x t .
THE C I R C LE
2
+ y + 6x 2
8y = 0
5with c
x -
An s . A c irc l e ra d iu s, , ente r a t 3 ,
x
2
y
2
6 x + 4y + 13 O . An s . Th e p oi n t (3 ,
? ?
x
y 2 x 4y 6 O
. Ans . N O p oi n t wh a t e v e r .
‘
2
5
y
-
28
2
y
2 7 93 : .
7 ‘
z
x +y
7 . 49 x
‘
3
49 y
'
2
l 4x 28y 5 O .
An s . Th e po n i t ( 79 3 ,
2 ax
?
?
x y .
2
2 ay
“
2
x
y
9
x + y
? —
6 ax
‘
?
+ y + 4 ax 8 by
2
16b
‘
x 2
1 53 2
+ 3y
2
55
. x
2
16 . x + y
7 . 3x + 3y 2
L e t th e circl e
2 2 2
$ y P
be giv en ,
an d l et P 1 :
(x 1, y 1 ) be an y circ l e . TO
fin d . th e e qu a ti on Of th e ta n g en t
at PI .
Th e t an g en t by E l e at PI i s,
m e n t a ry G e om e try p e r p en d icu l a r to ,
th e r a d i us O P } H ence i t s S l op e
,
.
,
A i s th e n e g a tiv e r e ci p r o c a l Of th e
’
,
s l op e ,
/ of 0
3
yl xl ,
1 1 ; or
F IG . 2
wi sh the r e f or e to fin d th e e qu a ti on of th e l in e wh ich
W e , ,
p a s se s thr ou gh th e p oi n t
(x y1 ) a n d h a s th e s l op e A
/
x 1 y1 1,
’
.
B y Ch I I 2 (I I ) th e e qu a ti on ofthi s l in e i s
.
, , ,
ll yi
— fi(x — x1
) .
311
ca n be s i m p l ifi ed by m u l ti pl yin g thr ou gh by
O Si n g :
“31 17 5 yl y 5I9
131
2 “ “
1
2
°
th e p oi n t (xl , y1 ) i s, by hy p oth esi s on th e circ l e ; h en c e ,
ts c oo r d i n a t e s sa ti s fy th e e q u a ti on
( )
1 Of th e circ l e
2 2
“71
P
Th e right h an d s i d e Of e qu a ti on (3 ) ca n th e r e for e b e r e p l a c ed
-
, ,
by th e s i mp l e r e x p r es s i on p 2
,
.
W e thu s Obta i n a s th e fi n a l fo r m Of th e e q u a ti on Of th e
,
ta n g en t th e fol l owin g
,
( )
4 5
“ 1 33
P
2
0
thi s e qu a ti on it w a s ta citl y a s su m ed t ha t y, 0
I n d e d u cin g ,
s i n c e o th e rwi se w e c ou l d n o t h a v e d ivi d e d by it i n Obta i n in g
A ’
.Th e fi n a l for mu l a i s t ru e h o w e v e r e v e n wh e n y,
, O , , ,
a s ca n b e d ir e ct l y v e rifi e d F or if y, th
0 a n d x1 p e n
.
( )
4 , ,
b e c om e s
2
P 93 9 w p»
and thi s i s th e e qu a ti on Of th e ta n g en t i nth e p o n t i (p ,
Si m i l a r l y wh e n y1 ,
0 a n d x1 p .
Any C i r cl e . I f th e giv en circ l e is r e p r e sen t ed by th e

qu a ti on
5
e
( ) ( w
r ci l y h m r i g Th e e qu a ti on
i
5
p e s e t e s a e e a s on n ca n be a pp l e d .
Of th e ta n g en t to ( ) a t th e p oin t P1 :
(x 1 y1
) Of th
,
a t circ l e i s
thu s fou n d to b e
( )
6 m
( l — u
) (m —
B) (y B) = p2
Th e p r oof i s l e ft to th e s t u d en t as a n ex e rci se .
2x + 2y
2 2 — 3x — y = i l at
'
F i n d th e in t e rc e p t s i Of x ma d e by th e ta n g en t
5)
8 . on th e ax s
,
12 to
x
2
y
2
1 69 . An s . 33 4
.
9 . F i n d th e r
a ea o f th e trian gl e cu t fr om th e fir s t qu a d ra n t
th e ta n g en t at to
3x 2
3y 2
8x 16y 30 .
I fth e e qu a ti on
r e p r e sen t s a circl e a n d if th e p oin t (x 1 y1) l i e s on th e circ l e

, , ,
S h o w th a t th e e qu a ti on O f th e t a n g e n t a t thi s p oi n t ca n b e
'
M wi h
writt en i n th e f or m : ” “
t
( )
9
Su gg es ti on . F in d th e
val u e s Of a B an d p for th e circl e , , ,
s u b s ti tu t e th e m i n a n d s i m p l ify th e r esu l t .
11 . D O E x s 6 a n d 7 u s in g f o r m u l a
.
,
Ex 10 . .
12 . Th e sa m e for th e tan g en t to th e circl e i n E x 9 . .
Sh ow th a t i fP I (x y1 ) i s a n y p oi n t ofth e circl e
'
13 .
, l,
at which th e tan g en t i s n ot p a ra l l el t o th e ax s i of y, th en th e
s l op e Of th e t an g en t a t P I i s
2 x1 + A
2 y1 + B
4 Ci rcl e through Thr ee

. Poi nts . It i s h own i n E l em en ta ry
S
G eom e try tha t

circl e can be p a s sed
a thr ou gh an y thr ee p oin t s
n ot l yin g i n a s tr a ight l in e .
I f th e p o in t s a r e ( x yl ) (x 2 ye) a n d (x 3 1, , , , , y3) , a n d if th e
e qu a ti on Of t h e circ l e thr ou gh th e m i s writt e n i n th e f or m
C = C,
th en cl ea rl y th e fol l owin g thr ee e qu a tion s m u st hol d

THE C I R C LE 73
W ethu s ha v e thr e e S i mu l ta n e ou s l in ea r e qu ati ons for

te r m i n i n g th e thr e e u n k n own c oe ffici e n t s A B C , ,
.
Su p p ose for e x a m p l e
, that th e giv en p oi n t s a r e
, .
fol l owin g
( ,
1 ( ,
1 2,
Th e e qu a ti on s ca n be thr ow n a t on ce in t o th e for m
Sol v e tw o Of th e se e qu a ti on s for tw o of th e un kn own s i n

te r m s Of th e thir d Th en s u b s ti tu te th e v a l u es thu s f ou n d i n
.
t h e thir d e qu a ti on Th u s th e thir d u n kn own i s c om pl et el y

.
d e t e r m i n e d a n d h en c e th e oth e r tw o u n k n own s ca n b e f ou n d
, -
.
H e r e it i s ea s y to s ol v e th e fir s t tw o e qu a ti on s for A a n d B
,
i n t e r m s of C O n su btra ctin g th e se c on d e qu a ti on fr om th e
.
fir st w e fin d :
,
2 B = O; h en c e B = O .
Th en e ith e r o fth e fir s t tw o e qu a ti on s giv e s fo r A th e val u e

A C 2 .
N ex t , se t for A an d B i n th e third equ a ti on th e va l u e s j u s t

fou n d
H en c e , fi na l l y ,
A= L B = Q C
an d th e e qu a ti on ofth e d e s ir e d circl e is
2 2
x + y + x
C h e ck th e r e su l t by su b stitu ti n g th e c oor d in a t es of
giv en p o i n t s su cc e s s i v e l y i n thi s l a s t e qu a ti on Th ey .
fou n d e a ch ti m e t o sa ti s fy th e e q u a ti on .
4 . Th e v e rtic e s Of trian gl e Of E x
th e . 1 5 at th e en d of
C h I I I , p 63
. . . Sh o w th a t th e p oin t (2 ,
1) Of tha t ex e rci s e
l i e s on th e circ l e
5Th
.
. e sa m e qu es ti on for E x 1 7 p 6 3 . . . Sh o w tha t th e
ab
_
__ of tha t ex e rci se l i es on th e circ l e .
6 Th e v e rtic e s ofth e tria n gl e ofOh I I I F i g 1 F in d th e

. .
, . .
c oord i na t e s Of th e c en t e r a n d ch e c k by c ompa rin g th e m with

th ose Of th e p oin t of in t er s e cti on Of th e p e rp en d icu l a r bi se ct or s
o fth e S i d e s Of th e tri a n g l e a s d e t e r m i n e d i n C h
,
III , ,
5 .
7 Th e sa m e qu es ti on for th e tri a n gl e Of Ch I I I F i g 2
. .
,
. .
C he ck .
Th e v e rtic e s Of th e tri an g l e for m ed by th e c o o r d in a t e

an d th e l i n e 2 x 3y 6 .
9 . Th e v e rtic e s Of th e tri an gl e wh ose Si d e s ar e
x — 1 = O,
5
— 2
y x
An s 3x 3y 17 x 16y 2 O
‘ ‘
2 3
. .
f
l
(
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R IV
F i n d th e qu a ti on Of
circl e with th e l in e s eg men t j oi n
5
e th e -
tw o p oin ts (3 O) a n d ( 2 ) a s a d ia me t e r
5
.
, ,
A circl e g oe s thr ou gh th e o rigin a n d h a s in t e rc e p t s

on th e a x e s o f x a n d y r e s p e cti v e l y F i n d i ts e q u a ti on . .
3 A circl e g oes thr ou gh th e origin an d h as i n t er c ep t s a and

.
b. F i nd i ts e q u a ti on .
THE C I R C LE 7 5
qu a ti on Of th e circ l e which h a s i ts c e n te r i n
he e
th e p oin t 3 4 ) a n d i s t a n g e n t t o th e l i n e 3 x
, 8y 6 :0 z
5A circl e h a s i ts cen ter on th e l in e 2 x — 3 y = 0 a nd

,
p a s se s thr ou gh th e
p o i n t s
(4 ( 2 , F i n d i t s e
f q u a ti on , .
F i n d th e e qu a ti on Of th e circle w h ich p a s s e s thr o u gh th e

.
5
6 .
p o i n t ( , a n d i s t a ng en t t o th e l i n e 3x y 1 0 at
th e p oi n t (1
J
7 . Th e r e a r e t w o circl e s p as si n g thr oug h th e p oin t s ( 3 ,
1 O) a n d h a vi n g g a s th e ir r a d iu s
, F i n d th e ir e q u a ti on s
.
Th e r e a r e tw o circ l e s with the ir c en t e r s on th e l in e

5
8 .
,
3y 8 a d ta e n t t o th e c o o r d in at e a x es x F i n d th e ir
n n
g
x ,
I
F i n d th és e qu a ti on s
l
Of th e circl e s tan g e n t to t h é a xe s a n d ’ ‘
p a s s in g thr ou gh th e p oin t (1 ,
10 . F in d th e e qu a ti on s of th e circ l e s p a s s i n g thr ou gh th e
p o i n t s ( 3 ,( 1 O ) a n d
,
t a n g e n t t o th e l i n e x y O .
Su gg e s ti o n D e m a n d th a t th e c e n t e r (a B ) b e e qu al l y
.
, ,
d i sta n t fr om th e tw o p oi n t s a n d th e l i n e .
11 F i n d th e e q u a t i on s O f th e ci r cl e s p a s s i n g thr ou gh th e
‘
~
.
o rigi n ,
ta n g en t to th e l in e x + y — 8 = O a n d ha vin g th eir ,
c e n t e r s on t h e l i n e x 2 .
12 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on s Of th e c i rc l e s Of th e p r e c e d i n g e x e r
ci s e if th e ir c e n t e r s l i e on th e l in e 2 x y 2 O
,
.
F in d th e e qu a ti on Of th e circ l e i n s crib e d i n th e tri a g l e

13 .
n
f or m e d by th e a x e s a n d th e l in e 3 x 4 y 1 2
14 . F in d th e e qu a ti on ofa n a rbitr a ry circ l e r e f e rr e d to tw o ,
e
p p r e n d ic ul a r t a n g e n t s a s a x e s .
1 5D o th e f ou r p oi n t s (0
.
( 6 O ) (
,
O l,
i e on , ,
a circ l e
16 . F in d th e c oo r d i n a t e s Of th e p oi n t s Of i n t e r s e cti on Of th e
ci r cl es
x 2
+ y
2 — '
z
x 2
+ y = 0,
x
2
+ y + 2x
2
y = 9 .
17 . F in d th e c oo r d i n a t e s o f th e
p o n s i t Of in t e r s ection Of th e
on e1e s
x 2
+y + bx — 2
ay =0 .
I
,
“
O R TH O G ON AL I TY
A circl e an d a l in e i n te r s e c t i n a p o i t
n P . Th e c te
a u
tw een
in e an d th e tan g en t to th e circl e a t P i s
th e l
‘
k n o w n a s th e a n gl e Of i n t e r se cti on Of th e l i n e a n d t h e circl e a t
P . I f th e l in e m e e t s th e circ l e i n tw o p o i n t s th e a n g l es o f ,
in t e r se cti on a t th e tw o p oin t s a r e e qu al D e t e rm in e th e a ngl e .
i n th e c a se ofth e circl e
2 2
52
5
x y ,
a n d th e l i n e 2x — y— = O .
A
”
19 . A
circl e an d a l in e a r e sa i d to in t e r s e ct orth og on al l y if
th e ir a n gl e Of in t e r s e cti on i s a right a n g l e P r ov e th a t th e
.
circl e ,
I;
2 2
x + y
is in t er se ct e d by th e l in e x y 7 o rthog on a ll y ,
5 ,
.
Su gg es ti on F ir s t a n s w e r g e o m e trica l l y th e qu e s ti on
.
l i n e s cu t a giv e n circl e o rth og on a l l y

w th a t th e c i rcl e ,
(11 33 by C ri 0
lly wh en a n d on l y wh en
a A bB 2c .
'
circl e s in t er s e ct i n a p oin t P th e a cu t e a n g l e
I f tw o ,
b e tw een the ir ta n g en t s a t P i s k n own a s th e ir an gl e of i n t e r

s e cti on I fth e circl es i n t e r se ct i n t w o p oi n t s th e ir a
. n g l e s Of ,
in t e r se cti on a t th es e p oin t s a r e e qu al F in d thi s a n g l e i n th e .
5
c ase ofth e circl e s ,
37
2 “
I y
" 2
2 )
2 2
x +y
THE C I R C LE
22 . P r ov e
g e om e trica l l y tha t tw o circ l e s i n t e r se ct or th og
on a l l y th a t i s a t right a n g l e s wh e n a n d o n l y wh e n t h e s u m
, , ,
Of th e Squ a r e s Of th e ir r a d ii e qu a l s th e s q u a r e Of th e d i s ta n c e
b e tw een the ir c en t e r s Th en Sh ow th at th e circl e s
.
x 2
+ y
2 — 4x + 5 y
2 x + 2 y2 + 4 x
2 — 6y
in t e r s e ct orth og on a l l y .
23 . P r ov e tha t th e tw o circl es ,
in t e r se ct o rth og on a l l y wh en a n d on l y wh en
AI A2 B 1B 2 2 Cl 2 C2 .
24 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on O f th e circl e which cu t s circl e

x
?
y
2
2x O
at r ight a n g l e s an d p a s se s thr ou gh th e p oin t s (1 0 ) an d (O , ,
2 5Th e r e a r e a n in fi n it e n u m b e r Of circ l e s cu tti n g ea ch

. of
th e tw o circ l e s ,
2 2
w + y
o rth og ona l l y . Sh ow tha t th ey are al l giv en by th e e qu a ti on

x
2
+ y +
2
ax -
2 = O,
wh e r e a is an a rbitra ry c on s ta n t . Wh r e e a re th ir c t r
e en e s ?
Dra w a figu r e .
26 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on Of th e circ l e cu tti n g orth og onal l y th e
thr e e circl es ,
?
{I} ‘
I y
"
?
9)
+ y + 3x
2 2
x
2 — 2x + 3 z
x + y y ,
Ans .
M I S C E LL A NEOU S THEOREM S
27 . P r ov e an a lytic al l y th a t e v e ry a n gl e in s crib e d i n a s e m i
circ l e i s a ri ght a n gl e .
28 .P r ov e a n a l y tica l l y th a t th e p e r p e n d icu l a r d r opp e d fr om

a p oin t Of a circ l e on a d i a m e t e r i s a m ea n p r op o rti on a l b e tw e e n
th e s e g m en t s i n which it d ivi d e s th e d i a m e t e r .
29 .Th e t a n g en t s to a circl e a t t w o p oin t s P Q m ee t i n th e ,
p o i n t T . T h e l in e s j o i n i n g P a n d Q t o o n e e x tr e m ity of th e
d i a m e t e r p a r a l l e l t o P Q m e e t th e p e r p e n d icu l a r d ia m e t e r i n
t h e p oi n t s R a n d S P r ov e th a t R T S T
. .
30 .I n a tri a n g l e th e circ l e thr ou gh th e m i d p oin t s Of th e -
S i d es p a s s e s thr ou gh th e f ee t Of th e a l ti t u d e s a n d a l s o thr ou gh
th e p o in t s h a l fw a y b e tw ee n th e v e rtic e s a n d th e p oi n t Of in t e r
s e cti on O f th e a l ti tu d e s Thi s circl e i s kn own a s th e N i n e
.
P o i nt C i r cl e Of th e tri a n gl e .
F or th e tri a n gl e with v e rtic e s i n th e p oi n t s 4 O) (2 O) , , , ,
(0 ,
6 ) c on s tr u ct th e circ l e a n d m a r k th e n in e p o in t s thr ou gh
which it p a s s es .
31 . F or th e tria n g l e i n th e p r e c ed in g e x e rci s e fi n d t h e e qu a
ti on Of th e n in e p oin t circ l e a s th e circl e thr ou gh th e m i d

-
p oin t s Of th e S i d es . An s 3 x ?
3y 2
3x 11 y
. 0 .
32 . Sh ow th a t thi s circl e g oe s thr ou gh th e o th br s i x p o int s .
33 . F or th e tri a n g l e with v e rtic e s i n th e p oi n t s (a O) (b O) , , , ,
( )
0,
0 fi n d th e e qu a ti on Of th e n in e
p o in t circ l e a s t h e circ-
l e ,
thr ou gh th e mi d p oi n t s Of th e Si d e s
-
.
An s 2 c (x ) —
( b) cx + (a b )y O
' °
2 ?
.
y a c .
34 . Sh o wth t th i circl g
a s e oe s thr ou gh th e o th e r Si x p o n s i t .
80 ANALYT I C GE O M E TR Y
Le t th e trian gl e b e C AP with , M as i t Of AP
th e m i d p o n -
.
Le t a be th e l en gth of th e b a s e 0A ,
a n d l e t I b e th e given
d i s ta n c e
. I t i s r e q u ir e d to
fin d th e l ocu s Of P s o tha t ,
a l wa y s
c on v eni en t t o ta k e It i s
th e o rigi n Of c o or d in a t e s i n
A: ( a,0
0 a n d th e p os itiv e a x i s Of x
F 1 IG
Th e cO Or d i
.
a l on g th e b a se .
n a t e s Of A a r e th e n
( a O) Th e c o or d i na t e s Of th e m ovin g
,
.
p o i n t P w e d e n o t e by
( x y ) T h e c o or d,
in a t e s Of
. th e p oi n t
M ar e
+ 01
Q
Th e d i s ta n c e OM i s
Thu s c on d iti on r
ex p e s s e d an a l ytical l y ,
is
Squ a rin g b oth S i d e s Of thi s e qu a tion and s i m p l ifyin g ,

we hav e
( )
2 <+
w
Thi s e qu a ti on r ep r e sen t s th e circ l e wh os e c en t e r i s a t a 0

) ,
a n d wh ose r a d i u s i s 2 l W e h a v e S h o wn th e r e f or e tha t if
.
, , ,
i s a l wa y s s a ti sfi e d th e c o o r d i n a t e s Of sa ti s fy
( )
1 , (x y ) P ,
a n d P l i e s on th e circ l e Th e l o cu s Of P a p p ea r s th e n to b e
.
, ,
th e circl e .
H o w d o w e k n ow th ou gh th a t P tr a c e s th e en tir e circ l e ?
, ,
TO p r ov e thi s w e m u s t Sh ow c on v e r s el y tha t if th e cO Or d i
, , , ,
n a t e s x y Of P s a ti s fy c on d iti on ( 1 s va l i d f ( )
( , ) ) i I x y .
,
s a ti s fy th en on d ivi d ing b oth s i d e s of(2 ) by 4 an d ex tra c t

,
i n g th e s qu a r e r oo t Of e a ch S i d e w e Obta in two e qu a ti on s ,
IN TR O D U C TO R Y PROB LE M S IN LO C I 81
E qu a ti on ii)
y s tha t a p os itiv e or z e r o q u a n tity e qua l s a
sa
n e g a tiv e q u a n tity a n d i s th e r e f o r e i m os s ib l e Th nl y
, p u s o .
e q u a ti on i r e m a in s Thi s e qu a ti on s a y s th a t O M : l H c
) . e n e .
c on d iti on (1 ) i s sa ti sfi ed by e v e ry p oin t Of th e a nd s o
th e circ l e i s th e l o c u s Of P .
W e h a v e y e t t o d e s crib e th e l oc u s i n d e p e n d e n t l y Of th e ,
c o Or d i n a t e sy s t e m with r e fe r en c e m e r e l y to th e origin a l tri

,
a n gl e . P r od u c e th e ba s e i n th e d ir e cti on fr o m A to 0 to th e
, ,
p o i n t C ,
d o u b l in g i t s l e n gth Th e n th e l o c u s Of P i s a circ l e
.
,
wh os e c en t e r i s a t C a n d wh os e r a d iu s i s twic e th e giv e n
d i s ta n c e .
E x a mp l e 2 . D e t e r m i n e th e l o c u s of a p o ni t P which m ov e s
SO tha t th e d iffe r e n c e of th e s qu a r e s Of i ts d i s ta n c e s fr om tw o
fix ed p o ni t
s P I, P 2 i s c on s tan t ,
an d e qu a l to c :
T a k e th e m i d p oin t Of th e -
s e g m en t P 1 P 2 a s origin a n d
th e a x i s of x a l on g P P 2 1 .
F I G“ 2
Th e c o or d i n a t e s Of P I a n d P 2
ca n b e writt e n a s a O) (a , , ,
th ose Of P, as
( x, y) .
B y Ch . I, 3,
P P1 2
( x a
)
2
+y
2
,
PP2 = 2
(x a
) y
2
.
Th en th e e qu a ti on s r
e x p e sse d a n a l ytica l l y ,
a re
* Th e tw o ts i n w h i ch th e i r
p oi n
‘
c cl e c u s t t h e a x i s O fx a re e x c ep ti on s,
si n ce th ese d o n ot l e ad t o a tri a ngl e , OA P .

( 0 ( )
2 2 2 2
413 6 + 31 -
w a 11 c,
(53
7 a
) +y
2 2
0 0
2 — ’ =
3f c
Th e s e r e d u c e to
4
( ) 4 ux = o, 4 ax — c
.
H en c e , if c on d iti on (3 ) is sa ti sfi e d ,
P l ie s on on e or th e
o th e r Of t h e l i n e s
C on v e r se l y , if P l ie s th e r Of th e l in e s th e
‘
on on e or o
th en (4 ) h ol d s a n d fr om (4 ) w e s h o w by r e tr a cin g th e s t e p s
,
tha t on e or th e oth e r Of th e e qu a ti on s (3) i s va l id .
C on s e qu e n t l y th e l o c u s Of P c on s i s t s Of tw o s tra igh t l in e s
, ,
p pe r e n d ic ul a r t o th e l i n e P P 2 a n d s y mm e trica l l y s it u a t e d
1 ,
with r e f e r en c e t o th e m i d p oin t Of P I P 2 th e d i s t an c e of e ith e r

-
l in e fr om th e m i d p oi n t b e i n g c/
-
4a Thu s th e l ocu s c onsi s t s .
Of tw o en tir el y u n c onn e ct e d p i e c e s on e c orr e sp on d i n g to ea ch ,
Of th e e qu a ti on s If e 0 th e s e e qu a ti on s a r e th e sa m e
, ,
a n d th e t w o l in e s f o r m in g th e l o c u s c o in ci d e i n th e p e r p e n d i c
u l a r bi s e ct o r o fth e s e g m en t P 1 P 2 .
EX E R C IS ES
In s ol v n i g th e fol l owin g p r ob l e m s th e fir st s tep i s to find ,
th e e q u a ti on o f a c u rv e — or th e e qu a ti on s Of cu rv e s
, on ,
-
which p oin t s Of th e l ocu s l i e Th e s tu d en t m u st th e n ta k e .
c a r e (a ) to S h ow c on v e r s el y tha t e v e ry p oint l yin g on th e

, ,
cu rv e or cu rv es Obta in e d sa ti sfi e s th e giv en c on d iti on s ; an d

o d e s crib e th e l o c u s fi n a ll y with ou t r e f e r en c e t o th e
( )
b t , ,
c oor d in a t e sy s t e m u s e d .
A p oin t P m ov e s so th a t th e su m of th e s qu a r es Of i t s
u c e s t o t w o fi x e d p o in t s P P 2 i s a c on s ta n t c gr ea t e r
I, , ,
than 2 P 1 P 2 Sh ow tha t th e l o cu s Of P i s a circl e with i t s

1— .
2
,
c en t e r a t th e m i d p oin t Of P I P Q
-
.
W ha t i s th e l oc u s if c ga p s I fc < 41 1 1 2 ?
? 2
7
0 0
Si m i l a r l y , if L i s th e i Of y
ax s an d P h a s th e c oor d inat es
( y)
x, th e n ,
P ’
h a s th e c oor d ina t es x, y) .
E xa mp l e 1 . G i v en th e cu rv e
( )
1 2
y (I) .
Le t P :
(x l, y , ) be an y p o n i t on it ,
i . e . l et
( )
2 2
91
be a tru e e qu a ti on . Th en p oin t P (x1 th e yl ) s y m m e tric
’
, ,
t o P i n th e a x i s Of x a l s o l i e s on th e cu r v e , .
F or if w e su b s ti t u t e th e c oor d i n a t e s Of P in t o
'
’
,
th e r e su l t i s y1 )
2
an d 2
( ) w e
kn ow i s a tru e e qu a ti on W e sa y th en th a t .
, ,
th e cu r v e (1 ) i s s y m m e tric i n th e a x i s ofx .
Th e t e s t for s y mm e try i n th e a x i s Of x
‘
e m p l oy e d i n thi s e x a m p l e i s g e n e r a l i n a p p l i ,
ca ti on W e s t a t e i t a n d th e c orr e sp on d in g
.
,
FIG . 4
t e s t for sy m m e try i n th e a x i s Of y i n th e f or m ,
o f th e o r e m s .
THEOREM 1 . A cu r v e is symm e tr i c i n th e axi s o f x i fth e su b
s ti tu ti on o f —
yf y i n i ts equ
or a t i o n l ea v es th e equ a ti o n u n ch a n ed
g .
THEOREM 2 A cu r v e i s symmetr i c i n th e a x i s ofy ifth e su b

.
— i n i ts equ a ti on l ea v es th e equ a ti on u n ch a n ed
s ti tu ti on o f x f or x
g .
S ymmetry i n Tw o p oin t s P a n d
a P oi n t .
,
P ’
, y m m e tric
are s
i n a giv e n p o in t if th e giv en p oi n t i s th e
,
m i d p oi n t Of P P
-
’
I f th e giv en p oin t i s th e origi n Of

c oor d i na t e s a nd P h a s th e c oord in a t e s
( y)
x , ,
th e n t h e c o o r d in a t e s of P are
’
e vi d e n t l y x — y
) (w y,
5
,
.
r
F1 G
E xamp l e 2 C on s i d e r th e c u rv e
“
( )
3 y 90 3
If P :
( y)
x 1, , t
ishi s c u r
an y
v e th e n t h
p o
ei n
p t
o in t on ,
P
’
x y)
1,l s y m m e tric t,
o P i n th e o rigi n i s a l s o o n t h e ,
cu r v e . F or th e c on d iti on tha t P l i e s on th e cu r v e n a m el y
,
’
, ,
°
)
3
y,
-
x1 or
I N T R O D U C T O R Y P R O B LE M S I N LO C I 8 5
is qu iva l en t to th e c on d iti on y, x 3 th a t P l i e
e , on th e cu rve .
W e sa y th e n th a t th e cu rv e (3 ) i s s y mm e tric i n
, , th e o rigin .
Thi s t e s t too i s g en e ra l i n a p p l icati on ;

, ,
w e f o r m u l a t e it a s a th e o r e m .
THEOREM 3 A cu r v e i s symmetr i c i n th e
.
or i gi n f cob r d i n a tes if th e
o ,
s u bs ti tu ti on of
x fo r x a nd o, f y for y ,
i n i ts equ a ti on
l ea v es th e e qu a ti on es s e n ti a ll y u n ch a n ed
g .
A ca s e i n which th e t e s t l ea v e s th e
e qu a ti on wh ol l y u n ch a n g e d i s th a t Of th e
circ l e x 2 y , 9 or t h e
‘
2
c u rv e x
2
y ,
FIG . 6
( g
F i .
N ow th e circl e i n q u e s ti on i s sy mm e tric i n b oth a x e s I t .
fol l ow s th e n with ou t fu rth e r in v e s tiga ti on tha t it i s s ym

, ,
m e tric i n th e o rigin th e p oin t Of i n t e r se ct i on o f th e a x e s

, .
Thi s c on cl u s i on h ol d s a l wa y s ; i n fa ct ,
w e m a y s t a t e th e th e or e m .
THEOREM 4 Ifa cu r ve i s symm etr i c .
i n both a x es o fcoor d i n a tes ,

i t i s symmetr i c
i n th e or i gi n .
Th e d e ta i l s Of th e p r oof are l e ft to
th e s t u d en t as an rci se
ex e . I t i s to b e
t
n o ed tha t th e c on v e r s e Of t
FI G . 7
n ot tru e . F or , th e cu r v e Of E x a m p l e 2
is y m m e tric i n th e origin b u t
s ,
not s y mm e tric i n e ith e r a x i s
thi s i s tru e a l s o Of th e cu rv e xy a
2
ofF i g . 7 .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . P r ov e
Th eor e m 4 .
2 T e s t for sy m m e try i n ea ch a x i s a n d i n
.
,
th e o rigin ,
cu rv e s giv en i n th e f ol l owin g e x e rci se s Of C h I .

,
7
( )
a E x e rci s e 2 ; ()
c E x e rci s e 7 ;
( )
b E x e rci se 6 ; ( )
d E x e rci se 8 .
Of th e fol l owin g th e giv en cu rv e for

in ea ch a x i s a n d i n t P l o t th e cu rv e
.
1 O .
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R V
e ba se Oftrian gl e i s fi x e d an d th e ra tio of th e
a
l e n gth s Of th e t w o S i d e s i s c on s ta n t F i n d th e l o cu s Of th e
.
v e rt e x . An s A circl e ex c e p t for on e v a l u e Of th e c on st an t
.
,
.
2 .A p oin t P m ov e s s o tha t i ts d i s tan c e fr om a giv en l in e

L i s p r op orti on a l t o th e s qu a r e Of i t s d i s ta n c e t o a giv e n p oin t
K n ot on L
,
I f P r e m a i n s a l wa y s on th e sa m e s i d e Of L a s
.
I f S h o w th a t i t s l o cu s i s a circ l e
, .
3 .F in d th e l o cu s Of P i n th e p r e c e d in g e x e rci se if it r e ,
m a i n s a l wa y s on th e opp o s it e s i d e Of L fr om K D oe s y ou r
a n s w e r c o v e r a l l c a se s
4 .I f i n E x 2 K l i e s on L a n d P m a y b e on e ith e r s i d e of
,
.
,
L wh a t i s th e l o c u s Of P ?
5Three v e rtice s Of a qu a d ril a te ral ar e fix ed F in d th e
,
. .
l o cu s Of th e f ou rth if th e a r ea Of th e qu a d ri l a t e ra l i s c on s ta n t
,
.
6 .F i n d th e l o cu s of a p oi n t m ovi n g S O th a t th e s u m Of
th e s qu a r e s Of i ts d i s t a n c e s fr om th e s i d e s Of a n e qu i l a t e r a l
trian gl e i s c on s ta n t D i s cu s s a l l ca ses . .
An s A circl e c e n t e r a t th e p oin t Of in t e r se c ti on of th e m e
.
,
d i a n s ; thi s p oi n t ; or n o l o cu s .
7 .Th e fee t Of th e p e r p en d icu l a r s fr om th e p oin t P : ( X Y ) ,
on th e s i d e s Of th e tri a n g l e with v e rtic e s i n th e p o in t s (0 ,
l i n a l in e i o c u s Of P
( 3 , (O 1 ) ,
e o F n d t h e l . .
An s Th e circl e circu m s cribin g th e tri a n gl e

. .
8 .Th e p r e c ed in g p r obl e m if th e tria n gl e h a s th e p oin t s

,
a s v e rtic e s
( 2 ,
O) ,
3 (O,
4 ) ,
.
9 .P r ob l e m 7 for th e g en e ra l tri a n gl e with v e rtic e s a t

, ,
( a, O) , b
( , ( ,
O c
) .
C H AP TE R VI
THE P AR AB OLA
1 . Defini ti on . A p a r a bola i s d efi ne d as th e l ocu s O fa p oin t

P, whose d i s tan c e
fr om a fix ed l in e D i s a l wa y s e qu al to i ts
d i s t a n c e fr om a fi x e d p oi n t F n ot on ,
th e l in e I t i s u n d e r s t ood Of c ou r se
.
, ,
tha t P i s r e s trict ed to th e p l an e d e t e r
m in e d by D a n d F .
O n e p oin t Of th e l o cu s i s th e m i d p oin t -
A F i g 2 Of th e p e rp e n d icul a r F E
,
.
,
d r opp e d fr om F on D Thr ou gh A .
d ra w T p a ra l l e l to D Th en n o oth e r .
o i n t n T o r t o th e l e ft Of T ca n b e l on g
p o , ,
t o th e l o cu s for a l l s u ch p oi n t s a r e
,
F G 1I
c l ea rl y n ea r e r to D than they are to F
.
F u rth e r p oin t s Of th e l o c u s ca n b e
Obta in ed a s f ol l ow s TO th e right of T
.
d r a w L p a ra l l e l t o D cu ttin g AF p r o
, ,
d u ced if n e c e s s a ry i n S ,
With E S a s
.
ra d iu s a n d F a s c en t e r d e s crib e a circl e ,
cu ttin g L i n P a n d Q Th en P a n d Q .
l i e on th e l o cu s .
A l a rg e n u m b e r Of p o in t s h a v i n g b e en
Obta in e d i n thi s w a y a s m ooth cu rv e,
Can b e p a s s e d thr ou gh th e m Th e cu rv e
.
i s sy m m e tric i n th e l i n e AF a n d e v i ,
d en tl y h a s Ta s a t a n g e n t .
Th e l in e D i s c a l l e d th e d i r ectr i x a n d th e p oi n t F th e focu s
, , ,
o f th e
p a r a b o l a ; A i s t h e v er tex a n d th e in d efi n it e l in e AF
, ,
th e axi s ; F F i s a foca l radi us .
88
THE P ARAB O A L 9
Th e fa m i l ia r with th e fa ct tha t a l l circl es a r e

s t u d en t is
s i mi l a r ; i e h a v e th e s a m e s h a e a n d d iff e r o n l y i n s iz e A
. .
p , .
l i k e r e l a ti on h ol d s for a n y tw o p a ra b ol a s Thi n k Of th e m a s .
l y i n g i n d iffe r en t p l a n e s a n d ch oo se i n e a ch p l a n e a s th e u n it
,
l en gth th e d i s ta n c e b e
tw ee n th e f ocu s a n d th e
d ir e ctri x Th en th e on e .
p a r a b o l a i n i t s p l a n,e i s ,
th e r e p l ica Of th e o th e r ,
i n i ts p l a n e Con se .
qu en t l y th e tw o p a ra b ,
Ol a s d iffe r on l y i n th e
s c a l e to which th e y a r e
d ra w n a n d a r e th e r e
, ,
f or e s i m i l a r
,
.
Th e d e t a i l s Of th e
p r oo f j u s t ou t l i n e d ca n b e s u
pp l i e d a t o n c e S h o wi n g th a t
th e tri a n g l e s F P M a n d M F E a r e s i m i l a r ti v e l y t o
5
, ,
F P M an d M th e a n g l e s 0 i n F i g 3 b e i n g e qu a l by
’ ’ ’
.
c on s tru cti on H en c e .
FP EF
’ ’ ’ ”
F P E F
t e
. foca l ra d ii F F a n d F P which m a k e th e sa m e an gl e with
.
,
’ ’
,
th e a x e s a l wa y s b ea r t o ea ch o th e r th e s a m e fi x e d ra ti o .
EX E R C IS ES
Q T
1 a k. e a s h e e t Of s q u a r e d p a p e r a n d m a r k D a l on g on e Of
th e v e rtic a l r u l i n g s n ea r th e e d g e o f th e p a p e r C h oos e F .
a t a d i s ta n c e of 1 cm fr o m D Th en th e p oi n t s Of th e l o c u s
. .
on th e v e rtic a l ru l i n g s o r on a s m a n y Of th e m a s on e d e s ir e s
ca n b e m a r k e d Off r a p i d l y with th e c om p a s se s
-
M ake a .
c l ean n ea t figu r e,
.
2 P l a c e a c a r d u n d e r th e c u rv e ofE x 1 a n d with a n e e d l e
. .
, ,
,
p ric k n u m e r ou s p o i n t s Of th e c u r v e thr ou gh on th e c a r d a n d ,
m a r k al s o th e f ocu s a n d a x i s i n thi s w a y
, ,
Cu t th e ca r d a l on g .
90 AN ALYT IC GE O M E TR Y
th e c u rv e with s har p S ci ss o r s Th e p i e c e wh os e e d g e i s con
.
v e x f o r m s a c on v e n i e n t p a r a b ol ic r u l e r o r t e m p l e t t o b e u se d
, ,
wh en ev e r a n a cc u ra t e d ra win g i s d es ir ed .
A s m a l l h ol e a t th e f o cu s a n d a s e c on d h ol e fa rth e r a l on g
th e a x i s m a k e it p o s s ib l e i n u s i n g th e t e m p l e t to m a r k th e
, ,
fo cu s a n d d ra w th e a x i s .
A se c on d t e m p l e t to twi ce th e a b ov e s c a l e wi l l a l so b e
, ,
fou n d u se fu l
5
.
Q 3 . Th e fo cu s Of r b ol a i s d i s ta n t
a p a a u n it s fr om th e
d ir e ctri x I n a s e c on d p a r a b ol a thi s d i s t a n c e i s 2 u n it s
.
,
H ow .
m u ch l a rg e r i s th e fir s t p a r a b ol a th a n th e s e c on d t e h ow d o ,
. .
,
th ei r s ca l e s c om p a r e with e a ch othe r
2 . E qu ati on of th e Par ab ol a . Th e fir s t s t e p choose i s to

th e ax e s Of c oor d ina t e s i n a c on v en i e n t m ann e r E vi d e n t l y .
,
on e g ood ch o ic e w ou l d b e t o t a k e
th e a x i s Of x p e r p e n d icul a r t o D
a n d p a s s i n g thr ou gh F Le t u s d o .
thi s ch oos in g th e p os itiv e sen se

,
fr om A t owa r d F .
v
F or th e a x i s Of y thr e e S i m p l e
ch oic e s p r e sen t th e m sel v e s n a m e l y ,
( )
a thr ou gh A ;
a l on g D
()
b
()
0 thr ou gh F .
P e rha p s t r ;
( )
b see m s m os t n a u al
b h h e a d v a n t a g e th a t th e
Fm 4 ,
u t ( )
a a s t
c u rv e th en p a s se s thr ou gh th e
o rigin a n d thi s ch o ic e t u rn s ou t i n p r a ctic e t o b e th e m o s t
,
u se fu l on e W e wil l b e gi n with it
. .
Le t P : (x y b e a n y p oi n t on th e cu rv e
) ,
D e n o t e th e di s .
ta n c e ofF fr om D by m Th en .
E F = m,
L
L. 3
<1
re ma in s , thi s e qu a ti on i s p r e ci s el y th e c ond iti on tha t th e
an d
d i s ta n c e o f (x y) fr om D b e e qu a l to i ts d i s t an c e fr om F
,
.
H en c e th e p oin t (x y) l i e s on th e p a ra b ol a q e (1
, .
,
. . .
Z W -
Z / yn 1/
EX ER
Sh o w tha t th e ch oic e ( b) l ea d s t o th e e qu a ti on
y
2
2 mx m 2
.
Thi s qu a ti on Of th e pa ra b ol a r e fe rre d to i ts d ir e ctrix

i s th e e
a n d a x i s a s th e a x e s Of y a n d x r es p e ctiv e l y with th e p o s iti v e ,
a x i s Of x i n th e d ir e cti on i n which th e c u rv e o p e n s .
2 S h o w th a t th e ch oic e (c) l ea d s to th e e qu ati on
5
.
( ) y
2
2 mx m 2
.
Thi s i s th e e qu a ti on of th e p a rab ol a wh en th e fo cu s i s th e
o rigin a n d th e p os iti v e a x i S O fx i s a l on g th e a x i s Of th e c u r v e
'
th e d ir ecti on i n which th e cu rv e
en s .
Ta ki n g th e a x e s a s in d ica t ed i n
5
3 .
S h o w th a t th e e q u a ti on of th e
x
Fi g .
,
p a a r b ol a is
FI G . 5 {132 2 my .
C h oo s i n g th e i
a x s ofy a s i n th e for e goin g qu es tion Show ,
tha t th e e qu a tion Of th e p a ra bol a is
£132 2 :2 my m 2
,
in ca se th e ax s i Of x is a l on g D, an d is
$
2
2 7724] m, 2
i n c a se ta k en a s th e origin
F is
5I fth e ax i s Of x i s tak en al on g th e ax i s Of th e parabol a
.
.
,
b u t p os itiv el y i n th e d i r e cti on f rom F t ow a r d D an d if th e ,
o rigin i s ta k e n a t th e v e rt e x S h ow th a t th e e qu a ti on Of th e
,
cu rv e i s
2 mx
THE P AR ABO LA
\
L/ ,
93
6 . I fth e ax s i Of y i s t a k e n a l on g th e i th e p a ra b ol a
ax s Of ,
bu t p ositiv el y in th e d ir e cti on fr o m F t owa r d D a n d if th e ,
o ri g v e rt ex ,
S h o w th a t th e e qu a ti o n Of th e
2 my .
D e t e r m in e f o cu s and d ir e ctri x Of ea ch of th e f ol l o w
i ng p a r ab ol a s
( ) a y
2
4x . Ans . x +1 = 0 .
I b) 2
Ans (O i
5
(13
y . .
’
?
0 3 y + 22 x = 0
2
5
y 93 . .
2x f) + 12 y = 0
2 2
y .
I ' x
V
= 4 ay
a t?)
? 2 ‘
y Pr . ( 0 x .
8 . It a pp ea s r fr om f or e g oi n g tha t a ny e qu a ti on Of th e
f or m
y = 2
i Aw) m = i Ayy
2
wh e r e A i s a ny p os itiv e c on s tan t r ep r e s en t s a p a ra bol a with ,
i ts v e rt e x a t th e o rig i n F o r m u l a t e a g e n e ra l r u l e for a s c e r
.
a
t a in in g th e d i s tan c e Of th e f oc u s Of su ch a p a rab ol a fr om th e
v e rt ex .
z
9 F in d th e equ a ti on s o f th e f ol l owin g p a ra b ol a s
5
.
V e rt e x a t 0 0 a n d f o c u s a t 2
( ) ( ) (
5
a , ,
9 (b) Ve rt e x a t (O 0 an d 2 x a s d ir e ctr i x fl ”9
) ,0 .
Ve rt ex a t (O O) an d f o cu s a t (O , g) ,
.
c (d ) Ve rt ex a t (O 0 ) a n d 2 y 1 ,
O a s d ir e ctri x .
F o cu s a t (O O) a n d v e rt ex a t ,
3 O) ,
.
f) F o c u s a t (O 0 ) a n d 3 y 4 ,
O a s d ir e ctri x .
'
o (g) F o cu s a t ( 6 O) a n d a x i s ofy a s d ir e ctri x

,
.
( )
h F o c u s at
( O 7 ) a n d a x i s Of x a s d ir e ctri x
,
.
Tangents Th e s tu d en t wil l n ex t tu rn to
3 . . C ha p t e r I X
a n d s tu d y 1 2 I t i s th e r e sh own th a t th e
,
. S l op e Of th e
p a r a b ol a
( )
1 y
?
2 mx
at a n y on e Of i ts p o i n t s ( x1 , y, ) i s, i n g en e ral giv en by
, th e
for m u l a
m
2
( ) s
yl
a nd tha t th e e qu a ti on Of th e ta n g en t l in e a t a ny p o nt i ( ,y,)
x1
ca n , with ou t e x c e p ti on b e writt en i n th e f or m
,
yl y m (x
Th e ch ord ,
PP
'
,
of a
p a a r b ol a which p a s se s
s an d i s p e r p e n d icu l a r to th e a x i s i s c a l l ed th e
l a tu s rectu m (p l u ra l , l a ter a )
5
I r ecta .
I ts h a l f l en g th i s foun d by s e ttin g x m/2

-
i n th e e qu a ti on of th e p a r abo l a a n d s ol vi n g ,
m)
for th e p os itiv e y *
y
2 _
2m
5
m\
]
Thu s th e l e n gth ,
PP
'
,
of th e l a tu s r e c tu m
is 2m .
Th e tan g e n t a t e ith e r P or P '

mak e s
5
an
FIG . 6
a n gl e Of 4 with th e ax i s Of x °
. F or , th e
s l op e Of th e tan g en t a t P i s fr om 2 ) ,
m m
yl on
Le t E b e th e p oint i n which th e ta n g en t a t P m e e t s th e
a x i s Of x S in c e F P = m , a n d A F E P :
. EF m a n d SO
E l ies on ir e ctrix Con se qu en tl y th e tan g en t s a t P an d
th e d .
,
P ou t th e a x 1 s Of x a t th e p oi n t Of in t e r se cti on Of th e d ir e ctri x
’
with tha t a x i s .
Thi s theor e m can a l so b e p r ov e d by wr i ti n g d own th e equ a

ti on ofth e t an g en t a t P ,
m
y — w +
2
-
a nd fin d in g th e i n t
‘
N
f thi s l in e on th e ax si Of x .
a
l ight , b e m a d e i n th e f or m of a p a rab ol oi d Of r ev ol u ti on i e , . .
th e su rfa c e g e n e ra t e d by a p a ra b ol a which i s r e v ol v e d a b ou t
i ts a x i s a n d if a s ou rc e Of l ight b e p l a c e d a t th e f o c u s th e
, ,
r efl e ct e d ra y s wi l l a l l b e p a ral l el .
T hi s ph en om en on i s d u e to th e fa ct tha t th e foca l ra d iu s F P
d ra wn to a n y p oin t P Of th e pa ra b ol a m a k e s th e s a m e a n g l e
with th e ta n g en t a t P a s d oe s th e
l in e thr ou gh P p a ra l l e l to th e a x i s .
Th e p r oof Of thi s p r op e rty can

b e giv e n a s f ol l o w s L e t th e .
t a n g en t a t P : cu t th e a x i s
Of x i n M Th en th e l en gth Of
OM i s e qu a l t o x by § 3 E x 8 l, , . .
F u rth e r m o r e OF : m/ 2 H en c e , .
th e d i s t an c e fr om M to F i s
MF : r
el -
p
g .
thi s i s p r e ci sel y th e d i s ta n c e Of P fr om D § 2 a nd
B ut , ,
h en c e by th e d efi n iti on Of th e p a ra b ol a it i s a l s o e qu a l t o F P
, ,
W e h a v e th e n th a t M E : F P
, ,
,
C on s e q u en tl y th e tria n gl e
.
,
M E P i s i sos c el e s a n d ,
Bu t a
t F M P x S P T,
an d th e p r op os iti on i s p r ov e d .
Th e r e sul t can b e r e s t a t e d i n th e fol l owin g

THEOREM Th e foca l rad iu s FP fa p a r a bol a a t a ny p oi n t
“
. o
P ofth e cu r v e a nd th e p a r a l l el to th e axi s a t P m a k e equ a l a ngl es
w i th th e ta ngen t at P .
Hea t . ch a p a r ab ol ic r efl e ct or a s th e on e d e s crib ed
If su
a b ov e w e r e tu r n e d t o w a r d th e s u n th e l a tt e r s r a y s b e i n g
’
, ,
p r a ctic a l l y p a r a l l e l t o ea ch o th e r a n d t o th e a x i s Of t h e r e fl e ct o r ,
w ou l d a ft e r i m p in gin g on th e p ol i she d su rfa c e p r o c e ed al on g

, ,
l i n e s a l l o f which w ou l d p a s s thr ou gh F
,
Thu s i n pa r ti cu .
,
l a r th e h ea t r ay s w oul d b e c ol l e ct e d a t F a n d i f a m in u te
, ,
. THE PAR AB O LA 97
cha rg e Of gu n p owd e r w e r e pl a c ed a t F it migh t ea si l y b e ,
fir ed .
I t i s t o thi s p r op e rty th a t th e f
.
ocu s
( G e r m a n B r ennp u n kt) ,
o w e s i t s n am e Th e La ti n w or d m e an s h ea r th o r fi r ep l a ce
.
, .
Th e t e r m w a s in tr od u c ed in t o th e s ci en c e by th e a s tr on om e r
K e p l e r i n 1 6 04 .
E X E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R VI
pa ar b ol a O p en s ou t a l on g th e p os itive a x i s Of y a s a x i s .
i s i n th e p oi n t (0 3 ) a n d t h e l e n gth Of i ts l a w s
,
r e c tu m is 12 .F in d i t s e qu a ti on An s x
.
2
12y . .
a r a b o l a h a s i t s v e rt e x i n th e o rigin a n d i t s a x i s a l on g
x I fit g o e s thr ou gh th e p oi n t ( 2
. wha t i s i ts ,
I
An s . 2y ?
9x 0 .
tha t qu a ti on Of a p a r a b ol a with th e l in e x
'
th e e c
ri x an d with th e p o in t (c + m 0 ) or (c m 0) , , as
s is
= 2 m (x — c
) y
2 — 2 m (x —
)
c
H en c e p r ov e tha t e v e ry p a ra b ol a with th e a x i s Of x a s a x i s
h a s a n e qu a ti on Of th e f or m :x b wh e r e a a n d b a r e
‘
2
ay ,
c on s tan t s a i 0 ,
.
x 4
. F i n d th e e q u a ti on Of th e p a r a b ol a which h a s i ts a x i s
L
a l on g th e a x i s Of x a n d g oe s thr ou gh th e t w
{
o p oi n t s .
2, An s .
— 11 .
5P r v e th a t e v e ry p a ra b ol a with a n
o ax s i p a a l l e r
l t o th e
Of y h a s an e qu a ti on Of th e f or m
,
xi s
wh e r e a b c a r e c on s ta n t s a 0
, , ,
.
Su gg es ti on F in d th e e q u a ti on Of th e p a r a b ol a which h a s
.
th e l in e y k a s d ir e ctri x an d th e p oi n t (l k m) or (I k m) , ,
a s focu s .
i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e p a ra b ol a which h a s a v e rtic a l
(1 g oe s thr ou gh th e po i n t s ( 0 ( 1 O) a n d (3 , , , ,
An s
“
.
y x
circl e i s ta n g en t to th e pa ra b ol a y
A x a t th e p o in t
2
a n d g o e s thr ou gh th e v e rt e x Of th e p a r a b ol a F i n d i ts .
e qu a ti on .
8 Wh a t i s th e e qu a ti on Of th e circl e which i s t an g en t to
.
th e p a r a b ol a y 2
2 mx a t b oth e x tr e m iti e s ofth e l a tu s r e ct u m
Ans . 4x 2
4y 2
1 2 mx m
2
O
.
9 . F i n d th e
c oor d in a t e s of th e p oin t s Of ta n g en cy Of th e
ta n g en t s t o th e p a rab ol a y 2 mx which m a k e th e a n gl es
2
a n d 30 with th e a x i s of th e pa r ab ol a Show tha t th e

°
.
a b s ci s sae Of th e thr ee p oi n t s a r e i n g e om e t r ic pr ogr e s s i on a n d ,
tha t thi s i s tru e a l so Of th e o r d in a t es .
10 Sh o w th a t th e c om m on ch o r d Of a p a rab ol a a n d th e
.
,
circl e wh o se c e n t e r i s i n th e v e rt ex Of th e pa r ab ol a a n d wh ose
ra d iu s i s e q u al t o thr ee hal v e s th e d i sta n c e fr om th e v e rt ex to
th e f o cu s bi s e ct s th e l in e se g m en t j oin in g th e v e rt ex with th e
,
-
f o cu s .
L e t N b e th e p oin t i n which th e n o r m a l to a p ar a b ol a
'
11 .
a t a p oi n t P n o t th e v e rt e x m e e t s th e a x i s
, ,
P r ov e th a t th e .
p r o j e cti on o n t h e a x i s o f th e l in e se g m e n t-
P N i s e q u a l t o o n e
ha l f th e l en gth ofth e l a tu s r e ctu m .
12 O n a p a ra b ol a P i s a n y p oin t oth e r th an th e v e rt ex
.
, ,
a n d N i s th e p oin t i n which th e n or ma l a t P m ee t s th e a x i s .
Sh ow th a t P a n d N a r e e qu a l l y d i s t an t fr om th e f o cu s .
13 Th e ta n g en t to a p a r a b ol a a t a p oin t P n ot th e v e rt ex
.
, ,
m ee t s th e d ir e ctrix i n th e p oi n t L P r ov e tha t th e s e g m en t
.
L P s u bt e n d s a righ t a n gl e a t th e f o cu s .
14 Sh o w th a t th e l en gt h Of a f o ca l ch or d Of th e p a r a b ol a
.
y
‘
2
2 m x i s e q ua l t o x 1 x 2 m wh e r e,
x 1 x 2 a r e th e a b
,
s ci s s ae
of th e e n d
p o in t s
-
Of t h e ch o r d H e n c
. e S h o w th a t t h e m i d
p o in t O f a f o ca l ch or d i s a t th e s a m e d i s t a n c e fr om t h e d i r e c
trix a s i t i s fr om th e en d p oin t s Of th e ch or d
-
.
E x er ci ses 1 5
Th e fol l owin g ex er ci s e s e x p r e s s p r op e r ti e s
—2 6 .
Of th e pa rab ol a which in v ol v e an a rbitra ry p oin t on th e p a ra b

Ola . I n o r d e r t o p r ov e th ese p r op e rti e s it wi l l i n g en e ra l b e , , ,
21 . T an g en t s to a p a ra b ol a a t th e e n d p oi n t s Of a f ocal
-
ch or d m e e t a t right a n g l e s on th e d ir e ctrix
22 . I f th e p oin t s of c on ta ct of tw o ta n g e n t s to a p a r a bol a
a r e on th e s a m e s i d e ofth e a x i s a n d a t d i s t a n c e s fr o m th e a x i s
wh ose pr od u ct i s th e s qu a r e of hal f th e l en gth of th e l a tu s

r e ct u m th e ta n g e n ts i n t e r s e ct on th e l a t u s r e c t u m r d u ced
, p o .
23 . Th e e n d p oin t s Of a ch or d Of a p a r ab ol a which su b
-
t en d s a right an gl e a t th e v e rt ex a r e on O p p osi t e s i d e s Of th e
,
a x i s a n d a t d i s ta n c e s fr o m th e a x i s wh ose p r odu ct i s th e
,
s q u a r e Of th e l e n gth Of th e l a t u s r e ct u m .
24 . Th e ch ord s Of a p a r ab ol a which su bt en d a right a n gl e

,
a t t h e v e rt ex p a s s th r ou gh a c om m on i n t on th e i s thi
, p o a x ; s
p oin t i s a t a d i s ta n c e fr om th e v e rt ex e qu a l to th e l a tu s r e c tu m
'
2 5T
.
,
. h e d i s t a n c e fr om th e f o cu s Of a p a r a b ol a to th e p oin t
Of i n t e r s e cti on Of tw o ta n g en t s i s a m ea n p r op orti on al b e tw e en
th e f o ca l r a d ii to th e p oin t s oftan g en cy .
26 . Th e ta n g en ts to a pa ra b ol a a t th e p oi n t s P a n d Q in t e r
s e c t i n T a n d th e n or m a l s a t P a n d Q m ee t i n N
,
Th en th e.
s e g m en t T M wh e r e M i s th e m i d p oin t of TN su b ten d s a
-
i
,
r ig h t a n g l e a t th e f o cu s .
L O C U S P RO B L EM S
27 . Sh o w tha t th e l o cu s Of a p oin tj wh ich m ov e s so th a t
th e d i f fe r en c e Of th e s l op es Of th e l i n e s j o i n i n g it to tw o fi x e d
p o in t s i s c on s t a n t
y
i s a p a r a bol a thr ou gh t h e t w o fi x ed
p o i n t s
.
Wha t a r e i ts ax i s an d v e rt ex
28 . D e t er m in e th e l ocu s Of a p oin t which m ov e s S O tha t i ts
d i s ta n c e fr o m a fix e d circl e e qu a l s i t s d i s t a n c e fr om a fi x ed
l i n e p as s i n g thr ou gh th e c en t e r Of th e circ l e .
An s Tw o e qu a l p a r ab ol a s with f o ci a t th e c en t e r Of th e
.
,
circl e an d a x e s p e rp en d icul a r t o th e fix ed l in e .
29 . Th e ba s e Of a tri an g l e i s fi x e d an d th e s u m of th e trig o
n om e tr i c t a n g e n t s of th e b a s e a n g l e s i s c on s ta n t F in d th e
'
l ocu s Ofth e v e rt ex .
C HA P TE R V I I
THE E LL I P S E
1 . Defini ti on . An
i p s e i s d efi n ed a s th e l ocu s Of a p oin t
el l
P th e s u m of wh o se d i s ta n c e s fr om tw o giv e n p o in t s F a n d
, ,
F
’
i s c on s ta n t
,
I t i s f ou n d con
.
v e n i e n t t o d e n ot e thi s c on s tan t
by 2 a Th en .
( )
1 FP + F P : 2 a
’
.
It i s r t
u n d e s oo d , o f c ou r s e tha t ,
P
al wa y s l i es i n a fi x e d p l an e p a s s
i n g thr ou gh F a n d F ’
.
FIG 1
Th e p oi n t s F a n d F a r e ca l l e d
.
th e f oci Of th e e l l i p s e I t i s c l e a r th a t . 2 a mu st b e gr ea te r
tha n th e d i s ta n c e b e tw e en th e m .
M ech a n i ca l Con s tr u cti on . F r o m th e d efi n iti on

Of th e el l i p se
a S i m p l e m e ch a n ic a l c on s tr u cti on r e a d i l y p r e s e n t s it s e l f Le t .
a s tr i n g o fl e n gth 2 a h a v e i t s e n d s f a s t e n e d a t F a n d F
'
’
, , an d ,
l e t th e s trin g b e k e p t t a u t by a p e n ci l p oi n t a t P AS th e .
p e n ci l m
'
o v e s i t s, p o i n t Obvi ou s l y tr a c e s ou t on t h e a
p p e r th e
el l ip se .
Th e s t u d en t wil l fin d it c on v en i e n t t o u se t w o th u mb ta c k s
p a rti a l l y i n se rt e d a t F a n d F A s i l k thr ea d ca n b e ti e d to
’
.
on e Of th e th u m b t a c k s a n d w ou n d r ou n d th e o th e r S O th a t
it wil l n ot Sl i p Thu s a v a ri e ty Of el l i p se s with d iffe r en t foci

.
a n d d iff e r e n t v a l u e s Of a ca n b e d r a wn .
Le t th e s t u d en t m a k e fi n a l l y one el l i p se i n thi s m a nn e r a n d ,
d r a w it n e at l y .
1 02 AN ALYT I C G E O M E T R Y
Cen ter , Ver ti ces, Ax es I t i s Obvi ou s fr o m th e d efi

. n i ti on ,
a n d th e fa ct b e c om es m or e s tri k i n g fr om th e m e ch a n ic a l c on
stru cti on —tha t th e e l l ip se i s sy mm e tric i n th e l in e thr ou gh

,
th e f oci I t i s a l so s y mm e tric i n th e p e r p e n d ic u l a r bi se ct o r
.
Of F F H en c e it i s sy m m e tric fu rth e r m or e i n th e m i d p oin t

’
.
, ,
-
O Of th e l i n e FF ,
’
.
Th e i n d efi n it e l in e thr ou gh
th e f o ci F a n d F i s ca l l e d th e ’
, ,
tr a n s ver s e a x i s Of th e e l l i p se ;
th e p e r p en d icu l a r bi se ct or of
TE th e conj u ga te a xi s Th e ’
,
.
p oin t 0 i s c a l l e d th e cen ter Of

th e e l l i p se ; th e p oin t s A A
’
, ,
i ts v er ti ces .
Th e l in e g m en t s AA a n d
-
se
’
BB ’
whi ch m ea su r e th e l en gth a n d
,
br ea d th Of th e e l l ip se ,
are k n o wn r e s p e ctiv e l y a s th e m aj or a xi s a n d th e mi nor

a x i s Of th e e l l i p se Th e w or d a x e s r e f e r s s om e ti m es t o
.
“ ”
th e tr a n sv e r se a n d c on j u g a t e a x e s a n d s om e ti m e s to th e m a j o r
,
a n d m i n o r a x e s o r th e ir l e n gth s th e c on t ex t m a k i n g c l e a r i n
, ,
a n y c a s e th e m ea n i n g
'
Wh en P i s a t A e qu a ti on (1 ) b e c om es
,
FA F A
’
2 a .
AA ’
2 a and GA a .
Thu s it r tha t th e l en g th of th e sem i a x i s maj or C A

a p p ea s -
, ,
is a . Le t th e l e n gth Of th e m i n o r ax i s b e d en ot e d by 2 b a n d ,
th e d i s t a n c e b e tw e en th e f o ci by 2 0 Th en fr om th e trian gl e .
,
F O B w e ha v e :
,
( )
2
‘
2
a b 2
c
?
.
N ot etha t , ofth e thr ee qu an titi e s a, b, a n d c, th e qu an tity a
is al w ay s th e l a rg e s t .
E ccen tr i ci ty . Al l circl e s hav e th e sa m e S hap e i ,

. e . ar e i m i_ S
l ar ; and th e sa m e i s tr u e Of p a ra b ol a s B u t it i s . n ot tr u e Of
5E .
p r
x e s s th e e cc e n tricity o fa n e l l i p s e i n t e r m s o fb a nd c .
6 . Sh ow fr om F i g 2 th a t th e e cc e n tricity i s gi v e n by th e
,
.
,
fo r m u l a
e c
p O FB
s
7 . G iv e a p r oo f b a s e d o
,
n s i m i l a r tri a n g l es th a t tw o e l l i p s e s ,
,
havin g th e s a m e e cc e n tricity a r e s i m il a r .
2 Geometr i cal Constr u cti on i mP oi n t s

b on th el l
,
.
e .
p s e a y e
Obta in ed with s p e e d a n d a ccu ra cy by a s i m p l e g e om e trica l

con s tr u cti on D ra w th e m a j o r .
a x i s a n d m a r k th e p oi n t s A F , ,
F A on it M a r k a n a rbitra ry
’ ’
,
.
p oi n t Q b e tw e en F a n d F ’
.
F A
With F a s c en t e r a n d A Q a s
ra d iu s d e s crib e a circl e a n d ,
F G 3 I .
with F a s c en t e r a n d A Q a s
’ ’
ra d iu s d e s crib e a s e c on d circl e .
Th e p oi n t s o f i n t e r se cti on Of th e s e tw o circ l es wi l l l i e on th e
e l l i p s e s i n c e th e su m Of th e r a d ii i s
,
Of c ou r se n ot n e c e ssa ry t o d ra w th e c om pl e te circl e s
I t i s, , ,
b u t onl y S o m u ch Of th e m a s to d e t e r m i n e th e ir p oi n t s Of i n
‘
t e r secti on M o r e ov e r f
. ou r
p o i n t s i n s t
,
e a d Of tw o ca n b e Oh , ,
ta i n ed fr om ea ch p a ir Of s e tt i n g s Of th e c om p a sse s by s i m p l y
r ev e r s in g th e r Ol e s Of F a n d F
’
.
EX E R C IS ES
X 1 . C on stru c t th e
i p se for whi ch 0 2 % cm a 4 cm
el l .
,
.
2 F r om th e e l l i p se j u s t c on s tr u ct e d m a k e a t e m p l e t with
.
,
h ol e s a t th e foci an d with th e ax es p r op e rl y d ra wn “
3 C on s tr u ct th e e l l i p se wh ose a x e s a r e 4 c m a n d 6 cm
.
-
. .
3 . E qu ati on of th e El l i p se . It i s na ut ra l to ch oose th e ax e s
‘
ofth e e l l i p se as th e c oord in a t e ax e s
( g
F i . Let th e foci li e
THE E L LIP SE .
10 5
on th e i
a x s o f x , an d l et P :(x y) ,
be a ny p oin t Of th e el l i p se .
Th en fr om , 1,
( )
1
Tra n sp os e on e Of th e r a d ica l s and s qu a r e

(5 10
9
2
+y = 2
(5 8
9
2
+y
?
4 a
m +
Hen ce
( )
2
TO r e m ov e thi s ra d ica l ,
s qu a r e a g a i n
( )
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 z 4
2 2 2 2
‘
“ 93 “ 0 93 “ 0 d y a a cx c x ;
)
2
(
2 z g 2 z
or c x a a
y a
B u t, by 1, a 2
C
a
z
an d h en c e
fi
( )
4
'
'
6 2x ? a
-
y
2
a b ,
l
f
“
01
5
( ) 2 é
2
2
’
2
z
1 .
Thi s i s th e st an d a r d for m Of th e e qu a ti on Of th e e l l i p se r e ,
f e rr e d to i ts a x e s a s th e ax e s of c oor d in a t es Th e p r oof h ow
. .
,
e v e r i s n ot a s y e t c om p l e t e for it r e m a i n s t o S h o w c on v e r se l y
5
, , , ,
tha t an y p oin t (x y) wh os e c oor d in a t e s sa ti s fy e qu a ti on ( )

,
i s a p oin t Of th e e l l i p s e To d o thi s it i s su ffici e n t to Sh ow

5
.
,
th a t x y sa ti s fy
,
F r om ( ) w e m ou n t u p t o (4 ) a n d th en c e '
to s in c e a l l Of th ese a r e e q u i v a l e n t e q u a ti on s Wh en .
,
how ev e r w e e x tr a ct a s q u a r e r oo t
,
we Ob ta in two qu a ti on s
e
e a ch ti m e a n d S O w e a r e l e d fi n a l l y
, , ,
to th e four e qu a ti on s
th e am bigu ou s S ign s b e in g ch os en i n a l l p os s ibl e wa y s . Th e

f ou r e qu a ti on s ca n b e ch a r a ct e ri z e d a s f ol l ow s
i i)
1 11
) iv)
W e wi sh h ow tha t i ) i s th e on l y p os s ibl e on e of th e f ou r
to S
e qu a ti on s Thi s i s d on e a s f ol l ow s
. .
E qu a ti on iv) i s sa ti sfi e d by n o p a ir Of va l u es for x a n d y ,
S i n c e th e l e f t h a n d s i d e i s a l w a y s n e g a tiv e a n d S O can n e v e r b e
-
e qu a l to th e p os itiv e q u a n tity 2 a .
E qu a ti on s ii ) a n d iii ) sa y tha t th e d i fie r en ce Of th e d i s ta n c e s
Of (x y) fr om F a n d F i s e qu a l to 2 a a n d h e n c e gr ea t e r than
,
’
,
th e l i n e F F 2 c Thu s i n th e tria n gl e F P F th e d iffe r en c e

’ ’
,
.
o ftw o S i d e s i s gr ea t e r th a n th e t h ir d s i d e a n d thi s i s ab su r d fi “
,
H en c e e qu a ti on s ii ) a n d iii) a r e i m p os s ibl e a n d e qu a ti on i)
a l on e r e m a i n s q e d
5
. . .
,
C on se qu en tl y if w e s ta rt with e qu a ti on ( ) a s giv e n a n d
5
,
r e qu ir e t ha t a b th en ( ) r ep r e s e n t s a n e l l ip s e with ,
se m i a x e s a a n d b a n d f o ci i n th e p oin t s ( j :
-
c wh e r e ,
Th e F oca l R a d i i . F r om e qu a ti on (2 ) we Obta in a i m pl e
S
r i for th e l en gth Of th e foca l

e x p e ss on r a d i u s, F P
’
. D i vi d in g
by a and reme m b e ri n g th a t c a ha ve :
( )
2 / e ,
we
B u t th e v al u e Of th e l e ft -
han d Si d e ofthi s e qu a ti on i s p r e ci sel y
F P ’
. H en c e
( )
6 F P ’
a ex .
rt
If, i n p a i cu l a , th e p oi n r t ( x, y) l ay on F F ’, w e s h ou l d n ot , i t is
tr u e, h a e a v i a n gl e tr
B ut i t i s . at on ce O b v i ous th at in th i s case, t oo,
e qu a ti ons ii ) a nd ii i ) ar e i m p ossi b l e .
1 08 AN ALYT I C GE O M E TR Y
F i n d th e l e n gth s o f th e a x e s , th e c oor d in a t e s of th e foci ,
and th e va l u e of th e e cc en tricity for ea ch o f th e f ol l o wi n g
e l l i p se s =t edé a f
f a J “
flue nt e
”
5 5
. /
.
ef
( )
a 9x + 4 2
y 2 = 36 ; ( )
d x
2
+ 3y = 4 2 °
a
( )
b 3x 2
+2 () e 2 x + 7 y = 10 ;
2 2
(c) + 2y = 4; (f) 11 = 3
2 2 2 2
x x + y .
4 . Tangents . Th e el l ip se h a s th e r e m a r k a bl e p r op e rty tha t

th e ta ngen t to th e . cu r ve p o i n t m a kes equ a l a ngl es w i th
a t a ny
th e foca l r a di i d r a wn to th a t p o i n t
xF P T xF ’
P T ’
.
i) i m pl e s t
M ech a n i ca l P r oof . Th e s
p r oo f o f thi s th e o r e m i s a m e ch a ni c a l
on e Thin k Of a fl ex ibl e in e l a s tic s trin g
.
,
of l en g th 2 a with i t s e n d s fa s t e n e d a t
th e f o ci F a n d F Su p p o se a s m al l ’
,
.
,
s m ooth b ea d t o b e thr ea d e d on thi s s tri n g Le t a c o r d b e .
fa s te n e d to th e b ea d a n d th en p u l l e d t au t S O tha t th e c or d ,
a n d th e t w o p o rti on s Of th e s trin g wi l l b e u n d e r t en s i on .
E vi d e n tl y th e b ea d ca n b e h e l d i n thi s m a nn e r a t a n y p oin t
,
.
(N O f o rc e Of gr a vity i s su pp ose d t o a ct T h e s tri n g s a n d b ea d .
m a y b e th ou ght Ofa s r e s tin g on a s m ooth h ori z on ta l t ab l e ) .
Th e f orc e s tha t a ct on th e b ea d a r e
e t e n s i on S i n th e c o r d ;
( )
a t h
o e qu a l t e n s i on s R tri ng
( )
b t w i n t h e s , , ,
d ir e ct e d r e s p e ctiv e l y t o wa r d th e f o ci *
.
D ra w th e p a ra l l e l ogr a m Of fo rc e s for th e
f orc es R I t wil l b e a rh om bu s a n d SO
.
,
th e r e s u l ta n t Of th e s e f o rc e s wi l l bi se ct F 6 IG .
th e a n g l e b e tw e e n th e f o c a l r a d ii .
O n th e o th e r h a n d th e f o rc e S e qu a l a n d O p p os it e to thi s
, ,
r e su l t an t i s p e r p en d icu l a r to th e ta n g en t a t P I n fa ct if
, .
,
it
Si n ce th e b ea d i s s m ooth , th e tensi on i n th e stri ng i s th e sa m e a t al l
i ts p oi n ts ,
a n d so, i n pa rti c ul a r , i s th e sa me on t h e tw o s i d es O f th e b e ad .
THE E LLIPSE 09
in st ead Of th e fl ex ibl e s tri n g w e h ad a sm ooth r i gi d w i r e i n th e ,
for m ofth e el l i p s e for th e b ea d to Sl i d e on th e bea d w ou l d b e

, ,
h el d a t P by th e c o r d e x a ct l y a s b e for e B u t th e r e a cti on Of .
a s m oo th wir e i s a t right a n g l e s to i t s ta n g e n t Thi s i s th e .
v e ry c on c e p ti on Of a s mooth wir e F or o th e rwi s e if S w e r e .

,
Obl iqu e it c ou l d b e r e s ol v e d i n t o a n or m a l a n d a ta n g en tia l

,
c om p on en t B u t th e s m ooth wir e c ou l d n ot yi el d a r ea cti on

.
,
p a rt o f which i s a l on g th e t a n g e n t .
I t f oll ow s th en th a t th e n o r m a l a t P bi s e ct s th e a n g l e b e
, ,
twe en th e fo ca l ra d ii a n d h en c e th e s e m a k e e qu a l a n g l e s with
,
th e t a n g e n t a t P q e ( i ,
. . .
ii) P r oof by M ea ns ofM i ni mu m D i s ta n ces A L emma A . .
ba rn ya r d i s b ou n d e d on on e S i d e by a s tra ight riv e r Th e .
c ow s a s th e y c om e fr om th e pa s tu r e
, ,
e n t e r th e b a r n y a r d by a g a t e a t A ,
g o t o t h e riv e r t o d ri n k a n d th e n ,
k ee p on to th e d oo r Of th e ba r n a t B .
Wha t poi n t P Of th e riv e r s h ou l d a

, ,
c o w s e l e ct i n o r d e r to s a v e h e r s t e p s
, Fm 7 .
so f a r a s p o ss ib l e
I t i s e a s y t o a n s w e r thi s q u e s ti on by m ea n s Of a S i m p l e con
s tr u cti on F r om B d r op a p er p e n d icu l a r B M on th e l i n e Of
.
th e riv e r b a n k L a n d p r od u c e it to B m ak i n g M B = B M ’ ’
, , ,
J o in A with B a n d l e t AB cu t L a t C Th e n C i s th e p os i
’ ’
.
,
ti on o fP for which th e d i s ta n c e u n d e r c on si d e r a ti on
, ,
AP PB ,
i s l ea s t .
F or , th e s tra ight l in e AB ’
is S h o rt e r tha n an y br o k e n l in e
AP B ’
AB < AR R
PB PB
’
and CB CB ’
.
AB : A C ’
CB a nd AP B : AP ’
PB .
It fol l ow s th en tha t
, ,
A O + OB < AP + P B ,
if P is any p o i n t Of L d i s tin ct fr om C . H e n c e C i s th e p oin t
for which AP B i s a m in i m u m .
Th e p o in t C i s e vi d e n tl y cha ra ct e ri z e d by th e fa ct th a t
xA ON =
xB CM .
W e ca n t t
s a e th e r e s ul t th e n by
, ,
sa yin g tha t th e p o i n t P , for
wh i ch th e d i s ta n ce AP B i s l ea s t, i s th e p oi n t for w h i ch
2; AP N : z; B P M .
Op ti ca l I nterp r eta ti on ha v e u s e d a h om el y ex a m p l e Of
. W e
c ow s a n d a ba rn ya r d Th e p r obl e m w e ha v e s ol v ed i s h owe v e r
.
, ,
i d en tica l with th e op tica l pr obl e m o f fi n d in g th e p o in t a t

which a r ay Of l ight e m a n a tin g fr om A wi l l s tri k e a p l an e
, ,
m irr or L if th e r e fl e ct e d r a y i s t o p a s s thr ou gh B
,
F or t h e .
,
l a w Of l ight i s th a t it wi l l tr a v e l th e d i s ta n c e i n th e s h ort e s t
,
p os s ib l e ti m e a n d h en c e it wil l ch o ose th e Sh o rt es t p a th
, .
App l i ca ti on to th e E ll i p s e . Th e
ica ti on Of thi s r e su l ta pp l
to th e el l i pse i s a s f ol l o w s Th e ta n g en t to a n y s m ooth cl os e d
.
, ,
c on v ex cu rv e e vi d en tl y i s cha ra ct e ri z e d
by th e fa ct tha t it m e e t s th e cu rv e i n
o n e a n d onl y o n e p oi n t
, ,
.
Le t P b e a n y p oin t Of th e e l l i p se .
D ra w th e t a n g e n t T a t P Le t Q b e , ,
.
a n y p o in t o f Td i s ti n ct fr o m P N ow .
’ ’
F P FP F R FR,
i c e th e su m Of
s n th e fo ca l r a d ii i s th e sa m e for al l p o n s i t Of an
el l i p s e But
.
FR < R Q+ F Q
an d S O
T
h r f r
e e o e
FQ
’
F P + FP < F Q
’
.
He n c e tha t p oi n t
P is of T for w hich th e d i sta n c e F ’
QF i s
l e a s t a n d c on s e qu e n tl y and ma ke qu a l
’
,
th e l i n e s F P FF e
a n g l e s with T q e d ,
. . .
at th e p o i n t (x 1, y )
, is f ou n d to b e
( )
1
Th e e qu a ti on Of th e t a n g en t l i n e at thi s p o nit is
l
i wi f
e my
( )
2
“
2
3 2
1 .
Th e
J
L a tu s R ectu m— l a tu s
r e ctu m Of an el l ip s e i s d efi n ed a s
‘
fiiIIcu l a r to th e m aj or ax i s a nd pa ssin g thr ou gh

.
iT
ch O I pT
e p
‘
a focu s Th e t e r m i s a l so u se d to m ea n
.
th e l ength Of su ch a ch o r d .
Thu s i n th e el l ip s e ,
5TT
2
y “
1’
2 6
FI G . 10
f oc u s i s a t th e p oin t (3 O) Th e l en gth
on e ,
.
Of th e l a t u s r e ctu m i s twic e tha t Of th e p o s itiv e ord in a t e

c orr e sp on d in g to thi s p oin t Se ttin g th e n x 3 i n th e e qu a
.
, ,
ti on Of th e cu rv e a n d s ol vin g for th a t o r d in a t e w e h av e ,
55
9 16
‘
5
3
y _ 1 ’
16 2 2
H e n c e th e l e n gth o f th e l a tu s r e ctu m i s 6%
EX E R C IS ES
1 . F in d th e e qu a ti on Of th e t an g en t t o th e el l ip s e
55
‘
z
y 1
5
22 2
at th e p o i n t (9 ,
An s . x 4y 2 .
F i n d th e qu a ti on Of th e n or m a l to th e el l i p s e Of E x 1 '
2 e .
m e p o in t . An s 4 x y 3 2 . .
At wha t p oi n t d oe s th e ta n g e n t t o th e e l l i p s e
29 5 2
3y ?
14
at th e p o in t 1 , 2) cu t th e ax s i Of y
THE E L LI P S E
wha t a n gl e d oe s th e s tra ight l in e thr ou gh th e o rigi n ,
e ct s th e a n g l e b e tw e e n th e
p o s itiv e a x e s o fc oor d i n a t e s ,
se 3x 2
4y 2
7 ? An s . 81
°
i n d th e r
a ea Of th e trian gl e cu t Off from th e fir s t qu a d
th e ta n g en t to th e e l l i p s e o f E x 3 a t th e
p oi n t ( 1 .
,
An s . 83 1
.
5
F in d th e l e n gth Of th e l a t u s r e ct u m of th e el l i p s e Of
Ans . 3
Th e sa m e fo r th e ip se
el l o fE x . 3 .
Sh o w th at th e l e n gth Of th e l a t u s r e ctu m Of th e el l i p se
? 2
w y 1’
2
b5
5
a
i s giv en by a n y on e Of th e ex p r e s s i on s
2 2
; 2 b \/1 — e
2
; 2 a ( 1 — e2
) .
F in d i ts va l u e in t e r m s Of c a n d e .
9 F in d th e l e n gth o fth e l a tu s r e ctu m Of th e el l i p se

5
.
2 x
2
16 y 2
4 00 . An s . 6g .
10 . P r ov e tha t th e m i n o r a x i s Of a n el l i p s e i s a m e an p ro
p o rti on al b e tw e e n th e m a j o r a x i s a n d th e l a tu s r e c tu m .
7 . A N ew Locu s Pr obl em . G iv e n a l in e D and a i tF

p o n
v d i s ta n t m fr om D . TO fin d th e l o cu s Of a p i t
o n P s u ch th a t
th e ra ti o of i ts d i s t a n c e F P fr o m F t o y
e qu a l to a gi v en nu m ber ,
e
( )
1 E or FP = e MP .
MP
It i s u nd e r s t ood tha t P hal l b e re

S
s t r i ct e d t o th e p l a n e d e t e r m i n e d by F
and D .
I f, i n pa rticu l a r ,
c = l ,
th e l o cu s FI G . 11
is a p a a r b ol a with D as d ir e ctri x and F as f o cu s ; Ch .
VI , 1 .
To tr ea t th e g en e ra l ca s e l e t D b e ta k e n a s th e a x i s
, of y
and l e t th e o s itiv e a x i s ofa:a s s thr ou gh F Th
p p en .
th e l o w e r s ign h ol d in g on l y wh en a:i s ne g a tiv e ,

and
( )
1 b e
c om e s
( )
2 x/ x (
On s qu a rin g an d tra n sp os in g we o bta i n th e e qu a ti on
( )
3 ( 1 <
2
) w 2 — 2 mx + y 2
m = 0
2
.
Thi s i s th e qu a ti on ofth e p r op os e d l o cu s
e .
Th e s t u d e n t wil l n ow t u r n t o C h X I a n d s t u d y ca r e ful l y .
1 .
E X E R C I S ES
T a ke e
1
7,
it of l en gth b ei n g 1 cm
a nd m = 3 , th e un .
ru l e r
a nd c om p a s se s c on s tru ct a g en e r ou s n u m b e r of
p o i n t s o f t h e l o c u s
*
a n d th e n d r a w i,
n t h e l o cu s with a c l ea n ,
fir m l in e .
W or k ou t th e e qu a ti on of th e l ocu s of E x 1 d ir e ct l y .
,
u s m g th e m e th od o f th e f o r e g oin g t e x t b u t n o t l o ok i n g a t th e ,
f or mul a s . An s 3 x 2
4y ?
2 4 a: 3 6 O . .
3 .T a k e 5 g a n d m 4 th e u n it of l e n gth b e in g 1 cm , .
D r a w th e l o cu s a ccu ra t e l y a s i n E x 1 ,
. .
W or k ou t d ir e ctl y th e e qu a ti on ofth e l o c u s ofE x 3

5
4 . . .
An s 1 6 a} ?
2 y
? 2 00 5
:
1 4 00
5B y m
. .
. ea n s o f a tra n sfor m a ti on to p a ra l l el ax e s s h ow th a t
th e cu rv e of Ex . 2 i s a n e l l i p se wh o s e c e n t e r
_
is a t th e p o in t
( , )
4 O wh ose
an d a x e s a r e o f l e n gth s 4 a n d Wha t i s i t s
e cc e n tricity
5
9
Th d tai l s f t h e c onstr cti on a an b vi o m odi fi ati on of th
e e o u re o us c e
corres p on d i n g n str cti n f th e p ar b ol i n C h VI

co u o 1
or A ci r l e of a a .
,
. c
a rb i tr a ry ra di us i s d rawn wi th i t s e nter a t F a n d th i ci r cl e i t by a
c , s s cu
p ar all el t o D wh ose di tan ce from D i s twi ce th e r adi us ofth e ci r cl e

,
s .
Thu s th e l oc u s is see n to b e an el l ip s e wi th i ts c en t e r , at
th e p oin t
m
( )
7
1 6
2
,
0
th e i ax es b e in g giv en by
sem -
Th e v a l u e ofc i s gi v en by th e e qu a ti on 2
c b 2
. H en c e
‘
2
m
( )
8
1 6
2
Th e e cc en tricity ,
e c
/a, is n o w se e n to b e p r e ci sel y e
e e ,
i . e . th e gi ven con s ta n t, e, tu r n s ou t to be th e ecce n tr i ci ty o f th e
ell ip s e .
F in all y, F i s on e o f th e foc i . F or , th e d i s ta n c e from F to O ’
m
00 OF
an dthi s by i s p r e ci sel y c
,
.
Th e l in e D i s c a l l e d a d i r ectr i x of th e el l i p se I t s d i st an c e
‘
from th e c en t e r i s
m me 1 a
1 — 6
2
1 — 6
2
6
Th e D i r ectr i ces . F r om th e y mm e try

ip s e it 1 8
s of th e el l
cl ea r th a t th e r e i s a s e c on d d ir e ctrix D
on th e o th e r s i d e o f ,
’
,
th e con j u ga t e a x i s p a r a l l e l t o t ha t
'
ax i s an d at th e s a m e d i s ta n c e,
fr om it a s D T h i s l in e D an d .
’
th e f o c u s F s ta n d i n th e sa m e r e ’
l a ti on t o th e e l l i p s e a s th e fir s t '
D l i n e D a n d th e f o c u s F Thu s
, , .
F 13 IG . th e e l l i p s e i s th e l o cu s of a p oin t
so m ovi n g th a t i t s d i s t a n c e fr om a
focu s a l wa y s b ea r s to i ts d i sta n c e fr om th e c o rr esp on d in g

d ir e ctri x th e s a m e r a ti o e th e e cc en tricity , , .
Si n c e th e d i s t an c e ofD fr om th e c en t e r ofth e e l l i p se i s a / e ,
th e e qu a ti on s ofth e d ir e ctric es ofth e e l l i p se

THE E LLI PS E 1 17
EX E RC I S ES
r
1 Sh o w tha t th e d i s ta n c e s of th e ve rtic es A a nd A '
fr om
y
, ,
Da re
ol l e c t fo r e g oi n g r e su l t s i n a sy l l a bu s a rra n g e d i n
th e ,
"
for m g i v i n g ea ch of th e qu a n titi e s a b c
, 0A , , , ,
0 A O F OF i n t e r m s ofm a n d e
’ ’
, , .
3 . W or k ou t ea ch of th e qu an titi e s ofE x .2 d ir e ct l y for th e

e l l i p s e of 7 E x 4 a n d v e rify th e r esu l t by s u b s titu ti n g th e
,
.
,
v al u e s e m 4 i n th e f or m u l a s of th e s y l l a b u s g a
g , . s.
4 . B e tw e e n th e fi ve c on s t a n t s of th e e l l i se
p a b c e m , , , , , ,
th e r e ex i s t th r ee r e l a ti on s whic h m a y b e writt e n i n a va ri e ty
,
of w a y s as f or e x a m p l e
, ,
i) iii ) m
B y m ea n s th e se r el a ti on s a ny thr e e of th e fiv e qu a n titi e s
of ,
ca n b e e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f th e oth e r t w o Thu s i n E x 2 .
,
.
,
m an d e a r e ch os en a s th e q u a n titi es i n t e r m s of which a l l
oth e r s s h a l l b e e x p r e sse d .
T a k i n g th e s e m i a x e s a a n d b (a b) a s th e pr efe rr ed pa ir
-
, , , ,
th e oth er qu a n titi es i n t e r m s ofth e m .
ow th a t th e ta n g en t to th e e l l i p s e
a t an ex tr e m i ty of a l a tu s
r e ctu m c u t s th e tran sv e r se ax s i in
th e sa m p oi
en t i n whic h t h i s ax i s i s cu t by a d ir e ctrix .
Th e sa m e fo r a ny e l lip se .
P r ov e d ir e ct l y tha t if P i s
,
any p i t
o n ofth e e l l i p se
th e ra t i o of i ts d i st an c e fr om a fo c u s to i ts d i st an c e fr om th e
c orr es p on d in g d i r e ctri x i s e qu a l to th e e cc en tricity .
a n e l l i p se th e m a j o r a x i s i s a m e a n r o o r
p p
d i s ta n c e b e tw e en th e f o ci a n d th e d i s t a n c e
b e tw een th e d ir e ctric e s .
9 . Sh o w th a t th e d i st a n c e s fr om th e c en te r a n d a fo cu s of
a n e l l i p s e t o th e d ir e ctri x c o rr e s p on d i n g t o th e f oc u s a r e i n
th e sa m e r a ti o a s th e s qu a r e s of th e s e m i a x i s m a j o r an d th e -
.
s e m i a x i s m in o r
-
.
Th e Pa r ab ol a as th e Li mi t of Ell i pses W e ha v e pr ov e d
'
9 . .
tha t when ,
1 e qu a ti on
6 ,
7 r e p r e s en t s a n el l i p se with
,
e cc en tricity e W e e .
kn ow th a t if =i th e ,
c ,
e qu a ti on r ep r es en t s a
p a ra b ol a I f th en i n th e .
, ,
e q ua ti on w e a l l ow to e
a p p r oa ch 1 thr ou gh v a l u es
1 th e e l l i p se which th e
,
e q u a t i o n de f i n e s a p
r oa ch e s a p a r a b ol a a s i t s
p
l i m it .
W e ca n vi s u a l i z e th e
e ll i p s e g oin g ov e r in t o ,
a p a r a b ol a by d r a win g ,
a nu m b e r of e l l i p se s
havin g th e s a m e va l u e of
m b u t h a v in g v a l u es for
,
which a r e in cr ea s in g t owa rd 1
e
a s th e ir l i m it vi z ,
. e Th e d ir e ctrix D
e e ,
a l on g th e ax i s of y a n d th e f o cu s F : m a r e th e sa m e f
, ( 0 ) ,
or
a ll th e e ll ip se s B u t th e c en t e r 0 an d th e right h an d v e rt ex
’
-
1 20 AN ALYT I C G E OM E TR Y
Th ese p a ra m etric r e p r e sen ta ti on s th ou gh l ittl e u s ed i n Ana

,
l ytic G eom etry a r e a n i m p ortan t a i d i n th e C a l cu l u s

,
.
Th e l a rg e r of th e tw o circl e s i n F i g
5
.
1 i s c om m on l y c al l e d th e a u x i l i a r y
( y) ci r cl e of th e e l l i p se a n d th e p oin t s R
x, ,
a n d P a r e kn ow n a s cor r esp on d i n g p oi n ts .
Th e an gl e 1 i s ca l l ed th e eccen tr i c a n g l e
<; .
EX E R Cl S E
Fm . 16
B y m ea n s of th ef or e g oin g m e th od ,
d ra w on s qu a r e d a
p p e r a n e l l i p s e wh o se
a x e s a r e o fl e n g th 4 cm . and 6 cm .
EX E R C I S ES O N C HAPTE R VII
rth m ov e s a b ou t th e su n i n an el l ip tic orbit

he ea Th e .
s hort e st a n d l on g e s t d i s ta n c e s fr om it t o th e su n a r e i n th e
r a ti o 2 9 30 Wha t 1 8 th e e cc en tricity ofth e orbit

.
ow th a t th e s l o es o f th e t a n g en t s t o a n e l l i p s e a t th e
p
es o fth e l a t e r a r e ct a a r e i e .
Th e a x e s of a n e l l ip s e which g oe s t hr ou gh th e p oi n t s
2 ) a r e th e a x e s of c oor d i n a t e s F i n d i ts e qu a ti on
:
. .
Z Th e c en t e r of a n e l l i p se i s i n th e o rigin a n d th e f o ci a r e
i
L
.
on th e a i s o a
x f T h e e i p se h a s a n e cc en tricity o g an d g oe s
. l l f 3 r
thr ou gh th e p oin t (1 2 Wha t i s i ts e qu a ti on 7

,
‘
; 1 69
5 5
9 2
(1 y
+
2 16 2
,
ol v e th e p r e c ed in g p r obl e m if th e f o ci m ay l i e on e ith e r
c oor d in a t e s 1 hf
1
.
-
F in d th e e qu a ti on s of th e e l l i p s es which h a v e th e a x e s
or d in a t e s a s a x es g o thr ou gh th e p oi n t ( 3
,
a nd ha v e ,
m a j or a n d m in o r a x e s i n th e r a ti o 3 2 I
7 . Sh o w th a t th e e l l i p s e s r e p r e se n t e d by th e e qu a ti bn
2w —
I 3y
2
? 2
6 ,
* Th e ts d es cri b e el li ps
p l ane e s ab ou t th e s u n as a fo cu s , and th e c om e s t
us u all y d escri b e p arab ol as wi th t h e su n a s th e focu s .
THE E LL IP SE 12 1
a rbitra ry itiv e c on s tan t a r e s i m il a r Wh a t

p o s , .
v a l u e o fth e e cc e n tricity
H ow m a n y e l l i p se s a r e th e r e with e cc e n tricity ha vi n g
th e ir c en t e r s i n th e o rigin a n d th e ir fo ci on th e ax i s of x ?
D e d u c e a n e qu a ti on which r e p r e s en t s th e m a l l .
An s . 3m
2 - ?
c .
9 . Th e fo ci of a n e l l i p s e l i e m i d wa y b e tween th e c en t e r
a n d th e v e rtic e s . Wha t i s th e e cc en tricity H ow m a n y su ch
e l l i p se s a r e th e r e with c e n t e r s i n th e o rig i n a n d f o ci o n th e
,
ax i
s bf 93 ? Writ e a n e qu a ti on which r e p r es e n t s th e m a l l .
(19 ) Th e l in e j oin in g th e l e ft han d v e rt ex of an el l ip s e with

-
m ity of th e m i n o r a x i s i s p a ra l l el t o th e l i n e
with th e u p p e r e x tr e m ity of th e right
r e ctu m An sw e r th e q u e sti on s of th e p r e c e d in g
.
f oci of a n ip s e su bt en d a right an g l e a t e ith e r

el l
e x tr e m ity of th e m i n o r a x i s
. Wha t i s th e e cc en tricity ?
.
F i n d th e e q u a ti on of a l l s u ch e l l i p se s with c en t e r s i n th e
origi n and f o ci on th e ax i s ofy .
P r ov e th a t th e r a ti o of th e d i s ta n c e fr om a f o cu s of a n
"
t o th e i n t e r se cti on with th e tra n s v e r se a x i s of th e

n o r m a l a t a p oi n t P a n d th e d i s t a n c e fr om thi s f o cu s t o P
,
e qua l s th e e cc e n tricity o f th e e l l i p s e .
13 . Th e p r oj e cti ons of a p oi n t P of a n e l l i p se on th e tr a n s
v e r s e a n d c onj u g a t e a x e s a r e P a n d P 2 Th e ta n g en t a t P
I .
m e e t s th e s e a x es i n TI a n d T2 P r ov e th a t GP
. OT a an d
2
l
GP 2 O T 2
= b wh e r e 0 i s th e c e n t e r a n d a a n d b a r e th e
2
,
se m i a x es of th e e l l i p s e
-
.
14 . P r ov e th a t th e s e g m en t of a ta n g ent to a n e l l i p se b e
tw een th e p oin t of c on ta ct a nd a d ir e ctrix su bt en d s a right
a n g l e a t th e c o rr es p on d i n g f o cu s .
1 5D e t e r m in e th e p oin t s ofa n e l l i p s e a t which th e ta n g en t s

.
ha v e in t e rc e pt s on th e a x e s wh os e a b s ol u t e v a l u e s a r e pr op or
ti ona l to th e l en gt h s ofth e a x es .
16 Thr ou gh a p oin t M ofth e m aj or a x i s ofa n e l l i p se a l in e
.
i s d ra wn p a r a l l el to th e c on j u g a t e a x i s m ee tin g th e e l l i p s e i n
,
P a n d th e t a n g e n t a t a n ex tr e m ity of th e l a tu s r e c tu m i n Q .
Sh o w th a t th e d i s t a n c e MQ e qu a l s th e d i s ta n c e ofP fr om th e
focu s c orr esp on d in g to th e l a tu s r e ct u m ta k en .
17
~
P r ov e th a t th e l i n e j o i n in g a p oi n t P of a n e l l ip s e with
.
th e c e n t e r a n d th e l i n e thr ou gh a f oc u s p e r p en d icu l a r t o th e
tan g en t a t P m e e t on a d ir e ctrix .
18 P r ov e th a t th e d i s t a n c e fr om a f o cu s F to a p o in t P of
.
a n e l l i p s e e q u a l s th e d i s t a n c e fr om F t o th e t a n g e n t to th e
a u x i l i a ry circ l e at th e p oi n t c o rr es p on d in g t o P .
19 F in d th e e q u a ti on of a circ l e which i s t an g en t to th e
.
el l i p se
902 2
y _ 1
2 2
a b
at
/
b oth e n d s ofa l a tu s r e ctu m .
In ip se wh os e m a j or a x i s i s twic e th e m in or ax i s
a n el l ,
a e of l en gth e qu a l t o th e m i no r a x i s h a s o n e en d on th e
e l l i pse th e oth e r on th e c on j u g a t e a x i s
,
Th e tw o e n d s a r e
.
al wa y s on opp os it e s i d e s of th e tra n s v e r se a x i s P r ov e tha t .
th e m i d p oin t ofth e l in e l i es a l wa y s on th e tra n s v e r s e a x i s

-
.
21 A nu m b e r of e l l i p s e s h a v e th e sa m e m a j or a x i s b oth i n
.
l en gth a n d p os iti on A t a n g en t i s d r a w n t o e a ch e l l i p s e a t
.
th e u pp e r e x tr e m ity of th e right h a n d l a tu s r e ctu m

-
P r ov e .
tha t th e s e t an g en t s al l pa s s thr ou g h a p oin t .
E x er ci s es 2 2 — 28 th e s e e x e rci s es i n which p r op e rtie s i n

. In ,
v ol vin g a n a rbitra ry p oin t P of an el l ip se a r e to b e p r ov ed it ,
wi l l i n g en e ra l b e n e c e s sa ry to m a k e a ctu a l u se of th e e qu a
, ,
ti on ex p r e s sin g th e fa ct tha t th e p oin t P l i e s on th e el l ip se .
22 Th e t an g en t to a n el l i p s e a t a p oin t P m ee t s th e tan
.
g en t a t on e v e rt ex i n Q P r o v e tha t th e l in e j oi n i n g th e oth e r
.
v e rt ex to P i s pa r a l l e l to th e l in e j oin in g th e c e n t e r to Q .
23 Th e l in es j oin in g th e ex tr e m iti e s ofth e m in or a x i s with

.
ap om t P of an e l l ip se m e et th e transv e r se ax i s i h th e p oin t s .
C HAP TE R V I I I
THE HY P E R B OLA
I’
M . A h yp er bola i s d efin e d as th e l o cu s of a p oin t
P , th e d i ff
eren c e of whose d i s tan c e sfr om tw o giv en p o i n t s, F
an d F i s c on s ta n t
’
,
I t i s f ou n d .
c on v en i e n t to d en ot e thi s c on s tan t
‘
by 2 a Th en .
[
FP F P 2 a,
or F P FP 2 a .
It i s un de r s t ood ,
of c ou r se th a t P ,
Fm 1 .
r e s trict e d t o a is p a rtic ul a r
p l a n e
thr ou gh F an d F ’
Th e p oin t s F an d F a r e c al l e d th e foci of th e hy p e rb ol a
’
.
I t i s c l e a r tha t 2 a mu s t b e l ess th an th e d i s ta n ce b e tw ee n
'
th e m D en ot e thi s d i stan c e by 2 c
. .
G eom etr i ca l D r a w th e in d efi n it e l in e ’
Con stru cti on . FF ,
m a r k th e m i d p oi n t , O, -
of th e se g me nt FF ’
,
an d th e p oi n ts A
and A ’
ea ch at a d i s t an c e a
fr om O
Th e p o n i t A l i es on th e l oc u s ;
for ,
FA = c
F1G . 2
an d h en c e F A ’
FA 2 a .
Li k e wi s e , A l i e s ’
cu r v e on th e .
M a r k a ny p oin t N to th e right ofF ,

Wi th r ad iu s AN an d
, .
c en t e r F d e s crib e a circl e N ex t with rad iu s A N a n d c en te r

, .
,
’
124
THE HY PE R B O LA
F
’
,
d es crib e a c circl e Th e p oi n t s P
s e on d .
a nd Q
'
in which
th e se circl e s i n t e r s e ct a r e p o i n t s ofth e l o c u s . F or ,
FF = A N
'
F P — ’
Tw o m or e p oin t s P a nd Q ca n b e obt a i n e d fr om th e sa m e
,
’ ’
,
p a ir o f s e tti n g s by in t e rcha n gin g th e c e n t e r s F a nd F of th e ,

’
,
circ l e s .
B y r ep eati n g th e c on s tr u cti on a n u m b e r o f ti m es a g ood l y

,
a rr a y o f po in t s o f th e hy e rb ol a ca n b e obt a i n e d Th
p es e .
p o i n t s wi l l l i e on t w o d i s tin ct a rc s ,
s y mm e tric t o e a ch o th e r i n th e
“
e
p p r e n d ic u lar bi s e ct or B OB of '
FF ’
. Thu s it wil l b e s een tha t
th e hy p e rb ol a c on s i s t s of t w o
p a rt s o r
, b r a n c h es a s th e y are ,
c a l l e d Th e s e bra n ch e s b es i d e s
.
,
b e in g th e i m a g e s of ea ch oth e r i n F G 3 I .
a r e e a ch th e i m a g e o f it se l f
’
BB ,
i n FF I t i s n a tu r a l t o sp ea k of th e i n d e fin it e s tr a ight l i n es
’
.
F F a n d B B a s th e a x es of th e hy p e rb ol a F F i s c a l l e d th e
’ ’ ’
.
tr a n s v er s e B B th e conj uga te a x i s ; 0 i s th e cen ter a n d A A

’ ’
, , ,
ar e th e ver ti ces
’
.
EX E RC I S E S
1 . T a k in g c 3 cm a n d a . 2 cm .
,
ma k e a cl ean d ra wi ng of
th e c orr es p on d in g hy p e rb ol a .
2 . R e p r od u c e th e d r a wi n g on a rec
tan gu l a r ca r d
with a sha r p kn if e
an d ,
or a s m a l l p a ir o f s c i s s o r s cu t ou t th e ,
c en t e r of th e ca r d a l on g th e hy p e rb ol a
a n d t w o p a r a l l e l s t o th e tr a n s v e r s e a x i s .
O n th e t e m p l e t which r e m a in s m a k e
FI G . 4 h ol es a t th e f oci and d ra w th e tw o ax e s .
Hyp erb ol a . Th e tr ea t m en t h e r e i s p a r al
Le t th e tra n s v e r s e a x i s
be ch osen as th e i
a x s o fv .con j u ga t e ax i s a s th e a x i s ofy
; th e , .
Th en th e e qu a ti on of th e right h a n d br a n ch o f th e hy e rb ol a
-
p
ca n b e writt en i n th e f o r m
Tran sp os e th e fir s t r a d ica l and s qu a r e

( )
2
( 0
2 2
93 C + w + 11
5
2
4 a .
F1e
H en c e
.
( )
2 ) +y =
2 2 2
c a car .
S qu a r e a ga i n
a%
2
2 2
a ca :a 2 2
0 a
2
y
2
a
4
2 a ca2
:
‘
01
(s e r + a r r o
z
Thi s i s p r e ci s el y th e s a m e e qu a ti on tha t p r e s en t ed it sel f i n

th e c a se of th e e l l i p s e ; b u t th e l o cu s i s a cu rv e of wh oll y d i f
Th e r ea s on i s tha t a a n d e hav e d i ffe r en t
.
fe r en t n a t u r e .
,
rel a ti v e va l u es I n th e e l l i p s e a w a s gr ea ter tha n c a n d h en c e

.
, ,
a
2 — c
2
w a s p o s itiv e I t c ou l d b e d en ot e d by b
.
2
H e re a i s .
,
l ess th a n 0 ; a i s n e ga tiv e a n d it ca nn ot b es et e qu a l to b
2
,
2
.
I t ca n h ow e v e r b e se t e qu a l to
, , b Thi s w e wil l d o 2
.
( ) b
2 3
4 c , a
2
b 2
,
thu s defi n i ng th e qu an tity b i n th e ca s e of th e hyp e rb ol a by

th e e qu a ti on
Th e fi n a l e qu a t i on be tw een at an d y ca n n ow be writt en in
th e for m
6)
g m
Thi s e qu ati on i s sa ti sfi e d by th e c oor d in a t e s of a ll p oin t s on
th e right h a n d br a n ch a s i s se en fr om th e w a y i n which it
-
w a s d edu ced I t i s h ow e v e r a l so s a ti sfi e d by th e c oor d in a t e s

.
, ,
of a l l p oin t s on th e l e ft h an d br an ch F or su ch a p oin t th e
-
.
,
2 b, i s cal l ed th e mi nor a xi s a n d thi s t e r m i s a l s o a p p l i ed to ,
i ts l en gth 2 b ,
.
Th e m aj o r a x i s ofa n e l l i p se i s a l wa y s l on g e r than th e m in or
ax i s I n th e c a se of th e hy p e r b ol a h ow e v e r thi s i s n ot a l
.
, ,
way s tru e F or ex a m p l e if 2 0 an d 2 a .
,
a r e t a k e n a s 1 0 a n d 6 r e s p e ctiv e l y th en ,
2 b 8 Thu s th e m a j or a x i s of th e .
hy p e rb ol a i s t o b e u n d e r s t ood a s th e
p ri n ci p a l a x is b u t n ot n e c es sa ri l y a s th e
F 6 IG
l on g e r a x i s
.
Th e eccen tr i ci ty ofth e hy p e rb ol a i s d efi n ed a s th e nu mb e r
C
S in c e gr ea t e r than a th e e cc e n tricity of a hy p e rb ol a i s
0 is ,
a l wa y s gr ea ter th a n u n ity .
Th e e cc en tricity cha r a ct e ri z e s th e sh ap e of th e hy p e rb ol a .
Al l hy p e rb ol as ha vin g th e sa m e e cc en tricity a r e si mi l a r d if fe r ,
i ng on l y i n th e s c al e t o which th e y a r e d r a wn a n d c on v e r sel y ,
cf E x e rci se 8
. .
1
Th e foca l r a d i i F P F P ca n b e r ep r e sen t ed by s i m pl e ex
,
’
p r e s s i on s s i m i l a
,
r t o th o se whi ch p r
. e s e n t e d th e m s e l v e s i n th e
e q u a ti on 2 thr ou gh by ,
a ex .
H e n ce , is a p o n i t o f th e right h an d bran ch
-
’
( )
1 F P ex + a .
Th e e va l ti on ,
( )
2 FP ex
i s obt a in e d i n a Si m i l a r m a nn e r .
*
If P is a p o ni t of th e l e f t h a n d -
bran ch these for m u l a s
,
b e c om e
F P =’
a
) ; FP = —
( ex a
) .
if P b ei ng a p oi n t of th e ri gh t h an d b ran ch -
,
x i s p osi i t ve an d re ater
g
th an or e q u a l to a a l so, 6 1 . He n ce ex > a, and ex a is p os i ti ve
,
as i t sh ou l d b e .
THE HY P E R B O LA 1 29
E X ER C I S E S
1 . F i n d th e l en gth s of th e ax es, th e c oor d in a t e s ofth e foci ,
and th e v alu e of th e e cc e n tricity for ea ch o f th e f ol l owi n g
h
ype fi fi
gl fi .
( ) a
£13
16
2
9
2
y : 1 . An s . 8, 6 ; — 5 ,
1 7,
1
( ) x — = An s 2 a 2 \/2 ,
‘
2
b 9 3
5
y a . . a ; a
24 ()
2
6y 2
8
‘
. e x .
s
( ) gi ( f) 6 2
a a .
x
f
2
_
. I f th e c tricity of a hy p e rb ol a i s 2 a n d i t s m a j or a x i s
e c en
i s 3, wh a t i s th e l en gth ofi ts m in or a x i s An s 3 . .
3 . H ow fa r a p a rt a r e th e f o ci of th e hy p e rb ol a i n E x 2 .
An s . 6 .
4 . Wha t 1 s th e e qu a ti on ofth e hy p e rb ol a wh ose e cc en tricity

is r omea ch oth e r 9
2 a n d wh o s e f o ci a r e d i s tan t 4 f
1 3 t z. .
3 é =
.
q — 2
s
fl'
1
Q 2
1.
x y
a)
5Th
.
u O
. e ex tr e m iti e s of th e m m or a x i s of a h ol a a r e in
th e p o in t s 3) a nd th e e cc e n tricity is 2 . F i n d th e e qu a
ti on o fth e hy p e rb ol a .
6 . Sh o w th a t i n t e r m s ,
o fa a n d b, c h a s th e va l u e
1 . E x p re s s b i n
t e r m s o fa an d e .
8 P r ov e th a t t w o hy p e rb ol a s which h a v e
. th e s a m e e cce n
tr i ci ty a r e s i m il a r a n d c on v e r s e l y ,
.
9 E s t abl i s h f or m u l a s
.
Th e Asymptotes Tw o lin es ca l l ed th e asymp totes s ta n d

43 .
.
, ,
i n a p e cu l i a r a n d i m p o rt an t r el a ti on to th e hy p e rb ol a Th ey .
a r e th e l in e s
Le t a p oi t P:
n
(x y m ov e of
) ,
f
, y) al on g a bran ch ofth e hyp e rb ol a
x2 2
y
—_
( )
1 -
b2
=
a nd l et thi s ta k e p l a c e ,
for d e f
i n i ten e ss , i n th e fir s t qu a d ran t .
mg , 7 Th e s l op e ofth e l in e O P i s
MP y .
OM x
Si n c e th e c oo r d in a t es (x , y) ofP sa ti s fy it fol l ow s tha t
( )
2
and h en c e
3
( )
Wh en P r e c e d e s ind efi n it el y x in cr ea se s withou t l i ni i t an d
, ,
th e right h a n d s i d e o f thi s e qu a ti on a p p r oa ch e s th e l i m it b/
-
a .
Thu s w e s e e tha t th e sl op e of OP a pp r oa che s tha t ofth e l in e O Q

.
,
b
_ w,
a
as i t s l i m it , way s r e m a in in g h ow e v e r l es s tha n th e l a tt e r
al , ,
s l op e s o th a t P i s a l wa y s b e l o w O Q
,
.
I t se e m s l i k e l y tha t P wi l l c om e i nd efi n it e l y n ea r to thi s
l i n e ; b u t thi s fa c t d o e s n ot f ol l o w fr om th e
for e g oin g s inc e P m ight a pp r oa ch a l in e
,
‘
p a r a l l e l t o
( )
4 a n d l yi n g b e l o w it I n th a t .
c a se al l tha t h a s b een sa i d w ou l d s til l b e tru e

,
.
Tha t P d oe s h ow e v e r a ctu a l l y a p p r oa c h
, ,
ca n b e s h ow n by p r o vin g th a t th e di s
( )
4
t an c e P Q a pp r oa ch e s 0 a s i ts l i m it N ow . FI G 3 , .
PQ=M Q MP,
an d , fr om
I
It i s eas y tob e r thes e e qu a ti on s s in c e th ey can b e

rem e m ,
writt en d own by r ep l a cin g th e right hand s id e of (1 ) by 0 fac -
t orin g th e l e ft ha nd s i d e
-
a nd pu ttin g in d ividu al fa ct or s e qu al to z er o
th e .
Th e s l op e s of t e a y p t t
h s m o e s a r e b /a a n d — b/a C o n se .
qu en tl y th e a sy m p t ot e s mak e e qu a l an gl es with th e tran sv e r s e

,
ax is .
S in c e th e r a ti o of b to a i s u n r e s trict e d th e a sy m p t ot es ca n ,
ma k e a ny a rbitr a ri l y a ssign e d a n g l e with ea ch oth er I f in .

,
r ti c l a r b a thi s a n g l e i s a right a n g l e a n d th e cu r v e i s
p a
p , , , ,
ca l l ed a r ecta ngu l a r or equ i la ter a l h yp er bol a I ts e qu a ti on can

, ,
.
b e writt en i n th e f or m
? 2 ?
w
( )
6 y at
I ts e cc en tricity is e 2 .
Con str u cti on o f th e with h ea vy l in e s th e

Asymp totes . M ar k
a x es a n d thr ou gh th e e x tr e m iti es o f ea ch
,
d ra w l in es p a ra l l e l to th e oth e r ,
thu s obta in in g a r e ctan gl e Th e .
d i a g on a l s of thi s r e cta n gl e p ro ,
d u ce d a r e th e a s y m p t ot es s in c e
, ,
th e ir sl ope s a r e cl ea rl y j :b/a .
Th e d i a g onal s of th e r e ctan gl e
ha v e l en gth s e qu a l to th e d i stan c e
2 c b e tw e e n th e fo ci for c 2
a
2
b2
, ,
a n d th e l e n gth s of th e s i d e s of th e r e ct an g l e a r e 2 a a n d 2 b .
I f th e a cu t e a n gl e b e tw ee n a n a s y m p t ot e a n d th e tr an sv e r s e
a x i s i s d en ot e d by a th e n ,
e se e a .
EX E RC I S ES
1 . F i nd th e qu a ti on s
e a n d s l op e s of th e a s y mp t otes of th e
hyp e rb ol a s ofE x e rci s e 1 ,

3 . D r a w th e hy p e rb ol a s .
THE HY PE R B O LA
2 . Sh ow t ha t th e as y mp t ot es o ft h e hyp e rb ol a
Ax C,
‘
2 2
By
wh e r e A B an d , , C ’
a r e any thr ee p o s itiv e qu an titi es ,
a re giv en
by th e e qu a ti on s
3 . F i n d th equ a ti on of th e hy p e rb ol a wh ose a sy mp t ot e s
e
m a k e a n g l e s of 6 0 with th e a x i s of x an d wh os e v e rtic es a r e
°
s itu a t e d a t t e p o i n t s
h an d 1 Ans 3 x 2 _ 3 2
y , .
:
.
Sh o w th a t th e s l op es of th e r e gi v en b
a
4 .
y
th e e x p r e s s i on L t
J a
5Th e sl op e of on e a s
.
. y m p t ot e e rb ol a i s F in d
th e e cc e n tricity f} .
i Ans e
, . 1 .
6 Th e d i s ta n c e of a fo cu s of a c e rta i n hy p e rb ol a fr om th e
.
c en t e r i s 1 0 cm a n d th e d i s ta n c e ofa v e rt ex fr om th e foc u s i s
.
,
2 cm Wh a t a n g l e (1 te s m a k e with th e con j u
5
.
ga t e ax l s 5 4 fp
O
3 8 I
. s .
s
Sh ow th a t th e b e d a b ou t th e r e ct an gl e
t ex t p a s s es thr ou gh th e fo ci .
A p e r p en d icu l a r d r opp e d fr om a f ocu s F on a n a sy m

m e e t s th e l a tt e r a t E Sh ow th a t O E a ,a n d E F
. b .
F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e e qu i l a t e ra l hy p e rb ol a wh os e
re a t u n it d i s t a n c e fr o m t h e c t r
e n e i L a .
-
/
p a s
0
s es
F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e e qu i l a t e r a l hy p e rb ol a which
.
thr o u gh th e p oi n t 5 ,
5T . angents . Th e m e th od
fi n d in g th e s l op e ofa n e l l i p se
of ,
Ch I X
. 2 ca n b e a pp l i e d t o th e hyp e rb ol a a n d it i s thu s
, , ,
s h o wn th a t th e s l op e o fthi s c u rv e ,
2 f
x
y __
1
2
a 2
b
at th e p o in t (
x1 , y1 ) is
1 34 AN ALYT I C G E O M E TR Y
he e qu a ti on o fth e tan g en t ofth e hy p e rbol a at thi s p oin t is
a
5
5y ?
331 1
2
b
i !
2
1 i
T H EOREM . Th e ta ngent ofa h yp er bol a a t a ny p oi n t b i s ects th e

ngl e betw een th e foca l r a di i .
pTor o v e t hi s r e o s i ti on w e r e c a l l th e th e o r e m of P l a n e
p p
G e om e try which sa y s th a t th e bi se ct o r ofa n a n gl e o fa tri a n gl e
d ivi d e s th e opp os ite s i d e in t o s e g
m en t s which a r e p r op o rti on al t o th e
( in) a d j a c e n t
a n.
sid e s I t i s ea si l y seen .
th a t th e c on v e r s e of thi s p r op osi
ti on i s a l s o tru e an d h en c e it i s ,
s u ffici en t for ou r p r oof to s h ow tha t
'
FP F P
2
( ) FM P M
W e al r ead y ha v e i m p l e ex s
p r e ss i on s for th e n u m e ra t or s If .
P :(x l, y1 ) be a p o i n t o f th e right h a nd -
bran ch of th e cu rv e ,
th en by ,
3,
F P = ew1 — a
; NF L
To c om pu t e th e d en om in a t o r s , fin d wh e r e th e t an g e n t at P,
“
wh ose e qu a ti on i s giv en by cu t s th e i
a x s of x . D en oti ng
th e a b s ci s sa ofM by x w e h a v e
' :
,
' cx 1
and c x
But c a c, a n d so
cx l (
a ex 1 a
) .
( ex l
it
Let th e t
s uden t prove th i s prop osi ti on as r
an e x e ci se.
tr em i ty th e l a tu s r e ctu m which l i e s fir st
5 5
at th e ex of i n th e
q u a d ra n t . An s . 2 x 6 y 2197 .
7 Sh ow th a t
. th e l en gth ofth e l a tu s r e ctu m ofth e hyp e rb ol a
8 . Pr ov e tha t th e tan g en ts at th e ex tr e m iti es of th e l a t e ra

r e ct a hav e sl op e s i e .
9 . In ip s e th e fo c al r a d ii m ak e e qu al a n gl es with th e
a n el l ,
ta n g en t P r ov e thi s th e o r e m by th e m e th od e m p l oy e d i n thi s
‘
p a r a gr a p h t o p r ov e th e c o rr e s p on d i n g th eor e m r e l a ti n g t o th e
ow Defini ti on . Th e l ocu s d efin ed ces .
VI I , 7 ca n n o w b e s h own t o b e a hy p e rb ol a wh en
,
5 1 . Th e a na l ytic tr ea t m e n t giv e n th e r e a n d i n 8 d o wn
Wh en h ow e v e r, ,
6 1 , th e n ew o rigin ,
l i es to th e l e ft of
m
O , i n th e p oi n t ,
0 a nd it i s m or e r
na tu al to wr i te
6
2
1
( )
3 i n th e f or m
1
( )
and l i k ewi se ( )
4 as
{ m
a
/
2
6
2
1
e qu ati on p a ss e s ov e r in t o th e
40 ” ’2
y
2
a b 2
on se t ti n g
THE HY PE RB O LA
'
J
I 1 37
T hu s th e l oc u s is s ee n to b e a hyp e rb ol a with i ts cente r , O

’
,
m
at th e p oin t th e se m i ax e s b e in g giv en by
-
6
2 —
1
Th e v a l u e of c is gi v en by th e e qu a t i on 0 2
a
2
b 2
. Hen c e
5 6
é _ l
2
m
Th e e cc entricity , e = c/a, i s s e en to b e pr e ci sel y e
e e,
a nd th u s th e gi v en cons ta n t, e , tu r n s ou t to be th e eccentr i ci ty o fth e

h yp er bol a ;
Fin a l l y , F is on e o fth e foci . F or , th e d i s ta n c e fr om O ’
to F
O O OF
’
an d thi s by ,
i s p r e ci s e l y c .
Th e l in e D i s ca l l e d a d i r ectr i x of th e hy p e rb ol a . I ts di s
t an c e fr om th e cen te r i s
m c m 1 a
6
2 -
1 6
2 — 1 6
Th e D i r ectr i ces . Th e r e c d ir e ctrix n a m e l y th e

is a s e on d , ,
l in e D sy mm e tric to D i n th e c on j u g a t e a x i s
’
I t i s c l ea r .
fr om th e sy mm e tr y of th e fig u r e tha t wha t i s tru e of th e h y

p e r b ol a with r e s p e ct t o t h e f o c u s F a n d t h e c o rr es p on d i n g
d ir e ctrix D i s e qu a ll y tru e with r e sp e ct to th e f o cu s F a n d
’
th e d ir e ctr i x D Acc or d i n g l y th e hy p e rb ol a i s th e l ocu s of a

’
.
,
p oin t wh ose d i s tan c e fr om a fo cu s b ea r s to i ts d i s ta n c e fr om

t h e c orr esp on d in g d ir e ctri x a fi x e d r a ti o th e e cc en tricity ,
.
Th e e qu a ti on s ofth e d ir e ctric e s ofth e hyp e rb ol a ,

EX E R C I S ES
1 Take . 2 a n d m : 3 th e u n it of l en gth b e in g 1 cm
6 , .
With ru l e r an d c om pa s se s con s tru ct a g en e r ou s n u m b e r of

p o i n t s of th e l o c u s a n d th en d r a w i n th e l o c u s with a c l ea n
, ,
fir m l in e *
.
2 Wo rk ou t th e e qu a ti on of th e l oc u s of E x 1 d ir e ctl y
. .
,
u s i n g th e m e th o d of O h VI I § 7 b u t n ot l ook in g a t th e .
, ,
for mu l a s . Ans 3 x y 6x 9 .
”
: 2
.
3 B y m ea n s of a tr a n s f or m a ti on t o p a r a l l e l a x es s h o w
.
tha t th e c u rve of E x 2 i s a hy p e rb ol a wh os e c en t e r i s a t th e
.
p o i n t 1 0 ) a n d wh o s,e a x e s a r e o f l e n gth s 4 a n d 3 .
4 Sh o w th a t i n th e g en e r a l ca s e th e d i s ta n c es of th e
.
v e rtic e s A a n d A fr om O a r e
,
’
,
m
’
AO ’
e -
I l
-
e
5C . ct th e r e su l t s of thi s p a ra gra p h i n a sy l l a bu s
ol l e ,
a rr a n g e d i n t a bu l a r f o r m gi v in g ea ch ofth e q u a n titi e s a b c
, , , , ,
O O 0 A A 0 O F a n d F O i n t e r m s o fm a n d
’
’ ’
5
, , , , ,
e.
6 W or k ou t ea ch of th e qua n titi e s of E x
. d ir e ct l y for .
th e cu r v e of E x 2 a n d v e rify th e r es u l t by su b s titu tin g th e

.
va l u e s 2 m 6 3 i n th e f o r m u l a s of th e sy l l abu s
,
.
7 Sh ow th a t th e t a n g e n t t o th e hy p e rb ol a
.
2 f
x
_ y z 1
16 9
a t an e x tr e m ity of a l a tu s r e ctu m cu t s th e tran sv e r se ax s i in

th e s a m e p o in t i n which thi s a x i s i s cu t by a d ir e ctr i x .
8 Th e sa m e for a n y hy p e rb ol a
. .
Th e footn ote of p 1 1 4 appli es i n th e p res ent ca se wi th t h e ob vi ou s

at
.
m odi fic ati on th at th e d i sta n ce o f th e p a rall el from D must n ow b e h a lf

th e rad i u s oft h e ci rcl e . Mo re over tw o p aral l el s t o D mu st now b e d ra wn
, ,
th e s e con d o n e , as s oon a s th e ra d i s h a u fici entl y gi vi ng

i n cre a se d su f s ,
‘
p oi n s on t t
t h e l e f h an d b
-
ranch . s
c on s ta n t tu rn ed ou t to b e th e e cc en tricity e W
e . e are l ed
th en to giv e to th e pa ra b ol a a n e ccen tricity ,
n a m el y ,
6 e 1 .
T H EOREM . Th e l ocu s o f a p oi n t wh i ch moves so th a t i ts d i s

ta n ce fr om a fixed p oi nt bea r s to i ts d i sta n ce fr om a fix ed l i n e,
n ot p a ss i ng th r ou gh th e fixed p oi nt ,
a gi ve n r a ti o 5i s a n el l i p s e,
a p a r a bol a , or a h yp er bol a , a ccor d i ng a s e i s l es s th a n, equa l to ,

or gr e a ter th a n u ni ty . In ev ery ca s e th e cons ta n t e equ a l s th e
eccen tr ici ty .
Sin c e wa y s al s
a e, w e may su p p e s s r e in f u t u r e w or k ,
and
u se e e x c l u s iv e l y . Thu s e qu a ti on (1 ) b e com es
( )
2 ( 1
Th e th eor e m fu r n i sh e sbl an k e t d efi n iti on for th e e l l ip se a

,
a r a b ol a a n d hy p e rb ol a which m ight h a v e b ee n u s e d in s t e a d
p , ,
o f th e s e p a ra t e d e fin iti on s which w e h a v e giv e n I t s h ou l d .

.
b e n ot e d h o w ev e r tha t thi s bl an k e t d e fin iti on d oe s n ot i n cl u d e

, ,
th e cir cl e F or if w e s e t e. 0 in th e e qu a ti on r e du c es to
,
( 0 O)
2 2
w 77 + 31
which r e p re s en t s m e r e l y th e focu s F : ( m ,
Th e fa ct tha t th e bl a n k e t d efi n iti on d oes n ot yi e l d a circl e

a s a S p e ci a l ca se i n n o w a y d i s cr e d it s th e circ l e a s th e l i m itin g
f or m of a n el l ip se wh en th e e cce n tricity a p p r oa ch e s z e r o ,
C h VI I g 1
.
,
Th e r ea s on tha t a circl e ca nn ot b e d efin ed i n
.
th e n e w ma nn e r i s b e cau se i t h a s n o d ir e ctric e s Wh en th e .
e cc e n tricity o f a n el l i p se a pp r oa ch e s z e r o th e m a j o r a x i s ,
r e ma in in g c on s tan t th e d i stan ce a /e of th e d ir e ctric es fr om ,
th e c en t e r in cr e a ses in d e fin it e l y s o tha t i n th e l i m it wh en th e , ,
e ll i p s e b e c om e s a circ l e th e d ir e ct ric e s h a v e d i s a p p ea r e d fi
“
,
I t i s of cou rs e p ossi b l e to ob tai n th e ci rcl e a s a l i mi ti n g cu rve ap

at
, ,
p ro ac h e d b y e l l i p se s d e fin e d i n t h e n e w w y I f t h e p oi nts F a n d A f a . o
F i g 1 2 C h VII a e h el d fas t an d m i s al l ow d t o i n creas e i n d efi

.
, .
,
r n i te l y e ,
th en i t can b e sh own th at app roach es er n d th at a nd b b th a pproach e z o a a o
th e fi e d d i s ta n ce A F
x Th u s th e vari ab l e el li pse ap proa ch es a ci rcl e as
.
i ts li mi t .
THE HY PE R B O LA 141
Hyp erb ol a s w i th F oci on th e Ax i s of y . Conj u gate

r b ol a s . Le t th e t
t sh ow tha t th e e qu a ti on of th e
s u d en
hyp e rb ol a wh ose f oci a r e a t th e p oin t s (0 j :C ) on th e a x i s ,
ofy an d th e d iffe r en c e ofwh os e f o c a l r ad ii i s 2 B i s
2 2
x y
_
A 2
B2
whe r e
0 2
A 2
B 2
.
Th e tran sv e r s e i
thi s hy p e rb ol a i s th e a x i s of y ; th e
a x s of
c on j u ga t e a x i s th e a x i s ofx Th e l en gth of th e m aj or a x i s i s
, .
2 B ; th a t ofth e m i n o r a x i s 2 A Th e e cc e n tricity i s C/B a nd

, .
th e a s y m p t ot e s h a v e th e e q u a ti on s ,
Conj u ga te Th e tw o
ha v e th e sa m e a sy m p t ot e s Th e tra n sv e r se a x i s ofea ch i s th e
.
c on j u ga t e a x i s of th e oth e r a n d th e m a j or a x 1 s of e a ch i s th e
,
m in o r a x i s ofth e o th e r .
T a k en t og eth e r th e tw o ,
hy p e rb ol a s f or m wha t i s
ca l l e d a p a i r of conj u ga te
h yp e r bol a s Th e r el a ti on
.
s hi p b e tw e e n th e m i s p e r
fee t i n i t s d u a l ity W e .
s a y th e n
,
tha t e a ch i s th e
,
co nj u ga te o fth e o th e r .
Th e tw o hy p e rb ol a s to Fm 1 3 .
g e th e r a r e tan g en t e x t e r
na l l y a t th e ir v e rtic e s t o th e r e ct a n g l e of 4 a t th e m i d p oi n t s -
of i ts s i d e s M o r e ov e r a l l s tra ight l i n es thr ou gh th e c o m m on

.
,
c en t e r O e x c e p t tw o m e e t on e hy p e rb ol a o r th e o th e r i n tw o
'
, ,
p oin t s an d th e s e g m en t thu s t e r m in a t ed i s bi s e cte d a t 0

,
.
Th e s t u d en t sh ou l d c om pa r e th e se fa ct s with th e c orr e s pond
i ng on e s c on c e rn in g a si n gl e el l ip se a n d th e circu m s cribe d
r e ctan g l e .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . F i n d th e
c oor d in a t es of th e foci th e l e n gth s of th e ax es , ,
th e s l op e s of th e a s y m p t ot es a n d th e v a l u e ofth e e cc en tricity
,
for ea ch of th e hy p e rb ol a s
( ) a
()
C y w 7
"
5
9 16
( ) ( )
2
b d 3
9
x x
D ra w an a ccu ra t e figu r e in ea ch ca se .
2 . Wha t a r e th e e qu a ti on s of th e hy p e rb ol a s c on j u ga t e to
th e hy p e rb ol a s o fE x 1 .
3 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on o f th e hy p e rb ol a wh os e ve rtic es are in
t h e p oi n t s (0 4 ) an d wh ose e cc e n tricity i s
3
5
, j ; .
An s 4x 2
80 O
'
2
.
y .
4 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e hy p e rb ol a th e ex tr e m iti e s of
wh ose m i n or ax s ar e i i n th e p oi n t s ( i 3 0 ) an d wh os e c e c en ,
tr i ci ty i s }
J
.
5P r. v e tha t th e sum of th e s qu a r e s of th e r e ci p r oca l s

o of
th e e cc en triciti e s o f th e tw o c on j u g a t e hy p e rb ol a s
l
t
1 ) z
£ x y
~
2 1
9 16 9 16
is qu al to u n ity
e
5
.
6 P r ov e th e th eor e m o fE x
. . for th e g e n e ra l p a ir ofc on u
j
ga t e hyp e rb ol a s .
Sh ow th a t th e f o ci of a p a ir of c onj u ga t e hy p e rb ol a s
n a circ l e .
P a r ametr i c R epresentati on . I t i s p os s ibl e to c on s tru ct a

hy p e rb ol a , giv en i ts a x es , AA’
a n d B B , by a m e th od m u ch
’
l ike tha t ofOh . VI I , 1 0 , for th e el l ip se .

a =3 cm .
,
b=3 cm .
a = 2 cm .
,
b= 3 cm .
2 . O bta i n a p a r
a m e tric r ep r esen t a tion ofth e hyp e rb ol a
? z
x y
Z z
E
10 . Coni c Secti ons . Th e
ip se (in cl u s iv e ofth e circl e) th e
el l ,
hy p e rb ol a a n d th e p a ra b ol a a r e oft en cal l ed coni c s ecti ons

, ,
b e cau se th e y a r e th e c u rv e s
i n which a c on e of r ev ol u ti on
i s cu t by p l a n e s .
Su p p ose a p l an e M cu t s on l y
on e n a pp e o f th e c on e as i s ,
s h o wn i n th e a cc om p a n yi n g
d ra win g Le t a s m a l l s p h e r e .
b e p l ac ed i n th e c on e n ea r O , .
tan g en t to thi s n a pp e a l on g a
circl e I t wi l l n ot b e l a rg e .
e n ou gh t o r ea ch t o th e p l an e
M N ow l et th e s p h e r e gr ow ,
a l w a y s r e m a in in g t a n g e n t t o
th e c on e a l on g a circ l e It .
wil l fi n al l y j u s t r ea ch th e "
p l an e M a r k th e p oin t of .
tan gen cy F of th e p l an e M , ,
with th e s ph e r e a nd a l so th e
F G 15
,
I circl e of c on ta ct C of th e , ,
s p h e r e with th e c on e .
As th e sp h e r e gr ow s s ti l l l a rg e r it cu t s th e p l an e III b u t , ,
fina l l y p a s ses b e y on d on th e oth e r s i d e I n i ts l a s t p ositi on i n .

,
which it s till m ee t s III it wil l b e tan g en t to M Let th e p oin t

,
of t a n g en cy b e d en ot e d by F a n d th e circ l e of c on ta ct of th e
’
,
S p h e r e with th e c on e by C
’
.
Thr ou gh an a rbitra ry p oin t P ofth e cu rv e of in t e r s e cti on of

M with th e c on e p a sse s a g e n e r a t o r O P ofth e c on e ; l e t it cu t
o m R and o i n R Th en R R b ein g the sl an t h eight o f
' ’ ’
.
,
THE H Y PE R B O LA 14 5
th e fru stu m cu t fr om
c on e by th e p l a n e s of C a n d C i s
th e "
,
o fth e sa m e l e n gth 2 a f or a l l o i n t s P
p , ,
J o in P with F Th en P F a n d P R b e in g tan g e n t s from P

.
,
t o th e sa m e s p h e r e a r e e qu a l S i m i l a rl y P F a n d P R a r e
, .
,
’ ’
e q u al H en ce
.
F P : RP R P : RR
’
FP ’ ’
,
’
FP F P 2 a .
But thi s l ocu s i s by d e fi n iti on

i p s e with i ts foci an el l
a n d h e n c e th e p re p o s i ti on i s p r ov e d f or th e c a s e
’
a t F an d F ,
th a t M cu t s onl y on e na p p e th e in t e r s e cti on b e in g a cl os ed ,
cu rv e .
I f th e p l a n e M cu t s b o th n a pp es b u t d oe s n ot p a ss thr ou g h ,
0 it i s a l ittl e h a r d e r to d ra w th e figu r e on e s p h e r e b e in g
, ,
in s crib e d i n th e on e n a pp e th e oth e r i n th e oth e r n a pp e , , .
A s i m il a r s tu d y s h ow s th a t h e r e th e d i fi
(
ere nce b e tw e en ’
F P a n d F P i s e qu a l t o R R a n d h e n c e t h e l o cu s i s a
’ ’
,
hy p e rb ol a .
Th e p a r a b ol a c orr e sp on d s to th e ca se tha t M m e e t s onl y on e

na pp e b u t d oe s n ot cu t it i n a c l os e d c u rv e
,
Thi s ca se i s .
r ea l iz ed wh en M d oes n ot p a s s thr ou gh 0 a n d i s pa ra l l el to a
g en e ra t o r ofth e c on e .
Le t L b e a l in e which i s p e r p e n d ic u l a r to th e a x 1 s of th e
c on e i n a p oin t of th e ax i s d i s tin c t fr om th e v e rt ex As a .
p l a n e III ,
r o t a t,
e s a b ou t L it wi l l cu t fr o m th e c on e a l l thr e e
,
k in d s of c on ic s Thi s wil l s til l b e tru e if w e ta k e a s L a ny

.
, ,
l in e of s p a c e which d oe s n ot p a ss thr ou gh th e v e rt ex a nd i s
n ot p a r al l e l t o a g en e r a t or .
11 . Tw o c on ic s a r e sa i d to b e confoca l if
Confocal Coni cs .
th ey h av e th e sa m e f oci ; i n th e ca se of tw o p a r ab ol a s w e d e ,
m an d fu rth e r th a t th ey h a v e th e sa m e a x i s
, ,
.
at
Note ch ni cal knowl ed ge of Sol i d Geom try b eyond th e d efini ti ons of e
th e ter ms s e d ( whi ch c a n b e f
u ou n d i n a n y d i cti on ry ) i s h re n e d e d , a e e .
O n vi s al i i n g th e fi
u z g re t h e tr th of th e state me nts r gard i ng th e s p ac e
u ,
u e
rel ati ons b e com es evi d ent .

C on s i d e r i p s e a nd a hy p e rb ol a which a r e c on f oca l
an el l .
The y e vid en t l y in t e r se c t i n fou r p oin t s *

.
Le t P b e on e of th e se p o in t s J o in P with F a n d F .
’
.
Th en F P an d F P a r e f o ca l ra d ii both ofth e el l ip se and ofth e

'
hy p e rb ol a N ow th e t an g en t to a hy p e r .
,
b ol a a t any p oin t n ot a v e rt ex bi se ct s th e
a n g l e b e tw e e n th e f o c a l r a d ii d ra wn t o
tha t p oin t § ; an d th e n or ma l to a n ,
5
e l l i p se a t a n y p oi n t n o t on th e tra n s v e r se
a x i s bi se ct s th e a n g l e b e tw ee n th e f o c a l
F 16 IG .
r a d ii d r a wn t o th a t p oin t Ch VI I 4 ,
.
,
.
I t f ol l o w s th e n th a t th e ta n g en t t o , ,
th e hy p e rb ol a a t P a n d th e n o r m a l t o th e e l l i p s e a t thi s
p o i n t c oin ci d e H e n c e th.e tw o c u rv e s 1 n t e r se ct a t r ight
a n g l e s or or th ogon a l ly a s w e sa y
, W e h a v e thu s p r ov e d th e
,
.
fol l owin g
THEOREM . A p a i r of confoca l con i cs , on e o f w h i ch i s an el
l ip s e a nd th e oth er a h yp er bola , cu t ea ch oth er or th ogo na lly .
Confoca l P a r a bol a s . C on s i d e r tw o p a r a b ol a s h av in g th e
‘
s
am e fo cu s a n d th e sa m e a x i s . I f b oth op en ou t i n th e sa m e
d ir e cti on th e y h a v e n o p oi n t i n c om m I f h o w e v e r th ey
‘
,
on .
, ,
O p en ou t i n O pp os it e d ir e cti on s th ey i n te r se ct i n ,
tw o p oi n t s which a r e s y mm e tric a l l y s it u a t e d with

r e sp e ct to th e ax i s .
I n th e l a tt e r ca se th e p a ra b ol a s i n te r s e ct or th ogo
,
n a ll y a s h a s a l r ea d y b ee n p r o v e d a n a l ytic a l l y ; cf
,
.
Ch VI ,
. 3, Ex 1 0 . .
Thi s r esu l t c ou l d ha v e b een f or e ca s t a s a con se F m 1 7 , .
q u e n c e o f th e r e l a ti on s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 7 F o r if .
,
on e f o cu s F a n d th e t w o c orr e s p on d in g d ir e ctric e s of a p a ir
, ,
of c on f o c a l c on ic s c on s i s ti n g of a n e l l ip se a n d a hy p e rb ol a
, ,
a r e h e l d fa s t a n d if th e o th e r f o cu s i s m a d e t o r e c e d e i n
,
d efi n it e l y e a ch o f th e c on ic s a pp r oa ch e s a p a ra b ol a
,
B u t th e - .
it Le t th e t
s u d en t s ati sfy h i m se lf h a t t t w o c onfoca l e ll i p se s do n ot -
ln
tersect, and th at th e sa me i s tr u e oft w o confo cal r
h yp e b ol a s .
A r u l e r D i s h el d fa s t a n d a trian gl e T i s a l l owed to sl id e
, , , ,
a l on g th e r u l e r A thr ead i s ti ed a t F a n d Q an d a p en cil

.
,
p o i n t P,ke e p s ,
th e thr e a d t a u t an d p r e ss e d a g a in s t th e
trian gl e .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . Sh o w tha t th e c on ic s ,
ar e c on foc a l .
2 . P r ov e th a t th e e qu ati on ,
5
? 2
x y
9 A A
r ep r esen t s an el l ip se for ea ch val u e of A gr e at e r than and 5

r e r e s e n t s a hy e rb ol a f r ea ch v a l u e of A b e tw ee n
5
p p o 9 a n d
Sh ow th a t a l l th e s e e l l i p s es an d hy p e rb ol a s a r e c on fo ca l
.
,
with th e p oin t s ( j :2 0) a s fo ci ,
.
3 F or wh a t v a l u es Of A d oe s th e e q u a ti on
.
2 2
$ y
a
2
A b 2
A
whe r e a an d b a r e giv e n p ositiv e c on stan t s su ch tha t a b ,
r ep r es e t i ) e i p e
n l l s s ? ii) hy p rb e ol a s ? Sh ow th a t a l l th ese
c on ic s a r e c on focal .
4 D ra w a se t of c on f o ca l e l l i p se s a n d hy p e rb ol a s
5D ra w a set of confocal pa rabol a s al l h av m g th e same

. .
I
,
.
tran sv e r s e ax i s sam e Op en in g i n on e d ir e c tion som e i n th e

, ,
X t
V
{
oth e r I
.
?
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R V III
{ 1 } T h e a x e s o f a hy p e rb ol a which g oe s thr ou gh t h e p om ts
r e th e ax es of c o or d i n a t e s i q u a ti on
5
( 1 ,
2 7 ) a ,
F n d th e e .
oft e hy p e rb o a
h l An s y 11 x
2 2
. . .
Sh ow tha t th e hy p e rb ol a s d efi n e d by th e e qu ati on
THE HY P E R B O LA 1 49
where c i s an a rbitra ry c on s tan t ,

n ot z e o, a l l r have th e sa m e
a s y m pt ot e s .
H ow m a n y hy p e rb ol a s a re th e r e with th e l i n es
3x 16y 0
‘
2 2
a
as as y m p t ot e s F in d an e qu a ti on which r e p r e sen t s th e m all .
An s 3x 16 y
‘ ‘
2 2
. c, c ¢0 .
(Q q u a ti on Of a l l th e r e cta n gu l a r hy e rb ol a s
W h a t i s th e e
p
with th e a x es of c oor d i na t e s a s ax e s
A hy p e rb ol a with th e l i n e s 4 x y _ 0 a s a sy m p t ot es
” "
g oe s thr ou gh th e p oin t Wh a t I s i ts e qu a ti on ?
fi
r K 1
c
‘ k Ans . 4 x —
”
y =
2
3 .
(
i i T h e a s y m p t o tes o f a hy p e rb o l a g o thr ou gh t h e o rigin
ha v e sl op es j :2 Th e hy p e rb ol a g oe s thr ou gh th e p oin t
5
and .
( ,
1 F in d i ts e q u a ti on An s 4 x
‘
2 2
y
5
. . .
Th e tw o hy p e rb ol a s of E x s a n d 6 h a v e th e sa
.
m e
t ot es bu t l i e i n th e opp osit e p a ir s of r egi on s in t o which

,
i s d iv i d e d by th e a s y m p t ot e s Sh ow th a t th e su m .
a r es of th e r ec r e cc en triciti e s e qu al s
th a t of hyp e r
th e E x 2 th ose for which .
c i s p o s iti v e a r e a l l s i m i l a r a n d th a t thi s i s tr u e a l so of th os e
,
for which c i s n e ga tiv e I fe i s th e c omm on v a l u e of th e e c

.
c en trici ty of th e hy p e rb ol a s of th e fir s t se t a n d e i s tha t Of ’
th e hyp e rb ol as ofth e se c on d se t s h ow th a t ,
9 . P r ov e
tha t th e r el a ti on ( 1 ) i s va l i d for th e e cc en triciti e s
of a n y t w o hyp e rb ol a s which h a v e th e s a m e a sy m p t ot es b u t
l i e i n th e op p os it e r e gi on s b e tw een th e a sy m p t o t es .
10 Sh o w th a t tw o hy p e rb ol a s which a r e r e l a t e d a s th ose
.
d e s crib e d i n th e p r e vi ou s e x e rci se h a v e th e s a m e e cc en tricity

i fa nd onl y if th ey a r e r e ct a n gu l a r hyp e rb ol a s .
Ahy pe rbol a with i ts c en t e r i n th e origin h a s th e e ccen

t r i ci ty 2 F i n d t h e e qu a ti on s o f th e a sy m p t ot e s (a ) if th e
‘
.
,
f oci l i e on th e a x i s ofx ; ( b) if th e f oci l i e on th e a x i s ofy .
An s ( ) 3 3y = 0
‘
( ) —
i
. a x b x
2 2
.
Wha t i s th e e q u a ti on r ep r e sen ti n g a l l th e hy p e rb ol a s
which ha ve th e ir c en t e r s i n th e origin a n d e cc en tricity 2 -
( )
a if th e f o ci l i e on th e a x i s of x ?
( )
b if t h e f o ci l i e on th e
a x i s of y ? Sh o w tha t i n e ith e r c a se th e v e rtic e s l i e m i d wa y

b e tw een th e c en t e r an d th e foci .
13 .P r ov e th a t th e v e rtic es ofth e hy p e rb ol a
a
2
b 2
su bt en d a righ t a n gl e a t ea ch of th e p oin t s (0 j ; b) wh en an d ,
on l y wh en th e hy p e rb ol a i s r e cta n g ul a r Wh a t i s th e c orr e
.
s on di n g th eo r e m i n th e ea s e o fth e e l l i p se ?
p
14 . Th e p r oj e cti on s of a p oin t P of a hy p e rb ol a on th e
tra n s v e r se a n d c on j u ga t e a x e s a r e P I a n d P 2 Th e t a n g en t a t .
P m ee t s th e se a e x s i n T I a n d T 2 S h w th t O 1 O Tl a
o .a P 2
a n d OP 2 OT wh r O i h c t r f h e hy p e rb ol a
‘
2 b
2
,
e e s t e e n e o t
a n d a a n d b a r e th e s e m i a x e s
-
1 5P r ov e th a t th e s e g m en t of a ta n g en t to a hy p e rb ol a b e
.
t w een th e p oin t of c on ta ct an d a d ir e ctrix su bt en d s a right

a n g l e a t th e c o rr e s p on d i n g f o c u s .
16 . Th e p r oj e cti on of a p oin t P of a hy p e rb ol a on th e
tran s v ers e a x i s i s P a n d th e n or m a l a t P m e e t s thi s a x i s a t
I
N1 . Sh o w th a t th e r a ti o of th e d i s ta n c e s of th e c e n t e r fr om
N , a n d P I e qu a l s th e s qu a r e of th e e cc e n tricity .
17 . P r ov e th a t th e l in e j oin i n g a p oin t P o f a hy p e rb ol a
with th e c en t e r an d th e l in e thr ou gh a fo cu s p e r p en d icu l a r to
th e t an g e n t a t P m ee t on a d ir e ctri x .
18 . F in d th e e q u a ti on of th e circ l e which i s ta n g en t to a
hy p e rb ol a a t th e u p p e r en d s ofth e tw o l a t e ra r e cta .
19 . L e t 0 b e th e c en t e r A a v e rt e x a n d F th e a d j a c e n t
, ,
f ocu s of a hyp erb ol a Th e tan g en t a t a p oin t P m ee t s th e

.
5
th a t th e an gl e s su bt end ed a t th e v e rtic e s of a
e
a r hy p e rb ol a by a ch o r d p a r a l l e l t o th e c on j u g a t e a x i s
a re s u pp l e m e n ta ry .
29 . P r ov e th a t th e p r od u ct Of t h e d i s ta n c e s of a n a rbitr a ry
p o i n t o n a hy p e rb o l a fr o m th e a s y m p t o t e s i s c on s t a n t t e ,
. .
t h e sa m e f or e v e ry ch oic e o fth e p o in t .
30 . A l in e thr ou gh a n a rbitra ry p oin t P on a hy p e rb ol a

p a r a l l e l to th e c on j u ga t e a x i s m ee t s th e a s y m p t ot e s i n M a n d
N . Sh ow th a t th e p r od u ct ofth e se g m en t s i n which P d ivi d e s

M N i s c on s ta n t .
31 . P r ov e th a t th e se g m e n t of a ta n g en t t o a hy p e rb ol a cu t
ou t by th e a s y m p t ot e s i s b i se ct e d by th e p oi n t o f c on t a ct of
th e t a n g e n t .
3 2 Sh o w tha t th e t a n g en t t o a hy p e rb ol a a t a n a rbitra ry p oin t

.
for m s with th e a sy m p t ot e s a trian gl e which h a s a c on s ta n t a r ea .
33 . Th e tan g e n t to a hy p e rb ol a a t a p oin t P m e e t s th e tan

g en t s a t th e v e rtic e s i n M a n d N P r ov e tha t th e circ l e on.
M N a s a d i a me t e r p a s se s thr ou gh th e f oci .
LO C I
34 . F i n d th e l o cu s p oi n t wh ose d i s tan c e fr om a giv en

of a
circl e a l way s e qu a l s i ts d i stan c e fr om a giv en p oin t with ou t

th e circl e F i r s t g i v e a g e om e tric c on s tru cti on with ru l e r a n d
.
,
c om p a s s for p oin t s on th e l oc u s Then fin d th e e qu a tion of

,
.
th e l o cu s
3 5T
.
h e ba se of a tri a n gl e i s fi x e d a n d th e p r od u ct o f th e
.
tan g en t s of th e ba se a n gl e s i s a n e ga tiv e c on s tan t Wha t i s .
th e l o cu s ofth e v e r tex
A l in e m ov e s s o th a t th e a r ea of th e tri a n gl e which it
for m s with tw o giv en p e r p end icu l a r l in e s i s c on s tan t F in d .
th e l o cu s of th e m i d p oin t of th e s e g m en t cu t fr om it by th e s e
-
l in es .
An s Tw o c on j u ga t e r e c tan g u l a r hy p e rb ol a s with th e giv en

. ,
,
l in es a s a sy m pt ot e s .
THE HY PE R B O LA 5
1 3
37 . G iv en fi x ed l in e L a n d a fi x e d p oi n t A n ot on L A
a , .
p o i n t P m o v es s o th a t i ts d i s ta n c e fr o m L a l wa y s e q u a l s th e
d i s ta n c e A Q wh e r e Q i s th e f oot o fth e p e r p en d ic u l a r d r op p e d
,
fr om P on L Wh a t i s th e l oc u s of P ?
.
38 . Wh a t i s th e l ocu s Of th e p oin t P of th e p r e c ed in g ex or
ci se if th e r ati o of i ts d i sta n c e fr om L to th e d i sta n c e A Q i s
,
c on st an t
St u s
e
.
9
U 5
C H AP TE R IX
CE R TAI N GE NER AL M E THODS
1 . Tangents Le t it b e r e qu ir ed to fi
. n d th e ta n g en t l i n e to
a giv e n c u rv e a t a n a rbitr a ry p o in t .
I n th e ca se of th e circl e th e ta n g e n t i s p e r p en d icu l a r to th e
r a d i u s d r a wn t o th e p oin t of t a n g e n cy B u t thi s s ol u ti on i s .
o f s o s p e ci a l a n a tu r e th a t it s u gg e s t s n o g e n e r a l m e th od Of
a tt a c k A g en e r a l m e th od m u s t b e
.
b a s e d on a g en e r a l p r op e rty of tan
g en t s irr e sp e ctiv e of th e s p e cia l cu rve
,
c on si d e r ed Su ch a m e th od i s th e .
f ol l owin g Let P b e a n a rbitra ry .
p o i nt o f a giv e n c u rv e C a t w hi ch i t , ,
i s d e s ir e d t o d ra w th e t a n g en t T Le t ,
.
a s e c on d p o in t b e ch osen on C '
P , , ,
F G 1
I .
an d d r a w th e s e ca n t P P A s P ,
’
.
’
m ov e s a l on g C a n d a pp r oa ch e s th e
fix e d p oin t P a s i ts l i m it th e s e ca n t r ota t e s a b ou t P a s a p iv ot
,
a n d a pp r oa ch e s th e t a n g e n t T a s i t s l i m itin g p os iti on
, ,
Th u s .
th e ta ngen t app ea r s a s th e l i mi t ofth e seca n t .
I f, n ow , in agiv en ca se w e fin d an ex p r e ss i on for th e
ca n
s l op e of th e s e ca n t th e l i m it
,
a pp r oa ch e d by thi s e x p r e s s i on
wi l l giv e u s th e s l op e ofth e ta ngen t Th e sl op e of th e ta n g en t

.
to th e cu r v e a t P w e s h a l l ca l l for th e sa k e Of br e vity th e
, ,
sl op e o fth e cu rv e a t P .
E x a mp l e 1 . F in d th e s l op e ofth e cu r v e
( )
1 y m ”
at a giv en p o ni t ,
P .
1 6 5 AN ALYT I C GE O M E T R Y
The se r e su l t s can be pr e sen t ed c onv en i en tl y i n th e form of
a ta bl e
Th e n u m b e r s i n th e l a s t c ol u m n a p p ea r to b e a p pr oa chin g
n ea r e r a n d n ea r e r t o th e l i m it 2 i n o th e r w or d s th e sl op e of ,
th e cu r v e i n th e p o in t (1 1 ) a p p ea r s to b e 2
, Le t u s p r ov e .
tha t thi s i s a ctu al l y th e ca s e Sin c e th e p r oof i s j u s t a s si m p l e

.
for an a rbitr a ry p o in t P w e wi l l r e t u rn to th e g en e ra l ca s e
,
.
Th e p oi n t P b ein g a p o in t of th e cu rv e i ts c oor d in a t e s .
( y)
x l, 1 m u s t sa ti s fy t ha t e qu a ti on H e n c e .
( )
4 2
311 x1 .
Si m il a r l y , for th e p oin t P wh os e c oord ina t e s (

’
ar e x1 + h,
k = (x 1
‘
I
‘
W ,
5
or
( ) yl
Su btra ctin g (4 ) fr om w e get
10 2 (171 71 . h z
o
I
C on se qu en tl y , 2 x1 h
i
.
N ow l e t P ’
a pp oa r ch P ; It wi l l th en r ch
a pp oa 0, an d
s hal l ha v e
l i m tan t
'
= li m l i m (2 x, h) .
‘
P é P hé O h hi e
l i m tan 1
"
tan 7 , l i m (2 x1 h) 2 xl .
H en c e tan 7 2 xl .
C E R T AI N G E N E R AL M E T HO D S 5
1 7
W e ca n sa y ,
’
th en tha t ,
th e s l op e o f th e cu rv e a t a n a r bi
tra ry p o i n t P :
(x 1, y1 ) on i t, i s
A 2 £131 .
I f, i n p a rticu l a r , P i s th e p o in t (1 , th e s l op e o f th e ta n
g en t the r e i s A= 2 1 = 2 , a nd thu s th e i n d ica ti on giv en by
-
th e a b ov e ta b l e is see n to b e b o rn e ou t .
E x a mp l e 2 . F i n d th e S l op e of th e cu rv e
2
(1
a t an a rbi tra ry p oi n t P : (x l y, o fth e cu rv e

) , .
D en ot e a s b e fo r e th e c oor d i n a t e s of a s e c on d
, ,
Th en ,
i c
s n e P an d P
’
li e on th e c u rv e ,
H en c e
N othi n g i s m o r e n a u al t r tha n to r ed u c e th e right han d

-
oft hi s e qu a ti on to a c om m on d en om in a t or . Thu s
(1
2
h
x1 x1
( h)
C on se qu e n t l y ,
t an 7
k a
2
x1 x1
( h)
W e a r e n ow r ea d y to l e t P
’
a pp oa r ch P
Th e l i m it a p p r oa ch e d by th e right ha n d -
s ide bv i ou sl y
o
/ and s o
2 2
a x1 ,
ta n r
W e ha v e then
, ,
as th e fi nal r e su l t :Th e s l op e o
fth e cu r ve
a t a n a r bi ta ry p oi n t
( x1 , y1 ) on i t, i s
E qu a ti on fth e Ta ngen t
o . Si n c e th e ta n g en t to th e cu rv e
y
at th e p o in t (1 ,
1 ) h a s th e s l op e 2 , i ts e qu a ti on is
y
— 1 = 2 ( x 2 x — y
Si m i l a r l y , th e e qu a ti on of th e ta n g en t t o th e cu rv e
a rbitra ry p o ni t P :(x l y,
),
is
y y , 2 x 1 (x x1
) ,
y
—
y1 2 x1x 2 xl 2
.
Thi s e qu a ti on may b e s i m pl ifi e d by u se o f th e e qu a l ity ,
2
xl ,
which sa y s tha t th e p oin t P l i e s on th e c u rv e F or if w e r e

.
,
c t r x 1 by i t s e q u a l a n d th e n c om bin e th e
'
p l a e t h e e m 2 2
,
2 y1 ,
t e r m s i n y, th e e qu a ti on b e c om e s
,
y + y1 = 2 w1 w
Thi s e q u a ti on of th e ta n g en t i s of th e fir s t d e gr e e i n x a nd y ,
a s it S h ou l d b e Th e qu a n titi e s x a n d y, a r e th e a rbitra ry
.
1 ,
b u t i n a n y giv e n ca s e fi x ed c o o r d i n a t e s o f P a n d a r e n ot ,
va riabl e s .
E qu a ti on f
o th e N or m a l . Th e l in e thr ou gh a p i t P Of a
o n
cu rv e r p en d icu l a r to th e tan g en t a t P i s
p e kn o wn a s th e
n or ma l t o th e cu rv e at P
Si n c e t e ta g e t t o t e c rv e y
h n n h u : x 2
a t th e p oin t
h a s th e s l op e 2 th e n or m a l a t thi s p oi n t h a s th e s l op e
,
Con se qu en tl y th e e qu a ti on ofth e n or m a l i s
,
F in d th e qu a ti on s of th e tan g en t s to th e f ol l owi n g cu rv es
e
a t th e p oi n t s s p e cifi e d I n ea ch ca s e r e d u c e th e e qu a ti on oh
.
ta i n e d to th e s i m p l e s t f o r m .
Th e cu rv e th e p oi n t s
5 ( , ) (
19 . ofE x . 1 at 3 6 xl , yl ) .
Ans . x —
y (2 xl — 1 )x — y — xl 2 =
20 . Th e c u rv e o fE x . 3 at th e p o )i n t s (x l , y1 ( ,
1
21 . Th e cu rv e o fE x . 4 a t th e p O l n tS (x l y1 ) ,
1,
22 . Th e cu r v e o fE x . 1 1 a t th e p oin t s (1 1 ) , ( xl ,
23 . Th e cu r v e ofE x . 1 7 a t th e p oin t (x l yl ) , .
An s n l
( 1 ) y1 0
‘
. n xl x y n .
24 . Th e cl i rv e ofE x 1 3 a t th e p oi n t wh o s e a b s ci s sa i s 2
. .
Th e cu rv e ofE x 1 4 a t th e p oi n t wh o se ab s cl s sa 1 s 4
. .
26 . F in d th e e qu a ti on s o f th e n or m a l s t o th e cu rv es ofE x s .
21 , 22 a t th e d e sign a t e d p oin t s .
2 . Conti nu ati on . I mpl i ci t E qu ati ons

ha v e a pp l i ed th e . W e
g en e ra l m eth od to cu rv es wh os e e qu a ti on s a r e giv en i n th e
f or m :y a s i m p l e ex p r e s si on i n x M or e p r e ci s el y thi s .
,
s i m p l e e x p r e s s i on h as ea ch ti m e b een a p ol yn om i al (or e v en
”
a m on om i a l or th e r a ti o oftw o s u ch ex p r e s s i on s
) ,
.
B u t ev en th e s i m p l e s t f or m s of th e e qu a ti on s of th e c on ic s
a r e a s a ru l e su ch tha t if th e e qu a ti on b e s ol v e d f
, , ,
or y r a d i ,
ca l s wil l app ea r I n su ch ca se s th e fol l owin g m e thod oftr ea t

.
,
m ent ca n b e u s e d with a d va n ta g e
-
.
Th e fin d
.
P a r a bol a . Le t it be r e qu ir e d to th e sl o pe of th e
p ar b ol a
a
( )
1 y
2
2 mx
a t an y p o ni tP: (x 1 y1
) on th,e c u rv e .
W e wi l l tr ea t fir s t a nu m e rica l ca s e , se ttin g m 2
( )
2 y
2
S in c e P i s on th e cu rv e ,
we hav e
6) yfi = 4n .
C E R TAI N G E N E R AL M E T HO D S 161
Si n ce P
'
’
( x1 h , y1 It ) i s a l s o on th e c u rv e ,
(31 1 k) = 4 031 2
h) »
or
( )
4
Su btra ct (3 ) fr om (4 )
2 y1 k 70
2
4:h e
D iv id e thi s e qu a ti on thr ou gh by h , to Obta in an e qu ati on

"
ta n 1
7 lf
2 19 1
3 4 76 2 y1 t an
-
7
-
Ii
Sol v e th e l a tt e r e qu a ti on for ta n 1
"
"
4
ta n 1
717
W e a r e n ow r ea d y to l e t P a p p r oa ch '
P as i ts l i m it .
m ean s tha t h and 10 b oth a pp r oa ch 0 W . e hav e th en , ,
l i m ta n 1
"
li m ,
P
’
i P bi o 2 311 k
4
_ _ Z .
91
I t h as b een ta citl y a s su m ed tha t q e 0 I f y1 0 th en .

,
ta n 1 in cr ea ses in d efi n it el y a s h a n d with it It a p p r oa ch e s
"
, ,
z ero . Thu s th e t an g en t l in e i s s een t o b e p e r p en d icu l a r to th e

a x i s of x a t thi s p oi n t as obvi ou s l y i s i n fa ct th e c a s e s i n c e
, , , ,
th e p oin t i s th e v e rt ex ofth e p a r ab ol a . .
Th e s tu d en t wi l l n ow ca rry thr ou gh by hi m sel f th e c orr e

S p on d i n g s ol u ti on i n th e g e n e ra l c a se of e qu a ti on He
wi l l a r riv e a t th e r e su l t :Th e sl op e A ofth e p a ra bola
y = 2
2
mx
a t a n a r bi tr a ry p oi n t ( x1 , y )
, o fth e cu r ve i s
1 62 f AN
”
ALYT I C GE O M E T
RY
Th e tr ea t m en t i n th e ca s e o fth e e l h
p se ,
‘
?
w ?
y
+ —
L
fi §
i s p r e ci s el y s i m il a r . Writin g for c on v e ni e n c e ,
in
for m
( )
‘
b
‘ ‘
3
7 bw
° "
l z 3
a g a ,
we are l e d t o th e fol l owin g e qu a ti on s

( )
8 2 2
b w1 2 a
2
y1
2
“ 6 2
b 2
(: e1 h) + 2
a 2
(y1 a 2
b2 ,
or
( )
9 b w1
2 2
a
2
yl
2
2 bl h 2 a
2
y 1 k bh 2 2 -
a
’
f
-
k 2
a 2 bz
Su btr a ct (8 ) fr om (9 )
2b 2
x1h 2 a 2
yl lc bh 2 2
a
2
h 2
0 .
D ivi d e by h
k
i
e
2b 2
az1 2 W yl — bh 2
a%
l h
2 b w1 2 bh a%
"
‘
2 2 " 2
a y1 ta n 7 ta n 1
S ol v e thi s e qu a ti on for ta n 7
’
, 2 b 1
2az
bh 2
ta n 7
2 a 2
y1 a%
N ow l e t P ’
a p p oa r ch P a s i t s l i m it
2W
l i m ta n f
f
li m 1
P $ 13 ha ) 2 a y1 2
(1 2
70
2b 2x
6 2
931
H en c e ta n 1
1
2 a z
yi
W e ha v e thu s obta in e d th e r e su l t :Th e s l op e A ofth e
2
06
1
a
2
E
a t a n a r bi tr a r y on e o f p
i ts o i n ts 5
( p)01, l is
Th e t
s u d en t wi l l do wel l to p a r a ph rase th e te x t at th i s p oi n t wi th a
nu meri cal case , — sa

y, 4 m2 36 .
Th e ta ngent to th e h yp er bol a
2 2
$ y 1
a
2
b 2
at th e p oi n t y l ) h a s th e e qu a ti on
1
5
£8 1 13
M :
( )3
a 2
b 2
Th e ta ngen t to th e p a r a bol a
y
?
2 ma :
at th e p oi nt m
( l 3)
, 1 1 h a s th e e qu a ti on
( )
1 4 my m (x 931
)
EX E R C IS ES
F in d th e s l op e of ea ch of th e fol l owin g s i x cu rv e s a t
arbit r a ry on e of i ts p o in t s a pp,
l yi n g e a ch ti m e th e m e th od
se t f orth i n th e t e x t .
1 . 2 w + 3y = 12
2 2
. 3 .
y
2= 12 x .
2 w2 — 4 g2 = 4 4 w2—
g =
2
a 2
5A
. . . .
. c
t 2 wh e r e A B C a r e
By 2
0, ,
al l p os itiv e .
6 .
y
2
A w + B wh e r e A qt 0
,
.
7 . F i n d th e s op e o th e p a r a b ol a y
l f ?
2g 6 90 at th e p oi n t
3
a1):y ) l A A
yl 1
8 . Wha t i s th e s 10 p e ofth e p a r a b ol a ofE x . 7 at th e o rigi n ?
An s . 3 .
9 . F in d th e s 10 p e o fth e c u rve
m — — 3w =
5
3
y
2
4
+ g 0
at th erigin o . An s . A: 9
7 .
Su gg e s ti on F ir s t fin d th e s l op e a t a n a r b itr a ry p oin t x 1
.
( , yl ) .
Th en su b stit u te i n th e r e su l t th e c oord in a t e s ofth e origin .
10 Wha t an gl e d oes th e cu rv e
.
2 fi— 3 ¢ + w —
y + 1 = 0
mak e wi th a p a r a l l el to th e i
ax s ofa a t : th e p oin t (1
Ans .
C E R TAI N GE N E R AL M E T HO D S 16 5
11 . Fi nd cu r v e my a
th e sl op e of th e 2
at any i t (x 1 y1 )
p o n ,
by th e m e th od of th e pr es en t p a ra gra p h ,
an d s h o w th a t y ou r
r e su l t a gr e e s with tha t of 1 E x a m p l e 2 ,
.
F i n d th e q u a ti on of th e ta n g en t to ea ch of th e f oll owin g
e
c u r v es a t th e p oin t d e s igna t e d a pp l yi n g ea ch ti m e th e m e th od ,
of th e t e x t R e d u c e th e e qu a ti on t o i ts s i m p l e s t f or m
. .
12 Th e cu rv e ofE x 1 a t th e p oi n t (901 yl )
. .
, .
An s . 2 $1 93 3 yl y 12 .
13 Th e cu rv e o fE x 3 at th e p oi n t s ( yl ) 3
( ,
5
. . 90 1 ,
14 . Th e cu rv e ofE x . at th e p om t y l ) .
A ns Awl a '
E gl y 0
5Th
. .
1 . e cu r v e ofE x i n t (931 yl )
. 6 at th e p o ,
.
16 . Th e cu rv e
ofE x 7 a t th e p o in t s (x l y )
.
(é , 1 ,
17 . Th e cu r v e
ofE x 9 a t th e o rigi n . .
18 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on s of th e n o r m a l s to th e c u rv e s o fE x s .
1 2, 1 3 a t th e p om t s s p e cifi e d .
3 . Th e E qu ati on u + kv = 0 . C on s i d e r th e f ol l owin g ex
a m pl e .
Th e e qu a ti on s
( )
1 :y 2
(I 0)
2
( ) :y a 0,
r e pr e sen t tra ight l in e s i n t e r s e ctin g
tw o s
i n th e p oin t (1 a s s h own i n F i g 3
,
. .
Wha t can w e say c on c e rn in g th e cu rv e

( )
3 ( +y
w FIG . 3
wh e r e ls d en ot e s a c on s tan t n u m b e r
Thi s cu rv e i s a s tra ight l i n e s in c e (3 ) i s an e qu a ti on of th e ,
fir st d e gr ee i n a a n d g Su p p ose n ow th a t v a ri ou s d iff e r en t
.
, ,
val u es a r e giv e n to h Th en (3 ) r e p r e sen t s v ari ou s s tra ight

.
l in es i n t u rn Wha t d o a l l th e s e l in e s h av e i n c om m on
.
Th e word c rve i s us e d h ere i n th e sense comm on i n an al y ti c

“
u
”
ge om etry t o d e note m e rel y th e l ocus of t h e e q u ati on C ons e q entl y

“ ”
, . u
a cu rv e i n th i s s e ns e i s n ot n ecess ari l y crook e d i t m ay b e a strai gh t l i ne .

1 66 AN AL Y T I C GE OM E T R Y
Sin c e th e l in e s ( )
1 an di n t e r s e ct i n th e p oin t (1
2
( ) th e ,
c oor d ina t e s of thi s p oi n t m a k e th e l e ft h a n d s i d e s of e qu a ti on s-
an d n a m e l y th e e x pr e ss i on s
( )
1 , ,
w+ y — 2 an d w — y,
i h Con s e qu en tl y th ey a l wa y s m a k e th e l e ft han d si d e
v an s .
,
-
o f e q u a ti on v n i sh n oth e r w o r d s e q u a ti on 3 i s sa ti sfi ed
( )
3 a I .
( ) ,
by th e coor d i n a tes o f th e p o i n t of i n ter s ecti on f

o th e l i n es
( )
1 a nd
NO MAT TER W H AT V A L UE k H As Thi s m ean s tha t a l l th e .
s tr a ight l i n e s r e p r e se n t e d by (3 ) g o thr ou gh th e p o i n t ofi n t e r
s e cti on o fth e l i n es
°
and
( )
1
Th e r e su l t ca n b e r e sta t e d i n th e fol l ow m g fo r m Let th e .
s in g l e l e tt e r u s t an d f or th e wh ol e e x pr e s s i on w y 2:
u 5 w+ y — Z
th e s ign 5m i g
ea n n i d en ti ca l l y equ a l , i . e . e q
u al , no m a tt e r w ha t
v al u e s a a n d : y hav e . S i m i l a rl y , l et i ) s and t for :y
a
v e x — g
Th en (3 ) ta k es on th e for m
W e n ow r e s ta te ou r r e su l t .
Ifu O and v O a re th e e qu a ti on s two i n ter secti ng s tr a i gh t
l i n es, th en th e equ a ti on
u k ?) 0
r ep res ents a s tr a i gh t l i n e wh i ch goes th r ou gh th e p o i n t f

o i n te r
s e cti on o fth e tw o g i v e n li nes .
By givin g to lo a su itabl e v al u e u kn 0 ca n b e m ad e to ,
r ep r e sen t a n d e s ir e d l in e thr ou gh th e p o i n t of i n t e r s e ct i on
y
y) o
lf th e g i v e n l i n e s with t h e so l e e x
,
c e p ti o n o f th e l i n e
0 F or l e t L b e th e d e sir e d l i n e a n d l e t (x2 gz) b e a

.
, , ,
p oin t of L d i s tin ct fr om y) Th e n o n s u b s tit u ti n g f

l . or a: ,
a n d y th e v a l u e s 032 a n d g2 i n th e e q u a ti on u lav 0 w e ob ,
t a in an e qu a ti on i n which Is i s th e u n kn own Thi s e qu a ti on

,
.
ca n b e s ol v e d f or k s i n c e u d oe s n ot v a n i s h f or th e p oin t
‘
,
Su p p ose , tha t th e e qu a ti on s u O a n d v
n ow , 0 r ep r e sen t
tw o c u rv e s which h a v e n o p o in t of i n t e r s e cti on . I t f ol l o w s ,
th en fr om th e a rgu m en t j u st giv en tha t th e cu rve

, ,
u k?) 0, 76 0,
h as no p o ni t
c om m on with e ith e r of th e giv en cu rv e s B u t
in .
it m a y ha pp en i n this ca se tha t th e r e a r e n o p o in t s a t a l l
, ,
wh ose c oor d in a t e s sa ti sfy th e e qu a ti on u kv 0 Th u s if .

,
u = a2 t+ y 2 — 1
,
v = x 2
+y
2 “ — 4)
and k 1 , we h a ve
u + kv § 3,
an d th e r e are no p o ni t wh os e c oor d in a t e s
s sa ti s fy th e e qu a ti on
3 O .
Th e g e n e ra l r e su l t ca n b e s ta t e d a s
‘
THEOREM 2 L et u = O a nd v : 0 be th e . e qu a ti o n s o f tw o
n on i n ter s ecti ng cu rv es
-
Th en th e equ a ti on .
u + k v = 0, k =
# 0,
r ep r es en ts , i n gen er a l , a cu r ve n ot m eeti ng e i th er of th e tw o gi ven

.
cu r ves . I n p a r ti cu la r , i t m a y h app en th a t th e equ a ti on h a s n o

*
l ocu s .
I n th e Sp e cia l ca s e tha t u a n d v are l i n ea r r

e x p e s s on s i in
:
a and y, it is p os s ib l e t o s a y m o r e .
Ifu O a nd v O are th e equ a ti o n s f two p a r a ll el

o s tr a i gh t
l i n es , th e equ a ti on
u kv 0, k 0,
r ep r es en ts , i n gen era l , a s tr a i gh t l i n e p a r a ll el to th e gi v en l i n es .
F or a s i n l e v a l u e ofk , th e equ a ti on h a s n o l ocu s

g .
Thu s if ,
th e p a ra l l el l in e s are
u w + y = 0,
ti on
5
th e e qu a
( )
I t m ay h ap p en , a ls o , th t
a th e e q u a i o n t r prese nt j u st
e s on e p oi n t , as
W h en , for e x am p l e ,
u = as2 +y 2 — 2
, v = a 2 + y2 — 1 .
C E R T AI N GE N E RAL M E T HO D S 169
h as no l o cu s wh en k th e rwi se it r ep r e sen t s a l in e
1 , bu t o
,
o f s l op e 1, p a r a l l e l to th e giv e n l in e s I n fa ct it yi el d s a l l
.
,
th e l i n e s o f s l op e 1 e x c ep t th e l in e v
,
0 s in c e if w e r e , ,
wr it e i t i n th e for m ,
It
x +y + ki 1,
1 +k
th e qu an tity k/(1 It) m ay b e m a d e to ta k e on a n

y v a l u e , ex
c ep t 1 by su ita bl y ch oos in g k
,
.
P en ci l s f
o Cu r v e s . Al l th e l i n e s
thr ou gh a p oin t or al l th e ,
r l l l l i with giv l f r m wh t i s cal l ed a
5 p en ci l
p a a e n e s a e n s o p e o a ,
ofl i n es .E q u a ti on ( ) r e p r e sen t s wh en k i s c on s i d e r e d a s a n ,
a rbitr a ry c on s t a n t a l l th e l in es Of sl op e — 1 e x c e t th e l in e
, p ,
1)
in thi s ca se th en u kv O a n d v 0 t og e th e r r ep r e s en t a ll
, ,
th e l in e s ofs 10 p e 1 th a t i s a p en ci l ofp a r a ll el l i n es
‘
, , .
Si m i l a r l y i t kv ,
0 wh e n u O and v O a r e th e l in e s
,
( )
1 an d yi el d s a l l t h e l in e s thr ou gh th e
p o i n t ( 1 ,
e x c e p t th e l in e 2
( ) h n ce u v = O an d t g th r
'
e k v 0 o e e
r ep r e s en t a l l th e l in e s thr ou gh th e p oin t (1 — a p en ci l of ,
i n ter secti n g l i n es .
Thu s if ,
u O and v O a r e a ny i
t w o l n e s , th e e qu a ti on s
( )
6 u + k v = 0 an d v = O
t og e th e r r e p e s enr t a p e n cil i
o fl n e s .
If we set k m/l in u kv O a nd m u l tip l y by l , th e re
su l ti n g e qu a ti on
( )
7 lu mv O
is e qu iv a l en t t oth e e qu a ti on
wh en I $ 0 a n d wh en a lev 0 ,
I : O (m i it b e c om e s v 0 C on se qu en tl y th e tw o e qu a .
,
t i on s (6 ) m a y b e r e pl a c ed by th e s in gl e e qu a ti on
Th e p en cil of l i n e s thr ou gh th e p oin t (1 for ex a m p l e , ,
m a y n ow b e gi v en by th e s in g l e e qu a ti on
l (93 y y) = 0,
W h er e l an d m hav e a rbitr a ry v a l u e s ,
n ot b oth ze ro .
In g en e ra l if u O an d v O a r e
,
any tw o cu r v es ,
al l
'
th e
cu r v e s r ep r esen t ed by th e e qu a ti on
l u + mv = 0 ,
wh e r e l a n d m hav e a rbitra ry v a l u e s , n ot b oth r

z e o, for m w ha t
i s ca l l e d a p en ci l ofcu r v es .
App li ca ti on s . E xa mp l e 1 . Le t
b e th e equ a ti on s of any tw o circl e s which ou t ea ch o ther .
The n th e e q u a ti on
)y (
’
u — v
'
( a b + c 0
r ep r e sen t s a cu rv e which p a s se s thr ou gh th e tw o poin t s of

in t e r s e cti on of th e circl e s B u t thi s e qu a ti on b e in g l in ea r
.
, ,
r ep r e sen t s a s tra ight l in e an d i s th e r e for e th e e qu a ti on of

, , ,
th e comm on ch or d of th e circ l es .
Th e fo r e g oin g p r oof i s op en to th e critici s m tha t c on c e iva bl y

w e m ight h av e
a b
an d th en th e e qu a ti on u v 0 w oul d n ot r e p r e s en t a s tra ight

l in e . Bu t in tha t ca se th e circ l e s w ou l d be c on c en tric an d w e ,
ha v e d e m an d ed tha t th e y ou t ea ch
o th e r .
E x a mp l e 2 . W e ca n n o w p r ov e
th e f ol l owin g th eor e m :G i v en th r ee
ci r cl es , e a ch p a i r of w h i ch i n ter s ect .
0
Th en th ei r th ree comm on ch or d s
p a ss th r ou gh a p oi nt, or a r e p a r a l l el .
Le t t w o of th e thr ee giv en circl e s

be th ose of E x a m p l e 1 a n d l e t ,
th e
FI G 4
e q u a ti on ofth e thir d circ l e b e
.
3 . F i nd th e e qu a ti on of th e tra igh t l in e which p as ses
s
h rou gh th e p oi n t ofth e l i n e s
‘
t o fi n te r se cti on
5 x — 2
y
— 3 = O
,
4x + 7 g —11 = O
a nd i s p a ra l l e l to th e i
a x s ofy .
4 . F in d th e
qu a ti on of th e s tra igh t l in e which p a s s es
e
thr ou gh th e p oin t Of in t e r se cti on of th e l in e s giv en i n E x 3

5
.
a n d m a k es a n a n g l e o f4 with th e a x i s ofx °
5F in d th e e qu a tion of th e s tra ight l ine which pa s se s

.
thr ou gh th e p oin t of in t e r se cti on of th e l in e s of E x 1 a n d i s .
r ic r fir t i giv
55
e
p p e n d ul a to th e s o f th e l n e s e n i n E x 3 . .
An s . 38 x 9 g 8 O .
6 . Th e sa m e , if th e l m e i s to b e p a ra ll e l in st ea d of p e r
p e n d i cu l a r .
7 . F in d th e e qu a ti on ofth e c omm on ch ord ofth e pa ra b ol as

y
2
y + 22
w
An s . x y 0 .
8 . Th e sa m e for th e p a rab ol a s
2x 2
3x + 7 x2 — 9y= 4 .
Writ e th e e qu a ti on of th e p en cil of cu rv e s d e t e r m in ed
9 .
by th e tw o cu rv e s (a ) ofE x 1 ; (b) ofE x 3 ; (c) ofE x 7 . . . .
10 Wha t i s th e e qu a ti on ofth e p en cil ofcircl e s d et e r m in ed

.
by th e tw o circl es
x
2
+ y 2 — 2 x — 1 = O,
2
4 2— 1 = O?
x +y + x
D ra w afigu r e sh owin g th e p en cil F in d th e e qu a tion of tha t .
circl e of th e p e n ci l which g oe s thr ou gh th e p o i n t (2 ,
11 . F in d th e e q u a ti on ofth e p e n ci l of p a ra l l el l i n es (a ) of
sl o pe 1 ; ( )
b of s l op e 3; ()
c o f s l op e AO .
( ) y x k An s . a .
12 F in d th e e q u a ti on of th e p en ci l of l in e s thr ou gh (a )
.
th e p o in t (0 O) ; ( )
b th,
e p o i n t ( 3 ( )
c t h e p o i n t ( 0 b); , ,
( )
d th e p o i n t ( x y ) 0, oAn s
.
( )
a i x my 0 . .
C E R TAI N GE N E R AL M E T HO D S 17 3
4 . Th e E qu ati on uv = O . C on s i d e r , for e x a m p l e, th e e qua

ti on
( )
1 0
2 ?
x y .
S in c e 90
2
y
2 E
(w we y) ,
it is c l ea r th a t e qu a ti on (1 ) wi l l b e sa ti sfi ed
( a) if ( x y l i e s on t h e l i n e
) ,
w— a= 0 ;
( )
b if (x , y) i e s
l on th e l in e
a) w + y = o;
an d in th e r ca se E qu a ti on
no o th e r e f or e i s e qu i v a l en t to
.
,
th e tw o e q u a ti on s (2 ) a n d (3 ) t a k en t og e th e r a n d it r e p r e s en t s , ,
th e r e for e th e t w o right l i n e s (2 ) a n d
,
I t i s c l ea r fr om thi s ex a m p l e t ha t w e ca n g en e r a l i z e an d
sa y
T H EOREM . Th e equ a ti on
uv 0
r ep r es e nts th ose p oi n ts ( x, g) w h i ch l i e o n ea ch o fth e tw o cu r v es ,
u 0, v O,
a n d n o oth er s .
It fol l ow s a s an i m m e d i a t e c on s e q u e n c e of th e th e or e m tha t
th e e qu a t i on
u vw 0,
wh ose l e ft h a n d m e m b e r i s th e p r odu ct of a ny nu mb e r of
-
fa ct or s r ep r e s en t s th e t ot a l ity of c u rv es c orr esp on d in g to th e

,
in d ivid u a l fa ct or s wh en th e se a r e su cc e ss iv el y s e t e qu a l to z e r o
,
.
E xa mp l e . C on s i d e r th e e qu a ti on ,
4
x
4
y 0 .
—
y
“
we: :
we + a) ( f
v
2
91 5
It is tr ue th at th e foll ow i ng equ a ti on i s a n i d enti ty and so t h e S i gn
te ad of m i gh t b e e p e ct d Th e us e ofth e si gn 5f a n i d e nti cal
,
i ns x e . or
e q ati on i s n ot
u h oweve r , o ns i d er e d ob li gatory t h e s i gn
,
c b e i ng us e d ,
2
w h e n i t i s cl e ar th at th e e q ati on i s a n i d enti ty s o th at t h e fa ct d oe
u ,
s
n ot r eq u i re s p e ci al e m ph as i s .
Th e gi v en e qu a ti on i s, the r e f or e ,
e qu iva l en t t o th e thr e e e q ua
ti on s : — x y = 0 ,
x +y = 0, x
2
+y = 0 2
.
Th e fir s t th e s e e qu a ti on s r ep r es en t right l in e s Th e
tw o of .
thir d i s sa ti sfi e d by th e c oor d in a t e s of a s in gl e p oin t th e ,
o rigi n Si n c e thi s p oin t l i es on th e right l in es th e thir d

.
,
e qu a ti on c on tri b u t e s n o thin g n e w t o th e l o cu s .
EX E R C IS ES
Wha t are th e l o ci ofth e fol l owin g e qu a ti on s

2 .
3 . 2 x + 3 xy
2 — 2g = 0 2
. 4 .
— 2x — 2y = 0 . 6 . x 3
+ xy 2 = x .
3x y — 2 xy = 0
”
x —
4 4
7 . . 8 .
y
9 .
( x + y 1) ( x
?
g ) = 0 2
An s . . Th e l in e wh ose in t e r
ce p t s on th e ax e s ar e b oth 1 , a n d th e o rigin .
10 .
(x y
?
0 .
n .
=
‘’
12 3 z — 3
0
x + x y xy g
-
-
. .
F in d , in ea ch of fol l owin g ex e rci s es a s in g l e e qu a ti on

th e ,
wh ose l o cu s i s th e s a m e a s th a t of th e gi v en s y s t e m s of e qu a
ti on s .
4x + 3 = 0 .
3 .
5T. angents wi th Gi v en Sl ope

a . Di scr i mi nant of a Qu ad
rati o E qu a ti on . F r om e l e m en ta ry al g ebra w e kn o w tha t th e
t
r oo s of th e qu ad ratic e qu a ti on
in a s i ngl e p oi n t, th e l i mi ti n g p os i ti on o ft h e l i ne i s a ta ngen t to
th e fi
con i c
“
I n a pp l yin g Th e or e m 2 t o th e p r obl e m i n h a n d l e t u s d e n ot e ,
th e i n t e rc e p t of th e t a n g en t T on th e a x i s of y by B Th e .
e qu a ti on of Ti s th en , ,
( )
3 y i —w
B
Th e c oo r d i n a t e s i t P i n which Ti s t an g en t to th e
of t h e p o n ,
p a r a b o l a a r e Obt
,
a i n e d by so l vi n g e qu a ti on s (2 ) an d (3 ) si m ul
ta n e ou s l y Su b s ti tu tin g i n (2 ) th e v a l u e of y giv en by
.
w e ha v e
(E x 6 wi
or
( )
4
Th e r oot s of e qu a ti on (4 ) a r e e qu a l s in c e t h e y a r e b oth th e ,
a b s ci s sa of P . Acc or d in g l y by Th e or e m 1 th e d i s cri m i na n t
, ,
of
( )
4 i s ze o r . H en c e
16 1 68 2
O, 1 28 36 0 .
Thu s 3 : 3, an d th e tan g en t t o th e p a rab ol a (2 ) whose s l op e
is h a s th e qu a ti on
5
e
( ) x 2y 6 0 .
I fi n ( 4) we set 8
,
3 , th e r e su l tin g e qu a ti on ,
2
x
h as e qu a l r oot s a s it sh ou l d Th e c om m on va l u e i s x
,
. 6 , and
th e c o rr e s p on d in g v a l u e of y fr om is y 6 Th e ,
. c o Or d i
n a t e s ofth e p o in t of t a n g e n cy P a r e th e n 6
( , , , , ,
S e con d M eth od . W e p r o c e e d n ow t o giv e a s e c on d m e th od
of s ol u ti on for th e typ e of p r obl e m j u s t d i s cu ssed Let th e .
c on ic b e th e el l ip s e
( )
6 4x 2
y
2
5,
an d l e t th e giv en mp e be 4 .
it
A t a n ge n t t o a con i c m i gh t th e n b e d e fined as t
t h e l i mi i ng p os i i o n t
of a v t
l i n e h a i ng tw o p oi n s of i n e s e c i on w i h t h e tr t t c oni c, w h en th es e
p oi n t r
s a p p oa ch coi n ci d e n c e i n a s i n gl e p oi n h i s is t t a ge ne r a li z a ti on of
C E R TAI N G E N E R AL M E T HO D S 17 7
It i s vi d e n t fr om th e figu r e tha t th e r e a r e tw o ta n g en t s of
e
s l op e 4 to th e e l l i p s e Le t th e i n t e rc e p t on th e ax i s of y of
.
on e o f th e ta n g e n t s b e
B T h e e q u a ti on of .
thi s ta n g en t i s th en
( )
7 y 4x B .
Ou r pr obl e m n ow i s to d e t e r m in e th e v a l u e
of
B . To thi s e n d l e t th e c o or d in a t,e s o f th e
p o i n t o f c on ta ct of th e ta n g en t b e (x1 yl ) ,
.
Th en a s e c on d e qu a ti on of th e tan g en t i s ,
by § 2,
( )
8 4 971 93 I yi y “ “
5 °
Sin c e e qu a ti on s (7 an d which we
r e writ e as
y
5
B 0)
4 x 1 x + yl y = 0,
r
re p e s e n t th e sa m e l in e , it f ol l ow s fr om ,
Ch . I I , § 1 0, Th . 5
,
5
tha t
4 x1 y1
—
__
4 — 1
B
F r om e qu a l ity th e fir s t a nd thir d ra ti os
( )
9 é
3
,
S in c e th e se c on d and thir d ra ti os are e qu a l

5
,
3
F u rth e r m o r e , th e p oi n t ( x1 , y ) 1 l ies on th e el l ip se a n d so th e
v a l u e s o fx 1 a n d yl , giv e n by ( )
9 and s a ti s fy e q u a ti on
5
Acc or d in g l y ,
5v B 5 5
1 00 2
2 2
.
H en c e B h a s th e alu e or .
th e d e fini ti on of t cann ot b e d efin ed as a l i ne m eeti ng th e

1 . A t a n ge n
con i c i n a s i n gl e p oi nt f th r a e li n es f th i s ch ara cte r w h i ch a e n ot

,
or e e r o r
tange nts vi a li ne p arall el to th e a is ofa p arab l a to an asym ptote

,
z .
,
x o ,
or
ofa h yp erb ol a .
Su b s ti t u tin g th e se va l u e s of
B in tu rn in ( 7 we o bta in
4x —
y+ 5Q = 4x — y — 5Q =
as th e qu a ti on s of th e tw o ta n g en t s o f s l op e 4 to th e e ll ip se
e
F r om e qu a ti on s (9 ) a n d (1 0 ) it f ol l ow s th a t th e p oi n t s of
c on ta ct of th ese tan gen t s a r e r esp e ctiv el y 1 1 ) and
, , ,
1
( ,
B oth th e m e th od s d e s crib e d i n thi s
r gra p h a r e g en e ra l p a a
i n a p p l ica ti on F or th e u su a l ty p e of p r obl e m m e t with i n a

.
fir s t c ou r s e i n An al ytic G e om e try e ith e r m e th od m a y b e u s ed

with fa cil ity I t i s h o w e v e r t o b e n ot e d tha t th e s e c on d
.
, ,
m e th od p r e su p p o s e s th a t th e e qu a ti on o f th e t a n g e n t to th e ,
c u rv e a t a n a rbitra ry p oi n t on th e c u rv e i s kn o wn wh e r ea s ,
th e fir s t d oe s n ot Acc o r d in gl y i n ca s e a cu rv e i s giv en for

.
, ,
which th e g en e r a l e qu a ti on of th e tan g en t i s n ot k n own for ,
ex a m pl e th e p a r a b ol a y
,
3x 2 x + 1 — th e fir s t m e th od
,
2
,
wi l l b e sh ort e r to a pp l y .
EX E R C IS ES
D e te r mi n e i n ea ch
fol l owin g c a se s h ow m an y tan
of th e
g en t s th e r e a r e t o th e giv en c on ic with th e giv en sl op e F in d .
th e e qu a ti on s o f th e t a n g e n t s a n d th e c oor d in a t e s of th e p o in t s
o f t a n g e n cy U s e b oth m e th od s i n E x s 1 2 3 ch e c k i n g th e
. .
, , ,
r e su l t s ofon e by those ofth e oth e r .
Coni c
= 5
5
2
1 . {13 ,
t a n g en t
{ 5
2x y O, at 2
( ,
2 x — y+ O, ta n g e n t at 2,
g =
2
3 mr
2 x + y = 11,
2 2
x 2
8
+ y = 0,
4x 2 — = 2 0 2
y ,
6y 2 —
5 x = 0,
THEOREM . Al l th e ta nge nts to th e h yp er b ol a ( )
1 a re s teep er
th a n th e a symp totes . Th ei r s l op es A a ll sa ti s fy th e i nequ a l i ty
9 b ?
( )
2
a a
2
Conv er s el y, if A s a ti s fies th er e a r e tw o ta ngents of s l op e A

to If,
h o w e v e r , A < b 2 2
/
a
2
,
th er e a r e no ta ngen ts of s l op e A
to
TO p r ov e th eor e m l et a p oi n t P s ta rtin g fr om th e v e rt ex
th e , ,
A, tra c e th e u p p e r hal f ofth e right ha n d bran ch of Th en -
th e ta n g en t T a t P s ta r t in g fr om , , ,
th e v e rtic a l p o s iti on a t A t u rn s ,
c on tin u ou sl y i n on e d ir e cti on a n d , ,
a s P r e c e d e s in d efi nit e l y a p p r oa ch e s ,
th e a s y m p t ot e S a s i t s l i m it In .
o th e r w or d s th e sl op e A of T , , ,
d e cr ea s e s c on tin u ou sl y thr ou gh a l l
p os itiv e v a l u e s gr e a t e r th an th e
/
sl op e b a o fS a n d a
pp r oa ch
,
e s b /a , ,
as i t s l i m it *
.C on s e qu en tl y A i s a l wa y s gr e a t e r th an b/
, a z
Th e tr v
ge om e i cal e i d e n ce of h i s i s con i n ci ng, b u t n ott v c on cl us ive .
v w
To cli n ch i t , w e gi e th e foll o i ng a nal y i ca l p oof I f th e t r co ord i n ate s
ofP a r e
( x, y) , th e sl op e A of Ti s , b y 2,
bfi
x
d iv
x a 1
Accordi ng to Ch VI I I 4, q
E
71
.
,
V
2
1
Hen ce
ai
1 _
(6 2
W h en P tra ces th e u pp er h alf of th e ri gh t h and b r n ch f ( 1 ) and r e -

a o
ce d s i n d fi
e ni tel y x i n cre s es
e , onti n u ou s l y f
a r m th val e a th o gh all
c o e u r u
v l es gr ater th an a Th en a /x d e cre as es onti n us l y fr m 1 a nd

a u e .
2 2 c uo o
a pp r oa ch es 0 as i ts li mi t ; a n d 1 a / x a n d h en ce a /x in 2 2
,
2 2
,
C E R TAIN G EN E R AL M E T HO D S 181
I fP n ow tr a c es th e l o we r ha l f of th e right han d bra n ch -
, A
is ne ga tiv e , . an d al wa y s
— A>
Th es e tw o in e qu a l i ti e s ca n b e c om bin ed in t o th e s in g l e i n
e q u a l ity T h u s (2 ) i s s a ti sfi ed by th e sl op e A ofe v e ry ta n
g en t to th e right ha n d bra n ch of -
a n d h en c e a l s o b e ca u s e ,
of th e s y mm e try of th e c u r v e by th e m p e A of e v e ry ta n g e n t ,
to th e l e ft h a n d br a n ch
-
.
F r om th e r ea son in g g i v en i n th e fir s t c a s e wh en P tr a c e s ,
th e u pp e r h a l f of th e right h an d br a n ch o f it fol l ow s n ot
-
on l y th a t A b/ a b u t a l so th a t A ta k e s on ever y v a l u e gr ea t e r
,
than b/a H en c e if a va l u e of A gr ea t e r than b/a i s a rbi

.
, , ,
tr a r i l y ch ose n th e r e i s su r el y a t l ea s t on e ta n g en t of thi s
,
s l op e A t o a n d c on se qu en t l y b e c au s e o f th e s y mm e try o f ,
th e cu rv e th e r e a r e a ct u a l l y tw o
,
Si m i l a r l y if a v a l u e of A .
,
l e ss tha n b/ a i s giv e n .
To fin d th e e qu a ti on s of th e tw o ta n g e n t s of s l o p e A to
i n th e ca s e th a t A d oe s sa ti s fy w e a pp l y t h e fir s t O f th e
5
'
t w o m e th od s of § Le t th e equ a ti on o f on e o f th e ta n
.
g en t s b e
( 3 ) y = m +3 3
wh e r e B i s t o b e d e t e r m in e d . P r o c e e d in g t o solv e ( 1 ) a n d (3 )
s i m ul ta n e ou s l y w e s u b s titu t e
,
for y i n 1
( ) i t s v a l u e a s giv en by
a n d Ob ta in th e e qu a ti on
( )
3 ,
( A B) =
‘
2 2 2
bz
x
2
a x
2
a b ,
or
( )
4 ( b2
a
2
A) x
2 2
2 a
?
BAx B) ?
0 ,
Th e r oot s of e qu a ti on (4 ) ar e b oth e qu a l t o th e a b s ci ssa of th e
r
c e as e s con ti n u ous l y from 0 a nd r
a p p oa ch e s 1 as i ts l i m i t . C ons e
o us l y th rou gh ti ve val es gre ater th an 1 a n d appro ch es 1 as i ts

a ll p osi u a
l i mi t
. H en ce fin all y A d creas es c nti n ous l y th ro gh a l l p osi ti ve val u es
, ,
e o u u
gre ater th a n b a a n d a pp roach es b/a as i ts l i m i t q e d ,

. . .
p oi t
n c
t ct ofth e ta n g en t
o f on a a n d h e n ce th e d i s cri m in a n t
of 4 m u s t va n i s h W h a v e th e n
( ) e .
, ,
BA ( B ) (b A)
4
4 a
2 2 4a ?
b 2 3 2
a
2 2
O,
i m p l ifyin g
5
or , s ,
( ) B
2
a
2
A 2
b
H en c e B h as e ith e r o f th e val u e s
j:\/a A b z 2 2
an d th e e qu a ti on s Of th e tw o t a n g e n t s writt e n t o g e th e r , ,
a re
( )
6
Sin c e A s a ti s fi e s qu iva l e n t in e qu a l i ty a A
th e b O,
' 2
’ 2
or e
th e qu a n tity un d e r th e r a d ica l i s p o s itiv e a n d s o h a s a squ a e r

r oot *
.W e h a v e thu s obt a i n e d th e f ol l o wi n g r e su l t .
The equ a ti on s o f th e ta ngen ts to th e h yp er b ol a w h i ch h a v e

th e g i v en s l op e A, wh er e A s a ti s fi es th e i n equ a l i ty are
g i v en
by (6 )
t t d e d u ce f ol l owin g r e su l t s mg ith e r of
5
Le t th e s u de n th e ,
us e
th e t w o m e th od s o f § .
Th e e qu a ti on s o th
f e ta ngen ts to th e el l i p s e
?
w y
( )
7
2
1’
“ b z
w h i ch h a ve a n a r b i tr a r i ly g i ven s l op e A, a re
( )
8
Th e equ a ti o n o fth e ta ngen t to th e p a r a bola
( )
9 y
2
2 mm)
w h i ch h a s a g i ve n s l op e A, n ot 0, i s
( )
1 0
* If w e tak e a v al u e of A, for w h i ch < b / , A2 2 a 2 th en al

‘
A2 b2 i s
n eg ati v a nd h a
e s r r t
n o sq u a e oo . C o n se q u e n l y , h e t t re ar e n o t an ge n s t
w i th th i s s l op e as t h e th
,
r m stat eo e es . F i n al l y , if A j:b/a, th en
a zA2 b2 0, a nd
( 4 ) i n t q d r ti c
s o a ua a e qu a ti on .
1 84 AN ALY TI C GE O M E T R Y
3 . B y d ir e ct a pp l ica ti on of th e m e th od s of th e t ex t show ,
tha t th e c on d iti on tha t th e l in e (1 1 ) b e tan g en t to th e circl e

( )
2 ? 2
1 4 £73 y Ct
is tha t
( 1 5
)
2
( 1 A) 2
.
U s in g
formu l a s fin d th e e qu a ti on s of
5
an d
5
4 .
th e t an g en t s which a r e r e qu ir e d i n E x s 1 2 3 a n d 7 of
5Ha s th e hyp e rbol a 9 x 4 y 3 6 any tan g en t s whos e

, ,
. .
, ,
2 =
5
?
.
i n cl in a ti on t o th e a x i s ofx i s 6 0 9 Wh ose in cl in a ti on i s 4 ° °
I fso fi ,
n d th e ir e qu a ti on s .
6 .F i n d th e e qu a ti on s o f th e ta n g e n t s t o th e p a ra b ol a
on e o f which i s p a r a l l e l t o a n d th e o th e r p e r e n di cu
5
y
2
8 x , p
l a r t o th e l in e 3 x — 2 y O Sh ow th a t th e se t a n g e n t s .
in t e r s e ct on th e d ir e ctrix .
7 .P r ov e th a t a n y tw o p e r p e n d icu l a r t a n g e n t s t o a p a ra b ol a
i n t e r se ct on th e d ir e ctri x .
In ea ch fol l owin g ex e rci s es d e t e r m i n e wh e th e r

of th e th e
giv en l in e
i s ta n g e n t to th e giv en c on i c I f it i s fi nd .
,
th e
coOr d i n a te s o fth e p oin t of c on t a ct .
Co n i c L i ne
8 . 2 x
7
3
+ y = 7
5 2 x — 3y
9 = 2
9
5
x,
5
.
y
3x — 6 — 8 = O
‘ ‘
Z 3
10 .
y z 7, x y
— .
In ea ch
f ol l owin g c a s e s th e e qua ti on of th e giv en l i n e
o f th e
c on ta i n s an a rbitra ry c on s t an t F in d th e val u e or v a l u e s of .
thi s c on s tan t if a n y ex i st for which th e l in e i s ta n g en t to th e

, ,
giv en c oni c .
Co n i c '
L i ne
11 . x
9
+ 3 y = 4,
9
x c :
12 2 — = 3
2
2 + dy — S= O
5
x x
.
y ,
.
13 .
y =
2
3 x kx
14 . 4 x 2 — 3 y = 1, ‘
1 5I
. s th e l i n e
y t a n g e n
x t t o th e p a r a b ol a y1x x 2 ?
16 Sh o w th a t th e l i n e s 3 x i y + 1 0
. 0 a r e c omm on ta n
g en t s O fth e circl e x y 1 0 a nd th e p a r a b ol a y2
2
‘
2
x
‘
17 F i nd th e e qu a ti on s of th e c omm on t an g e n t s of th e
.
p a ra b ol a y2
2 x a n d th e ell i p s e x 2
2y 2
An s . V2 x i 2y + 4 O .
Tangents to a Coni c fr om an External Poi nt G iv en a l

.
t P ex t e rn a l to a c on ic tha t i s l yin g on th e c on v ex sid e of, ,
h e cu rv e F r om P it i s p o s s ib l e i n g en e ra l to d ra w tw o
.
, ,
tan g en t s to th e c on ic I t i s r e qu ir e d .
to fin d th e e qu a ti on s of th e se ta n
g en t s .
Let th e c on ic b e th e e l l i p s e
( )
1 2y 2
3
?
x
an d l e t P b e t h e p oi n t 1, We
fin d th e e qu a ti on s ofth e t w o tan g e n ts
d r a wn fr om P to th e el l ip s e by fin d
i n g fir s t th e c oor d i n a t e s of th e F G 8 I .
p o i n t s o f t a n g e n cy L e t P I b e
. t h e
p oi n t o f t a n g e n cy o f on e of th e t a n g e n t s a n d l e t th e co Or d i ,
n a t e s of P I which a r e a s y e t u n kn own b e (x1 yl ) Th e

, , ,
.
e q u a ti on o fthi s t an g e n t i s th e n by 2 , ,
( )
2 xl x 2 yl y 3 .
The r e a r e tw o c ond iti on s on th e p oin t P I to s e rv e a s a m ea n s ,
o fd e t e r m in i n g th e v a l u es ofx 1 a n d yl I n th e fir s t p l a c e th e .
,
t an g en t (2 ) a t P I mu s t go thr ou g h th e p oin t 1 2 ) h en c e ,
( )
3 x1 4 y1 3 .
Se c on dl y , th e p o in t P I l i e s on th e el l i p se ( 1 ) tha t i s,
( )
4 2 y1 3
2 2
£131 .
E qu a ti on s ( )
3 an d ( )
4 are tw o s i mu l tan e ou s e qu a ti on s i n th e
u n kn o wn s xl yl I fw e s ol v e (3 ) for x,
5
.
,
( ) x1 = 4 y1 _ 37
a n d sub stitu t e i ts va l u e i n we o b ta in ,
on s imp l i fi ca ti on , th e
fol l owin g e qu a ti on for y1
( )
6 3 yl 2
Th e root s of thi s e qu a ti on a r e y1 _ 1 a nd y1 = ; th e c orr e

sp on d i n g va l u e s ofx1 a r e fr om 1 an d
g Hc en e
( x1 , y1 )
5
.
,
( , )
1 1 an d ( xl ,
—
g ,
are th e i
s ol u t on s of
( )
3 and
Th e c oor d in a t e s of th e p oi n t s of t an g en cy
the r e for e ar e, ,
( 1 1
, ) and —
3 ,
Su b s titu ti n g th e co Or d i n a tes ofe a ch p o in t
in t u rn for x1 y1 i n (2 ) a n d s i m p l ifyin g th e r esu l t s w e Obta in , ,
as th e e qu a ti on s o f th e t w o t a n g e n t s
5
,
(7 ) x +2y and x
Th e m e th od u sed in thi s
iv e r sa l i n i t s app l i ca
ex a m p l e is un
tion n ot onl y to c on ic s b u t to oth e r cu rv es a s we l l I t sh ou l d

, , .
b e n ot e d h ow e v e r th a t th e e qu a ti on c o rr e s p on d i n g to (6 ) d oes
, ,
n ot i n g e n e r a l
,
ha v e r a ti on a l tha t i s fra cti on a l or in t e gra l
, , , ,
r oot s U su al l y i t s r oot s i n v ol v e r a d ica l s a n d h en c e so d o th e

.
fi n al e qu a tion s of th e ta n g en t s I f on e w e r e d ea l i n g with a n .
a rbitra ry p oin t P ex t e rn a l t o an a rbitr a ry c on ic f or e x a m p l e , ,
th e el l ip se
2
2 + 1,
th ese r a d ic al s w ou l d b e c omp l ica t ed Acc or d in gl y w e ma k e n o .

,
a tt e m p t t o se t u p g e n e r a l f o r m u l a s for th e t a n g e n t s t o a giv e n
c on ic fr om an ex t e rn a l p oin t W e h a v e ex p ou n d e d a m e th od .
which i s a p p l icabl e i n a l l ca ses a n d thi s i s th e pu rp os e w e s et ,
ou t t o a chi e v e .
S econd M eth od giv e bri efly an a l t e rn a tiv e m e th od

. W e of
fi n d in g th e e qu a ti on s o fth e ta n g e n t s fr om th e p oi n t 1 2) , to
th e e l l i p s e
Su p p ose on e ofth e t a ng e n t s i s th e l in e
( )
8 y Ax B .
Sin c e i t i s a tan g en t to we h av e ,
a cc or d in g to 6, E x 1 ,
.
2 ,3 2
6A 2
3 .
11 . (13
2
0, 3
( ,
12 . 2 x 2
3y 2
1 0, 2,
13 2
+y
2 — 4x — = 0
5
. x y ,
14 . x
2
y
? 2 ,
1,
1 5W . r k E x e rci s e s 1 0 by th e se con d m e th od
o 5 .
16 . Sh ow by u se of th e s e c on d m e th od tha t th e tan g en t s
, ,
fr om th e p oin t t o th e e l l ip se 4 x ?
9 y = 36 a r e p e r p en
2
d i cu l a r .
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R IX
1 . P r ov e tha t th e s l op e ofth e c on ic
( 1 e
2
) x
2
+y
2
2 mx m 2
0
at th e p oin t (x 1 , y1 ) is
3h
H en c e s h ow tha t th e e qu a ti on ofth e ta n g en t at
(
x1 ,
( 1 c
?
) x1x yl y m (x x1
) + m 2
0 .
2 . Sh ow tha t th e sl o pe o f th e cu rv e
Ax + B xy +
2
at th e p oi n t ( x1, y1 ) is
B xl 2 Cyl E
Th en p r ov e tha t th e e qu a ti on ofth e ta n g en t at
( xl , yl ) i s
Ar e:+ 2 w 3 wa rt 0 m 1200 310 + F

2 2
Th e fol l owin g e qu a ti on s c onta in

3 . a rbit rar y c onstan t s .
Wh a t d oe s ea ch r ep r e sen t ?
( ) a y Ax 3;
Ans . Al l th é l in es throu gh (0 ,
3) ex e c pt x 0 .
( )
5
b 3 + 2y+
'
ax a
(Q
5
7 x + y
(2 a
) x + (7 a 3) y = 9 a +2
:
C E R T AI N G E N E RA L M E THO D S 1 89
m) y 3m
5
( )
e l x + (2 l — 0;
(f) ( 2 l + 3 m) x —
(4 l + 6 m )y+ l = 0 .
4 . A l i n e m ov e s so tha t th e su m of th e r e ci p r oca l s of i ts
i n t e rc e p t s i s c on s ta n t . Sh ow tha t it a l wa y s p a ss e s thr ou gh a
fix ed p i t
o n
5A l i
.
with p os itiv e in t e rc ep t s m ov e s so tha t th e e x c e s s

ne
of th e i n te rc e p t on th e a x i s of x o v e r th e i n t e rc e p t on th e a x i s
ofy i s e qu a l to th e a r ea o f th e tri a n g l e which th e l i n e f o r m s
with th e a x e s Sh ow tha t i t a l wa y s p asses thr ou gh a fi x e d

.
p oi n t .
6 P r ov e t h a t th e s tr a igh t l i n e s
5
.
,
{I} 2y 6 O,
2 x 4y 3 0,
3x 2y 3 0,
m ee t i n p oin t by sh owin g th a t th e e qu a ti on
a ,
ofon e of them
ca n b e writt e n i n th e f or m l a mv 0 wh e r e ,
u 0 an d v 0
a r e th e e qu a ti on s ofth e o th e r s .
7 .Sh ow t ha t th e thr e e l in es ,
5
x 3 3] 4 0,
x 3y 6 0,
9g 14 0,
m eet i n a i t
p o n .
8 . P r ov e th a t th e thr ee l in es
ku — ZB = O, lfl— m y = o, my — ka = 0 ,
wh e r e a = 0 B= 0 an d ,
are th e m s el v e s e qu a ti on s of
,
s tr a ight l i n e s a n d It l a n d m a r e c on s ta n t s m e e t i n a p oi n t
, , ,
.
9 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e c omm on ch or d of th e t w o i n
te r s e cti n g circ l e s
+ y + 6x 8y +
2 2
93 -
2 —
2 + 2y 3x + 4y
2
x
Sh o w tha t th e tw o circl es ,
2 2 — 4x — 4y
x + y
a re t an g en t to on e a n othe r F in d th e e qu a tion ofth e c om m on
.
t an g en t a nd th e coOr d i n a te s ofth e c omm on p oin t .
11 .F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e circ l e which g oes thr ou gh th e

p o i n t s o f i n t e r se cti on o f th e t w o circ l e s of E x 9 a n d thr ou gh .
th e origin .
12 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e circl e which i s t a n g en t to th e
circ l es ofE x 1 0 a t the ir c om m on p oin t an d m ee t s th e a x i s of
.
x i n th e p o in t x 2 .
13 . Wha t i s th e e qu a ti on ofth e cir cl e which p asses thr ou gh

th e p oi n t s of in t e r s e c ti on ofth e l in e
and th e circl e
+y + 2
2 2
x x
an d g oe s thr ou gh th e p oi n t ( 1 1 ) ,
14 . D e t e r m i n e th e e qu a ti on of th e el l ip se wh ich p asses
th r ou gh th e p oin t s ofin t e r se cti on ofth e el l i p s e
23
2
4y 2
4
an d th e l i n e 3x — 4y
,
an d g oe s thr ou gh th e p oin t (2 B y a tran s for ma ti on to
,
p a r a l l e l a x es ( cf C.h X I .
p r ov e th
,
a t thi s e l l i p s e h a s a x e s
p a ra l l el to th ose of th e giv en e l l ip s e an d h a s th e sa m e
e cc e n tricity
1 5F i n d a s in g l e e qu a ti on r e p r e s en tin g b oth d ia g on a l s of
.
th e r e c tan g l e wh ose c en t e r i s a t th e origi n a n d on e of wh os e

,
v e rtic e s i s a t th e p oin t (a b) ,
.
16 . Wha t i s th e c on d iti on tha t th e e qu a ti on
r ep r esen t tw o p er p en d icu l a r l in es
17 F in d th e l ocu s ofea ch ofth e f ol l owin g e qu a ti on s
5
.
( ) a 6x + 2
xy 4y = 0;
2
( ) 4x 2
b
( )
c x
?
+ x y+ 6y = 0;
2
26 . Sh o w tha t th e l in e
2
( )
is ta n g e n t t o th e cir cl e
m 2
y
2
a
2
1 1 1
1 f a n d on l y if
A 2
B 2
“
2
F i n d th e c on d i ti on th a t th e l in e ta n g e n t
‘
27 .
t o th e el l ip se
28 .Wha t wi l l th e c on d iti on o bta in e d i n Ex 2 7 . b e c om e in

th e ca s e o fth e hy p e rb ol a
“3 y — 1 ?
‘
29 . P r ov e tha t th e l in e Ex . 2 6, i s t an g e n t to th e
pa ra b ol a y
2
2 mx if a n d on l y if 2 3 2
Am 0 .
30 . F i n d th e\ c on d iti on tha t th e l in e y Ax B be ta n g e n t
to th e c on ic
( 1 — e2 x2
)
2
+y
Ans .
(B mA) 2
e 2
(B
2
m ): 0
2
.
31 . In an el l i p se the r e
in s crib ed a r e ctan gl e with s i d es
IS
pa ral l el to th e ax e s I n thi s r e ctan gl e the r e i s in s crib ed a

.
se c on d e l l i p s e with a x e s a l on g th e ax e s of th e fir s t Sh ow
,
.
tha t a l in e j oin i n g ex tr e m iti e s of th e m a j or a n d m in or a x e s of

th e fir s t e l l i p se i s ta n g en t to th e se c on d .
C HA P TE R X
P OLAR COOR DI NATE S
1 . Defini ti on .I t i s p o s s ibl e to d e s crib e c om p l e t e l y th e
p os i ti on of a p oi n t i n a p l a n e by t e l l i n g i t s d i sta n ce a n d i ts
d i r ecti on fr om a gi v en p o n i t . Thi s i d ea fo r m s th e ba s i s of th e
s y s t em o fp ol a r c o Or di n a te s .
Let 0 b e th e giv en p oin t an d d ra w fr om 0 a r a y 0 A fr om , , ,
which to m ea su r e a n gl e s Le t P b e a ny p oin t of th e p l an e . .
D en ot e i t s d i s ta n c e fr om O by r a n d th e ,
a n g l e A OP by 0 Th e n (r 6) for m th e .
,
p o l a r coo r di n a tes o f t h e p o i n t P 0 i s .
ca l l e d th e p ol e or ori g i n ; 0 A th e ,
d i recti on or i n i ti a l r ay ; a nd r, th e ra d i u s FIG . 1
v ector
(p l . ra di i v ector es ) .
Wh en r a n d 9 a r e giv en on e a n d on l y on e p oin t i s d e t e r , , ,
m in e d . Wh en on th e oth e r h an d a p oin t i s giv en r i s com

, , ,
p l e t e l y d e t e r m i n e d b u t 9 m a y h a v e a,
n y on e o f a n i nfi n it e
se t of v a l u e s d iffe ri n g fr o m o n e a n o th e r by m u l ti p l es o f 3 6 0
°
( or Th u s if 0 i s on e v a l u e o f 0 th e o th e r s wi l l a l l b e
,
’
,
c om p ri s ed i n th e for m u l a
9: 6 i ’
360 n ( or
wh e r e n wh ol e n u m b e r
is a .
F or th e p oi n t 0 r : 0 ; b u t th e r e i s n o m or e r ea son for
,
a s s ign in g t o 9 on e v a l u e r a th e r th a n a n o th e r As th e coOr d i .
n a t e s o f 0 th e r e f o r e w e t a k e (0
,
wh e r e 9 m ay b e a n y nu m
, ,
b e r w ha t e v e r .
I t i s p o s s ib l e t o d e fi n e p ol a r c oo r d i n a t e s s o th a t r ca n b e
n e g a tiv e Thu s th e p oin t
. 2 w ou l d b e obta in e d by -
19 3
d ra wi n g th e r ay which gl e of30 with GA a nd

m a k es an an
°
th en l a yi n g of fon th e op p os it e r a y a d i s ta n c e o f2 u n it s Thi s .
s y s t e m o f p ol a r coOr di n a t e s i s n ot
wid el y u s ed i n l a t e r w or k i n m a th e
ma ti cs a n d e v en i n a na l ytic g e om e try,
A it i s a m a tt e r of cu s t om ra th e r than
of a n y l ogic a l n e c e s s i y W e s ha l l
FI 2 G .
t .
,
th e r e for e a d h e r e to th e origin al ,
d efi n iti on a n d ex c l u d e n e ga tiv e v a l u e s of r u nl e s s a n e x p l icit ,
s ta t e m en t to th e c on t ra r y i s m a d e .
EX E R C IS ES
F or u se in th e se an d l ate r
rci s e s th e s tu d en t shou l d p r o
ex e
cu r e p ol a r coOr d i n a te p a p e r ru l e d l i k e a c obweb O the rwi s e

,
;
h e s h ou l d u s e a s ca l e a n d p r otra ct or .
P l ot th e fol l owin g p oin t s
1 ( ,
1 4 (5 7
V
5(2
. .
,
.
13 1;
2 .
,
8 .
7
2 1
23 )
3 . 6 .
( , 9 .
i
0
‘ 10 Wha t a r e th e coOr di na te s of th e v e rtic es of a s qu a r e
.
wh ose c en t e r i s a t 0 th e p ri m e d ir e cti on b e in g p e r p en d icu l a r

,
‘
to a s i d e if th e l en gth ofon e s i d e i s 2 a
U
7 f
’
, i
11 Writ e d own th e coOr di n a te s of th e v e rtic e s of a n e qui

.
l a t e ra l tri a n gl e th e p ol e b e in g a t th e c en t e r a n d on e v e rt ex
,
l y i n g on 0 A .
12 Th e sa m e for a r e g ul a r h ep ta g on
. .
13 Wha t l oci a r e r ep re sen t e d by th e f ol l owin g e qu a ti on s ?

.
( ) e= 0 ; e= 90
°
a
( )
b ee s
()
c .
—
2 . Ci rcl es . Am on g th e s i m p l e s t cu rv es in p ol a r c oor d ina t e s
“
ar e
( )
a circ l e s with c en t e r
th e 0 . Th e e qu a
ti on ofon e of the m i s
( )
1 r a,
whe r e a i s th e r a d iu s .
FI G . 3
l
6=9
r
2
+ 8r co s .
r
2
+ 8r si n 6= 9 .
r
2 — 8 r si n 6 = 9 .
— 2 r si n 6= 7
r 2
+2 r cos 6 .
2
r
r 2 — 6r oo s 6 —
:
8r si n 6 = 11 .
Stra i ght Li nes c on si d e r fir s t a l in e L which d oe s

. Le t us
p a ss thr ou gh 0 a n d a s su m e to b e gin w i th /t h a t L m ee t s
, , ,
d ir e cti on a t right a n gl es a t th e
d i s tan c e h fr o m 0 Th e é qua ti on ofL i s .
, ,
e vi d e n t l y ,
A ( )
1
FI G 6.
I f L i s pa r a l l el t '
p r i m e d ir e cti on
a n d a t a d i s t a n c e h (a b ov e it, it i s e a s il y
s h o wn tha t i ts e qu a ti on is
i
.
( )
2 r s n 6=h .
N Let L , n ow, be a ny l in e n ot g oin g thr ou gh 0 . D ra w a l i ne

thr ou gh 0 p e rp en d icu l a r to L a n d l e t B b e ,
th e p oin t i n which
A it cu t s L (F i g 7 ) D e n ot e th e l en gth
.
of th e l in e s e g m e n t -
OB by h a n d th e ,
4 A O B by 7 L et P :
( r.6 ) b e any ,
p o i n t o f L .
Th en A B OP : 6
7 .
C on s e qu e n t l y w e h a v e ,
( ) — =
3 r oo s
( 6 y) h
Fl G 7
as th e e qu a ti on ofL .
R a ys f m
ro 0 . Th e e qu a ti on ofa r a y, or hal f l in e-
,
e m a na tin g
fr om 0, is
whe r e a i s a c on s t an t an gl e . Thu s 6 0 i s th e qu a ti on ofth e

e
p ri m e d ir e cti on a n d ,
i s th e e qu a ti on of a r a y d ra wn
PO LAR C O OR D I N AT E S 197
fr om 0 a t right a n g l e s to th e p ri m e d ir e cti on Th e r e a r e tw o .
su ch r a y s ; th e e qu a ti on o f th e o th e r on e i s 6
To th e right han d s i d e o fany ofth e s e e qu a ti on s can b e a d d e d

-
a n y p o s itiv e o r n e g a tiv e m u l ti p l e of with ou t a l t e rin g th e

l o cu s .
L i n es th r ou gh 0 Th e e q u a ti on o f th e l i n e th r ou gh 0 p e r
.
e n d i cul a r t o th e pri m e d ir e cti on i s

p
( )
4 cot 6 0 .
F or th en 6 90
°
or 6 90
°
and h av e j u s t s een th a t th e s e a r e e qu a ti on s
we o fth e tw o ra y s
m a k i n g u p th e l in e .
Th e e qu a ti on of a n y oth e r l in e thr ou gh 0 i s
5
( ) ta n 6 c,
wh e r e c is a c on s ta n t . Thu s
ta n 9 1
r
r e p e sen s a t l in e thr ou gh 0 ,
for th e p o i n t s of whi ch on e o r th e
o th e r ofth e tw o e qu a ti on s
6 4 5 °
6 22 5 °
EX E R C IS ES
1 E s ta b l i s h
qu a ti on e
k
.
2 D e rive e qu a ti on s (1 ) a n d (2 ) fr o m e qu a ti on
.
"
N
3 I f a l in e i s p e r p e n d icu l a r t o th e p ri m e d ir e cti on b u t
.
d oe s n ot cu t it wha t i s i t s e qu a ti on ?
-
,
Let h b e i t s d i s ta n c e
fr om th e p ol e .
4 F in d th e e qu a ti on ofa l in e which i s p a r a l l e l to th e pri m e

.
d ir e cti on a n d a d i s t a n c e h b e l o w it
5F in d th e e qu a ti on of th e l in e which cu t s th e p ri m e
.
5
.
d ir e cti on a t a d i s t an c e of un it s fr om th e p ol e a n d m a k e s a n
a n gl e of 4 5
with th e p ri m
°
e d ir e cti on .
Wh a t d oe s ea ch of th e f ol l owin g e qu a ti on s r e p r e s en t ?
M a k e a p l ot i n e a ch c a se .
6 . r eo s 6= 4 . 7 . r si n 6=4 .
8 . r co s 6 -
4 . 9 . r si n 6 — 4 .
10 si n 6 + 6= 3 11 si n 6 — r oos 6 = 3
5 5
. r r co s . . r .
12 4r si n 6 + 3r c os 6= 3 r si n 6 — 12 r co s 6 = 26
52
. . . .
14 . ta n 6 -
1 . 1 . c os 6=0 .
1 6 . 17 .
4 . Graph s ofE qu a ti ons . I fa nequ ati on i n p ol a r c oo r d ina t e s

is given which cann ot b e
,
r e d u c ed to on e of th e f or m s re c og
i z e d a s r e p r e se n tin g a kn o w n cu rv e i t i s e c e s s a ry i n o r d e r
n , ,
to d e t e r m in e wha t cu rv e i s d e fi n e d by th e e qu a ti on to p l ot a ,
r ea s ona b l e n u m b e r o f p oi n t s wh ose c o Or d i n a te s s a ti s fy th e
e qu a ti on B u t c on s i d e r a ti on s of s y mm e try wi l l oft en s h o rt en
.
th e w or k .
E xa mp l e 1 C on s i d e r th e e qu a ti on
.
( )
1 r
2
16 Si n 6 .
Thi s e qu a ti on is e qu iva l en t to
si n 6,
( )
2 r
wh e r e w e ha v e ta k en on l y th e p ositiv e s qu a r e r oot s in c e n e ga ,
tiv e v al u e s ofr ha v e for u s n o m ean i n g .
Wh en r = 0 ; a s 6 i n cr e a s e s r i n cr e a se s a n d wh en , ,
6 r = 4 U s in g a ta b l e of s i n e s a n d a t a bl e of s qu a r e
.
r oot s w e c om pu t e th e f ol l o win g coOr d i n a te s of fu rth e r p oi n t s

,
ofth e cur ve
5
.
° ° ° °
6 10
°
20
°
30 40 0 60 70 °
M or e c om pu ta ti on s a r e u nn e c e s sa ry .
F or th e cu rv e i s s y mm e tric i n th e r a y
,
6 To p r ov e thi s w e n ot e th a t if , ,
P : ( )
r 6 i s a n y po i n t of th e c u rv e th e n
, ,
th e p oin t P ( r 1 8 0 which
’
i s ,
°
A s y mm e tric to P i n th e r a y 6 is
FI G . 8 a l s o a p oi n t o fth e cu r v e in a s m u ch a s ,
si n
( e)
°
si n 1 80 e .
cr ea se s r d e cr ea se s an d wh en 6
, ,
r 0 . Th e c oo rd ina te s
o f i n t e r m e d i a t e p oin t s of th e c u rv e a re
2 5
°
Th e cu rv e is s y mm e tric i n th e p ri m e d ir e cti on F or if th e .
,
p o i n t P :( )
r 6 i s a n y p oi
,
n t o f th e c u rv e ,
th en th e p oin t P (r ,
which i s’
,
s y m m e tric t o P i n OA (F i g i s a l so .
'
a p oi n t of th e cu rv e S i n c e ,
FI G . 11 co s 3( 6) cos 36 .
I fw e p l ot th e p oin t s a l r ea d y c om pu t e d an d th ose sy mm e tric

t o th e m , w e ob ta in a p i e c e of
th e cu rv e (F i g B y p l ot
.
tin g fu rth e r — th e p oin t s for 6

, ,
equ a l sa y t o
, , an d
w e w oul d fi n d th a t th e cu rv e i s
s m o o th i n th e p o i n t A .
Wh en 6 in cr ea se s b ey on d
3 6 i s gr ea t e r tha n 9 0
°
a n d r b e c om e s n e g a tiv e so th a t ,
the r e a r e n o p oin t s on th e
cu rv e Thi s s i tu a ti on p ers i s ts
.
thr ou ghou t th e an g l e
°
30 6
I n th e an gl e 90
°
6
h o w ev e r , r is a ga in p os itiv e Th e p i e c e of th e cu rv e whi ch
.
l i es i n thi s an gl e i s c on gru en t t o th e p i e c e
0 A a l r ea d y p l ott e d a n d m a y b e obt a in e d
by r ota tin g th e p i e c e 0 A thr ou gh a n
an g l e o f 1 2 0 a b ou t th e p ol e F or if
°
,
.
FIG . 13 P : r 6 i s a p oin t of th e cu rv e
( ) , ( g
F i .
th en P (r 6
‘ ’
,
i s a l so s in c e ,
co s 3 (6 co s
(3 6 cos S 6 .
P O LAR C O OR D I N AT E S 20 1
H en c e ev e ry p oin t on th e fir s t l obe o f th e c u rv e yi e l d s a p oin t

on th e s e c on d l ob e by m e r e l y r ota tin g th e r a d i u s v e ct or
thr ou g h
Th e se c on d l ob e a ga in giv e s ri se to a third l ob e c on gr u en t
t o it a n d a d v a n c e d by I f t h i s l a s t l ob e w e r e a g a in a d
v a n ce d i t w ou l d yi e l d th e fir s t
,
H en c e .
th e thr e e l ob e s c om p l e t e th e cu rv e .
I f w e a d m it n e g a ti v e r s th e c u rv e i s
’
,
u n ch a n g e d Th e p oin t s which w e th en
.
g e t fo
,
r e x am l e f
p or v a l u e s o f 6,
b e tw e e n
3 0 a n d 9 0 l i e on th e thir d l ob e of th e
° °
cu rv e Thu s for v a l u es of 6 fr om 0 to
.
,
°
e a ch p oi n t of th e c u rv e i s obt a i n e d
twic e on c e for 6 6 a n d On c e for

,
'
F IG 1 4 .
’
6 6
Tes ts for S ymm etry . Le t th e t

s u d en t s h ow th a t
t e st for th e
s y m m e try i n th e r ay 6 giv en i n E x a m p l e 1 a l s o in su r es ,
s y m m e try i n th e r a y 6 a n d th a t th e t e s t for s y m m e try

.
i n th e p ri m e d ir e cti on ,
giv en i n E x a m p l e 2 a l so yi el d s sy m ,
m e try i n th e r a y 6
Th ese t e s t s a r e g en e r al ,
a n d ca n be t t
s a ed a s th e or e m s .
THEOREM 1 . A cu r v e is sy mm etr i c i n th e l i n e f th e
o
.
p r i me
d i r e cti on if
,
on s u bs ti tu ti n g 6 f or 6 i n i ts equ a ti on , th e eq u a
ti on i s u n a l ter ed .
THEOREM 2 . A cu r v e is sy m m etr i c i n th e l i n e th r ou gh th e
p ol e p erp en d i cu l a r to th e p r i m e d i r ecti on if
;
on su bs ti tu ti ng
°
1 80 6 for 6 i n i ts equ a ti on , th e equ a ti on i s u n a l ter ed .
EX E R C IS ES
f ol l owin g cu rv e s
5
ot th e .
Th e l e m ni s c a t e (ta k e a
r
2
a
2
co s 2 6 .
2 . Th e ca r d i oi d (t a k e a 2%
r 2 a
( 1 cos 6) .
Th e l i ma qon ( g e n e r a l i z a ti on
a o f th e ca r d i oi d ) ,
r = 4 — 3 co s 6 .
4 . A se c on d ty p e ofl i m a con ,
r 3 4 co s 6 .
Sh o w th a t if ga tiv e r s are adm itt e d i c is ad d ed

’
ne ,
a p e e to th e
c u rv e .
5 r
2 = 1 G CO S 6 6 r = 1 O Si n 3 6 7 r
2
a
‘
3
si n 26
5
. . . . . .
8 . H ow ar e th e cu rv e s of E x s .
,
6, and 7 r el a t ed r e Sp e c ,
t i v e l y , t o th e cu r v e s of E x a m p l e s 1, 2 o f th e t ex t an d th e l e m
n i s ca te o fE x . 1
3
9 . r 10 . r
1 + cos 6
3
12 . r
l — 6
é
— co s
13 . r 5 cos 26 .
Sh o w tha t thi s cu rv e h a s tw o l ob es b u t tha t it w ou l d ha v e ,
f ou r l ob e s if n e ga tiv e r s w er e a d m itt e d ’
5 5=
.
,
14 = 46 1 a c os n 6
5
. r c os . . r .
16 . Sh o w tha t th e cu rv e of E x 1 . h as n l ob e s ; b u t , if n is
e v en a n d n e g a ti v e r s a r e a d m itt e d it
’
,
h as 2 n l ob es .
17 . Th e s p ira l of Archi m e d e s ,
7
’
9,
ta k in g 6 i n d e gr e e s an d
l
eo
c m . as th e u ni t ofl e n gth .
Th e hy p e rb ol ic Sp ira l ,
1
o
I n e w
ta k in g 6 in ra d ian s an d 2 cm . as th e u n it ofl e n gth .
19 . r = i — 6 2
. 20 . r
7
+ 6 = 1 2
.
5. Coni cs . Th e e qu a ti on ofa c on ic s e cti on wh en th e d efin i ,
ti on of C h . VI I I , 7 is u sed , is s i m p l e i n p ol a r co Or di n a te s .
P -
ou th e l e ft h an d bra n ch a s
-
,
ne ga
tiv e (F i g . Th en w e h a v e
4 9
FP = —r , PM — m,
'
6 —
A r co s
and hen c e
FI G . 17 m
which r edu c e s to
It i s th en th a t th e ch oic e w e h a v e m a d e a d m ittin g
s ee n , , ,
onl y p o s itiv e or z e r o r s i s m or e d i s cr i m i n a t i n g for w e a r e

’
, ,
a b l e t o r e p r e se n t a s i n g l e br a n ch o f th e c u rv e by a s i m p l e
f or m ul a ,
or I n a n a l ytic g e om e try w e d o n ot u su
a l l y ca r e t o d o thi s th e cu rv e th a t i n t e r e s t s u s b e i n g th e p a ir
,
o fbr a n ch e s B u t i n a pp l i e d m a th e m a tic s it o ft e n h a pp e n s th a t
.
on e br a n ch o f a hy p e rb ol a p l a y s a r o l e a n d th e o th e r h a s n o
m e an i n g Thu s wh en a c om et i s tr a v e l in g i n a hype rb ol ic orbit
.
,
it i s on l y on e bran ch ofth e hy p e rb ol a which f o r m s th e pa th fi “
N ew Ch o i ce o f P r i me D i r ecti on I f th e p ri m e d ir e cti on h a d
.
n ot b e en ch os en a l on g K F p r od u c e d , b u t a t a n a n gl e 7 with
it a s sh ow n i n F i g 1 8 then e vi d en t l y
,
.
,
6 y w o u l d t a k e th e p l a c e o f 6 i n th e
f o r e g oin g f or m u l a s b u t th e r e w oul d b e, M
n o o th e r ch a n g e Th e fi na l e qu a ti on s
.
w ou l d n ow r ea d
em
( )
3
1 — e c os (6 — 7 )
m
e
( )
4 ‘
7
FIG 18
1 + (6 —
y)
.
e e os
W e no e t th at th i s is n ot th e on l y w a y i n w h i ch w e are ab l e , by
si m p l e r
fo m u l a s , t o d i s c i m i n a r te be twe en t h e tw o b r
a n ch e s of a h yp e r
b ol a . Th u s th e e qu a ti on
m2 y
2 1
rep resents a h y p erb ol a on th e a x i s ofy . Th e equ a ti on
2
y (13
r e p re t
s e n s o n e ofi ts b ra nch e s , an d th e e qu a ti on
y = + 16 2
th e o h e t r .
P O LAR C O OR D IN AT E S 20 5
E x a mp l e . Wha t c u r v e is r e p r e sen t e d by th e e qu a ti on
1 + 2 si n 6
Th e e qu a ti on ca n be re d u ce d to th e fo r m (3 ) '
by ch oos in g 7
so th a t
cos
( 6 y) si n 6 .
O bvi ou s l y , y m u s t b e 2 7 0 wha t a m ou n s t
°
or , to th e sa m e
thin g , M o r e ov e r , e 2 and m 3 .
Thu s th e e qu a ti on r ep r e s en t s on e br an ch of a \h y p e rb ol a
wh os e e cc en tricity i s 2 Th e tran s v e r s e ax i s i s p e r p e n d icu l a r
.
t o th e p ri m e d ir e cti on a n d th e br a n ch i n qu e s ti on i s th e on e
op e n in g d o wn w a r d Th e c en t e r of th e hy p e rb ol a i s a t th e
.
p o i n t (4 ,
I t s a s y m p t o t es m a k e a n g l e s o f 60 with t h e
°
tra n sv e r se a x i s Th e l en gth s of th e s e m i ax e s a r e a 2 an d
.
-
b Th e v e rtic es a r e a t th e p oin t s (2 and

( 6 , ,
Th e s e c on d f o cu s i s a t (8 a n d th e e qu a ti on s of th e d i r e c
5
,
tric e s a r e Ts i n 6 3 a n d 7 s i n 6 .
Le t th e s t u d en t v e rify e a ch of th e se s t a t e m en t s u s in g th e ,
f or mu l a s of Ch VI I I . 6 a n d th e n d ra w th e cu rv e t o th e
, ,
s c a l e of 1 c m a s a u n it m a r k in g ea ch o fth e p o in t s m e n ti on e d
.
,
with i ts c oor d in a t e s a n d d r a win g i n th e a sy m p t ot e s a n d d i r ec

tric e s Wha t i s th e l en gth of th e l a t u s r e ctu m
.
,
E X E R C I S ES
Wha t c on ic or i n th e c a se of a hy p e rb ol a wha t bra n ch
, ,
is
r e p r e s en t e d by ea ch of th e f ol l owin g e qu a ti on s ? D ra w a
r ou gh fig u r e sh owin g th e p ositi on ofth e c u rv e .
3 2
1 7
,
1 — 1
00 8 9 1 — co s 6
37
12 12
4 .
'
7
1 — 3 cos 6 1 + 3 cos 6
5 r
1 — 8 3i n 6 1 +
4
6
5
. c os
24 _
— 1
8 . r
1 + 4 si n 6 1 — 3 3in 6
5
10 2
9 . T 10 . 7
°
+3 00 s 6 — 4 si n 6 1 + i
s n 6 + c os 6
1 + '
si n 6 co s 6
D ra w
ccu ra t e figu r e t o s ca l e for ea ch of th e cu rv e s
5
12 . an a , ,
ofE x s 6 a n d 7 m a r k in g th e c oor d in a t es of a l l th e i m p o r
.
, , ,
ta n t p oin t s a n d d ra win g i n a ll th e i m p ortan t l in e s .
6 . Tr ansfor mati on to and from Cartesi a n Coor di nates Let .
P be a n y p o in t o f th e p l a n e wh o s e c o or d in a t es r e f e rr e d to a
, ,
p a ir of C a rt e s i a n a x es a r e
( a y) L e t t h e , ,
.
p o l a r c o ii r d i n a t e s of P b e
(r wh e r e ,
th e o ri gi n 0 i s t a k e n a s th e p ol e a n d , , ,
th e p o s itiv e a x i s of a: a s th e p ri m e d i r e c
"
ti on Th en it i s cl ea r fr om th e figu r e tha t
.
FIG 19
( )
1 9, r 8 111 9
.
x 7 CO S y
'
.
Thu s a: a n d y a r e ex p r e s se d i n t e r m s of7 a n d
°
6 . To ex p e ssr
a n d 6 i n t e r m s o fa: a n d y w e ha v e f or r
’
7 , ,
2
( ) 93 2
-
4 y
2
,
'
7 V93 2
y ,
an d , for 6 , th e p a ir of e qu a ti on s
'
a
3
V13 2
y
z
F or 6 w e ha v e ,
a l so, th e equ a ti on ,
( )
4
But va l u e s of6 sa ti s fyin g thi s e qu a ti on a r e a d m i s s ibl e

n ot a l l .
S om e d e t e r m in e th e r a y O P a s th e y s h ou l d ; th e o th e r s giv e ,
th e opp os it e r a y a n d a r e to b e e x cl u d e d 6 i s on e a d
’
If 6 .
m i s s ibl e va l u e th e o th e r s a r e 6 = 6 + 3 6 O n wh e r e n i s a
'
, ,
wh ol e n u mb e r .
E x a mp l e 1 Wha t th e p ol a r c o or d in a t e s of th e p o n i t
5
. are
,
R ep l a cin g si n 6 by y/r an
d m u l ti p l yin g thr ou gh by we
ha v e
( )
6
Thi s b e c om e s
( 7 (W y )
? 3
06
2
31 , W a
t
60 3
«1 2
3/
N ega ti v e Va l u es f
o r . I fw e ad m it ne ga tiv e va l u e s ofr th en ,
( )
2 and
( )
3 b e c om e
(U
W he re th e p l us sign s tak en if r i s p ositiv e th e

ar e to b e ,
m i n u s s ign s if r i s n e g a tiv e ; (1 ) d oes

n ot ch a n g e as Fi g 2 0 s how s Th e
,
. .
a d m i s s ibl e sol u ti on s for 6 of 4

( ) a re
th o se d e t e r m in in g th e r ay OP (F i g .
if r i s p os itiv e or th ose d e t e r ,
m i n i n g th e r a y OP (F i g if r i s .
n e g a ti v e
5
.
I f i n ( ) n e ga tiv e va l u es of r a r e a d m itt e d th en (6 ) b e ,
c m i c w r : t V5
o n n 2 z
e s s,
e o 8 y ,
which m ay b e writt en as
3=
8
( ) ( a)
? i
4 2
w a g
‘
5
Th e fa ct th a t ( ) tran s f or m s in t o (7 wh en n e ga tiv e r s ’
ar e
e x c l u d e d a n d tr a n s f o r m s in t o (8 ) wh en n e g a tiv e T s a r e
’
ad
c orr e sp on d s t o th e fa ct tha t i n th e fir s t ca s e th e cu rv e
5
m i tt ed
( ) c on s i s t s o f a s in g l e l o op wh e r ea s i n th e s e c on d it i s ma d e
,
u p of t w o l o op s
Thi s s itu a ti on i s n ot m e t with i n th eca se of th e l e m n i s ca t e ,
E x a m p l e 3 s i n c e thi s cu rv e i s th e sa m e wh e th e r n e g a ti v e r s
’
,
a r e e x c l u d e d or a d m itt e d .
P O LA R O O OR D I N A TE S 2 09
EX E R C I S ES
1 F i n d th e Ca rt es i a n c oor d i na t e s ofth e p oin t s
5
.
( )
a 2
( , ( ( )
b ( , c) 1
( ,0
( ) 2
° °
d) 1 1 0 32 42 2
( e 7
P l ot th e giv en p oi n t ea c h ti m e a n d ch e c k th e r es u l t s by d ir e c t
m ea su r em en t .
2 . F in d th e p ol a r c oor d i n a t e s o fth e p oi n t s
( )
a
( ,
6 ( )
b 2, ( ) C
( ,
2
( )
d 4, ( ) e
( 7
7 (f) 1 2a
Tra n sfo r m th e f ol l owin g e qu a ti on s t o p ol a r c oor d in a t es .
3 x : 4 y — 4
5y = 3
. . .
x 6 2 x — 3 = 8
. . .
y .
7 y = 4x
2
4 + 3 y = 12
2 2 2 2
9 . x +y 10 . x .
11 . Tran s for m th e e qu a ti on of th e c a r d i oi d ,
= 2
r a
( 1 cos
to Ca rt e sian c o or d in a t e s . Of wha t d e gr e e i s th e r e su l tin g

e qu a ti on
An s .
(
x 2
y
?
2 ax
)
2
4a 2
( x 2
o f th e fou rth d e gr ee .
F in d th e qu a ti on e i n Ca rt e s i an c oor d i na t es o f ea ch of th e
fol l owin g cu rv e s .
6 si n 26
2 ? 2
12 a cos 13 r a
5 =4
. . . .
14 . r = a csc 6 . 1 . r — 3 co s 6 .
16 . r a cos 36 . An s .
( x 2
y)
2 2
ax
( x
2
3
17 . r a si n An s .
( x2 2 2=
y) (
ay 3 x
2
y
2
) .
r a s n i 26 .
19 . r a si n 2 6, if ne ga tiv e r s are adm

’
itt e d .
Ans .
( x 2
y )
? 3 4 a x
2 2
y
2
.
20 . r = a c os Z 6 .
21 . r = a cs c2 9 Ans .
y
— 4 ax — 4 a 2
2 = 0 .
22 . r i fe S 1 .
An s ( 1 . e
?
)x 2
y
?
2 e 2
mx 6
2
m
2
0 .
em
23 . r ,
i fe > 1 . An s .
1 — e c os 6
24 . Sa m e as E x 23, . if ne ga tiv e r s a r e ad m
’
itt e d .
An s Tha t. to E x 2 2 . .
EX E R C I S ES O N C HAPTE R X
1 . Sh ow tha t th e d i s ta n c e b e tween th e t w o p o i n t s (r l , 61 )
62 ) i s giv en by th e f or mu l a
2 . D e du ce a fo r mu l a givin g th e a r ea of a tria n gl e ,
on e
wh ose v e rtic e s i s a t th e p ol e .
3 D e t e r m in e th e a n g l e o fi n t e r s e cti on
. o f th e tw o l in e s
si n 6
r
(4
Su gg e s ti on . P u t th e e qu a ti on s in t o th e no r mal form ,
r cos (6 y)
: 71,
and thu s fin d th e va l u e ofy for ea ch l in e .
4 Sh ow tha t th e l i n e
.
,
x
+
a o
is r ep re sen t e d i n p ol a r c oord in a t e s by th e e qu a ti on
a si n 6 + b c os 6
5Wh . a t l in e s a r e r e p re sen t e d by th e f ol l o w i n g e q u a t on s i
P l o t th e l i n e ea ch ti m e .
2 2
( )
a T
i
s n 6 + c os 6 ; _
2 si n 6 — 3 cos 6
F in d th e e qu a ti on s i n p ol a r c oor d in a t e s Of th e f ol l owin g
c on ic s .
6 .
y
2
2 mx . An s . r 2 m co s 6 cs c
2
6 .
focu s g oe s thr ou gh th e p oin t s F i n d th e
e qu a ti on Of thi s br an ch
15
.
. Sh ow th a t i n a p a r a b ol a a fo ca l r a d iu s i n cl in ed a t a n
a n g l e of 60 with th e d ir e cti on i n which th e cu r v e op en s i s
°
e qu a l i n l e n gth t o th e l a tu s r e c t u m .
16 . Sh ow th a t a f o cal r a d iu s ofa hy p e rb ol a which i s p a ra l l e l

t o a n a s y m p t ot e i s e qu a l i n l en gth t o a qu a rt e r of th e l a tu s
r e ctu m .
17 . P r ov e th a t i n a n y c on ic th e su m of th e r e ci p r o ca l s of
th e s e g m en t s o fa f o c a l ch or d i s c on s t a n t .
18 . P r ov e th a t th e l e n gth o f th e f oca l ch or d ofa n y c on i c i s

giv en by th e for mu l a
2 em
1 — ciz cos2 60
wh er e 6 i s th e a n gl e which th e ch or d m a k e s with th e tran s

0
v e r s e ax i s .
19 . Sh ow th a t th e s u m of th e r e ci p r o c al s of th e l e n gth s of
t w o p e rp en d icul a r f oc a l ch or d s ofa c oni c i s c on s tan t .
ATI O N
R OT OF TH E P R I M E D I RE C TI ON
20 . Le t th e p ri m e d ir e c ti on OA b e r ota t e d ab ou t 0 thr ou gh
a n g l e 60 i n t o a n e w p os iti on O A L et a n a rbitra ry p oi n t
'
th e .
h av e th e coord i na t e s (r 6) with r e sp e ct t o O a s p ol e an d 0 A a s
,
p ri m e d ir e cti on a n d th e c oor d i na t e s
(r with r es p e ct
'
t o O as
,
p ol e and OA a s pri m e d ir e cti on Sh ow tha t

'
.
7
"
= r, — 90
5wh
.
21 . E qu a ti on ,
r ep r e sen t s a n el l i p s e with
en e 1,
on e f o cu s i n O a n d th e o th e r on 0 A F r o m it obt a i n by r ota
.
,
ti on ofth e p ri m e d ir e ction th e e qu a tion ofa n el l ip se with on e

,
f o cu s a t O an d th e o th e r on th e ray 6
E qu a ti on s (1 ) a n d 5
wh en e 1 r ep r e sen t a
, ,
hy p e rb ol a with on e focu s i n O a n d th e othe r on th e r a y

Ob ta in fr om th e m th e e qu a ti on s of a hy p e rb ol a with on e f ocu s
a t O an d th e o th e r on th e r a y 6
P O LAR C O OR D I N AT E S 2 13
O b ta inqu a ti on s (3 ) an d 5
fr om e qu a ti on s ( 1 )
5
23 . e § ,
an d by a r ota ti on ofth e p ri m e d ir e cti on

, .
24 . Wha t d oe s th e e qu a ti on ofth e l in e
r si n
( 6 cos 3
b e c om e wh en it
, r e fe rr ed to th e p e r p e n d icu l a r to it fr om th e
is
p o l e a s th e n e w p ri m e d ir e cti on
2 5B y r o t a t i n g th e p ri m e d ir e cti on thr ou gh a su it a b l e a n g l e
.
r e d u c e th e e qu a ti on ofth e circ l e r 6 cos (6 , to s i m pl e r

f or m .
2 6 Th e sa m e f
. or th e circ l e r 4 co s 6 S si n 6
, .
27 Th e sa m e for ea ch of th e c on ic s
.
( a
3 — 3 cos 6 — 4 s m 6
5 \/2 si n
1
6 — 6
+ cos
28 . th a t th e cu rv es r a s i n 2 6 an d r a cos 2 6 a r e
P r ov e
th e sa m e cu rv e s r e f e rr e d to a c om m on p ol e a n d to p ri m e d i r e c
5
,
ti on s m a k in g an a n gl e Of 4 with on e a n oth e r °
.
29 Sh o w tha t th e e qu a ti on s
. a cos 3 6 a n d r a si n 3 6
r e p r esen t th e s a m e c u rv e .
30 Sh ow th a t th e e qu a ti on ofth e c u rv e r
. a cos 3 6 r e m a in s
u n ch a n g e d if th e p ri m e d ir e cti on i s tu r n e d thr ou gh a n a n gl e
y
which i s an in t e gr al mu l tip l e of
31 Th e sa m e for th e cu rv e 7 a s i n 4 6 if th e an g l e i s 9 0
.
,
°
P O LE IN AN AR B I TR A R Y P O I N T
32 G iv e n th e p oin t (2 , 3 ) i n th e Ca rt e s i a n p l a n e
. . Th e p ol a r
c oor d in a t e s of a p oin t P , r e fe rr e d to (2 , 3 ) a s p ol e an d t o th e
d ir e ct e d l in ethr ou gh (2 3 ) i n th e d ir e cti on ofth e itiv e ax i s
‘
, p o s
of x a s pri m e d ir e cti on a r e k n o wn t o b e (2
, ,
Wha t a r e
th e r e ctan g u l a r c oor d i n a t e s ofP ?
Ans .
(2 2 co s 3 2 si n
33 . Th e p ol a r c oor d in a t e s ofa p O i n t P r e f e rr ed to th e p oin t

'
d h e d ir e ct e d l in e thr ou gh (x0 yo) i th

(x
0, yo) a s p ol e a n t n e ,
d ir e cti on of th e p o s itiv e a x i s of x a s p ri m e d ir e cti on , a r e
( r, Sh o w tha t th e r e ct an g u l a r c oor d in a t e s , (x, y) , ofP a r e

x = x
0 + r co s 6, y = yo + r si n 6 .
34 . B y th e d i r ecti on 6 i s m ea n t th e d ir e c ti on
which th e p osi
tiv e a x i s of x w ou l d a s su m e if it w e r e r ota t ed a b ou t on e of
i ts p o i n t s (i n th e p os itiv e s e n se ofr o ta ti on ) thr ou gh th e a n gl e 6
5
.
F r o m th e p o in t ( 2 ) on e p r o c ee d s 2 u n it s d i st a n c e i n th e
,
d ir e cti on a n d fr om th e p oi n t thu s r e a ch e d on e p r o c ee d s 3
u n it s d i s t a n c e i n th e d ir e cti on Wha t a r e th e c oor d in a t e s

o f th e fi n a l p os iti on ?
3 5P r ov e th a t th e e q u a ti on s of E x 3 3 ca n b e c on s i d e r e d a s
. .
th e e qu a ti on s ofa tr a n s f or m a ti on of c oor d in a t e s fr om (x y) to , ,
( r ,
which c on s i s t s fir s t of a ch a n g e Of origin to th e p o i n t
( x0 y ) ,
cf
o
C h X I . 1 . a n d th en ofth e i n tr od u cti on o fp ol a r
,
c oor d ina t e s .
36 B y s hiftin g th e origi n to th e p o in t (2 1 ) a n d th e n i h
.
,
tr od u ci n g p ol a r c oor d in a t e s i d en tify th e l o cu s of th e e qu a ti on
,
2 — 2x
y
37 . By shiftin g th e origin t o a su itabl e p oin t an d th en i n

tr od u ci n g l r c r d i t i d tify t h l o cu s o f th e e qu a ti on
5
p o a o o n a e s e n e ,
— 2 x — 2
y + 2
2 = 2 ( x —
2 2
y
An s . A l e mn i s ca t e .
LO C I
Sol v e th e f ol l owin g p r obl em s i n l oci u si n g p ol a r ,
c oor d in a t e s an d ex cl u d in g n e ga tiv e r s I n E x s ’
. .
3 9 —4 1 d e t e r m i n e wh en tw o e qu a ti on s a r e n e c e s sa ry
,
to r ep r e sen t th e l o cu s .
38 Ci ss oi ol ofD i o cl es
. OA i s a fi x e d d i a m e t e r
.
.
o f a circ l e A v a ri ab l e s e ca n t thr ou gh 0 m ee t s
.
th e circ l e i n M a n d th e t a n g en t a t A i n N De .
t e r m in e th e l o cu s ofth e p oin t P so s itu a t ed on th e ,
s e g m e n t ON th a t O P M N a n d p l ot i t ,
.
39 L i ma con of P a s ca l
. A v a ri abl e s e can t thr ou gh
. a
TR ANSFOR MATI ON OF COOR DI NATE S
1 . Par al l el Ax es . It s om e ti m e s happ en s th a t it i s d esira bl e

to shi f t fr om a giv en s y s t e m of C a rt e s i an a x e s t o a n e w
s y s t e m ofa x e s h a vin g th e sa m e d i r e c
t i on s a s th e ol d b u t with a d i fi e r en t ,
O r igin .
Le t P b e an y p oin t of th e p l a n e
l e t th e c o or d in a t es ofP r e f e rr ed to ,
th e ol d a x es , be ( x, y) , a nd l e t th e
FI G . 1 c oor d in a t e s be
( y) xwith
’
r e
,
s p
’
e ct t o
th e n ew ax e s Le t th e n e w o rigin
.
,
O
’
,hav e th e coor d in a t es (x 0, yo) i n th e O l d sy s t e m Th en it i s .
e a sy t o sh ow tha t
Ix ’
x x0 )
2
ly ,
ll 19 0
c on s id e r th e l ine se g m en t
F or , -
OP and th e br ok en l in e , OO P,
’
which h a s th e sa m e ex tr em iti e s . Th en
P r oj OP P r oj 00 P r Oj O P,
’ ’
. . .
no ma tt e r
wha t d ir e cti on i s ch osen a l on g which th e proj e cti on ,
i s to ta k e p l a c e (I n tr od u cti on ,
I f th e d i r e cti on i s t a k en fir s t a s th e p os itiv e a x i s of x a nd
, ,
then a ga in a s th e p os iti v e ax i s of y w e obta in by a p pl yin g

, , , ,
th e d efi n iti on of c oord in a t es Ch I h e e q u a ti on s
( t .
,
E xa mp l e 1 . F i n d th e e qua ti on ofth e cu rv e
3
( )
‘
y
2
+ 2 y
2 16
T R AN S F O R M AT I O N OF c o oR D I N ATE s 2 17
r e fe rr e d to p a ra l l el a x e s, wit h th e new o rigi n

at th e p o in t ( ,
2
H e r e, (130 2,
and we ha v e
( )
4 y = y
’
— 1 .
H en c e
(y — 1)
’
or , on s i m pl ifica ti on ,
y =
’2
4 x
’
.
Thu s c u rv e i s se en to b e a pa rab ol a wh ose v e rt ex i s a t

th e
th e n e w o rigin R e f e rr e d to th e ol d a x e s th e v e rt ex i s a t th e
.
,
p o in t ( 2 1,) a n d t h e f o c (
u s at 3 ,
E xa mp l e 2 Wha t cu rv e i s r ep r esen t ed by th e e qu a ti on
.
9 x
2
+ 4y +
2
16 y: 11 ?
W e ca n r e writ e th e e qu a ti on i n th e for m
9 ( 2
+ 2x ) + 4 (y — 4y
2
x
Th e fir s t p a r en th esi s b e c om e s a p e rf e ct s qu a r e if 1 i s ad d ed .
Thi s m ea n s tha t 9 m u s t b e a dd ed to ea ch s id e ofth e e qu a ti on .
Aga in th e s e c on d p a r en th e s i s b e c om e s a p e rf e ct s qu a r e if 4
,
i s a d d ed Thi s m ean s tha t 1 6 mu st b e a d d e d to ea ch s i d e Of

.
th e e qu a ti on H en c e fi n a l l y
.
, ,
9 ( x + 1)
2
4 (y 36 .
I fw e t r a n s fo r m to p a r a l l e l a x es , s e ttin g
x
’
x 1,
=
la y —
Z
9 x
’2
36,
” '2
w y
Thi s e qu a tion r e pr e s en t s an ip s e with i ts c en t e r a t th e
el l
n e w o rigi n ( y)
x0 o ,
1 , ,
i ts s e m i a x e s a r e of l en gth s 2
-
an d 3 and i t s f o ci l i e on th e y a x i s a t th e ’
-
i t
5
p o n s
(
x
'
, ( )
0 it v ):
(
x) 1) 2
I f, i n E x a m p l e 1 , th e p os iti on o f th e
n e w origi n (th e v e rt e x of th e p a r a b ol a
)
h ad b een giv e n it c ou l d ha v e b een
n ot ,
fou n d by th e m e th od e m p l oy ed i n E x
a mpl e 2 E q u a ti on (3 ) can b e wr i tt en a s
.
FI G . 3
y
?
2g 4 £8 9 .
th e s qu a r e of y 2 2 y, ad d 1 to
‘
ea ch s i d e of th e
22
y + y+ 1 = 4x
P ut thi s i n t o th e for m
<
y+
H en c e w e are l e d to se t
m l
x 2, y y 1
,
,
tha t i s, to tra n s for m to p a r a l l e l a e s with th e n e w o rigi n a t

x
in t (2
th e p o ,
B u t thi s i s p r e ci se l y th e tr a n s f or m a ti on
(4 ) which w a s i
a p p l ed i n E x a m pl e 1 .
EX E RC I S ES
1 . F in d th e c oord ina t e s of th e p oin t s (3 ,
2, 5
)
4, 1) 0
( , r e fe rr ed to n e w a x e s ha vin g th e sa m e d i r ec
ti on s as th e ol d , if th e n ew origin i s a t th e p oin t
( )a
(370) ( )
b (
930 ,
In ch ofth e fol l owin g ex e rci se s tran s for m th e giv en e qu a

ea
t i on t o p a ra ll e l a x e s h a vin g th e sa m e d ir e cti on s th e n e w origi n ,
be in g a t th e p oin t sp e cifi ed Thu s i d en tify th e cu rv e r ep r e .
sen t e d by th e e qu a ti on a n d d e s crib e c a r e fu l l y i t s p o s iti on with

,
r es p e ct t o th e origi n a l a x e s D r a w th e cu rv e r ou ghl y
. .
f m
ro th e p ositiv e i
ax s of x to th e p os itiv e a x i s of x b e d e '
t
n o ed by 7 ( g
F i . Let P b e an y p o i n t w h p s e c
,
o or d i n a t e s ,
r e fe rr ed to th e ol d an d th e n ew a x e s,
( y) ( y)
are r e s p e ctiv
x, e l y a n an d
d x
'
,
'
,
; l et M a n d M b e th e pr oj e cti on s Of P
x
on th e a x es o f x a n d x r e sp e ctiv el y ' ‘
Th en 0 i s j oin ed with P by tw o br ok en
l in e s n a m el y O M P a n d O M P ,
It ,
’
.
F G 4
I
fol l ow s th a t th e p r oj e cti on s of th e s e
.
br ok en l in es a l on g a n y d ir e cti on a r e e qu al
( )
1 P r oj 0 111 + P r oj M P P r oj OM P r oj M P
'
. . . . .
I f th e d ir e cti on i s ta k en fir s t a s th e p os itiv e
, ,
i
ax s of x a nd
then ,
a ga in ,
as th e p ositi v e ax i s ofy w e hav e ,
O JII = OM cos Y '

M P si n 7 , '
MP : OM s i n
’
M P cos 7
'
y .
B u t, b y th e d efin iti on of oo c r d in a t e s (Ch . I, s
GM = x , MP = y ; M P =y '
Th e fi na l r esu l t i s, th en th e fol l owin g

!
,
'
x x cos y si n
2 y y,
( ) -
y .
To r
ex p es s x t e rm s ofx a n d y th ese e qu a ti on s can
'
y ian d
n
'
,
r ea d i l y b e for m e r v a r i a b l e s r ega r d e d a s th e u n
sol v e d fo r th e ,
.
k n own qu a n titi e s i n th e p a ir of s i m u l t an eou s e qu a ti on s

O r th e f or m u l a s ca n b e d e d u c e d d ir e ct l y fr om th e figu r e by
,
t ak in g th e pr oj e cti on s i n e qu a ti on (1 ) a l on g th e p ositiv e ax es
ofx a n d y i n tu r n
'
Th e r e su l t i n e ith e r ca s e i s
'
.
r
x
'
£6 C O S
7 + y s i n
y,
( )
3
2
y £6 8 1 n
y + y C O S
y
E x a mp l e 1 . Tran s for m th e e qu a ti on of th e e qu il a te ral

hy p e rbol a ,
2 ? 2
iv y a ,
T R AN SF O RMAT I O N OF O O OR D IN AT E S 22 1
to new ax e s with th e sa m e o rigin ,

th e an g l e fr om th e p os itive
i
a x s o fx to th e p os itive i
a x s o fx being '
H e re , y an d f or mul a s (2 ) b e c om e
1
x = —
,y
On b s ti tu tin g th e se v al u e s
su i n th e giv en
e qu a ti on w e h a v e
2 z13
'
y
'
(1
2
. FI G . 5
Thi s t h en i s th e e qu a ti on of a n e qu i l a t e ra l hyp e rb ol a
, ,
. re
f e rr e d to i ts a s y m p t ot e s a s th e c oor d in a t e a x e s
5
.
I fw e h a d r ota t e d th e a x e s thr ou gh i n s t e a d of °
4
th e tra n s for m e d e qu a ti on w ou l d h a v e r ea d :
l
2xy '
E xa mp l e 2 . Tra n s f or m th e e qu a ti on
2 3 3
‘
2
x
£ 3 x
A 2
B 2
B 2
A 2
to n ew Obta in e d by r ota tin g th e gi v en

ax e s, ax es a b ou t th e
o rigin thr ou gh
Here 7 ,
a n d e qu a ti on s 2
( ) b e c om e
' '
£6 y , y x .
72 I2
w y
H en ce i .
B 2
A ?
Thu s it a pp ea r s tha t th e origin al e qu a ti on r ep r esen t s a

hyp e rb ol a with i t s c en t e r a t th e orig i n i ts tr an s v e r s e a x i s ,
l yin g a l on g th e a x i s ofy ; cf Ch VI I I 8 Th e l en gth ofth e . .

,
.
m a j o r a x i s i s 2 B tha t ofth e m in o r a x i s 2 A
,
Th e a sy m pt ot e s ,
.
a r e gi v en by th e e qu a ti on s
2 22 AN ALYT IC GE O M E T R Y
R e fe rr e d to th e o rigina l a x e s, th e y ha v e th e e qu a ti on s
“3
if .
A B
E X E R C IS ES
O bta i n th e e qu a ti on s of tra n sf or m a ti on in ea ch of t h e fol

l o wi n g thr ee ca se s :
J 1 . W h en y = 3 0
°
.
Ix ”
1 3° f
1 I
J 2 Wh en 7
. 3 Wh e n y .
D r a w a fig u r e a n d d e d u c e fr om it d ir e ct l y th e f or m u l a s of
tran s for m a ti on i n ea ch of th e f ol l owi n g thr e e c a s es Ch e c k .
th e r e su l t s by a pp l ic a ti on of f or m u l a s (2 ) a n d (3 ) Of th e
t ex t
5
.
4 .
y .
y 6 .
y
F in d th e
c oor d in a t es ofth e p oi n t s (2
5 (
7 . 3 , ,
,
r e fe rr e d to n ew a x e s obta in ed by r ota tin g th e O l d
thr ou gh a n a n gl e of of
8 Sh o w d ir e ctl y by m ea n s of a s u ita bl e r ot a ti on of th e
“
a x e s th a t th e e q u a ti on xy k r e p r esen t s a n e qu i l a t e ra l hy p e r
?
b ol a r e f e rr e d to i ts a s y m p t ot e s a s th e c oor d in a t e ax e s D e t e r .
m in e th e c oor d i na t e s r e f e rr e d t o th e se a x es of th e v e rtic e s
, ,
a n d th e f o ci .
9 Th e sa m e o t e e q a ti o xg/
f h n 76 2
5
. r u .
B y r o t a t i n g th e a x e s thr ou gh a n a n g l e of 4 d e t e r m in e th e
°
c i r v e r e p r e se n t e d b y e a ch Of th e e qu a ti on s
i“
10 . 1 6 xy 17 y 2
22 5.
11 . 3x 2
12 .
13 . r ot a tin g th e a x e s thr ou gh
By 30
°
d e t e r m in e th e cu rve
r e p r e s e n t e d by th e e qu a ti on
V3 xy —
y = 12
2 .
224 AN ALYT I C G E O M E TR Y ’
Th e se ca n be writt en i n th e f or m
x co s J SI n — xo,
Y f y y
- -
( )
4
— x si n
y+ y co s Y yo,
-
wh e r e
5
( )
x0
yo
x0 c os
(DO 8 1 11
y
Y
y
y
o
o
s
c
n
os
i y,
7 .
I t i s to b e n o ed t tha t ina s mu ch
,
as x 0, y o, a n d y a re c on s tan t s ,
s o a r e x0 a n d yo .
E xa mp l e . I d e n tify th e cu rv e r ep r e sen t ed by th e e qu a ti on
( )
6 x
2
+ 6 xy + y
2 —
l 0x — 14y + 9 = 0
by tr an s r m i ng to n e w a x es thr ou gh th e p oin t (2 th e ,
a n gl e fr om th e O l d a x i s Of x t o th e n e w b e i n g
H e r e x0 2 yo ,
1 a nd y ,
W e m igh t su b s titu t e th ese
v a l u e s i n f o r m u l a s 3 ) a n d th e n a p p l y th e f o r m u l a s t o th e
(
giv en e qu a ti on I t i s h ow e v e r m or e f ea s ibl e i n g en e r al to
.
, ,
m a k e th e tran s for m a ti on i n th e tw o s t ep s ( 1 ) a n d
F o r m u l a s (1 ) a r e i n thi s c a s e
, ,
H e n c e (6 ) b e c om e s
( )
7 X 2
+ 6XY + Y
2
Si n c e 74 : 4 5f r°
o m u l a s (2 ) ar e :
__
V2
1
(w
’
!
I)
Th en (7 b e c om e s
’2 ”
( a) 3 (w )
’ ?
w a
( +y )
’ ’ 2
w
or , on s i m p l ifica ti on ,
C on se qu e n t l y , qu a ti on (6 ) r ep r e
e
Em , 7 t
se n s a hy p e rb ol a with i ts c en t e r a t
TR AN SF O R M AT I O N OF C O O R D I N AT E S
th e p oi n t 2 with tra n s v e r s e i i n cl i n ed
5
( , )
1 an d i ts ax s at an
a n g l e Of 4 i
°
to th e a x s o fx .
I n d ed u ci n g f or m u l a s fir st s hift ed th e o rig i n a nd
we
th en r ota t e d th e a x e s . W e m ight e q u a l l y w e l l h a v e p r o c eed e d
i n th e O p p o s it e o r d e r
ot a t e th e x y thr ou gh th e gl e in t o
( )
a R ( ) ax e s an
7 th e n ew
-
-
a x e s ofx a n d y :
x co s
Y + y s i n
y,
8
( ) — x sm + y c o s
y y .
Th e c oor d ina t e s of r e f e rr e d to
O
’
,
th e n ew ax e s , a r e Obt a i n e d by s e ttin g
x x0 a n d y yo i n
( )
8 th ey a r e, th en , FIG . 3
th e x0 a nd yo gi ven by formu l a s
Tran s for m fr om th e
( )
b jb
i a x e s t o th e p a r a l l e l a x e s Of -
5
x and y
’
with origi n a t O S in c e th e coor d i n a tes of O r e
’
,
'
.
l
’
,
f e rr e d to th e (x,37) a x es ar e ( 0 go) th e e qu a ti on s ofthi s tra n s

-
, , ,
for m a ti on a r e
I£13
,
£6 $0 7
( )
9
Iy ,
y yo
E l i m in a ti n g x an d j fr om ( )
8 an d we Obta in ,
as th e fina l
for mu l a s
’
si n
x x co s
Y+ y y — x 0,
y I —x si n
y+ y co s ~
y 7
—
y0 .
Bu t th e se ar e p r e ci se l y th e for m u l a s (4 ) which w e h ad b efo r e .
EX E R C IS ES
Obta i n th e equ ati on s Of tra n s for m a ti on i n ea ch Of th e fol l ow

ca s e s F ir s t fin d th e f o r m u l a s for x a n d y i n t e r m s o f x
’
i ng .
th en s ol v e for x an t e r m s ofx a nd y
j
’
an d an d
’
y ,
w
.
— 2, = 3 0
°
5
y .
Y
= _ 69 —
, y
= 1 2 0
°
.
D ra w
fig u r e a n d d e d u c e fr om it d ir e ct l y th e f or mu l a s of
a
tran s for m a ti on for e a ch of th e fol l owi n g v a l u e s of y th e n ew ,

origin i n ea ch ca se b e in g a t a n a rbitr a ry p oin t (x y ) Ch e c k 0, o
.
th e r e su l t s by th e u s e off or m u l a s ( 3 ) a n d (4 ) o f th e t e x t
5y
.
.
‘
6 .
y 7 .
“
8 . F i n d th e
c oord in a t e s ofth e p oin t s (0 ( 1 3 , , ,
2 ,
r e fe rr e d to n ew a x es p a s s in g thr ou gh th e p oi n t (2 ,
th e a n g l e fr om th e O l d a x i s ofx t o th e n e w b e in g
9 Th e Sa m e if th e n e w origin i s a t th e p o in t
.
,
3 4 ) an d ,
th e a n g l e fr om th e ol d a x i s ofx t o th e n ew i s
I d en tify th e cu rv e r e p r e s e n t e d by ea ch Of th e f ol l owi n g
e qu a ti on s by tr a n s f o r m i n g t o p a r al l e l a x e s a t th e p o i n t x
( y) 0, o
s p e cifi e d a n d th e n r ot a ti n g th e n e w a x e s
,
a n gl e r a w a figu r e i n ea
‘
7 D .
5 5
E q u a ti on
fl
fi E
913 2 — 4 w— 4 y 1
( , 4
0
°
2
11 . x
?
12 . x
13 F i n d th e c u rv e r e p r es en t ed by th e qu a ti on
5
. e
66 x 2 4 x31 9g l 08 x 9 4 3/ 76 0
‘
3 2
by in tr od u cin g p a ra l l el a x e s a t th e p oi n t 1 ) a n d th en
‘
1 ,
r ot a tin g th ese a x es thr ou gh th e a cu t e a n g l e wh o se tan g en t i s ‘
D ra w a gra p h .
14 Th e e qu a ti on
.
7 x
2 — 1 8 xy — 17 y 2
r e p r e s e n t s a c on ic wh os e c en t e r is at th e p o
‘
in t (2 0 ) a n d on e ,
o f wh os e a x e s h a s th e S l op e I d e n ti fy th e c on i c a n d ,
d ra w a r ou gh gra p h of it .
4 . Deter mi nati on of Tr ansformati on f r om th e E qu ati ons
of th e N ew Ax es . e r th e g e n e ra l tr a n s f o r m a ti on giv e n
by for mu l a s c ed in g p a ra grap h I f i n the se for .

,
mu l as, w e 0 w e Obt a i n
'
s et an d y ,
c S
y +y si n
y x0 = 0,
x si n
y + g OO S —
yo = 0
y .
Th e v al u e ofp i s to b e d e te r m in e d so th a t c on d iti on (4 ) i s sa t n
i sfie d by th e l e f t h a n d s i d e s ofe qu a ti on s (2 a ) th a t i s so th a t
5
-
, ,
= 1
2
5
‘
01
p .
H en c e p i l /V .
W e ch oose p I f thi s b s titu t ed for p i n

va l u e is su
e qu a ti on s ( )
2 a th e s e e qu a ti on s wi ll b e p r e ci se l y Of th e f o r m
,
‘
H en c e th e e qu a ti on s Of a tra n s f or m a ti on
i n tr od u cin g th e l in e s (2 ) a s th e a x e s a r e
Th e fir s t
.
FIG . 9 of th e l in e s (2 ) i s th e ax si Of ’
y ;
th e c
s e on d , th e i
a x s o fx
’
.
Th e n e w origin i s a t th e p oi n t (1 ,
thi s i s
for , t h e p oi n t
of in t e r s e cti on Of th e l i n e s Th e Ol d origi n (x ,
0)
h a s,
th e
a cc or d in g
n e w ax e s, a n d
to th e c oor d in a t e s
th en i n th e fir s t u ad an o m ed
m u st l i e,
V
q
5
r t f r
efer r ed to
by th e se a x es Con s e qu en tl y th e n e w a x e s mu s t b e d ir e ct e d
.
,
a s s h own i n th e figu r e .
Th e sl op e of th e a x i s of x th e se c on d of th e l i ne s ’
,
is 2
a n d s o i ts m p e a n g l e i s 6 3 I t i s cl ea r fr om
° °
or 2 4 3
th e fig u r e tha t it i s th e fir s t ofth e se a n g l es whi ch i s th e a n gl e 7 .
W e ob ta i n a se c on d tra n s f o r ma ti on for which th e l in e s (2 )

.
,
a r e th e n ew a x e s by t a k in g th e v a l u e
,
for p F or thi s .
tr an sfor m a ti on th e d ir e cti on s ofb oth ax e s a r e O p p osit e to th ose

for an d h a s th e v a l u e 2 4 3
°
7
F or b o th tra n s fo r m a ti on s th e fir s t of th e l i n e s (2 ) i s th e a x i s
Of y th e se c on d th e a x i s ofx B y r e v e r s in g th e r ol es ofth e
’
,
’
.
l in es tw o m or e tra n s fo r m a ti on s ca n b e ob ta in e d
, Thu s th e r e .
,
a r e i n a l l f ou r tr a n s f o r m a ti on s in tr od u ci n g a giv e n p a ir Of
mu tu a l l y p e rp e n d ic u l a r l in es a s c oor d in a t e a x e s .
T R AN SF O R M AT I O N OF C O OR D IN AT E S 229
EX E R C IS ES
In ch of th e f ol l owi n g e x e rci se s find th e e qu a ti on s of a

ea
tra n sfor m a ti on which i n tr od u c e s th e giv e n p e r p en d ic u l a r l in es

as n e w a x e s F i n d th e p os iti on ofth e n e w o rigi n a n d th e v a l u e
.
of
y ; d r a w a n a cc u r a t e fig u r e a n d i n d ic a t e th e d ir e cti on s o f
,
th e n e w ax e s .
Axi s ofy ’
Ax i s ofx '
1 . 3x + 4y 4 x
w+ y x — y
2x — 3y= 0
5 5
.
x — 2y=0; 2x + y = 0 .
ID
C
7 . I fth e l in e s o fE x . 1 are in tr od u c e d a s ax e s, wha t d oe s th e

e qu a ti on
— 11
(4 x
b e c om e ? Wha t cu rv e d oes it r ep r e sen t D ra w a r ou gh gra ph .
By it abl e tran s f or m a ti on of a x es d e t e r m in e th e na tu r e
a su
a n d p os iti on of e a ch o f th e f ol l o wi n g c u r v e s I n ea ch c a s e .
d ra w a fig u r e s h owi n g a cc u ra t el y th e n e w a x es p r op e rl y ,
d ir e ct ed ; th en s k e tch th e cu rv e .
1
J
8 . ,
(2 x
A ( A + w t x m4 2 y = a
10 3 (5
5
. x
x —
11 .
(x +y -
( y
V
12 . F in d th e e qu a ti on s of a l l fou r tra n sfor ma ti on s which
in tr odu c e th e l in es
5 x 12 x + 5 y
a s a x e s of c oor d in a t es . D ra w th e fou r c orr e sp on d i n g figu r e s ,
an d fin d th e f ou r v a l u e s of
y .
13 . O b ta in th e equ a tion s r e qu ir ed i n E x 1 by fi n d in g . th e
c oor d in a t e s of th e n e w o rigi n a n d a v a l u e for
y a n d th e n ap
p l yin g f or mu l a s (3) of 3 .
5 . R ev er sal of One Ax i s Th e r e i s on e m or e c a s e which

.
d e s e rv e s m en ti on . Su pp o s e th a t th e s e n se of on e a x i s i s r e
v e r s ed whil e th e oth e r a x i s r e m a i n s u n
,
chan g e d Le t th e a x i s which i s r e v e r s e d
.
b e th e a x i s o fx (F i g Th en e vid en tl y .
, ,
!
,
w I x x’
FI G 10 ' ( y
I
3
y y ; [
I f th e s e n s e o f th e a x s o f i y h a d b e e n r e v e r s e d ,
t h e
x r e m a in i n g un chan g ed ,
we s h ou l d h a v e h a d
I
x x
2 ’
y y y y
C on s i d e r , for ex a m p l e , th e e qu a ti on of a p a a r b ol a i n th e
no r ma l f o r m ,
2 mx
‘
2
y .
I fth e s en s e Of th e i
a x s of x is r e v e r se d ,
’2
2 mx
’
y .
W e c oul d u se thi s r e su l t to in t e rp r et th e e qu a ti on ,
—2 mx ,
0
!
y
if w e kn e wra b ol a on l y i n i ts n or m a l f o r m T a k in g
th e p a .
a x i s of x O pp osit e t o th e a x i s of x a n d s ta rtin g w ith

’
,
k n o w n p a r a b ol a
’2
2 mx ’
y ,
we see tha t th e tran s for m ed equ a ti on ,
y 2 mx ,
r e p r e s e n t s a p a r a b o l a o n th e ne ga tive i
ax s of x ,
i ts v e rt ex b e i n g a t th e o rigin . FIG . 11
2 32 AN ALYT I C GE OM E TR Y
B y th e m e th od of E x . 6 , i d en tify a nd p l ot th e l o c u s of ea ch
Of th e fol l owin g e qu a ti on s .
7 .
8 . x = 2 y3
9 . x3 — 3x 2 — 6 x + xy 2
_
10 D e t e r m in e th e p os iti on
. o f th e p o i t (a e
n
r
, y o) su ch th at if ,
th e str a igh t l in es
3x — 4y x +2y z 4
are r e fe rr e d to p a ra l l e l a x e s a t (x0 yo) th e ir e qu a ti on s wil l , ,
c on ta in n o c on s tan t t e r m s Wha t wil l th e s e e qu a ti on s b e

.
11 Sh ow th a t if th e t w o i n t e r s e ctin g s tr a ight l i n es
.
,
a re
’
r e fe rr e d to p a ra l l el a x e s a t the ir p o i t
n o f n e se i t r cti on , th e
e qu a ti on s o f th e l i n e s b e c o m e
Al a} ,
B ly
'
0, A2 5
8
,
B 2 3] ,
O.
12 . D e t e r m i n e th e p os iti on o ft h e p o ni t (x 0 , y o) su ch tha t if ,
th e cu r v e
xy — 2 x —
y
is r e fe rr e d to p a ral l el a x e s a t (x0 y ) i ts e q u a ti on wil l c on ta in

, o ,
n o l in ea r t e r m s i n x a n d y I d en tify a n d p l o t th e cu rv e
. .
13 I d e n tify a n d p l ot r ou ghl y th e l o cu s ofth e e qu a ti on

.
6 xy + 7 x
14 . D e t e r m in e th e p o in t (x0 , yo) su ch tha t if

,
th e cu r v e
3x 2 — 7 xy — 6y2
is r e fe rr ed to pa ral l el a x e s a t (x0 yo) i ts e qu a ti on wil l c on ta in

, ,
n o l in ea r t e r m s i n x a n d y Sh ow th a t th e e qu a ti on wi l l a l so
.
c on ta in n o c on s tan t t e r m a n d h en c e tha t it wil l r e p r e s e n t tw o

s tr a ight l i n e s F ind th e e qu a ti on s of th e s e l in es with r e sp e ct
.
to th e orig i n al ax es .
T RAN SF O R MAT I O N O F C O OR D I N AT E S 2 33
R O TA TI ON OF AX E S
1 5G iv
. en th e tw o p e r p e n d icu l a r l in es thr ou gh th e origin
o f s l op e s
% an d 2 F i n d th e e qu a ti on s Of a tra n s f or m a ti on
.
in tr od u cin g th e s e l in e s a s a x es .
16 . T e e q a ti o
h u n 2 x 2
+ 3 x y 2 y
2 =
0 r e p r e s en t s tw o p e r
e n d i cu l a r l i n e s thr ou gh th e o rigi n Sh o w th a t it m b
p a y e .
tran s for m e d in t o th e e qu a tion x y 0 by a su itabl e r ota ti on ’ '
o fa x e s .
I d en tify an d p l o t r ou ghl y th e cu rv e d e fi n ed by ea ch o f th e
fol l owin g e qu a ti on s Cf E x 1 6
5
. . . .
17 . 2 x
2
+ 3 xy — 2y = 6 2
. 18 . 12 x
2 — 7 xy — l 2 2=2
y .
19 . D e t e r m i n e th e qu a ti on s of a r ota ti on of ax es wh e r e
e
by th e ax s i of y c om e s in t o c o in cid en c e with th e l in e
4 x 3
+ y = 0 .
I d en tify p ot r ou ghl y cu rv e d efi n e d by
5
20 . and l th e th e
e qu a ti on (4 x 12 x . Cf E x 1 9
. . .
Th e sa m e for ea ch Of th e f ol l owin g e qu a tion s .
5/5
21 ( + y)
w 2 4 \/2 y
22 . 4 x2 4 xy y = 2
x x .
23 . 2 4 xy 9 y2 60 x 80 y .
24 . Th e l in e 2 x y 0 is a n a x s o f th e i c on ic
6 x
2 —
4 xy 3y 2
6 .
By it ab l e r ota ti on
a su of a x e s d e t e r m in e th e r
n a tu e an d p o s i
ti on oft h e c on ic .
Sh ow th a t by a su itabl e r ot a ti on ofa x e s ea ch ofth e fol l ow

, ,
i n g e qu a ti on s b e c om es l in ea r i n y a n d h e n c e ca pa bl e of sol u
ti on for y with ou t ra d ica l s .
5
,
2 2 — 2
2 — 3 = 0
. x y + x .
26 . 4x
”
— 4 xy + y + 3 x 2 —
y = 2 .
2x + 3 xy — 2 y + 6x — 2y=8
°
2
27 . .
G E N E R AL TR A N S F ORM ATI ON OF AX E S
28 . P r ov e tha t th e s tr a ight l in es
3x — 4y — 2 = O, x 2
+ y = 4,
wh en r e f e rr e d to su itab l e ax e s wil l ha v e e q u a ti on s th e fir s t
,
of w h ich i s x 0 whil e th e s e c on d c on ta in s n o c on s ta n t t e r m
’
.
29 F i n d th e e qu a ti on s ofth e circ l e
.
— 8 =
5
2
6
2
6 0
'
x +y + x y +
an d th e l in e x + 12 y 1 3 = O,
wh en th e y a r e r e fe rre d t o a x e s thr ou gh th e c e n t e r ofth e circl e

p a r a l l e l a nd e
p pr e n d ic u l a r r e s e ctiv e l y t o th e l in e
p , ,
.
30 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on s ofth e tw o circl e s
x 2
+y + 4 x2— 6
y
— 4 = O,
2 —
x
2
+y 6x + 4y
wh en th e y a r e r e f e rr e d t o th e p oin t m id wa y b e t ween the i r

p o i n t s o fi n t e r se cti o n a s o rigi n a n d t h e l i n e Jo m m g t h e p o in t s
of in t e r s e cti on a s a x i s o fx
’
.
31 . Wha t wi l l th e e qu a ti on s ofth e circl es ofE x 3 0 b e c om e .

,
if th ey a r e r e f e rr e d to th e m i d p oi n t b e twe en th e ir c e n t e r s a s
-
o rigi n a n d th e l i n e of th e c en t e r s a s a x i s ofy
'
32 . A tr a n s f o r m a ti on c on s i s t s of a cha n g e of o rigin to th e
p o i n t (x y
0, )o , o f a r o t a ti on o f th e n e w a x e s thr ou gh t h e a n g l e
a n d o fa r e v e r s a l o f th e s en s e o f th e a x i s ofx th u s o bt a i n e d
7, .
Sh o w tha t th e e qu a ti on s o fth e tra n s for m a ti on s a r e
x = — x
’
co s
Y
al l el to th e ax s i of y . Th e c oor d i na t e s
foci r e fe rr ed .
of th e ,
to th e n e w a x e s a r e (0 j ; con se qu en tl y wh e n r e fe rr e d
, , ,
to th e origin a l a x e s th ey a r e (2 O) a n d (2 ,
Th e e qu a , ,
ti on s ofth e a sy m p t ot e s, with r e sp e c t to th e n ew a x e s a r e ,
fi x
’
hen ce th e y a r e with r e sp e ct t o th e rigin a l

5
o a x e s,
5
,
\/ — 2 — 6 = O v
5
x y ,
x + 2y
Th e mi i m aj or i s / mi i m in or , 2 ; th e
5
se -
ax s x ,
and th e se a x
-
s
e cc en tricity h a s th e va l u e .
E xa mp l e 2 C on s i d e r th e qu a ti on
:
. e
( )
2 3 xy — 6 x + 3 y — 1 0 = O .
W e r e writ e thi s e qu a tion fir s t , ,

i n th e f or m
3 (xy — 2 x +y
and th en ‘
as 3[ x
(y 2) (y 10 .
If — 2 is a dd e d t o th e y i n th e c
se on d p a e n r th esi s a n d i n ,
e qu a l iz a ti on ,
3 1 — 2) or 6 is a dd e d t o th e righ t h an d -
s id e thi s e qu a ti on b e c om e s
,
3 (
x + 1 ) (y
W e n ow chan g e th e origin to th e p oin t
1, 2 ) by se ttin g
(I : 1, y
,
y 2 .
Th e e qu a ti on thu s b e c om e s
FI G . 2 3 x
’
y
’
4 .
Acc ord in gl y , (2 ) r e p r e sen t s a r e ctan gu l a r hyp e rb ol a with th e

l in e s x 1 O an d y 2 O a s a sy m p t ot e s .
E x a mp l e 3 . Th e e qu a ti on ,
( )
3 x
2
+2 x -
2 y — 1 = O,
ca n , a cc ord in g to th e m e th od o f Ch . XI, 1,
be p u t i n t o th e f o r m
( x +l ) 2
Em . 3
E QU AT I O N OF THE SE C O N D DE G RE E 2 37
an d h en c e r ep r e sen t s a pa ra b ol a with v e rt ex a t th e p o n i t
1, 1 ) an d with a x i s p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s ofy .
E x a mp l e 4 . C on si d e r , n ow an e qu a ti on in which all thr ee

qu ad ra tic t e r m s are p r e s e n t
— — 1O= O
( )
4 6 2y 4 9
2 — 2
x xy + x + y .
Inthi s ca se c om pl e tin g th e s qu a r e s of th e t e r m s
, 6x + 4x
2
a n d o f h t
t e e r m s — 2 y
2
+ 9 y d oe s n o t h e l p L e t u s . ma k e a n
a rbitr a ry ch a n g e o fo rigi n s e tti n g
5
,
( ) 93 5
13 930 y y +
,
;
'
an d a i m to d e t e r m in e th e n ew o rigin (x0 , yo) , s o

, tha t i n th e re
qu a ti on th e l i n ea r t e r m s i n x '
r
5
'
s u l ti n g e an d y d o n ot a pp e a .
S ett i n g i n (4 ) th e v a l u es o f x a n d y as giv en by ( ) and
c ol l e ctin g t e r m s w e h av e , .
'2 ' ' '2

6
( ) 6 x x y 2y
( )
7 — x — 2 yo 4 x0 9 y0 10
’ z
F 6 x0 2
0 y0 .
I f th e term s i n x an d y ar e ' '

t o d r op fr om th i s e qu a ti on ,
x0 a n d
y0 mu s t b e so ch osen th a t
l 2 wo yo + 4 = 0,
<)
8
— mo
Sol v in g (8) s i m ul ta n eou sl y for x

0, yo, we h av e
6
yo "
“
Th e va l u e th e s e v a l u e s of x0 a n d yo i s O Gon se
of F
'
,
fo r , .
qu en tl y w e ha v e s h o wn th a t e qu a ti on
,
wh e n r e f e rr ed to a
n e w origi n a t b e c om e s
' ’2
6x x
'
y 2y O .
Th e l e ft -
h an d sid e of thi s e qu a ti on ca n be fa ct or ed
’
x
'
<)
'
2y 2 '
9 <
3 x w y ) 0 .
Th u s (4 ) r e p r e sen t s t w o st ar i ght l i nes thr ou gh th e p oin t

l
7)
2 w i th S l op e s
g a nd 2 .
I fi n (9 ) w e se t
w
'
w+ % y = ’
y
te if we tran sf orm b a c k to th e original ax e s we o bta in fi nal l y
5
. .
, , ,
(3 x 2y )( 2x + y O
.
Thi s e qu a ti on i s seen to b e p r e ci s el y equ a ti on with th e

l e ft h an d s i d e fact o r e d i n t o tw o l in ea r fa ct o r s
-
.
Th e tw o .
s tr a ight li n e s r e r e se n t e d by 4 h th h q ti
p ( ) a v e en t e e u a on s , ,
3x 2 x +y — 2 = O .
h ou l d b e n ot ed tha t th e c on s tan t t e r m ( 7 ) ofe qu a ti on (6)

It s
i s th e va l u e of th e l e ft h a n d s i d e of (4 ) for x : x y -
In 0,
thi s e x a m p l e thi s c on s tan t t e r m t ook on th e va l u e z e r o whe n

,
x 0 y0 w e r e ch ose n so th a t th e c oe f
,
fici e n t s ofth e l in ea r t e r m s i n
x a n d y van i s h e d Thi s d oe s n ot h ow ev e r occu r i n g en e r al
’ '
,
.
, ,
a s w e s h a ll see i n th e n e x t p a r a gr a p h .
EX E R C IS ES
In ch ofth e f ol l owin g ex e rci se s id en tify a n d p l ot r ou gh l y

ea
th e c u rv e r e p r e se n t e d by th e giv e n e qu a ti on I f th e cu rv e i s .
a c on ic s e cti on fi nd wh en th e y e x i s t th e c oor d in a t e s o f th e
, , ,
c en t e r an d th e foci th e e qu a ti on s of th e d i r e ctr i ces a nd th e

, ,
a sy m p t ot e s a n d th e v a l u e of th e e
,
4x + 9y 2 2 -
16 x — l8 y — 11 = O .
18x + 12 y — 12
2 2
x + 12 y — 19 = O .
3 4 2
+ 3 y + 16
2
An s N o l o cu s
5 5
. x x . .
2 x
2 — 4 2 + Ox — 8 y — 79 = O
y .
4 2
5
x
6 . 7 x 2 —
y +2
2
x — 4y — 1 = O .
2
7 .
y
8 . 3 x 2 — 6x
9 . 2 y2 + 4 x + 3 y — 8 = O .
a nd Obta in aft e r c ol l e ctin g t e r m s an d s i mp l ifyin g

5
, ,
’2 '2
si n
( 6 co s
y y) x
y si n2
y) 6 si n
7 cos y) y
-
7
8 0,
or , on r epl a cin g th e trig on om e tric fu n cti on s of
y by fu n c ti on s
o f2
5
y,
y
’2
( )
3 ( 3 s i n 2 y) x 2y 3 s i n 2 y) y ’2
8 0
’ ’
6x cos .
W e n ow ch oos e 7 so th a t th e c oeffici en t ofx y wil l

’ ’
b e c om e 0
c os 2 y 0
5
.
Va l u es of2 ti s fyi n g thi s e q u a ti on a r e 2 4

5
3 1 sa 7 0
th e c orr e s p on d i n g v a l u e s of y a r e
5
31 W e
ch oos e a rbitra ril y th e s m al l e s t ofth ese val u e s na m el y y = 4
, , , ,
°
.
E qu a ti on (3) thu s b e c om es
'2
2x + 8y
’2
w
C on se qu en t l y , qu a ti on (1 ) r ep r e sen t s an el l ip se with i ts
e
c en t e r a t th e orig i n a n d with t h e tran s v e r s e ax i s in cl in ed a t a n

a n g l e of4 5
t o th e a x i s o fx
°
.
E x a mp l e 2 Con s i d e r th e e qu a ti on
5 5 5
.
— 4
( ) 6
2 —
x — 4y
2
x xy + y
W e p r o c e e d ,
as in tr an s for m in g ( ) to a rbi
1 , E x a mp l e 4 , 5
tr a r y p a r a l l e l ax e s x
37
,
a n d ,
th e n ,
ch o o s i n g t h e n e w o rigi n ,
th t q u a ti on r e su l ti n g
5
( x y) s
0,
o a i n
o ,
t h e e
fr om ( ) th e l in ea r t e r m s i n x an d 3] d r op
out W e fi n d th a t th e n e w o rig i n m u s t b e
.
a t th e p oi n t th t h r esu l ti n g
( 1 a n d a t e ,
e qu a ti on th en b e c om e s
( )
6 5
5 2
wh e r e th e c on s ta n t t e r m 8 i s f ou n d a s
, ,
th e v al u e of th e l e f t h an d s i d e of ( 1 ) f
-
or
N ow 6
( ) i s th e s am e e qu a ti on in x, y as
( )
1 i s in x, y .
E Q U AT I O N OF .
THE SE C O N D DE GR E E 24 1
H en c e , 5
it fol l ow s tha t ( ) r e p r e s en t s a n e l l ip se with i ts c en t e r
a t th e p oi n t ( 1 1 ) a n d with th e tr a n s v e r se a x i s in c l i n e d a t a n
5
,
a n g l e o f4 to th e a x i s ofx
°
5
.
Th e p r o c ed u r e th en fo r an y e qu a ti on s i m i l a r i n fo r m to ( )
, ,
c on s i s t s fir s t i n tra n s for m in g t o pa ra l l el a x e s s o tha t th e l in ea r

t e r m s i n x a n d y d r op ou t a n d th en i n r ota tin g th e n e w a x e s ,
so th a t th e q u a d r a tic t e r m i n x y d r o s ou t W e s h a l l S h ow
p ,
.
l a t e r th a t thi s p r o c e d u r e i s a l wa y s va l i d e x c ep t i n on e ca s e .
EX E R C IS ES
I d en tify th e cu rv e s r e p r e s e n t ed by th e fol l owin g e qu a ti on s .
D ra w a gra ph i n ea ch ca se s h owin g th e origin a l an d th e n e w ,
th e cu rv e
5M 5
.
2 — 2
+
5 5
x y
+ 2 6 xy +
2 2
2 . x y
52
.
+ 4 \/3 xy — 2 y2
2
x
€
.
3x 2 — 2 xy + 3y
2
+
-
4x — 4y = 0 .
7 . x 2
+ 6 xy + y
2 — 10x
— 4x
+ 1 6 xy + 4 y
2
8 . 4x 2
9 . Sh o w tha t if b , £ 2a,
th e e qu a ti on
bfqe O,
r ep r e s en t s a n e l l i p se or a hy p e rb ol a with i ts c en t e r a t
, ,
th e
o rigin a n d with i t s a x e s bi s e cti n g th e a n g l e s b e tw e e n th e
c oor d in a t e a x e s .
3 . Conti nu ati on . Gener al Case . W e pr op ose to d e vel op a nd

s i m p l ify th e m e th od of 2 E x a m pl e ,
1, for th e r e m ov a l of th e
t e rm i n xy T a k e th e e qu a tion
.
( )
1 Ax 2 B xy Cy 2
F ’
0, B 0,
and r ot a t e th e ax e s thr ou gh th e a rbitra ry an gl e 7 by m ea n s of ,
for mu l as 2 . Th e r e su l tin g e qu a ti on can b e writt en a s

’2 ’ ’ ’2 ’
ax bx y cy F 0,
a =A co s 2
7 + B si n
y co s
7 + O i
s n
2
y,
b= —
(A O ) si n 2 7 + B cos 2 y,
c = A si n 2 7 — B si n c os + 0 00 8 2
y 7 7 .
S in c e 7 i s to b e ch os en so tha t b O,
( )
4 —
(A
5
( ) Go t 2 y ‘
A
B
— C
’
O f th e v al u e s of which sa ti sfy thi s e qu a ti on w e choose ,
a rbitr a ri l y th a t on e which l i e s b e tw e en 0 Th en 7 °
and
i s a p os itiv e a cu te a n g l e .
I fth e a x e s a r e r ot a t e d thr ou gh thi s a n g l e y (2 ) b e c om e s ,
( )
’2
6 ax + 0 .
Th e va l u e s ofa a n d c a r e s til l t o b e d e t e r m i n e d Th e r e i s .
a s i m pl e r w a o f d o i n g thi s th a n s u b s tit u ti n g th e va l u e f ou n d
y
for y i n th e f or m u l a s for a a n d c a s giv e n by th e fir s t a n d l a s t ,
e qu a ti on s of F ir s t a d d th e s e tw o e q u a ti on s th e r e su l t i s
,
(7 )
Thu s w e hav e on e v e ry s i mp l e e qu a ti on for th e tw o u n kn own
qu an titi e s a a n d c .
N ex t su btra ct th e s e c on d of th e t w o e qu a ti on s fr om th e
,
fir s t
( )
8 —c = (A -
0) c os 2y+B si n 2
y
-
.
S qu a r e b oth s i d e s of ( )
8 a nd b oth s i d e s of th e s e on d e c qu a ti on
of ( )
3
b (A C) si n 2y+ B c os 2 7,
an d a dd th e e qu a ti on s thu s ob ta ined ; th e fi n a l r esu l t is
9
( ) ( a
B u t 7 was ch osen so tha t b 0 . C on se qu e n tl y , (9 ) b e c omes

— A
’
( ) (
2
a c 2
3 .
2 44 AN ALYT IC G E O M E TR Y
N ex t , r ota t e th e n ew a x e s thr ou gh th e p ositiv e a cu t e an gl e

giv en by for mu l a which i n thi s ca se i s
7 1 3
co t27
8 4
so tha t y h a s th e v al u e 63
°
Thu s ( 1 3) b e c om es
”? " 2
( )
1 4 ax cy 9 0 .
Th e v al u e s of a and c are d e t e r m in ed fr om e qu a ti on s
an d which a r e, here ,
a c 8,
a — c — 10 .
Then th e val u es for a and c are :a -

1, c = 9 . C on se
quen tl y (1 4 ) b e c om es ,
”2 ”2
x 9y 9 0,
(1 5
)
x
9
3/
1
E qu a ti on hy p e rb ol a
( 1 5
) r r
e p ese n s t a '
with i ts tran sv e r s e a x i s al on g th e ax i s of
y H en c e ( 1 2 ) r ep r e sen t s a hy p e rb ol a
”
.
«
with i ts c en t e r a t 1 0 ) a n d with i t s
5
,
t ra n s v e r s e a x i s i n cl i n ed a t a n a n g l e of63 2 6
° ° ’
1 3 26 ’
°
90
with th e a x i s ofx .
The E xp r ess i on B 2 —
4 AO . If fr om (9 ) we su btra c t th e
s qu a r e of
( 7 we o bta in
1
( )6 5 2 — 4 ac = B2 — 4 A O,
or , s n i ce we chose 7 so that b 0,
( )
1 7 -
4 ao = B 2 — 4 AO .
The Ca s e B 2
4 AO 0 . f
I B 2 4 A O i s p os itiv e , ac i s , by
( 1 7 ne ga tiv e ; h en c e a and e ha ve o pp o s it e s ign s Thu s if .

,
F ’
0, ( )
6 r e p r e se n t s a hy p e rb ol a . I fF ’
0 (6 ) b e c omes
,
( )
1 8 ’2 ’2
ax cy
E Q UAT I O N OF THE SE C ON D DE GREE 24 5
\
S in c e a and c ha v e
it e sign s th e l e ft ha nd s i d e of (1 8)
opp o s ,
-
ca n b e writt e n a s th e d iff e r e n c e of t w o s qu a r es a n d th e n fac
t or ed Th e r e fore (1 8) r ep r e s en t s tw o stra igh t l in e s ( Ch I X

.
,
.
,
4 ) w hich in t e r s e ct a t th e o rigin .
Th e se r e su l t s for ( 6 ) a r e tru e for th e original e qu a ti on

Th ey h ol d n ot onl y if B 0 th e c a s e which w e h a v e b e en ,
tr ea tin g — b u t a l so if B = 0 F or if B = 0 (1 ) i s it s el f i n
,
.
, ,
th e f o r m a n d h e n c e m a y b e c on s i d e r e d d ir e ct l y W e ha v e .
,
th en th e fol l owin g th eor e m

, .
T H EOREM 1 . W h en B 2
4 AU 0 , th e equ a ti on
Ax + B xy + Oy + F = 0
2 2 ’
r ep r esen ts a h yp er bol a , i f F ’
0 ; ifF ’
0, i t r ep r es en ts two
i nter secti ng s tr a i gh t l i n es .
Th e Ca se B 2
thi s ca s e a cc or d in g to In ,
a c i s p os iti v e a n d a a n d e h a v e th e sa m e s ig n s
,
Th en if .
F }
’
:0 (6 ) r e p r e s en t s a n e l l i p s e or i n th e ca s e th a t a c a n d F
r
, , , , ,
’
a r e a l l of th e sa m e S ig n h a s n o l o c u s 0 (6 ) r e d u c es ’
If F ,
.
,
to B u t n ow th e l e ft h an d s i d e of ( 1 8) ca n b e writt e n -
a s th e su m of tw o s qu a r e s s i n c e a a n d e h a v e th e s a m e s ig n ,
.
H en c e it i s s a ti sfi e d on l y by x 0 y 0 I t r e p r e s e n t s th en ,
.
, ,
a s in g l e p oi n t or a s w e m a y s a y a n u l l el l i p s efi
‘
, , ,
N ot m e r el y a an d e h a v e th e sa m e s ig n s i n thi s ca s e b u t ,
a l so A a n d C F or if A a n d 0 h a v e n ot th e sa m e s ign s th e
.
, ,
pr odu ct A C 0 or 0 ; c on se qu en tl y B 2
4 AC 0 — a con , ,
tr a d i cti on I t f oll o w s f u rth e r f r om ( 7

. tha t A a n d 0 ha ve
, ,
th e sa m e s ig n s a s a a n d e .
W e ca n n ow ch a r a ct e riz e m or e f ul l y th e tw o c a s e s which
a ri se wh e n F W e h a v e s een th a t e qu a ti on (6 ) h a s n o
’
l o cu s if F i s of th e sa m e s ig n a s a a n d c o r a s w e ca n n ow
,
’
, ,
say ,
if F i s of th e sa m e S ign a s A a n d O t e if AF (or
’
,
. .
’
0 O n th e oth e r h a n d (6 ) r e p r e se n t s a n e l l i p s e if F i s
.
, ,
’
op p os it e i n S ig n to A a n d O t e if A F
( 0 ’
o r ,
. . .
W e su m m a ri z e ou r r e su l t s i n th e f o r m ofa th e or e m .
it
Of . n u ll ci rcl e, Ch . I V, 2 .
T H EOREM 2 . W h en B 2 4 AO 0 , th e equ a ti on
Aw + B wy + 0 y + F = 0 ,
2 2 ’
qt : has AF ’
if F ’
0 , r ep r es en ts a n ell i p se or no l ocu s , a ccor d i ng a s
( CF )
’
or
’
is n ega ti v e Or p os i ti v e ; i fF 0 , th e equ a ti on r ep r e
s e nts a s i ngl e p o i n t .
Th e Ca s e B 2 4 AO = 0 . If B 2 4 AO = 0 , th e r e i s n o
n ee d of o a r t ti n g th e ax es . C on s i d e r , for ex a m pl e , th e e qu a ti on
( )
1 9 9 — 6 xy + y
2 2
x
for which B 2
4 AC 36 4 9 0 . Thi s e qu a ti on ca n be
writt en i n th e f or m
—
y) 0,
—
( 3 4
2
x
(3 w —
y
— 2 ) (3 w
an d h en c e r e pr e sen t s tw o p a r a l l el l i n e s of s l op e 3 .
EX E R C IS ES
I d en tify th e cu rves r ep r esen t ed by th e fol l owin g e qu ati on s .
D ra w a gr a p h i n ea ch ca se s h owi n g th e o rigi na l a n d th e n e w ,
a x e s a n d th e cu rv e .
73 x 2
+ 7 2 xy + 5 2 y + 7 4 x — 32 y
2
2 + 3 xy — 2 y2 — l 6x
2
5
x
2 — + 13 y 2
5 5
x xy
1 — 8y + 4 0y
2
5
xy
2 0 x2 — 1 6 xy I 8 y2 +
- -
2x
8 x + 8 xy 2
7 2
An s N o l ocu s
—
x . .
i
12 x
? '
— 2 0 x — 36 2 — 2 2 x — 2 6
I
y y y
11 .
12 . x
2
+ 3 xy —
y + 2 2
x — l 0y = 0 .
E qu a ti on ( )
6 i s ex a ctl y th e equ a ti on tr ea ted i n 3 T h e r e ,
.
f or e th e th eor e m s of § 3 a r e v al id f or it a n d c on se qu e n t l y f
,
or ,
th e origin a l e qu a ti on
Th e v a l u e of F a s gi v en by (3) can b e p u t i n a m or e con
’
v e n i e n t f or m M u l tip l y th e fir s t of th e e qu a t i on s (4) by x
.
0,
th e se c on d by y a n d a d d o,
2A xo
2
2 B xayo 2 Cy o
2
o E yo 0 .
M u l ti p l y thi s e qu a ti on by a n d a dd it to ( )
3
F ’
= § D x0 + % E yo F .
F i nal l y , su b stitu t e th e va lu e s of x0 an d y O as gi v en by
Th e r e sul t is
4 A CE E Z
E AE 2
CD 2
B DE
B 2 — 4 AC
Th e nu m e ra t or of th e fra cti on i s kn own as th e d i s cr i mi na nt

ofe qu a ti on ( 1 a n d i s d e n ot e d by A
)
( )
7 A = 4 A CF — 2
B F — AE 2 — CD + B D E
2
.
In te rm s ofA, F h a s th e
’
v al u e
A
( )
8 _
B 2 — 4 AO
It i s cl ea r tha t if F 0 th en A 0 a n d c on v e r s el y
’
,
In , .
s t a ti n g th e th eor e m s of $3 f or e qu a ti on b
( )
1 a ov e w e can , ,
th e r e for e r ep l a c e F
,
0 and F 0 by A ’
0 an d A 0 r espe c
’
i
t v ye l . F u rth e r m r
o e i n c a e B
s 2 — 4 A O i s n e g a tiv e a n d F
,
’
a n d A a r e n ot 0 A h a s th e sa m e S ign a s F
,
I n thi s ca s e ’
.
,
th en AF ( or CF ) i s p os itiv e or n ega tiv e a cc or d in g a s AA

,
’ ’
,
or CA i s p os itiv e or n e g a ti v e
( ) .
W e n ow r esta t e for e qu a ti on ,
th e th e o r e m s of 3 .
T H EOREM 3 . An equ a ti on (1 ) ofh yp er boli c typ e

B 2
4 ac 0,
r ep res en ts a h yp er bol a , if A 0 . If A 0, i t r ep res en ts two

i nter secti ng s tra i gh t l i nes .
E QU AT I O N OF THE SE C O N D DE GR E E 2 49
THEOREM 4 . An equ a ti on (1 ) ofell ip ti c typ e

B2 4 AO 0,
ifA 0, r ep r es en ts an el l ip se or has no l ocu s , a ccor di ng a s AA

( or CA) i s n ega ti ve or p os i ti v e ; ifA 0 , th e e qu a ti on r ep r es e n ts
a s i n gl e p oi n t .
I f an e qu a ti on of th e f or m (1 ) i s gi v en a nd B 2 4 A O 0 , ,
th e ty p e of cu rv e which th e e qu a ti on r e p r e se n t s ca n b e d e
te r m i n ed by fi n d i n g th e s ig n of B 2
4 A O a n d by a s c e r ta in in g
‘
wh e th e r or n ot A 0 F u rth e r in v e s tiga ti on i s n e c e ssa ry

.
on l y i n c a se B 4 A O < 0 an d A 0 ; th e s ig n of AA (or CA)

2
mu s t th en b e d e t e r m i n e d .
F or ex a m p l e th e e qu a ti on
5
,
x2 — 3 xy + 2 y + 2 x —
—
3 __O
y+
r e pr es en t s a hyp e rb ol a , in a smu ch 2— 4 AC = Q — 4
5
as B
an d A 1 0 .
To fin d th e p os iti on and s i z e of an el l ip se or a hyp e rbol a

d efi n ed by a n e qu a ti on of th e f o r m i t i s n e c e s sa ry t o ca rry
thr ou gh i n d e t a il th e w or k of chan gin g th e origin an d r ota tin g
th e a x es .I f h o w ev e r A
,
0 it i s su ffi ci en t m e r el y to ma k e
, ,
th e p r op e r ch a n g e of o rigin Th e e qu a ti on th en ta k e s on th e
.
f or m wh e r e F '
0 I n th e e l l i p tic c a s e i t r e pr e sen t s a
.
,
s in g l e p o i n t th e n e w o rigi n
,
I n th e hy p e rb ol ic ca se it ca n .
,
b e fa ct o r e d i n t o t w o l i n e a r e q u a ti on s whic h d e t e r m in e th e ,
tw o l in e s typic a l ofthi s ca se .
EXE R C IS ES
D e t e r m i n e th e n a tu e of r by ea c h of th e th e . cu rv e d efi n ed
f ol l owin g e qu a tion s I n c a se th e e qu a ti on r e pr e sen t s tw o
.
s tr a ig h t l i n es or a s in g l e p oi n t fin d th e e qu a ti on s of th e l i n e s , ,
or th e c oor d i n a t es ofth e p oi n t r e f e r r e d to th e x y a x e s
( )
5
-
.
, ,
1 . 4x — 2
xy + y + 11
2
x — 8y = 0 .
2 3x
‘
Z — 4 x + 2 y2 — 2x = 0
.
y .
3 . 3 x + 2 xy + y
2 2 — 8x
Ans . Th e p oint (1 ,
4 . 2 x
2
+ 3 xy — 2y2 —
11 x
An s Th e l i nes 2 x —
y x + 2y
5
.
An s N o l o cu s
5
. . .
e . 3x 2 ; xy — 2y2 —
x — 2y
2 2 — x 2
7 . x y +y
8 . 4x 2 — 3 xy + 9 y + 1 7 2 x
9 . 10 x 2 — 9 xy — 9 y —I 1 4 x + 2 1 y
2 -
10 4x 2 — 2 2
. xy + y
2 2 — 3x 2
11 . x y +y
12 . P r ov etha t th e g en e ra l e qu a ti on i s of hyp e rb ol ic typ e ,
AC 0 i e if A a n d C a r e ofopp o s it e s ign s
,
. . .
13 . Th e sa m e if B ab 0 a n d A C 0,
, .
5T . h e Gener al E qu ati on, B 2

4 AO 0 . F i r s t M eth od . If
B 2
4 A O h a s th e va l u e 0 , th e e qu a ti on
( )
1
is sa id to b e of p a r a bol i c ca se typ e . Th e m e th od u s ed i n th e
B 2 4 AO 0 which b e gi n s with shiftin g th e o rigin s o th a t
'
th e l in ea r t e r mS i n x a n d y d r op ou t i s i n a pp l ica bl e h e r e s i n c e , ,
e q ua ti on s (4 ) of 4 for th e d e t e r m i n a ti on of th e n e w o rigin
, ,
h a v e i n g en e r a l n o s ol u ti if B
on 2
4 AO
Le t u s b e gin n ot with a ch a n g e of o rigin b u t with a r ota
, ,
ti on ofa x e s a s su m in g th a t B 4:0
,
Ap p l yin g to (1 ) th e tra n s .
f or m a tion (2 ) of 2 w e ob ta i n ,
F : 0,
'2 ' '
( )
' '2 '
2 ax bx y cy dx ey
wh e re a, b, c are as giv en by for mu l a s (3 ) of 3, an d
d D c osI E si n
Y y,
- -
e D si n y + E cO S
y .
Th ey ha ve no sol u ti on ifth e l i nes

B x + 2 Cy + E = O
a re pa ral l el ; i nfini tel y m any sol uti ons ,
t
i f h es e li n es a re t
i d en i cal .
5
2 2 AN ALYT I C GE O M E T RY
H e r e , (6 ) b e c om es
wh en c e
y 5
1 3
°
si n
y CO S
y
R ot a t e t h e thr ou gh thi s an gl e 7 an d c ompu t e th e va l u e s

ax e s
which A + C d an d e ha ve i n thi s ca se Th e r e r esul t s a s

, ,
.
,
th e e qu a ti on i n t o which (8 ) tra n s f or m s
5
,
l 5 y
’z
2 x/ x
'
6 \/ y 5 '
3 O .
Thi s e qu a ti on can be r e writt en as
l 5
( y
'z
2 \/ 5 x
'
3 3,
or 5( 1 y
'
or , fin al l y ,
as
( )
9
wh e r e
( 5 at
V )
’
1 3
( )0 x , .
-
h as b e en i ntr od u c ed a s n e w o rigin ofcoOr di n a tes .
I t f ol l ow s fr om ( 9 ) th a t e qu a ti on ( 8) r ep r e sen t s a p a r ab ol a
with i ts v er t ex a t th e n e w orig i n (1 0) a n d with i ts a x i s in c l i n ed
a t a n a n gl e of1 3 2 6 to th e a x i s o fx 5 ° '
.
To fin d th e c oor d i na t es of th e
v e rt e x with r e sp e ct
( )
1 0 t o th e
o rigin a l a x es w e s u b s ti tu t e i n for ,
m u l a s (2 ) o f 2 fir s t th e va l u e s , ,
which s i n y an d (30 8 7 ha v e i n thi s

ca se
FI G . 6
an d th en th e v al u es for x
.
’
, y
’
giv en by W e o bta in ,
as
th e d e s ir ed c oor d in a t e s (x , ,
W e r e tu rn n ow to th e g en e r a l ca se . I f at 0, e qu a ti on (7
r ep r esen t s a p a rab ol a ; cf E x 1 6 § 1
. .
,
. I f at 0, ( )
7 ca n be
writt en i n th e f or m
” 2 ky ’
l,
( )
1 1 y
E Q U AT I ON OF THE SE C O N D DE G R EE 2 3 5
wh e r e w e h a v e d ivi d ed thr ou gh by A C *
and in tr od u c ed
s i m p l e r n o t a ti on s for t h e r e su l t i n g c on s t an t s . E qu a ti on (1 1 )
b e c om es i mm e d ia t el y
( )
1 2
c on s e qu en tl y it r e pr esen t s tw o p a ra l l e l l in e s a s in gl e l in e or
, , ,
h a s n o l ocu s a cc o r d i n g a s It
,
?
l i s p os itiv e z e r o or n e g a ti v e , ,
.
To obta in th e c on d iti on for th e e x c e p ti on a l ca se d 0 i n , ,
t e r m s of th e c oeffici en t s of w e n ot e tha t s i n c e B 4 AO ,
2
0 AC
,
0 a n d A a n d C a r e of th e s a m e S ign W e a s su m e .
tha t A a n d C a r e p ositiv e ; if th e y w e r e n e ga tiv e e qu a ti on (1 ) ,
c ou l d b e m u l tip l i e d thr ou gh by 1 Sin c e .
am B = 4 2 VA G
( )
6 ca n be writt e n as
( 30 1) 4 3
y
wh en c e it ca n be s h own tha t
si n
7 co s
y 4 :
H en c e , fr om
E fiZ x D VC — D VA ¢ E VC
VA + O
I fd 0,
( )
1 4 E x/Z x I NC : 0 .
S qu a rin g and r epl a cin g q: AC by B , we h av e

( 1 5
) AE 2
CD 2
B DE 0 .
N ow A m a y b e writt en as
A E F (4 A C B 2
) (AE 2
CD 2
B DE ) .
Sin c e w e tr ea tin g th e c a se B 4 AO 0 it fol l ow s fr om

5
2
are ,
( )
1 th a t A = O ; c o n v e r s e l y if A = O th en a n d h en c e
, ,
h ol d s a n d d 0 Thu s th e c on d iti on for th e ex c e p ti on a l

.
ca se i s A 0 .
A 0 0, si n c e oth erwi se (7) , and th erefore wou l d n ot b e of
th e secon d d eg re e .
2 45 AN ALY TI C G E OM E TR Y
W e c ol l e ct ou r r e su l t s i n th e for m o fa th eor e m
5A
.
T H EOREM . n equ a ti on 1
( ) o fp a r a bol i c typ e
B 2
4 AC 0,
r ep r esen ts a p a r a bo l a , ifA z
fi
:0 . IfA 0 , i t r ep r es ents tw o p a r a ll el
l i n es , a s i ngl e l i n e, or h as no l ocu s .
W ha v e p r ov e d th e th eor e m on th e a s su m p ti on tha t B 0
e .
I fB 0 th e n e i th e r A
, 0 or C 0 a n d th e c on t e n t of th e ,
the or e m i s ea s il y v e rifi e d .
IfA 0 th e giv e n e q u a ti on m a y b e tr ea t e d d ir e ct l y with

, ,
ou t ch a n g e of a x e s An e qu a ti on ofthi s ty p e i s
.
8 x + 2 4 xy + 1 8 y
2 2
14 x
It ca n be writt en i n th e f or m
3 =0;
th e l e ft -
ha n d s i d e ca n the n be fa ct or ed
[ 2 (2 x 3 y) 1] [ ( 2 x 3 y) 0 .
Th e e qu a ti on th e r e for e r e p r e se n t s
, ,
th e t w o p a r a l l e l l in e s
4x + 6y 2x + 3y
S econ d M eth od . W e no tic e tha t e qu a ti on ( 8) ca n be writt en

i n th e fo r m
( )
1 6
Th e r e a r e tw o l in ea r ex p re s s i on s i n n a m e l y tha t i n th e ,
p a r e n th e s i s a n d th a t c on s i s ti n g of th e r e ma in i n g t e r m s i n th e
e qu a ti on I f th e l in es r ep r esen t ed by th e s e e x p r e s s i on s se t
.
,
e qu a l t o z e r o w e r e p e r p e n d ic u l a r (1 6 c ou l d b e s i m p l ifi e d by
, ) ,
i n tr od u c i n g th ese l i n e s a s coOr d i n a te a x e s As th e e qu a ti on .
s tan d s the se l in e s a r e n ot p e r p en d icul a r W e can h owe v e r

,
.
, ,
r e writ e it i n a f or m i n which th e y wi l l b e .
Add an a rbitr a ry c on s ta n t k t o th e ex p r e s s i on i n th e p a r en
th e si s i n (1 6 ) a n d i n e qu a l iz a ti on su btra c t 6 k (x 2 y) 3 i s
,
— 2
,
fr om th e r em a in i n g t e r m s
( )
1 7 6 k) x + ( 1 0 — 1 2 k) y 3 3 102 : 0 .
5
in tr od u cti on ofra d ica l s Th e s e c on d m e th od a v oi d s thi s d i s
.
a d v a n t a g e a n d i s th e m or e e l e g a n t
,
th ou gh p e rha p s th eor e ti ,
e
ca l l y th e m or e d ifficu l t ofth e tw o ,
.
EX E R C IS ES
I d en tify an d l
p ot r ou gh l y th e cu rv e d efi n e d by ea ch o f th e
fol l owin g e qu a ti on s . I f a cha n g e of a x e s i s n e c e s sa ry ,

S ho w
th e n e w a x e s on th e gra p h .
1 . 1 6 x2 — 2 4 xy + 9 y2 — 3 8 x
2 9x 2 — 24 xy + 1 6 y + 3x
2 — 4y
5
.
: 2 2
1 2 0 1 44 2 8 6
+ + +
5
x x y x
0
y
2
9 . x
9
5 x 2 —
9
y
4
- x
2 — 4 xy + 4 y + 3 2
x — 6y
o
o . 27 x —
2
3 6 xy + 1 2 y 2
10 . An s . N o l ocu s .
6 . Su mmary . I nv ar i ants Th e c on t en t
.
“
of Th eor e m s 3, 4 , 5
we su mm a riz e in th e f ol l o w i n g ta bl e .
Th e ip se p a ra b ol a a n d hy p e rb ol a a r e p l an e s e cti on s of a
e ll , ,
right circ u l a r c on e ( Ch VI I I N o w th e se cti on of th e

.
, ,
c on e by a p l an e thr ou gh th e v e rt ex i s a p oin t a s in gl e l in e or , ,
tw o i n t e r s e cti n g l in es I f th e v e rt ex of th e c on e i s ca rri e d
.
of fi n th e d ir e cti on ofth e a x i s in d efi n it el y th e c on e a pp r oa ch e s ,
E Q U AT I O N OF THE SE C O N D D E R E E G
a cyl in d e r a s i ts l i m it a n d th e p l a n e a p p r oa ch es a p ositi on
,
p a r a l l e l t o t h e r u l in g s of t h e cy l in d e r B u t th e s e cti on o f a .
cy l in d e r by a p l a n e pa ra l l el to th e r u l i n g s i s tw o pa ra ll el l in e s ,
a s i n g l e l i n e o r n othi n g
,
Th e s e s e cti on s of th e c on e or cyl i n
.
d e r a r e c a l l e d d egen er a te ; th o se fir s t m e n ti on e d n on d egen er a te ,
-
.
F r om th e ab ov e t a b l e w e ca n n ow d r a w a g e n e r a l c on c l u s i on .
THEOREM 6 . An equ a ti on of th e s e con d d egr ee, if i t h a s a
l oc u s , r ep r es en ts a con i c s ecti o n, w h i ch i s non -

d egen er a te i fA 0,
a nd d egener a te i fA 0 .
hav e s e en tha t th e v a l u e of th e qu an tity

W
5
I nv a r i a n ts . e
A C i s u n ch a n g e d by a r ot a ti on ofa x es 3 (7 a n d , ,
Thi s s tru e a s o o t e va q a tity B 4 AO

5
i l f h l u e o f th e u n 2
3 ,
W e sa y th a t A + C a n d B — 4 A O a r e
( )
1 6 nd § 2
a ,
i nv a r i a n t u n d e r a r ot a ti on of a x e s Th ey a r e a l so in v a ria n t .
u n d e r a ch an g e of o rigi n s i n c e w e s a w i n g 4 th a t th e qu a d r a tic
, , ,
t e rm s i n th e g en e ra l e qu a ti on a r e n ot a ffe ct ed by a cha n g e of
o rig i n .
C o s e q u en t l y A
n C and B 2
,
4 A C a r e i n v a ri a n t u n d e r a n y
chan g e ofa x e s F or a ny cha n g e of a x e s con si st s of a cha n g e
.
,
.
o f o rigin c om b i n e d with a r ot a ti on ofa x e s

,
.
I t can b e s h own th a t th e d i s cri m in a n t A i s a l s o in v a ri a n t

u n d e r a n y ch a n g e ofa x e s .
Th e i m p ortan c e which th es e qu a n titi e s A B 4 A O an d , ,

2
,
A C h a v e a ssu m e d i n th e c ou r s e of th e tr ea t m e n t i s c l o s el y
,
r el a t e d to th e fa ct th a t th e y a r e i n va r i a n ts with r e s p e ct t o an y
chan g e of a x e s F or it i s c l ea r t ha t a qu an tity wh os e va l u e
.
,
v a ri e s with th e ch oic e of a x e s can ha v e n o p a rticu l a r s i gn i fi

c an c e i n a th eory which d ea l s p ri m a ril y with p r op e rti e s of
th e cu rv e which a r e i n d e p en d e n t of th e ch oic e ofa x es wh e r ea s ,
it i s t o b e ex p e ct ed tha t an in v a rian t qua n tity w ou l d p l a y a n

i mp or ta n t r Ol e .
EX ER C IS ES O N C HAPTE R X II
In ch of th e f ol l owin g ex e rci ses d e t e r m in e th e n a tu r e of

ea ,
th e cu rv e r epr e s en t ed by th e giv en e qu a ti on a n d th en fin d i ts ,
5
p ositi on . . D ra w a figu r e s h owi ng ,

th e c u rv e ,
th e o rig i na l a x es,
a n d a n y n e w a x e s u se d .
1 . 11 x 2
+ 6 xy + 3 y
2 — l2 x — 12 y
7 — 8
+ y + 14 x
2 2
2 . x xy
3 . 8 x 2
+ 8 xy + 2 y 2 — 6 x — 3y
4
59
.
. x
2 — 8 xy + 2 4 y
‘
3 — 32 x
xy — 2 y2 — li
2
6 . x + x
7 . 9 x + 2 4 xy + 1 6 y + 8 x
2 2
8 .
9 .
10 9 2
5 5
. x
11 l 0x 2 — 12
+
2 — 84 x + 6y — 14 =
5
. xy y
12 . 2 x
2 —
20 x
y + 4 y + 20 x
2
13 6 x + 122 ? — 36 x — 6y = 0
5
. xy + y .
14 32 x
2
+ 4 8 xy + 1 8 y 2 — 7 x
54
.
1 . x
2 — 7 xy
16 7 x
2 — 18x — 17 ?
.
y y
17 9 x —
9
1 2 xy + 4 y + 4 x 2
5
.
18 7 2 — 2
. x xy +y
19 .
20 . 9 x
2
+ 1 2 xy + 4 y
2 — 4x — 7y
21
5
.
22 . 2 x 2 — 7 xy + y 2
23 . 49 x —
2
2 8 xy + 4 y 2
24
5
.
2 . x
2 — 2 xy
26 . 2 x — xy
2
+y 2
27 . Sh o w tha t a n e qu a ti on of th e s e c on d d e gr ee r ep r e sen t s
a n e q u i l a t e r a l hy pe rb ol a or t w o p er p en d ic u l a r l in e s if an d ,
on l y i fA + C = 0 .
36 . P rov e tha t if ,
th e e qu a ti on (I1 ) ,
3, re
p r e se n t s , a n e l l i p se
or hy p e rb ol a ,
th e ax e s a r e d e fin e d by th e e qu a ti on
E ( x 2
y
?
) 2 (A O ) xy 0 .
37 . Sh o w
tha t i n ca se B ,
4 AC = O a nd A 0 , th e g en
e r a l e q u a ti on r e p r e s en t s tw o p a a r
l l e l l in e s, a s in g l e l in e, or
h a s n o l o cu s a cc o r d in g a s th e
,
r
e x p e ss on i
D +E 2 2 — 4 (A + O ) F
i s p os itiv e , z e r o, or n e ga tiv e
5wh r
.
Su gg e s ti on C on s i d e r e qu a ti on d = 0,
5
.
,
e e an d
u se ,
i n Si m p l ifyi n g th e r e su l t .
38 . P r ov e tha t th e r
e x p e s s on i i n E x 37 . ca n be r e pl a c e d by
D 2 — 4 AF , i fA ¢ 0 ; if C ¢ 0
an d by E 2 — 4 CF , .
D ef i n i ti on Tw o c on ic s a r e sa id t o b e s i m i la r a n d s i m il a r l y
.
p l a c e d if
,
th e ir e cc e n triciti e s a r e e qu a l a n d th e ir c o rr es p on d in g
a x e s a r e p a r a ll el .
39 . P r ov e th a t th e c on ic s ,
11 x + 3y
2
6 l2x
xy
2
12 y 1 2 = 0,
1
1 x + 6 xy + 3 y
2 2
34 x 18 y 29 0,
are s i m i l a r a n d s i m il a r l y p l a c e d .
40 . Sh o w
tha t if th e c oe ffici en t s of th e qu a d r a tic t e r m s i n
,
tw o e qu a ti on s which r e p r es en t n on d e g en e r a t e c on ic s a r e r e -
s p ecti v e l y e qu a l or p r op orti on a l th e c on ic s a r e of th e sa m e ,
ty p e P r ov e fu rth e r th a t if th ey a r e e l l i p s e s or p a rab ol a s
.
, ,
th e y a r e s i m il a r a n d s i m i l a rl y p l a c ed a n d tha t if th ey a r e , ,
hy p e rb ol a s th ey a r e s i m i l a r a n d S i m il a rl y p l a c ed or ea ch i s
,
s i m i l a r a n d s i m il a r l y p l a c e d t o th e c on j u g a t e ofth e oth e r .
C H AP TE R X III
A SE COND CHAP TE R ON LOCI . AU XILI AR Y VAR I ABLE S .
INE QUALI TI E S
1 . Extensi on of th e M ethod for th e Determinati on of Loci .
I f w e l oo k ba c k ov e r th e l ocu s p r obl e m s which w e h a v e thu s

fa r s ol v e d w e fi n d th a t th e r e i s i n v a r i ab l y b u t a s i n l e e s sen
’
, g
tial c on d iti on g ov e rn in g th e m oti on of th e p oin t tra ci n g th e
l o cu s F o r e x a m p l e th e s u m o r th e d i ffe r e n c e of t w o d i s
.
,
ta n c e s or of th e ir s qu a r e s i s r e qu ir e d to b e c on s t an t ; or th e
s l op e of on e l i n e i s gi v e n a s p r op orti on a l to th a t of a n oth e r .
Thi s Sin g l e c on d iti on it i s c om p a ra tiv el y s i m p l e to e x p r es s

a n a l ytic a l l y a n d th u s to d e t e r m i n e th e l o cu s .
I n a gr e a t m a n y p r ob l e m s h ow e v e r th e m oti on i s g ov e rn e d
, ,
by n ot j u s t on e b u t by tw o or m or e e ss en tia l c on d iti on s i n
, ,
te r d e p e n d en t on on e a n oth e r .
An ex a m p l e of s u ch a pr ob l em V: (7 h )
,
i s th e f ol l owin g :A tri a n gl e
h a s a fi x e d ba se AB a n d i t s
v e rt ex V m ov es on a n in d efin it e
s tr a ight l i n e L p a r a l l e l t o th e
,
b a se F in d th e l o cu s of th e
.
p o in t o f i n t e r se cti on P of th e
a l tit u d e s .
H e r e th e m oti on o f P i s
g ov e r n ed by two e s s en ti a l c on d iti on s ; fir s t by th e m oti on of
,
V a n d se c on d l y by th e fa c t th a t P i s th e p oi n t ofi n t e r se cti on
, ,
of th e a l tit u d es Th e t w o c on d iti on s a r e i n t e rr e l a t e d s i n c e
.
,
th e p o s iti on of V d e t e r m i n es th e p os iti on o f th e a l ti tu d e s a n d
h en c e of th e ir p oin t of i n t e r se cti on C on se qu en tl y th e y a r e
.
,
261
in su b s tan ce e qu i v a l e r it to a s i ngl e c on d iti on which wh en , ,
r
e x p e s se d an a l ytica ll y , w oul d giv e th e e qu a ti on of th e
l o cu s .
O u r p r ob l e m ,th en i s to r e d u ce th e two c on d iti on s to a s i ngle

,
c on d iti on Thi s it i s i n g en e ra l v e ry d iffic u l t to db geometr i

.
, ,
ca l ly .An a lyti ca ll y h ow e v e r th e ta s k i s s i m p l e r
, F o r c on d i , .
,
ti on s ex p r e s s e d i n a n a l ytica l f or m i n te r m s of e qu a ti on s a r e , ,
u su a ll y m o r e ea s i l y c om bin e d t h a n wh e n th e y a r e i n g e o m e tri ~
cal for m .
Acc or d in gl y w e p r o c e e d to e x p r e ss a na l ytica l l y th e t w o
,
c ond iti on s g ov e rn in g th e m oti on of P T a k e th e m i d .
p o in t of th e b a s e o f th e tri a n g l e a s th e o rigi n a n d t h e
a x i s of x a l on g th e b a s e L e t th e l e n gth of th e b a se b e
.
2 a a n d th e d i s t an c e o fL a b ov e th e ba s e h Th e c oOr d i na te s ,
.
of A a n d B a r e a 0 ) a n d (a D en ot e th os e of P by
, ,
X
( . Y)
Th e fir s t of c on d iti on s i s tha t V m ov e a l on g L
th e tw o .
B u t th en th e d i s ta n c e K V of V fr om th e a x i s of y va ri es
, , .
Acc or d i n g l y w e ca n e x p r e s s th e m oti on o f V a l on g L by ta k
,
i n g th e a b s ci s sa of V a s a v a r i a bl e D en o t e thi s va ri a b l e b y y . .
Th e coOr d i n a t e s of V a r e th e n (y h ) , , ,
.
W e n ow h a v e co Or d i n a te s for th e thr ee v e rtic e s of th e tri

a n gl e H e n c e w e ca n fi
. n d th e co Or d i n a t e s
( X Y ) o f t h e ,
o in t o f in t e r s e cti on o f th e al tit u d e s Th u s w e s ha l l h a ve
p .
e x p r e s se d th e c on d iti on t h a t P b e thi s p oi n t .
Th e c oOr d i na tes ( X Y ) of P wil l b e ob ta i n e d i n t e r m s of

,
th e c on s t an t s a a n d h a n d th e va ri a bl e y
, ,
I f w e e l i mi n a t e y .
fr om th e tw o e qu a ti on s which giv e th e v a l u e s ofX an d Y th e ,
r esul t i n g e qu a ti on wi l l c on tain on l y a a n d h a nd X a n d Y a n d , ,
w i l l b e th e e qu a ti on ofth e l ocu s ofP .
Th e v a ria bl e y i s kn own a s an a u x i l i a ry v a r i a ble or p a r a m ,
eter . I t h e l p s i n e x p r e s s i n g a n a l ytica ll y th e c on d iti on s

g ov e rn in g th e g en e ra ti on of th e l ocu s Th e m e th od i nv ol vin g
‘ '
i t s u s e which w e h a v e j u s t d e s crib e d i s g e n e ra l i n s c op e a n d
, , ,
m a y b e a p p l i e d with a d v a n ta g e to a n y l o cu s p r ob l e m c on ta i n
i n g m ul ti pl e c on d iti on s .
R ema rk I t wasc e s s a ry t o fin d th e a ctu a l c oo r d i n a t e s

ot n e
.
n
( )
3 o fP T.h e fa ct th a t P i s th e p oin t o f i n t e r s e cti on o f th e
a l titu d e s m ight h a v e b e e n e x p r e ss e d by writin g d own th e
c on d iti on s tha t (X Y ) s a ti s fy e qu a ti on s (1 ) a n d
, n a m el y ,
x = y, hY = -
a ) .
If we i m ina t e
el
y fr om th e s e e qu a ti on s ,
we o bta i n e qu a ti on
( )
4 o f th e l o c us .
E x a mp l e 2 . A s tr a ight l in e L p a s s e s thr ou gh a fi x ed p oi n t
P0 ; fin d th e l o cu s of th e m i d p oi n t P of th e p o rti on ofL i n t e r
-
ce p te d by giv en p e r p en d i cu
tw o
l a r l in e s , n e ith e r o f which g oe s
thr ou gh P0 .
Tak e t h e tw o giv en l in e s as
a x e s, a nd l e t th e co Or d i na te s of
(arm y/ )
o r e fe rr ed to th e m b e (x0 yo)
P 0, , ,
.
Th e c on d iti on s g ove rni n g th e

m oti on of P a r e fir s t th e r o ta , ,
tion ofL a b ou t P 0 a n d s e c on dl y , ,
th e fa ct th a t P i s th e m i d p oin t -
of th e se g m e n t AB .
W e e x p r e s s th e r o ta ti on of L
by ta k in g i ts s l op e A a s a u x , ,
i l i ary va riabl e . Th e e qu a ti on ofL i s th en , ,
— = A(x — x
y y0 0 ) .
Th e c oOr d i n a t e s o f th e p o in t s i t r cti on
of n e s e of L with th e
ax e s a r e :
A:
(x0 yo
— M ol
H en c e th e c oord in a t e s o fP , t h e m i d p oi n t
-
of AB , a re
1 —
X = Ax0 )
§
.
To el i m ina t e fr om th e s e tw o e q u a ti on s
A ,
we m ight s ol ve
th e fir s t for A a n d su b s tit u t e i t s va l u e i n th e c
s e on d . Bu t w e
A SE C O N D C HAP T E R O N LO C I
. 26 5
no tic e a n ea s e i r m e th od ; r e writin g th e e qu a ti on s i n th e f or m
i’
3
i
2X — x
0
-
>
and mu l ti p l yi n g t og e th e r th e l e ft han d s i d es
-
a nd th en ‘
th e
right han d s i d e s w e obt a i n th e e q u a ti on
5
-
( ) ( 2 X we) (2 Y yo) mayo,

d e v oid ofA .
Th e e qu a ti on of th e l o cu s ,
in thi s fo r m ,
or b ett e r ,
i n th e
form
su gg e s t s tha t we chan g e to p a r a l l el ax es, with th e n ew o rigin
970
x
'
= X ’
y
2 2
Th e l oc u s , r e fe rr e d to th e n e w ax e s, h a s th e e qu a ti on ,
’ ’
4xv “309 0,
an d th e r e for e a r e ct an gu l a r hyp e rb ol a I t f ol l ow s fr om ( )
i s, ,
. 5
tha t th e hy p e rb ol a g oe s thr ou gh 0 an d P 0 .
To d e s crib e th e l o cu s in d ep en d en t l y of th e c oo r d ina t e sy s
te m :Le t 0 b e th e p oi n t of i n t e r s e cti on of th e gi v e n l in e s ;
th e l o c u s i s a r e ct an g u l a r hy p e rb ol a thr ou g h 0 a n d P 6 with ,
i t s c en t e r a t th e m i d p oi n t of OP 0 a n d wi th i ts a s y mpt ot e s
-
p a ra l l el to th e giv en l in e s
EX E R C IS ES
1 . G i v en a l in e L p a ra l l el to th e a x i s Thr ou gh th e
of x .
r g i n d ra w a
o i v a ri a b l e l i n e m ee ti n g L i n Q a n d o n
,
thi s v a ri
a bl e l i n e m a r k th e p oi n t P wh os e o r d i n a t e e qu a l s th e a b s ci s s a
of Q .Wh a t i s th e l ocu s ofP

An s Th e p a r a b ol a y
.
2
h x wh e r e ,
h i s th e al g ebra ic d i s ta n c e
fr om th e a x i s ofx to L .
2 . A l in e
g m en t AB of fi x ed l en gth m ov e s s o tha t i ts
-
se
e x tr e m iti e s l i e a l wa y s on t w o p e r p e n d ic u l a r l i n e s F i n d th e .
l o c u s of th e p oi n t d ivi d i n g AB i n th e ra ti o u s in g a s
a u x il i a ry v a ri a b l e th e a n g l e which th e m ovin g l i n e m a k es with
on e ofth e t w o p e r p e n d icu l a r l i n e s .
Ans An e l l ip s e c en t e r i n th e p oin t o f i n t e r s e cti on of th e

.
,
giv en Jin e s ax es a l on g th em with l en gth a n d br ead th i n th e

, ,
ra ti o 2 1 .
3 .D e t e r m i n e th e l ocu s d e s crib ed i n E x 2 wh en th e gi v en .
,
ra ti o i s m1 m2 .
4 .Th e l i n e L i s th e p e r p end icu l a r bi s e ct or of th e fi x e d

h oriz on ta l l in e se g m en t AB Th e p oi n t s R an d S a r e ta k en
-
on L with R a l w a y s b el o w S s o th a t th e d i s t a n c e R S i s o n e
, ,
ha l f th e d i st an c e AB F in d th e l ocu s of th e p oin t of in t e r
.
s e cti on of AR a n d B S t a k i n g th e a x e s of x a n d y a l on g A B
,
a n d L An s T e hy p e rb ol a 2 xy
h x2
a 2
thr ou gh A an d B
5A variabl e l in e i s d ra wn throu gh a fix ed p oin t P I m eet
. .
,
.
,
i n g a fi x ed l in e L i n P 2 P o i n t s P a r e t a k en on thi s l i n e so
.
tha t th e p r od u ct of th e d i st an c e s P 1 P a n d P 1 P2 i s c on s t an t .
F in d th e l ocu s ofth e s e p oin t s .
An s Tw o circ l e s t an g en t a t P I to th e l in e thr ou gh P I p a r
.
,
a l l el to L .
6 . F in d th e l o cu s i t fr om which
of p o n s th e tan g en t s d ra wn
to a r b ol a
pa a a r e p e r p en d icu l a r
Su gg e s ti on . U s e th e e q u a ti on of th e ta n g en t with giv en
sl op e , Ch I X ,
. 6, eq .
7 Th e sam e for th e el l i p se
. .
8 Th e sa m e for th e hy p e rb ol a
. .
9 D e t e r m i n e th e l o cu s of th e m i d p oi n t s
.
-
of a l l th e ch or d s
d ra wn fr om th e v e rt ex ofa p a r a b ol a .
3 . Tr a ci ng a Cur v e as Auxi li ar y Vari

Coor di nates ofa Poi nt ,
a b l es I n th e p r obl e m s of th e p r e vi ou s p a r a gr a p h on e of th e
.
c on d iti on s g ov e rn in g th e m oti on of th e p oin t tr a cin g th e l ocu s

w a s th e a u x i l i a ry m oti on of a l i n e or of a s e c on d p o in t In .
T a k e a s th e au x il i a ry m oti on th e tra cin g of th e circl e by
, ,
th e p oin t R a n d a s a u x il ia ry v a ri a bl e s th e coOr di n a te s (x y )
, ,
’
,
’
of R Th e s e a r e c onn e ct ed .
by th e e qu a tion Th e
coOr d i n a te s of a r e, ev i
’
R
d en tl y , ( x
’
,
Th e e qu a ti on s of AR
and AR ’ ’
are
w + a
e + e
t
Si n c e P i s th e p oi n t o f i n
te r secti on ofAR a n d A R ,
’ ’
i ts c oord in a t e s ( X ,
Y) sa ti s fy b oth the se e qu a ti on s :
X
c + o
’
6) I
l
x + a
a) Tt
113 — 0,
—o
W e h av e th en thr ee e qu a ti on s
, ,
an d in v ol vin g
, ,
b e s id e s th e c on s tan t a th e c oor d in a t e s ( X Y ) of th e m ovin g

, ,
p o i n t a n d t h e a u x i l i a ry v a ri a b l e s x y T o obt a i n a n e qu a
’ ’
.
tion i n X Y a l on e w e m u s t e l i m in a t e is y W e sha l l d o thi s

, , ,
’
.
by s ol vin g tw o of th es e e qu a ti on s p r e fe rabl y (3 ) an d ,
s i m u l t a n e ou sl y f and d b tit ti g h l
’ ’
or x y a n s u s u ,
n t e v a u e s
obt a i n e d f or th e m i n th e thir d e qu a ti on ,
To thi s en d w e r e writ e e qu a ti on s (3 ) an d (4 ) as fol l ow s

( )
3 Yx — X )y
’
( Y,
’
a a a
( )
4 a Yx ’
( X a
)y
’
a K
Z
2
H en c e 3 3
X X
Su b s ti t u tin g th e s e va l u e s in ( )
2 an d r e d u cin g ,
we o bta in
X 2
Y 2
a
2
as th e e qu a ti on ofth e l o cu s .
A SE C O N D C HAP T E R ON LO C I 2 69
Th e l oc u s i s thu s
r e ctan gu l a r hy p e rb ol a with th e
s een to b e a
giv en d ia m et e r of th e circ l e a s m aj or a x i s I t i s e v id en t fr om .
th e figu r e h o w e v e r th a t if R i s r e s trict ed to th e u pp e r h a l f of
, ,
th e circl e a n d R t o t h e l ow e r h a l f on l y th e u pp e r h a l f ofon e
’
, ,
bran ch a nd th e l ow er; ha l f ofth e oth e r b el on g to th e l ocu s I t .
i s on l y wh en R a n d R a r e e a ch p e r m itt e d t o tr a c e b oth h a l v e s
’
ofth e circ l e th a t th e l o c u s c on s i s t s ofth e e n tir e hy e rb ol a

p .
R ema r k . Th e p o n s i t A an d A do '
n ot b el on g to th e l ocu s .
F or , t h e on l y p o s s ib l e w ay i n which P ca n ta k e on th e p ositi on
o ft h e i t A for e x a m p l e i s for R a n d R t o com ci d e i n A ;
p o n
'
,
'
,
' ’
b u t th e n th e r e i s n o ch o r d R R a n d a l s o n o l in e A R s o th a t ’ ' ’
,
n o p oi n t P on th e l o cu s i s d e t e r m i n e d .
Le t u s r e t u rn n ow to e qu a ti on s (3 a ) a n d (4 a ) I n s ol v i n g .
,
th e m for x w e a ctu a l l y obta in

’
YX x
’
a
2
Y .
B u t Y ¢ 0, i c e P ca nn ot l i e on th e a x i s ofx i n e ith e r A or
s n ,
A “
h en c e w e w e r e j u s tifi ed i n d iv i d in g by Y an d th e r e sul t , ,
X i s c o rr e ct
/
’ 2
x a ,
.
I n su b s e qu en t p r ob l e m s w e s h a l l l a y n o s tr e s s on e x c e p ti on a l
p o in t s s u ch a s A a n d A Th e ir i m p o rt a n c e for th e s t
’
u d
. e n t a t
thi s s t a g e i s r el a tiv el y sm a l l .
E xa mp l e 2 . A
p oi n t R tra c es a pa
r a b ol a F in d th e l o cu s of th e p oin t of
.
in t e r s e cti on P of th e l in e thr ou gh th e
, ,
f ocu s an d R with th e l i n e thr ou gh th e

v e rt ex p e rp e n d ic u l a r t o th e t a n g en t
at R .
Th e p a r ab ol a r e fe rr e d t o th e c oor
'
d i n a te ax es s h own in th e figu r e ,
h as
th e e qu a ti on
FIG 4
2
2 mm
.
y .
Th e m oti on of R ca n be e x p e ss e d r by ta k in g a s a u x il ia ry ,
v ariab l e s i ts coOr d i n a te s
(
’
c on n e ct e d by th e r el a ti on
5
,
x ,
( ) y
,2
2 mx ’
,
which s ta t e s tha t R , i n m ovi n g , t ys
s a al wa y s on th e p a
ra b ol a .
Th e tan g en t a t R i s m/y C h I X 2 e q
s l op e o f th e
’
, .
, ,
.
c on se qu en tl y th e l i ne thr ou gh 0 p e r p en d ic u l a r t o th e ta n g en t i s
,
'
y
— l x
m
As th e e qu a ti on o fF R we ha v e
Th e e qu a ti on s e x p r e s s i n g th e fa ct tha t P : ( X Y ) ,
p o n i t of n e s e i t r cti on of th e s e t w o l in e s a r e th e r e for e , ,
( )
6 Y
( )
7 Y = y '
F r om equ a ti on s and
( 7 we h av e to el im in a t e
Sol vin g ( ) an d and w e ha v e
’
6 ( for ’ ’
y . 7 x y
Y
y
’ — m )
X
Su b s tit u tin g th e s e va l u e s fo r y ’
an d x
’
in 5
( ) an d r e d u cin g th e
r e su l t ,
we obt a i n
X 2
+ Y
3 — mX = 0
as qu a ti on ofth e l o cu s
th e e .
Th e l ocu s i s th e r e fo r e a circl e p a s si n g thr ou gh th e v e rt ex of ,
th e p a r a b ol a a n d h a vi n g i t s c en t e r a t th e f o c u s Th e v e rt ex .
,
0 i s n ot a p oi n t of th e l o cu s
,
.
*
E l i m i n a ti on of x y I n ea ch of th e a b ov e e x a m p l e s w e
’ ’
.
,
e l i m in a t e d th e a u x i l i a ry v a ri a b l e s x vi g t '
y b y s ol n th e l a s
t w o of a se t of thr e e e qu a ti on s for x y a n d su b s ti tu tin g th e

’
,
v a l u e s thu s obta i n e d for x y i n th e fir s t e qu a ti on — th e ’

,
’
,
It i it
n e e p ti n l p i nt
s a xc i m i l r i n typ e t o t h e
o a o ce p ti on l p i nt
,
S a ex a o s,
A n d A ofE a m p l e 1
a
'
, Fx wh en R i t 0 F R an d O P oi n i d e a nd
. or , s a ,
c c
c on eq e ntl y d t erm i n
s u n o p i nt
e n th e l o e o o cu s .
5Th . e
p r e c e d i n g p r ob l e m f or a hy p e rb ol a .
6 . F i n d th e l o cu s of th e p oin t of i n t e r se cti on of th e l i n e
d ra wn thr ou gh a v a ri abl e p o int R ofa p a r a b ol a p a r a l l el to th e
a x i s a n d th e l in e thr ou gh th e v e rt e x p e rp e n d ic u l a r t o th e tan
g en t a t R .
7 . A v a ri ab l e ta n g en t to a n e l l i p se m ee t s th e tra n sv e r se
a x i s i n th e p oi n t T D e t e r m in e th e l o cu s of th e p oin t of
.
i n t e r s e cti on of th e l in e d ra wn thr ou gh T p a ra l l el to th e con

j u ga t e a x i s an d th e l in e j oin i n g th e p o in t of c on ta ct of th e '
t an g en t to a v e rtex .
8 . Th e p r e c e d in g p r obl e m for a hyp e rb ol a .
9 . L e t R R b e a n a rbitr a ry ch or d o f a n e l l i p s e p a ra l l e l t o
’
th e c on j u ga t e a x i s ; l e t th e n or m a l a t R m ee t th e l i n e j oi n in g
th e c e n t e r t o R i n th e p oi n t S F in d th e l oc u s of th e m i d
’
.
p o i n t o f R S .
10 . Th e p r e c ed in g p r obl e m for a hy p e rb ol a .
4 . Other Pr obl ems I nv ol v i ng Two or M ore Aux il i ary Vari

ab l es Th e r e a r e p r ob l em s i n which it i s c on v en i en t to u se
.
tw o a u x il i a ry va ri a bl e s o th e r th a n th ose of th e ty p e which
w e c on s i d e r e d i n th e p r e c ed in g p a ra gra p h .
E x a mp l e . Th e p o n s i t A and B ar e fix ed an d th e l i n e L i s
p e r p en d icu l a r to AB at i ts m i d p oi n t , 0 ; R a n d S a r e tw o
-
p o in t s on L ,
b o th on th e sa m e s i d e
of AB tha t th e
a nd m ov in g so
p r o d u ct o f th e ir d i s t a n c e s fr om O
P 1 ( X Y) i s c on s ta n t a n d e qu a l t o b
’ F in d
‘
3
.
,
th e l o cu s of th e p oin t of i n ter s ec
ti on P ofAR an d B S , ,
.
A (: — a 0 ) T a k e th e a x e s a s s h o w n i n th e
F G 5
,
I .
fig u re an d l et A B : 2 a T h e .
m oti on s of R an d S can b e r e p r e
sen t e d by t a k in g th e ir o r d in a t e s which w e d en o t e by r a n d s
, ,
a s a u x i l i a ry v a ri a b l e s Th e c on d iti on tha t R a n d S a r e on th e
.
A SE C O N D C HAP T E R O N LO C I 27 3
sa m e s i d e ofAB and r el a tiv e l y so s itu a t ed tha t

is th en giv en by th e e q u a ti on ,
( )
I 2
rs 0 .
Th e e qu a ti on s of AR and BS are
x
+ y = 1,
a r
Sin c e P :
( X ,
Y ) i s th e p oin t i t r cti on
of n e s e of th e se l in es ,
we
h av e
( )
2
( )
3
To el i m in a t e th e au x il i a ry va ria b l e s r a n d s fr om e qu a ti on s
i ou r p r ob l e m W e n otic e th a t i n th e pr od u c t
( )
3 s n ow .
ofe qu a ti on s (2 ) an d ( )
3
r and 3 t r
en e on l y i n th e f or m r s a nd th a t th e va l u e of r s i s
,
giv en by (1 ) as b
‘
Z
. W e h a v e th e r e f or e a s th e e qu a ti on ofth e
, ,
l o cu s
Th e l o cu s th e r e for e a n e l l i p se with i ts
of P i s, , , a x e s a l on g
A B a n d L a n d p a s s in g thr ou gh th e p oin t s A a n d
, B . Th e s e
p o i n t s a r e n o t h o w e v e r p
,
o in t s o f th e l o c,
u s .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . Wha t i s th e l o cu s P i n th e p r ob l e m i n th e
of t ex t if
, R
an d S wa y s on
ar e a l O p p osit e s i d e s ofAB ?
2 Th e p oin t s P I a n d P 2 a r e fi x e d an d th e l i n e s LI a n d L2
.
, ,
a r e p e r p en d ic u l a r t o P 1 P 2 i n P I a n d P 2 r e s p e ctiv e l y ; Q1 a n d
Q 2a r e t w o p o i n t s on L I a n d L 2 r e s p e ctiv e l y b o th on t h e sa m e ,
s i d e ofP 1 P 2 a n d m ov in g s o tha t th e p r od u ct of th e ir d i s t a n c e s
2 74 AN ALYT I C GEO M E T R Y
fr om PI a nd r e sp e ctiv el y i s c on sta n t F ind th e l o cu s of

P2 .
th e p oi n t o fi n t e r s e cti on P ofP 1 Q2 a n d P 2 621

, ,
.
3. Wha t i s th e l o cu s of P i n th e p r e c ed in g ex a m pl e if Q1 ,
a nd Q2 a r e a l w a y s on O p p o s it e S i d es o fP 1 P 2
4. Do Ex 2 . 2 u s in g th e i n t e rc e p t s o fth e m ov in g l in e AB
, ,
on th e t w o gi v e n p e r p en d ic u l a r l i n es a s a ux il i a ry v a ri a b l e s
5Th e sam e for E x 3 § 2

.
.
,
. .
6. Th e p o in t s R a n d S m ov e on e on ea ch of tw o fi x ed ,
p pe r e n d ic u l a r l i n e s s o th a t t
,
h e s e g m e n t R S s u bt e n d s a l w a y s
a right a n g l e a t a fi x e d p o in t n ot a t th e i n t e r s e cti on of th e,
t w o l in e s F in d th e l oc u s ofth e m i d p oin t ofR S

.
-
.
Ans . P e r p e n d icu l a r bi se ct o r ofth e l i n e s e g m en t j o in in g th e -
fi x ed p oin t with th e in t e r se cti on ofth e fi x ed l in e s .
7 . Tw o right a n gl e s hav i n g th e ir v e rtic e s i n fix e d p oi n t s

,
A an d B r ot a t e a b ou t th e se p oi n t s s o tha t th e p oin t ofi n t e r

, ,
s e cti on of tw o o f th e ir s i d es tr a c e s a l i n e p a ra l l el t o AB .
W h a t i s th e l o cu s ofth e p oin t of in t e r se cti on ofth e oth e r tw o

si d e s ?
5 . Use of th e F or mul a for th e Su m of th e R oots of a Q u ad

r ati c E qu ati on . Th e s u m of th e r oot s of a qu ad ra tic e qu a ti on
( C h I
. X ,
A ¢ O,
i s th e ne ga tiv e of th e ra ti o of th e c oeffici en t s of th e te rms in
x an d x
‘
2
tha t i s ,
( )
1 371 5
172
whe r e x 1 an d x 2 a r e th e r oot s .
As a i m p l e ex a m pl e of th e w
s a y i n which thi s fa c t m ay b e
u s e d t o a d v a n ta g e l e t u s fin d th e co Or d i n a t es of th e p oi n t P
,
m i d wa y b e tw e en th e p om t s of in t e r s e cti on P I an d P of a , 2,
l i n e a n d a c on ic T ake f or e x a m p l e th e l i n e ,
, ,
Q) 2 x — y = L
and th e el l i p s e
( )
3 3x + 4y = 3
2 z
.
H a l f th e su m of th e r oot s of thi s e qu a ti on is X ;
by
J "
( 6
2 ,
Si n c e Y i s th e or d i n a t e o f th e p o n i t on th e l in e 5
( ) wh os e
a b s ci s sa is giv en by w e h av e
( )
7 y Y =
'
m J G
W ha v e thr ee e qu a ti on s
e n ow ,
an d
( 7 fr om which
t o el i m in a t e th e a u x i l i a ry v a ri ab l e s
’
x an d y
’
. W e sol v e
( )
6
obt a in i n g
'
an d f
(
’
7 or x a n d y ,
mX
x
’
2 X,
Y
Su b s titu tin g th e se v a l u e s of x i m p l ifyin g

’ ’
an d in
y ( )
4 an d s
th e r e su l t w e h a v e
,
4Y 2
mX .
C on s e qu e n tl y , th e l o cu s r b ol a with v e rt ex of P is a pa a at
th e origin a n d op e n i n g ou t a l on g th e n e g a tiv e a x i s of x as
ax is Th e origin i s n ot a p oin t ofth e l ocu s

. .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . A va ria bl e ta n g en t t o th e circl e
2 2
y “
m ee t s th e hy p e rb ol a
2 xy (Z
2
i n th e p o in t s P I a n d P 2 F i n d th e . e qu a ti on ofth e l o cu s ofth e
m i d p oi n t ofP 1 P 2
-
P l ot th e l o cu s
. .
l +
1
—
-
_ é ,
a cu rv e which d o es n ot, d e sp it e i ts ap
me
y
e
a
2
p e a c on s i st oftw o c on j u ga t e r e ct an gu l a r hy p e rb ol a s
r a n ce , .
2 Tw o e qu al p a ra b ol a s ha v e th e sa m e a x i s a n d v e rt ex , b u t
.
op e n i n o p p o s it e d ir e cti on s F i n d th e l o cu s of th e m i d p oi n t s
.
-
o fth e ch o r d s of on e which wh en p r od u c e d a r e t a n g en t t o th e
, ,
o th e r .
A SE C O N D C HAP T E R O N LO C I 277
3 . F in d th e l o cu s of th e m i d p oi n t s -
of th e fo ca l ch or d s
ch or d s thr ou gh th e f ocu s ofa p a ra b ol a .
An s A p a r a b ol a with i t s v e rt ex i n th e f o cu s o f th e giv e n
.
p a r a b o l a with,
t h e s a m e a x i s b u t h a l f th e s i z e
, .
4 .D e t e r m i ne th e l o cu s of th e m i d p oi n t s of on e s e t of f o ca l -
ch or d s ofan e l l ip se .
5Th e sa m e for a hy p erb ol a

. .
6 .A va ri a b l e t a n g en t to a p a r a b ol a m e e t s th e tan g en t s a t
th e e x tr e m iti e s of th e l a tu s r e ctu m i n th e p oi n t s P I a n d P 2 .
F in d th e l o cu s ofth e m i d p oi n t ofP 1 P -
2 .
7 .Th e a sy m p t ot es of a hyp e rb ol a i n t e rc ep t th e se g m e n t
Pl on a v a ri a b l e ta n g en t Wh a t i s th e l ocu s of th e m i d
.
p o in t ofP 1 P 2 A n s T h e hy p e rb ol a it s e l f . .
6 . Loci T h ou gh w e a r e c on c e rn ed p ri m a ril y
ofI nequ al i ti es .
i n m a th e m a tic s with e qu a l iti es i t i s n ot i n fr e qu en t th a t i n ,
e qu a l iti e s b e c om e i m p orta n t Acc or d in g l y it i s n ot ou t of

.
,
p l a c e t o c on s i d e r h e r e th e l o ci o f so m e i n e q u a l iti e s .
E xa mp le 1 . Th e e qu a ti on r e p r esen t s a l l th e
x — 1 = 0
p oi n t s o f th e l i n e p a r a l l e l t o a n d on e u n it t o th e right of th e
a x i s o f y an d n o o th e r p oi n t s
,
C on s e qu en t l y th e in e q u a l ity
.
, ,
x 1 $ 0 r e pr esen t s a ll th e p o in t s of th e p l a n e n ot on thi s
,
l in e . I n p a rticu l a r ,
x 1 0
r epr e sen t s a ll th e p oi n t s to th e right of it an d
x 1 0
r ep r e se n t s al l th e p oi n t s t o th e l e ft of it .
E xa mp l e 2 . Wha t i s th e l o cu s of p oin t s wh ose c oor d ina t es

sa ti s fy th e in e qu al ity
( )
1 5 w+ 1 2 y + 6 > 0 9
Th e e qu a ti on obta in ed by r ep l a cin g th e S ign by th e sign

of e qu al ity r epr e sen t s th e l in e L s h own i n th e figu r e F r om
.
E x ampl e 1 w e s h ou l d e x p e ct tha t th e l o cu s of (1 ) w ou l d con
i t
s s ofa l l th e p oi n t s o n o n e s i d e o f L Thi s i s i n f a ct th e .
, ,
ca se :I fth e qu a n tity
55+ 1 2 y + 6
,
F x
,
i s p os itiv e for c e r ta in p oin t a
(x 0 yo
, ) th e n it i s p o s itiv e f
, o r al l
p o i n t s o n t h e sa m e s i d e of L a s ,
yo)
FIG 8
r v thi by h wi g th t
.
p o e s s W
o n e a
th e op p os it e a s su m p ti on l ea d s t o a c on tra d icti on Su pp os e .
tha t F b e c om es n e ga tiv e for s om e p oin t (x1 y1) on th e sa m e ,
s i d e of L a s (x 0 yo) J o in (x0 yo) to (x 1 y1 ) by a n y c u rv e C

, .
, ,
n ot c u tti n g L a n d l e t a p oi n t (x y) tr a c e thi s c u rv e
, F or
, .
i s p o s itiv e ; b u t wh e n a s rea ch e d
( x 0 yo
, ) F, (x y
) h ( y)
x l , F 1, ,
h a s b e c o m e n e ga ti v e C on s e q u en t l y for som e i n t e r m e d i a t e
.
,
p o in t R o n C F h a s t,
h e v a l u e z e ro i n a s m u ch a s i ts v a l u e ,
chan g e s c on tin u ou sl y a s (x y) m ov e s a l on g C H en c e R mu s t
,
.
l i e on L — a c on tr a d icti on s i n c e w e t ook C a s a cu rv e n e v e r
, ,
cu ttin g L .
To a s c e rta i n on which s i d e of L th e p oi n t s r ep r esen t e d by

e w e h a v e b u t to fi n d th e v a l u e of F f or on e p oi n t n ot
( )
1 l i ,
on L . I n thi s ca se th e s i m p l es t p oi n t to t a k e i s th e o rigi n .
B u t wh en x
,
0 an d y 0 F i s p o s iti v e ,
Th e r e for e th e l o cu s .
of ( 1
) c on s i s t s ofa l l p oi n t s on th e sa m e s i d e ofL a s th e o rigin .
E x a mp l e 3 . Wha t i s th e l o cu s ofth e in equ al ity

( )
2 y >
2 2 x ?
Th e qu a ti on obta in ed by r e pl a c i n g th e S ign
e ,
by th e
e qu a l ity S ign r ep r esen t s a p a r ab ol a B y th e r ea s on in g of
, .
E x a m p l e 2 th e n th e in e qu a l ity r ep r e sen t s a l l th e p oin t s

, ,
within or al l th e p oin t s with ou t th e p a ra b ol a Th e l a tt e r i s

, ,
.
cl ea rl y th e ca se s in c e (2 ) i s n ot sa ti sfi ed by th e coOr d i n ates
,
o fth e p oin t 1 — a i t which i withi h r b l

( p o n ,
s n t e p a a o a .
2 80 AN ALY T I C GE O M E T R Y
E xa mp l e 2 . F i n d th e p oin t s sa ti sfyin g si mul tan eou sl y th e
in e qu al iti e s
y
2 — 2 x < 0, x +y
Th e e qu a ti on s obta i n ed by r ep l a cin g th e s ign s by sign s of
e qu a l ity r e p r e s e n t a p a r a b ol a a n d a l i n e i n t e r s e ctin g it Th e .
l o cu s of th e fir s t in e qu al ity i s th e in t e ri o r of th e p a ra b ol a ;
tha t of th e s e c on d i s th e h a l fp l an e b ou n d e d by th e l in e a n d
~
c on t a in in g th e origin Comm on to th e se tw o r e gi on s i s th e
.
fin it e r e gion c on ta in ed b e tw een th e p a r ab ol a an d th e l i n e ;
thi s th en i s th e l ocu s of th e tw o in e qu a l iti e s ta k en s i mul
, ,
tan e ou sl y .
EX E R C ISES
F in d th e l ocu s i t wh ose coOr di nate s sa ti sfy si m u l

of p o n s
ta n eou s l y th e f ol l owin g s e t s of i n e qu a l iti e s D ra w a fig u re i n .
ea ch case a n d s h a d e th e r e gi on r ep r es en t e d
5
.
,
I4 x I x
l 3x + 2y 1 3x + 4y
I2 x An s .
l
4
4x ( x N o l ocu s .
3x + 4y 2 z
x
2 — 7 y < 0,
2x x 2
2 —
‘
2 z
x y x +y
7 . x + 3y 8 .
y > 0 ,
2x — y > 0 .
E a ch fol l owin g p a ir s of cu rv e s d iv i d e th e p l an e
of th e
m i h i t u th e c u rv es i t u m b e r of r e gi on s
( n u s t e p o n s o
) n o a
,
n .
F in d th e p a ir s ofs i mu l t an eou s in e qu a l iti e s r e p r e s en ti n g th e s e

r e gi on s
5
.
9 + 8 = 0 3 x + 8y
5
.
y ,
10 . x 3x + 4y
11 . 2 x 2
+ y = 8, 2
4x— 3y
12 .
y = 2
2
mx , x = 0 .
A SE C O N D C HAPT E R O N LOC I 28 1
13 ?
2 —
. x x y
14 x
9
4
+ y = 0, 2 x — 3y
5y
.
1 .
2
+ 8x = 0, x
2
+ y = 9 2
.
8 . Bi sector s ofth e Angl es b etween Tw o Li nes . Th e tw o l in es
3x 4y
are giv en r e qu ir ed to fin d th e e qu a ti on s of th e l in e s b i
. It i s
s e c ti n g th e an g l e s b e tw ee n th e m .
W e s ol v e thi s p r obl e m by fi n d in g th e l o cu s o f th e p oi n t
P : ( X Y )
,
m o v i n g s o th a t i t s d i s t a n c e D 1 fr o m L I e qu a l s i t s
d i s ta n c e D 2 fr om L2
DI D2 .
Acc or di n g to Ch I I , . 8, D 1 and 0 2 are
3X 4Y 2
13
whe r e i n ea ch ca se tha t S ign i s to b e ch os e n which wil l ma k e

, ,
th e d i s ta n c e p os itiv e .
Th e l in e s L I a n d L2 a r e th ose ofE x a m p l e 1 7 I t fol l ow s ,

.
,
fr om th e r e su l t s th e r e giv en i n c on n e cti on with F i g 9 th a t .

,
th e s ig n s wh ich m u s t b e t a k en t o m a k e D I a n d D 2 b oth p os itiv e

are
I fP i s i n I, for D 1 , for D 2 ;
if P i s in II, for D I , for D2 ;
if P i s i n III, for D I , for D 2 ;
if P i s i n I V, for D 1 , for D 2 .
F or , if P l i e s , for r e gi on I th en th e nu m e ra t or s
e x a m p l e, i n th e ,
i n th e ex pr essi on s for D 1 a n d D 2 a r e b oth p os itiv e a n d th e

s ig n m u s t b e t a k e n i n ea ch c a s e t o m a k e D 1 a n d D 2 p os i tiv e .
I f n ow P i s i n I or I I I a n d D 1
, ,
D 2 w e hav e ,
X + 12 Y + 1 3 (3 X 4 Y
o r , on r ed u cin g ,
( )
1 X 8 Y 4 0 .
Thu s (1 ) i s tha t bi se ct or ofth e a n gl es b e tw een L 1 an d L2 w hich
l i e s i n th e r e gi on s I a n d I I I .
I fP i s i n I I o r I V a n d D 1 D 2 w e h av e
55
,
( X + 12 Y + 1 3 (3 X 4Y 2)
‘
01
( )
2
Thi s i s th e bi se c tor which l i e s i n th e r e gi on s II an d IV .
S i mp l ifi ca ti on . W e n ow giv e i n c on d en s ed for m th e m e th od
of fin d ing th e bi se ct or s . B y e qu a ti n g D 1 a n d D 2 w e h a v e ,
3X
5
— 4 Y — 2
I fw e ta k e b oth s ign s
itiv e or b oth n e g a tiv e an d r e d u c e th e
p o s
r e su l t w e g e t
,
I fw e t a k e th e p l u s S ign on th e right a n d
th e m i n u s S ign on th e l e ft or vic e v e r s a a n d th e n s i m p l ify w e , ,
g e t Th e e q u a ti on s
( )
1 a n d ( ) p
2 r e r ese n t th e bi s e ct o r s ;
which e qu a ti on r e p r es en t s a ch os en bi se ct or i s ea s il y d e t e r
m in ed by m a k in g a p l ot .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . F in d th e
qu a ti on s ofth e bi se ct or s ofth e an gl es b e tween
e
th e f ol l owi n g p a ir s of l in e s a n d d ra w a fig u r e which sh a l l
,
in d ica t e ea ch bi s e ct or
( )
a
5 x
( )
b
4x + 3y
33 +3
4y x l
Il
2 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th a t bi s e ct or of th e a n gl e b e tw e en
th e tw o l in es ,
3y+ 3 = 0
‘
4x — and 3 x— 4 y
which p a sse s thr ou gh th e r e gi on b e tw e en th e tw o l in e s which

c on ta i n s th e origin .
3 F in d th e e qu a ti on s of th e circ l e s ta n g e n t to th e l i n e s of
.
E x 1 P a rt (a ) a n d h a vin g th e ir c en t e r s on th e l i n e y
.
, ,
8 .
4 F i n d th e e qu a ti on s o f th e circ l e s t a n g en t t o th e l i n e s of
.
E x 2 a n d p a ssi n g thr ou gh th e poi n t (1

.
,
Su gg e s ti on .T a k e th e a b s ci ssa ofS and th e c oor d in a t es of
R as a u x i l i a ry v a ri a b l e s an d u se ,
th e fa ct tha t OS i s p er p en
d i cu l a r to AR .
4 . Le t AA b e ’
a fi x ed d ia mt e e r
circl e an d R a p oin tof a
tra cin g th e circl e F i n d th e l o cu s of th e p oin t of in t e r s e cti on

.
of AR an d th e l i n e j oin i n g A to th e p oin t of i n t e r se cti on of

’
th e t a n g en t s a t A a n d R
5Th e n ormal to a hyp erbol a at a v a riabl e p oint R m eets
.
th e tr an s v e r se a x i s i n N D e t e r m in e th e l o cu s of th e m i d
.
p oi n t ofR N .
6 .F i n d th e l ocu s of th e p oin t of in t e r s e cti on of th e l in e

d r a wn thr ou gh on e f ocu s of a n e l l ip se p e r p en d icu l a r t o a
v a ri a b l e t an g en t a n d th e l i n e d r a wn thr ou gh th e p oin t o f
tan g en cy p a ra l l e l to th e tran sv e r s e ax i s .
Ans An e l l i p s e c en t e r i n th e f oc u s ch osen with ax es

.
, ,
hav in g th e sa m e d ir e c ti on s a s th ose ofth e giv en el l ip s e .
7 . F in d th e l o cu s p oin t of in t e r s e cti on of th e l in e
of th e
d ra wn thr ou gh on e v e rt ex of a hy p e rb ol a p e r p e n d icu l a r to a
v a ri a b l e ta n g en t a n d th e l i n e d r a wn thr ou gh th e p o i n t of ta n
g en ey pa ral l el to th e tran sv e r s e ax i s .
8 .F in d th e l o cu s of th e p o in t of in te r s e cti on of th e l in e
d r a wn thr ou gh th e f oc u s of a p a r ab ol a p e r p en d icu l a r to a
v a ri a b l e t a n g en t a n d th e l in e j o in i n g th e v e rt ex with th e
p oin t oftan g en cy .
An s An e l l i p se wh os e m in or a x i s i s th e l i n e s egm en t j oin
.
,
v
i n g th e v e rt ex ofth e p a ra b ol a to th e f o cu s .
9 Tw o l in e s p a s s ing thr ou gh th e p oin t s A an d B r e sp e c

.
,
ti v el y a r e o rigina l l y i n c oin ci d en c e a l on g AB
,
Th ey a r e .
m a d e to r ot a t e i n th e sa m e d ir e cti on a b ou t A a nd B r e s p e c
ti v el y th e fir s t twic e a s fa s t a s th e s e c on d
,
Wha t i s th e l ocu s .
ofth e ir p oi n t o fi n t e r se cti on
10 F i n d th e l o cu s of th e c en t e r of a circ l e which t ou ch es
.
on e o f t w o p e r p e n d ic u l a r l in es a n d in t e rc e p t s a s e g m en t of
c on stan t l en gth on th e oth e r .

A SE C O N D C HAP T E R O N LO C I 28 5
11 . F in d th e l o cu s of th e p oin t of i n t e r s e cti on of th e l i n e
d ra w n thr ou gh th e v e rt ex o th e p a r a b ol a y = 2 mx p e r p en
f 2
di cu l a r to a va ri a bl e t a n g en t a n d th e l i n e d r a wn thr ou gh th e
p oin t ofta n g en cy p e r p en d icu l a r to th e a x i s .
Ans Th e s e m i cu bica l p a r ab ol a my2 = 2 x3

.
-
, .
12 . A v e rt e x 0 of a qu a d ri l a t e r a l an d th e d ir e cti on s of th e
s i d e s thr ou gh 0 a r e fi x e d Th e tw o a n gl e s a d j a c e n t to 0 a r e
.
right a n gl e s a n d th e d ia gon al j oin in g th e ir v e rtic e s h a s a fix ed

d ir e cti on . F i n d th e l oc u s ofth e f ou rth v e rt e x .
Ans Str a ight l i n e thr ou gh 0 p e r p e n d ic u l a r to th e l i n e

.
,
thr ou gh 0 which m a k e s a n a n g l e with th e fi x e d d ir e cti on e qu a l

to th e s u m of th e tw o a n g l e s which th e s i d e s thr ou gh 0 m a k e
wit h th e fi x e d d ir e cti on .
13 . A p a ra ll el ogr a m h a s s i d e s of c on s ta n t l en gth a an d b
a n d h a s on e v e r t ex fi x e d a t a p o in t 0 I t op en s a n d c l os es
.
s o th a t th e tw o s i d e s thr ou gh 0 a r e a l w a y s e q u a ll y i n c l i n e d
to a fi x e d l i n e thr ou gh 0 T a k i n g th e a n gl e which th e s e S i d e s
.
m a k e with th e fix ed l in e a s a ux i l i a ry v a ri a b l e fi n d th e l o cu s ,
o fth e v e rt ex opp o s it e t o 0 .
14 . E a ch of tw o s tr a ight l i n es m ov e s a l wa y s p a r a l l el to
i tsel f s o tha t th e p r od u ct of th e d i s tan c e s of th e l in es fr om a
fi x ed p oi n t 0 i s c on s tan t F in d th e l o cu s of th e ir p oin t of
.
i n t e r s e cti on t a k in g th e a x e s so tha t 0 i s th e origin an d th e

,
d ir e cti on s ofth e tw o l i n e s a r e e qu a l l y i n cl i n e d to th e a x i s ofx .
An s Tw o c on j u ga t e hy p e rb ol a s c en t e r at 0 with as y m
.
, ,
p to t e s p a r a l l e l t o th e fi x e d d ir e cti on s .
1 5F i n d th e l ocu s of th e c en t e r of a circl e which p as s es

.
thr ou gh a fix e d p oin t on on e of tw o p e rp en d icu l a r l in es a n d

'
i n t e rc e p t s a s e g me n t of c on s ta n t l en gth on th e oth e r .
16 . F in d th e l ocu s i t fr om which it
of p o n s is p ossibl e to
d ra w t w o p e r p en d icul a r n o r ma l s to a p a r a b ol a .
17 . F in d th e l o cu s o ft h e p oi n t of in t e r s e cti on ofth e ta n g en ts
to an el l i p se a t p oin t s su bt en d in g a right a n g l e a t th e c e n t e r.
18 . Th e p r e c e d in g p r obl e m for th e hy p e rb ol a .
19 . D et e r m in e th e l ocu s of th e m i d p oi n t
-
of a va riabl e
ch or d i p se d ra wn fr om a v e rt ex
o fa n e l l .
20 F i n d th e l o cu s of th e m i d p o in t of a va ri ab l e ch ord o f
.
-
a p a r a b ol a which s u bt e n d s a right a n g l e a t th e v e rt ex .
21 .A p oin t R tra c es a n el l i p se of which A a n d A a r e th e ,

’
v ertic es F ind th e l o cu s of th e p oin t of in t e r s e cti on of th e

.
l in e s d ra wn thr ou gh A an d A p e r p en d icu l a r to AR a n d A R
’ ’
r e sp e ctiv e l y .
An s An e l l i p se s i m i l a r to a n d wi th th e sa m e c e n t e r a s th e
.
,
giv en el l i p se b u t with op p osit e trans v e r se a n d c on j u ga t e a x e s

, .
22 Th e a s y m p t o te s of a hy p e rb ol a i n t e rc e p t th e s e g m en t
.
AB on a v a ria b l e t an g e n t Wha t i s th e l ocu s of th e p oin t

.
d ividi n g AB i n a giv e n r a ti o m 1 m2 ,
An s A s i m i l a r hy p e rb ol a with th e sa m e tra n s v e r se a n d
.
,
c onj u ga t e a x e s
5
.
E x er ci s es 2 3 —2 . D e t e r m in e th e e qu a ti on s ofth e d e sir e d l oci

by u se of e r ctan gu l a r coOr d i n ates . To i d en tify th e l o cu s fr om
i ts e qu a ti on in tr od u c e p ol a r coOr d i n a te s .
23 .F i n d th e l o cu s of th e p oi n t of i n t e r se cti on of a va ri a bl e
tan g en t to a r e cta n gu l a r hy p e rb ol a with th e l i n e thr ou gh th e
'
c en t e r p e r p en d icu l a r t o th e tan g en t An s A l e m n i s c a t e . . .
24 .F in d th e l o cu s of th e p oin t of i n t e r se cti on of a va ri a bl e
t an g en t to th e circ l e x y 2 a x
‘
2
0 a n d
‘
2
t h e p pe r e n d ic u l a r
t o thi s t an g en t fr om th e o rigin An s A ca r d i oi d
2 5Wh a t i s th e l o cu s ofth e m i d p oin t s ofth e ch or d s ofth e
. . .
-
.
circl e x y
?
a
2
which
‘
2
wh en p r od u c e
,
d a r e t a n g e n t t o t h e ,
hy p e rb ol a 2 xy c 2
Ans A l e mni s ca t e . .
26 Sh ow tha t th e l in e
5
.
° °
30 y si n 3 0
5it
x co s
is un s d i s ta n t
fr om th e origin an d th a t th e p e r p en d icu l a r
fr om th e orig i n to it m a k e s with th e p os itiv e a x i s ofx a n a n g l e
of P r ov e th a t th e d i s t a n c e of th e p oin t (x0 yo) fr om th e ,
l i ne i s
i
°
(
°
x0 cos 30 yo s n 30
C HAP TE R X IV
DIAME TER S . P OLE S AN D P OLAR S
1 . Di ameters of an Ell ipse . B y th e a x e s of a n el l ip s e we

m a y m e an e ith e r
tran sv e r se a n d c on j u ga t e a x es in d efin it e
th e ,
s tr a ight l in e s or th e m a j o r a n d m i n o r a x e s th e s e gm en t s of
, ,
th e se l in e s in t e rc ep t ed by th e el l ip se ; cf th e d u a l d efin i ti on .
,
Ch VI I ,
. 1 .
By a d i a meter of a n el l ip se
w e m a y m ea n , a l s o, on e of tw o
thi n g s , e ith e r fi
a n i n d e n i te s tr a i gh t l i ne th r o ugh th e cen ter ofth e
el l ip s e , or th e s egm en t ofth i s l i n e i n ter cep ted b th e ell i p se ; an d

y
we gr e e t o a d op t thi s d u al d efin iti on Th e l ei n gth of th e
a . se g
m en t i s c a l l e d th e l ength of th e d i a m e t e r ; i t s en d p oin t s ,
th e
extr emi ti es ofth e d i a m e t e r .
P r obl em . Wha t i s th e l o cu s of th e m i d p o in ts
-
of a s e t of
p a ra ll el ch or d s ofan el l ip s e
I n th e s p e ci al ca s e of a circl e th e l o cu s i s a d i a m e t e r con , ,
s i d er e d a s a l i n e se g m e n t Thi s i s tru e a l so for th e g en e ra l

-
.
, ,
e ll ip se F. if th e ch ord s a r e p a ra l l el to a n ax i s of th e
UH e l l i p se th e th eor e m i s g e om e trica l l y
(
,
obvi ou s ; if th e y a r e obl iqu e to th e

ax e s a s i s g e n e r a l l y th e ,
ca s e w e ,
es or t t o a n a n a l ytic a l p r oof .
Le t th e e l l i p s e b e
‘
2 2
x
y
+ 2= L
2
E m . 1 a b .
an d l et A 0) b e th e sl op e ch or d s
ofth e . C on s i d e r a va riab l e
ch or d of s l op e A m ovin g a l wa y s p a r a l l el to it sel f . I ts m o
2 88
D IAM E T E R S . P O L E S AN D P O LAR S 2 89
ti on w e e x p r e ss a n al ytica l l y by t a k in g B i ts i n t e rc e p t on th e ,
a x s of y a s a u x il i a ry v a ri a b l e
i ,
T h e e qu a ti on ofth e ch or d i s .
,
th en ,
wh e r e Ai s c on s tan t an d B v a ri is
a b l e .
Th e w or k n ow r c cc o r d in g m e th od
5
p o e e d s a to th e of
Oh . XIII, . If in ( )
1 w e se t fo r y i t s v al u e a s giv en by
we o bta in th e e qu a ti on
A :
b ( By
2 2 2
x a x
( a
z
A 2
b 2
) x
2 2 a
2
ABx a
2
(B
2
b?
) 0,
wh ose r oot s b s ci s sae of th e tw o p oin t s of i n t e r s e cti on

ar e th e a
o f th e l i n e
( )
2 with th e el l i p s e H a l f th e s u m of th e se r oot s .
i s X th e a b s ci s s a o f th e m i d p oi n t P of th e ch or d H en c e
5
-
, , .
, ,
by th e for m u l a Ch X I I I ,
for th e s u m of th e r oo t s of
.
, ,
a qua d r a tic e qu a ti on ,
( )
3 M .
d l
2
\
2
b 2
Sin c e , m or eov e r , P :
( X ,
Y ) l ies o
n th e ch or d we ha v e
It r e m a in s toi m in a t e B fr om (3 ) a n d
el Su b s ti tu tin g
i ts v al u e, a s giv en by in t o (3 ) a n d s i m p l ifyin g th e r esul t
i ng qu a ti on w e obt a i n
5
e ,
( ) b X 2
(RAY : O .
Thi s i s th e e qu a ti on of a l in e thr ou gh th e c en t e r of th e
e l l i p s e th a t i s a d i a m e t e r
, ,
I t i s c l ea r g e om e tric a l l y h ow e v e r
.
, ,
tha t it i s n ot th e in d efi n it e l in e whi ch i s th e l o cu s b u t m e r el y ,
th e p o rti on of it l yi n g with in th e el l i p s e W e h a v e thu s ob .
ta i n e d th e f ol l owin g r e sul t .
T H EOREM 1 . Th e l ocu s o f th e m i dp o i n ts o f a s et o fp a r a l l el
ch or d s o f th e e ll ip se
( )
1 i s a d i a m eter , co n s i d er ed as a li ne-
s eg
m en t ( excl u s i ve o fth e en d p oi n ts
) . If th e s l op e f th e
o ch or d s is
A( ¢ th e S l op e A ofth e d i a meter i s
’
2
b
6 A ’
2
“ ,
E X E R C IS ES
1 . F in d th e l ocu s of th e m i d p o -
in t s of th e chor d s of th e
el l ip se
3 23
2
4y 2
12,
which a r e i n cl in e d a t a n a n gl e of 1 3 t o th e ax i s of x F ir s t 5 °
.
d ra w a n a ccu ra t e figu r e s h o win g th e ch or d s a n d th e l o c u s th en

,
s ol v e th e p r ob l e m a n a l ytica l l y u s i n g th e m e th od b u t n ot th e
, ,
f or mul a s ofth e t ex t
,
.
2 P r ov e th e c on v e r s e of Th e o r e m 1 n a m e l y th a t e v e ry
.
, ,
d i a m e t e r of th e el l i p s e (1 ) bi se ct s s o m e s e t o f p a r a l l e l ch or d s .
Sh o w tha t if ,
0 ) i s th e s 10 p e of th e d ia m e t e r th en th e ,
ch or d s which it bi se ct s a r e of sl op e A wh e r e ,
b z
a
2
A ’
3 . P r ov e analytica l l y tha t th e tan g en t to a n e l l i p s e a t an

ex tr e m ity of a d ia m e t e r i s p a ra l l e l to th e ch o r d s which th e
d i a m e t e r bi s e ct s .
Su gg e sti on L et (x y1 ) b e th e c oor d in a t e s of th e e x tr e m ity

.
1,
of th e d i a m e t e r a n d fi nd by u s in g th e Sl op e A of th e
,
ch or d s i n t e r m s ofx 1 a n d yl .
2 . Conj u g ate Di ameter s Tw o m u tu a ll y p e r

of an Ell ip se .
p e n d i cu l a r d i a m e t e r s of a circ l e h a v e th e r
p po e rty th a t ea ch
bi s e ct s th e ch or d s p a ra l l el t o th e oth e r Th e a x e s of a n e l .
l i p s e h a v e thi s s a m e p r op e rty Ar e th e r e oth e r p a ir s of

.
d i a m et e r s of t h e e l l i p s e which h a v e it ? Thi s qu e s ti on i s
a n s w e r e d i n th e a ffi r m a tiv e by th e f ol l owin g th e or e m .
THEOREM 2 If on e d i a meter bi sects the .
ch or d s p a ra ll el to a s econ d , th e s econ d d i
a meter bi sects th e ch or d s p a r a ll el to th e r s t fi .
Th e tw o d i a m e t e r s
t i n a r ecip r oca l s and
r e l a ti on s hi p ea ch bi se ct s th e ch or d s p a r a l
FIG 2
l el to th e oth e r W e c a l l th e m a p a i r of
.
j d i a meter s an d sa y tha t e a ch i s conj u ga te t o th e

'
con uga te ,
.
o th e r .
W e n ow fin d
c on j u ga te d ia m e t e r s wh ich a r e e qu a ll y
th e
in cl in ed to th e a x e s I t i s ev id en t g eom e trical l y tha t th e se
.
, ,
wil l a l so b e th e c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s ofe qu al l en gth s I fthe y .
ex i s t th e ir sl op e s m u s t b e e qu al ex c e p t for S ign :A
, A ’
.
H en c e by ,
A j :
We s ee , th en th a t ,
th er e i s a s i ngl e p a i r o f con u ga te j d i a meters
wh i ch a re equ a lly i n cl i n ed to th e a x es , or h a ve equ a l l ength s .
Th ey are th e d i a g on al sr e ct an gl e circu m s crib e d a b ou t

of th e
th e e l l i p s e (F i g W e d e n ot e .
the m by D 1 a n d D l ’
.
N ow l e t a d i a m e t e r D s ta rti n g ,
fr om c oin ci d en c e with th e tran s -
v e r s e a x i s AA r ota t e a b ou t 0 ’
,
in t o c oin cid en c e with D 1 ; th en

th e c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r D s ta rt s ,
’
,
FI 3 G .
fr om c oi n ci d en c e with th e con
j u ga t e a x i s B B a n d r ota t e s in t o ’
,
c oin cid en c e with D l B u t D r ota t e s m or e qu ic k l y tha n D

’
.
’ *
,
s o th a t t h e a n g l e fr om D t o D a t fir s t b e c om e s ob tu se
’
,
a n d s t ea d i l y i n cr eas e s Wh en D c on tinu e s to r ota t e fr om D 1

.
t o B B th e n D r ota t e s fr om D 1 t o AA ; b u t n ow D r o ta t e s
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
,
l e s s qu ic kl y th an D s o th a t th e a n gl e fr om D to D d e cr ea ses
,
’
a n d b e c om e s a g a in 9 0 i n th e fi n a l p os iti on
°
.
EX E R C IS ES
1 . D ra wccu ra t el y a n el l ip s e wh ose a x e s a r e 1 0 cm an d
a .
7 cm C on s tr u ct th e a x e s a n d th e p a ir of c on j u g a t e d ia m e t e r s
.
e qu a l l y i n c l i n e d t o th e a x es Th en d r a w th e d i a m e t e r s i n
.
5
0
it
Si n ce th e sl op e of is 9 1, xA '
4 °
an d
xB O D’
I '
h e nce D h as a s m all e r
th rou gh wh i ch t o rotate th an D C on
a n gl e
’
.
eq e ntl y i t i s t o b e e p e cte d th at D wi l l r tate m ore q i k l y th a n D

’
s u ,
x o u c .
A p roof fth e fa ct m ay e as i l y b e gi ve n l ater wh en th e st d e nt stu di es

o , u
th e C al cu l us .
D I AM E T E R S . P O LE S AN D PO LAR S 29 3
cl i n e d a t a n gl es of 7 and 80 to th e
°
tr an sv e r s e axis. F or ch of th e se d ia m e t e r s c om pu t e th e
ea
s l op e a n d th e a n g l e of i n c l i n a ti on of th e c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r
, ,
a n d c on s tru ct it F i n d th e an gl e s b e tw e e n th e su cc e ss iv e
.
d ia m e t e r s of thi s n e w s e t; a n d a l so th e an g l e s b e tw e en th e
s u cc e s s iv e p a ir s of c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r s M a r k c l ea r l y th e .
p a ir s a n d
,
s t u d y t h e r e s u l t s a n d t h e fig u r e i n l ight o f th e t e x t .
2 . P r ov e th a t if on e o f a p a ir of c on j u g a t e d ia m e t e r s o f
,
a n e l l i p se h a s th e S l op e e o r e wh e r e e i s th e e cc en tricity
, ,
th e oth e r j o in s tw o e x tr e m iti e s of th e l a t e r a r e cta .
3 . I fth e e q u a l c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r s o f a n e l l i p s e f or m with
on e a n oth e r a n a n g l e of wha t i s th e e cc en tricity of th e
el l ip s e ?
4 . Th e a x es of a n e l l i p se a r e th e a x e s of c oo rd in a t e s a n d
th e sl op e s of tw o c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r s a r e an d Wha t i s
th e e cc en tricity
5Th e sa m e if th e sl op e s of tw o con j u gate d ia m eters ar e

.
,
and
g g .
6 . P r ov e
th a t th e l i n e j oin in g a focu s t o th e p oin t of i n t e r
s e cti on of th e c orr e s p on d i n g d ir e ctr i x a n d a d i a m e t e r i s p e r
e n di cu l a r t o th e c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r
p .
3 . Di ameter s ofa Hyp er b ol a . A d ia m e t e r

hy p e rb ol a i s ofa
d efi n e d i n th e sa m e w ay a s a d ia m e t e r of a n e l l i p se § 1 ,
.
C e rt a i n d i a m e t e r s of a hy p e rb ol a h o wev e r d o n ot m ee t th e
, ,
cu rv e Sp e cia l d efin iti on s ofth e l en gth a n d ex tr e m iti e s ofsu ch

.
a d i a m e t e r m u s t th e n b e a d op t e d
, ,
Th e se w e sha l l c on s id e r
.
l ater .
Th e l o cu s of th e m i d p oi n t s of a se t of p a ral l e l ch or d s of
-
S l op e A 0 ) ofth e hy p e rb ol a
2
x2 y _ 1
a
2
b 2
ca n fou n d by th e m e th od of 1
be . I t i s, h ow e v e r u nn e ce s
,
sa ry to r e p e a t th e w o r k th e r e giv e n . F or , thi s w or k b e c om e s
v ali d i mm ed ia t e l y for th e hy p e rb ol a (1 ) if i n it , ,
we r ep l a ce
b by
2
b2
I t f ol l ow s th en th a t th e l o cu s n ow
.
, , re qu ir e d is
th e d i a m e t e r
( )
2 b 2 2
Ay 0 b 2 2
Ay 0
"
x d x a .
Th e l o cu s c on s i s t s ofa l l th e p oint s of thi s d i a m e t e r on l y if

th e giv en ch o r d s c onn e ct p o in t s of O p p o s it e bra n ch e s of th e
FIG . 4 FI G . 5
hyp e rb ol a (F i g I f th e ch o r d s c onn e ct p oi n t s on th e sa m e
.
bran ch (F i g th e l o c u s i s m e r el y th e p o in t s of th e d i a m e t e r
.
which l i e withi n th e cu rv e Th e r e su l t ca n b e s ta t e d a s fol l ow s

. .
THEOREM 4 The l ocu s of th e mi d p oi n ts of a s et ofp a r a l l el

.
-
ch or d s o fth e h yp er bo l a ( )
1 i s a d i a m eter , or so mu ch of a d i a me
ter as l i es w i th i n th e cu r ve . Ifth e s l op e o fth e ch or d s i s A
th e s l op e A ofth e d i a meter i s
’
?
b
( )
3
p ,
Th e r e a r e ch or d s of a n e ll i p s e with a ny gi v en d ir e cti on .
Thi s i s n ot tru e h ow e v e r for a hy p e rb ol a F or th e r e a r e n o

, ,
.
,
ch or d s of a hy p e rb ol a p a r al l el to an a sy m p t ot e s i n c e a l i n e ,
p a r a l l e l t o a n a s y m p t o t e m e e t s th e c u rv e i n b u t o n e p oi n t .
C on s e qu en t l y th e s l op e A ofth e ch or d s of Th eor e m 4 ca nn ot
, , ,
ha v e e ith e r ofth e va l u es i b a , .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . A s e t ofp a a l l e l r chor d s ofth e r e ctan gu l a r hyp e rb ol a

2
£13
y
2
6
arein cl in ed a t an a n gl e of 3 0 to th e p os itiv e ax i s of x ,
°
.
Wha t i s th e in cl in a ti on of th e d ia m e t e r which bi se ct s th e m ?
W ha v e a l so p r ov ed in cid en tal l y th e fol l owin g th eor e m
5
e , , .
THEOREM Two d i a meter s D a nd D ofth e h yp er bola (1 )

.
,
’
,
a r e con u ga te j if a n d on ly if th ey a re th e a xe s or h a v e s l op es , A
’
a nd A, r el a ted by th e equ a ti on
( )
2
The re a r e infi n it el y many p a ir s of c on j u ga t e d iam et e r s a s ,
i n th e ca se of th e el l i p se B u t h e r e th e t w o d i a m e t e r s of a
.
fi
a i r n ot th e a x e s p a ss thr ou gh th e s a me qu a d ra n t s s in c e th e
, , ,
A ofth e ir sl op e s i s p os itiv e
’
r od u ct A , ,
.
Th e va l u e b /a of thi s p r od u ct i s th e s qu a r e of th e Sl op e
,
2 2
,
of a n a s y m p t o t e Th e sl op e of a n a sy m p t ot e th e r e f or e i s a
.
, ,
m ea n p r op orti on a l b e tw e e n th e s l op e s
of a n y t w o c on j u ga t e d i a m e t e r s n ot ,
th e a x e s C on s e qu e n t l y tw o su ch .
,
c on j u ga t e d iam e t e r s D a n d D a r e ,
'
,
a l wa y s s e p a r a te d by th e a s y m p t ot e S
which l i e s i n th e sa m e qu ad ra n t s with
F G 6 I
th.
e m a n d th e n ea r e r D l i es t o S on
'
th e on e s i d e th e n ea r e r D wi l l l i e to
’
’
,
S on th e o th e r s i d e I fD a pp r oa ch es S a s a l i m itin g p os iti on
.
,
th en s o wi l l D Thu s a n a sy m p t ot e i s oft en sp ok en of a s a
’
.
,
s e l f c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r ; a ct u a l l y
-
howev e r it h a s n o conj u , ,
ga t e s in c e a s w e ha v e se en th e r e a r e n o ch or d s pa ra l l el to it
, , ,
.
I t i s n ow cl ea r tha t if a d i a m e t e r D s t a rtin g fr om coi n ci , ,
d en c e with th e tra n sv e r s e a x i s r ota t e s i n on e d ir e cti on a b ou t ,
0 in to c oin ci d en c e with a n a sy m p t ot e th en th e c on j u ga t e ,
d i a m e t e r D s ta rtin g fr om th e c on j u ga t e a x i s wi l l r ot a t e i n
,
’
, ,
th e opp os i te d ir e c ti on a b ou t 0 in t o c oin ci d en c e with th e sa m e

a sy m p t o t e .
Conj u ga te H yp er bol a s . C on s i d e r n ow th e hy p e rb ol a ,
.
y
( )
3
a
2
R
c on j u ga t e to th e hy p erb ol a Sin c e th e tw o hy p e rb ol a s
h a v e th e sa m e c en t e r the y h a v e th e s a m e
,
d ia m e t e r s c on ,
D I AM E T E R S . P O LE S AN D P O LAR S 29 7
s i d e r ed as i n d efinit e stra ight l in e s . M o r eov e r , th ey h a v e th e

d i a m eter s F th e ch or d s
"
s a me p a i rs o f con u ga te j . or , of
( )
3 o fa
giv en s l op e a n d th e ch or d s of (1 ) ofth e sa m e sl op e a r e bi s e ct ed
by on e a nd th e sa m e d ia m e t e r E x 4 3 ,
.
,
.
W e s ee n ow a su ita b l e d efi n iti on for th e ex tr e m iti e s Of a

d i a m e t e r which d o e s n ot m e e t th e giv en hy p e rb ol a Th ey .
s h a l l b e th e p o in t s i n w hich th e d i a m e t e r m e e t s th e c on j u g a t e
hy p e rb ol a (F i g a n d th e d i s t a n c e b e tw e en th e s e p o in t s s h a l l
.
b e th e l e n gth ofth e d i a m e t e r *
.
Conj u
g a te D i a meter s f o R ecta na
g u l a r H yp er bol a A S p e ci al .
ell ip se ,
wh os e
a l l of c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s a r e m u tu al l y p erp en
d i cu l a r i s th e circl e
,
Th e r e i s n o Sp e cial .
hy p e rb ol a with thi s p r op e rty s in c e tw o ,
c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s ofa hy p e rb ol a oth e r ,
than th e a x e s a l wa y s pa s s thr ou gh th e
,
s a m e qu a d r a n t s F or thi s r e a s on too
.
, ,
th e r e a r e n o c on j u ga t e d ia m et e r s e qu a l l y
in cl in ed to th e a x e s .
Th e r e m ay h ow ev e r b e c on j u ga t e d i
,
F
,
7 IG
ea ch of which h a s th e sa m e
.
a m ete rs ,
in c l in a ti on to on e a x i s a s th e o th e r h a s to th e o th e r ax i s Th e .
p r o d u ct A A,
o f th e s l op e s o f tw o su ch d i a m e t e r s i s 1 ; h e n c e
’
, ,
by su ch d i a m e t e r s e x i s t onl y if
b
I Z
2
61
th a t i s, y if th e hy p e rb ol a i s r e ctan g u l a r I n thi s ca se
onl .
AA 51 a n d e v e ry p a ir of c on j u ga te d i a m e t e r s a r e i n th e re
’
,
qu ir e d r el a ti on C on s e qu en tl y th e tw o d ia m e t e r s a r e e qu al l y
.
,
in cl in ed to th e a sy m pt ot e s in asm u ch a s th e a sy m pt ot e s a r e ,
n ow th e bi se ct or s of th e a n g l es b e tw e e n th e a x e s Th ey a r e .
a l s o e qu a l i n l en gth a s c on s i d e r a ti on s of s y m m e try i m m e di
,
'
a t e l y sh ow i W h h r v h f wi g
( g
F 7 e a v e t u. s p o e d t e o l l o n
th e or e m .
An asym ptote n s i d re d a s a d i a m e t e w e s h a l l n ot th i n k of as
'
,
co e r,
h avi n g l e ngth o e trem i ti e sr x .

THEOREM 6 . Two con u ga te j d i a meter s o fa r ecta ngu l a r h yp er
bol a a re a l wa ys equ a lly i n cl i n ed to th e a symp totes a nd a l wa ys
equ a l i n l e ngth .
It h own th a t th e r e ctan gu l a r hy p e rb ol a i s th e onl y

ca n be S
on e with e ith e r o fth es e p r op e rti e s C f E x 6 b e l ow a n d

5
6 . . .
, , ,
Ex . Thu s th e r e cta n gu l a r hyp e rb ol a p l ay s a r bl e a m on g th e

.
hyp e rb ol a s whi ch i s s om ewh a t s i m il a r to tha t p l a y e d by th e

circ l e a m on g th e el l ip se s .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . D rawccu ra t el y th e hy p e rb ol a for which 2 a 1 0 cm an d

a .
C on s tr u ct th e a x e s AA a n d B B th e a sy m p t ot e
’
7 cm
'
2 b .
, ,
S p a s s in g thr ou gh th e fir s t qu a d ra n t a n d th e d i a m e t e r s D D 2 , 1, ,
D 3 in cl i n e d a t a n gl es of 30 to th e tra n s v e r s e a x i s
° -
C om pu t e th e sl op e s a n d a n gl e s of in cl in a ti on of th e c on j u ga t e
d ia m e t e r s D D z D 3 a n d d ra w th e s e d i a m et e r s F in d t h e
’ ’ '
, l , , ,
.
a n g l e s b e tw e en th e s u cc s s i v e d i a met e r s B B
’ ’ ’
e D l D 2 D 3 S , , , ,
'
, ,
a n d c om p a r e th e m with th e c o rr es p on d i n g a n g l e s b e tw een th e
d i a m e t e r s AA D D 2 D 3 S
,
’
Stu d y th e r e su l t s a n d th e fi
, 1, , , g
.
u r e i n l ight o fth e t ex t .
2 . P r ov e E x 2 2 for th e hy p e rb ol a
.
, ,
.
3 . P r ov e tha t th e a sy m p t ot e s ofth e hyp e rb ola

5
13
2
y
?
2 2
a b
are c on j u ga t e d i a m e t e r s o fth e e l l ip se
2 2
x y
+ 1 .
03
2 ?
b
4 . Th e hy p e rb ol a a r e th e a x e s of c oor d in a t e s a n d
a x es of a ,
th e s l op e s of tw o c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r s a r e 2 an d 2 Wha t i s .
th e e cc en tricity oft e hy p e rb o a
h l ? Tw o a n s w e r s
5P rove E x 6 2 for th e hyp e rb ol a
.
. . .
, ,
6 . S h ow tha t tw o c on j u ga t e d i a m e t e r s o f a hy p e rb ol a a r e
n e v e r e qu a l l y i n c l in e d t o th e a s y m p t ot e s u n l e s s th e hy e rb o l a
p
i s r e c ta n gul a r .
be (
x1 , yl ) . Th e s l op e o f D th en A is yl /
xl . F r om 2,
th e sl o p e A ofth e '
c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r D ’
is
b2
bl
A ’
z
a yl
C on se qu en t l y , th e qu a ti on of D be writt en i n th e f or m
’
e ca n
yl y
b
It fol l ow s tha t D i s p a r a ll el to th e
’
tan g en t to th e e ll i p s e a t
( x1 , yl ) . I n o th e r w o r d s th e ta n ,
gen ts a t th e ex tr em i ti es o fa di a m
eter are p a r a ll el to th e j
con u ga te
d i a meter .
Th e c o Or d i n a t e s of th e ex
t r e m i ti e s of D
’
m ay b e fou n d by
s olvin g e qu a ti on s (1 ) and
( )
2
F m 9 .
Si m u l ta n eou sl y Th e . s ol u ti on s
a r e f ou n d t o b e
‘yl
_ L ,
b
W e su mm a i z e r th e for eg oin g r e sul t s in a th e or e m .
THEOREM 7 . If (x 1 , y1 ) i s one ex tr emi ty of a d i a meter D of

th e e l l ip s e th en (2 ) i s th e equ a ti on of th e conj u ga te d i a meter
D
'
,
a n d on e ex tre mi ty ( xl
’
, yl )
’
fD o
’
is
g
“
( )
3 t
Su pp ose, tha t w e d en ot e th e l en gth of D by 2 a 1 a n d

n ow ,
tha t of D by 2 b1 Th en it can b e sh own by a ppl ica ti on of

’
.
,
( )
3 a n d th e e qu a ti on which s ta t es th a t (x y1 ) i s on th e e l l i p s e l, ,
tha t
( )
4 b
'
2 2 ’ 2 ?
a1 e x1
-
bl a
2
W e ha v e th en , ,
( 2 ) ( l)
2 (2 ) ( )
2
2
2
+ b1 ?
b 2
b 2 2
b 2
‘
a1 a or a1 a .
T hi s r esu l t we r
e x p es s a s a th eor e m .
D I AM E T E R S . PO LE S AN D P O LAR S 30 1
THEOREM 8 The m ofth e s qu a r es ofth e l en gth s ofa ny two

'
. su
j
con uga te d i a mete r s ofa n el l ip s e i s con s ta n t, a nd e qu a l s th e su m
ofth e s q u a r es o fth e a x es .
H yp er bol a . O f tw o c on j u ga t e d ia m et e r s , D and D ’
,
of th e
c on j u ga t e hy p e rb ol a s
5
( ) ( )
a
x
a
l
g
2
y _
a
— 1
2
. ( )
b
x
3
(
2
,
— y
b,
2
m ee t s th e hy p e rb ol a ; th e oth e r th e oth e r hy p e rb ol a
5 5
on e on e , .
Su pp o se th a t D m e e t s ( a ) a n d D m ee t s ( b) a n d th a t th e
’
5
,
coOr d i n a t e s o f a n e x tr e m ity of D on ( a ) a r e (x 1 yl ) whil e

th os e ofan ex tr e m ity ofD on ( b) a r e (x l yl ) ’
5 ’
,
l
.
, ,
Th en th e e qu a ti on s ofD a n d D a r e r e sp e ctive l y ’
, ,
n
; g
£131 2 x x
_ g
6
( ) ( ) ; ig
0,
Ct —
as 1 S e vi d en t fr om an a l ogy to th e
corr e sp on d in g e qu a ti on (2 ) i n th e
ca se of th e e l l i p s e F r om (6 ) it .
fol l o w s tha t th e ta n g en t s a t th e ,
e x tr e m iti e s of a d i a m e t e r t o th e ,
hy p e rb ol a on which th e se e x tr e m i
ti es l i e a r e p a ra ll e l to th e con
j u ga t e d i a m et e r .
F G 10 I .
Th e c oOr di n a te s ofth e e x tr e m i
ti e s of D can b e foun d by s ol v i n g e qu a ti on s (6 a )
’
and 5
( )
b
s i m u l ta n e ou sl y Th e sol u ti on s a r e
.
_
‘ l
fi
b
One of th e se ex tr e m iti e s is (xl
’
,
l et u s sa ,
y th e fir s t on e .
5 5
Th en th e v a l u e s of x1
’
and yl
’
in term s of x 1 and y ,, an d v ic e
v e r sa ,
ar e
“ 1 “
( )
1
( )
7 ( ) a b e
wh e r e th e e qu a ti on s (b) are o bta in e d by s ol vin g e q u a ti on s (a )

for x 1 an d yl .
Th e s tu d e n t sh ou l d no e t th e y m m e try of for mu l a s (6 ) an d
s
( )
7 i n
( y)
x1 1 a n,
d Th e r e su l t s e mb od i e d i n th ese
f or m u l a s w e sta t e a s a th e or e m .
THEOREM 9 If (x y ) i s on e ex tr em i ty d i a meter D
5
.
1, 1 fa
o
meeti ng th e h yp er bol a ( a ) , a n d (xl , yl ) i s a p r op e r ly ch os e n on e ’ ’
of th e ex tr em i ti es of th e conj u ga te d i a meter D , th en
’
( )
6 a r e th e
fD D ( ) g betw een th e tw o
’
equ a ti on s o a nd ,
a nd 7 i v e th e r el a ti ons
ex tr em i ti es .
b e th e l en gth tha t be
’
Le t 2 a1 of D a n d 2 bl of D . It ca n
s h own tha t
’2 2
“
1
2
b ?
e x1
2
a ,
( )
8
bl ?
e x1
2 2 — a
2
e x12 ’2
b 2
.
H en c e a1
2
bl ?
a 2
b
an d wh
e av e th e fol l ow m g th e or e m .
THEOREM 10 Th e fi
‘
. di er en ce o f th e s qu a r es o f th e l ength s of
a ny two con u ga te j d i a meter s of a h yp er bol a i s con s ta n t, a n d equ a l s
th e d i fier en ce o fth e s qu a r es ofth e a xes .
EX E R C IS ES
E s ta b l i s h th e fol l owin g for mu l a s .
1 . F or m u l a s 3 . F or m u l a s
2 F or m u l a s 4 F o r mul a s
5Sh
. .
. o w tha t c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s of a hy p e rb ol a a r e
tw o
n e v e r e qu a l u n l e s s th e hy p e rb ol a i s r e cta n g u l a r a n d tha t i n
thi s ca s e th ey a r e a l way s e qu a l .
6 P r o v e th a t th e p r od u ct of th e f o ca l r a d ii to a n y p oin t of
.
a n e l l i p se e q u a l s th e s qu a r e of h a l f t h e d ia m e t e r c on j u g a t e t o
th e d i a me t e r thr ou gh th e p oin t .
7 Sta t e a n d p r ov e th e c or r e sp on d i n g th e o r e m for th e
.
hy p e rb ol a .
7 . Physi cal M eaning of Conj u gate Di ameter s . E l l ip s e .
Con s i d e r a l at b ar
f of ir on ,
on th e en d A B CD of which a
circ l e i s d ra w n . Let D and D

’
be an y two mu t u a ll y p e r p en
c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s of th e el l ip se B u t th e r e wi l l b e on e es .
s e n ti a l d iff e r e n c e i n th a t i n th e fir s t c a s e l i n e s p a ra l l e l t o AD
,
a r e l en gth e n e d wh e r ea s i n thi s s e c on d c a se th ey r e m a i n u n
,
chan g ed ; cf F ig s 1 1 an d 1 2 which ha v e b een d ra wn for th e

. .
,
s e c on d c a s e r a th e r th a n f
,
or th e fir s t Th e fir s t ca se can h ow .
,
e v e r b e r e d u c e d g e om e tric a l l y to th e s e c on d if a ft e r th e d e f
, ,
or m a ti on h a s b een m a d e th e n e w fig u r e i s r e d u c e d i n s c a l e
, ,
s o th a t l i n e s p a r a l l e l to AD a ga i n a s su m e th e ir o rigi na l
.
l en gth s .
W e s h a l l c onfi n e ou r se l v e s to th e s e c on d ca s e Th e d e for .
m a ti on of th e p l a n e ofth e circ l e m a y i n thi s c a s e b e ca l l e d a , ,
comp r ess i on i n on e di r ecti on or a s i mp l e comp r e ss i on Al l l in e .
s e g m en t s i n th e d ir e cti on of c om p r e s s i on a r e s h o rt en e d i n th e
s a m e r a ti o th e r a t i o of comp r es s i on
,
All l in e s e g m en t s i n th e
.
-
p pe r e n d ic u l a r d ir e cti on r e m a i n th e s a m e i n l e n gth ; th e y a r e
a l l m ov e d p a r a l l e l t o th e m se l v e s with th e e x c e p ti on o f on e
,
which r e m a in s fi x e d I n th e ca s e d e s crib ed thi s on e r e st s

.
a ga i n s t th e d i a p hr a g m e ith e r a l on g AD o r B C
,
I f h ow e v e r .
, ,
th e d i ap hr a g m i s r e p l a c e d by a se c on d p l u n g e r th e fix e d l i n e ,
m ight b e AD or B C or an y p a ra l l e l l in e su ch a s E F d e p en d in g ,
on th e m ann e r i n which th e p r es su r es on th e tw o p l u n g e r s a r e
ap p l i e d
. Thi s l in e p e r p en d icu l a r to th e d ir e cti on ofc om p r e s
,
s i on a n d h a vin g a l l i t s p oi n t s fi x e d u n d e r th e c om p r ess i on w e ,
s ha l l ca l l th e cen tr a l l i n e .
I n stu d yin g th e e f fe ct s ofa c om p r e s sion l e t u s ta k e th e cen

tral l in e a s th e a x i s of x an d th e ra ti o of c om pr es s i on a s l ;
l i s a p ositi v e c on s ta n t 1 W e p r ov e fir s t th a t th e c om p r e s
.
s i on c a rri e s a s tr a ight l in e L i n t o a
(
s tr a ight l in e L Thi s i s obvi ou s if L .
i s p a r a l l el t o e ith e r a x i s I f L i s a ny .
oth e r l in e th e S i m i l a r tri a n g l es i n
,
F i g 1 3 s h ow tha t it g oe s o ve r in t o a
.
l in e L a n d th a t i fL i s of s l op e A L i s
P G 13
I .
, ,
N ex t, c on s i d e r a n a rbitra ry circl e with c en t e r 0 (F i g , .
Th e d i am e t e r A A ofth e circl e which i s p a ral l el to th e c en tral

’
D IAM E T E R S . P O LE S AN D P O LAR S 30 5
l in e , th e i
a x s ofx , g oe s o v e r i n t o a p a arl l e l l in eg m en t
-
se , A A, ’
of e qu a l l en gth , and th e m i d p oin t , O ,

-
of A A g oes
’
o ve r
in t o th e m i d p oin t , -
of AA ’
.
Le t th e circ l e b e r e fe rr ed to
5
ax es ( 13 y) with th e o rigi n a t 0
5
, ,
th e a x i s of l yin g a l on g A A
’
.
I ts e qu a ti on wil l b e
( )
1
Le t th e cu rv e in t o whi ch th e circl e
i s d e f or m e d b e r e f e rr e d to a x es
( X ,
Y ) with th e o rigin a t th e
FI G 14
a x i s of X l yi n g a l on g A A Th en ’
.
5
.
a n y p o in t ( g) on th e circ
,
l e g o e s ov e r in to a po n i t (X , Y)
su ch t ha t
Y
X = CIJ , Y : Z?)
Z
It fol l ow s th en th a t
, ,
th e circl e (1 ) is tran s f or m e d in t o th e
cu r v e
OT
( )
2 b la .
Thu s circl e i s s een to b e ca rri ed in t o an el l ip se

th e .
I t r em a in s to p r ov e th a t th e l in es D an d D in t o which t w o ’
,
c on j u ga t e di a m e t e r s D an d D of th e circl e a r e ca rri ed by th e
’
c om p r e s s i on a r e c on j u ga t e d ia m et e r s of th e e l l ip se I f th e
,
.
a n g l e qt i s a s s h o wn i n F i g 1 4 th e s 10 p es of D a n d D
’
. ar e ,
ta n <1 a n d ta n ( ot
; cot t
> H en c e th e sl op es of D c .
’
an d D ar e .
A= l ta n 4
> an d A’ — l cot
¢ .
Th en AA
’
l ta n
2
qt c ot ( I
) : Z2
i c by
or , s n e , l : b/a,
AA ’
C on s e q u en t l y , D a n d D cc or d in g Th c onj u ga t e
’
a to . 3, 2, a re
d i a m e t e r s ofth e el l i p se , q e d . . .
I fth e c e n t e r 0 ofth e circl e l i es on th e c en tra l l in e (F i g .
th e circl e i s th e a u x i l i a ry circ l e of th e e l l i p s e (C h VI I .
,
a n d th e a n g l e ] :i s t h e e cc en tric c
an g l e f or th e e x tr e m ity P of th e
d ia m et e r D Th e e cc en tric an gl e .
for th e e x tr e m ity P o f th e con

’
j u g a t e d i a m e t e r D i s cl ea rl y ’
, ,
or wh e r e n i s
a n odd nu m b e r C on s e qu en t l y w e .
,
ha v e p r ov e d th e fol l owin g th e or em .
THEOREM 1 1 Th e eccentr i c a ngles .
FIG . 1 5 f or
extr emi
two p oi n ts o fa n el l ip se w h i ch
d i a me
a re
ti es of tw o j
con u ga te
ters d i fi by by a n odd mu l tip l e

'
er or of
Th e th e or e m i s e s s en tial l y th e g e om e trica l e qu iva l en t ofth e

p hy s ic a l r
p p o e rty o f c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r s which w e h a v e b e en
d i s c u s si n g I t fu rn i s h e s a m e th od of c on s tr u ctin g r a p i dl y a s
.
m an y p a ir s of c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s pf an e l l ip se a s m ay b e ‘
d e s ir e d .
Th e pa r a m e tric r e p r e s en ta ti on o f th e e l l i p se can b e u s ed to
gr ea t a d van ta g e thr ou gh ou t th e s tu d y of c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s
5
.
Th e e x tr e m ity P of th e d i a m e t e r D (F i g 1 ) h a s b y Ch VI I .
,
'
.
,
1 0 th e c oor d in a t e s
5
,
( )
3 x a co s 9 , y b si n
Th en th e ex tr e m ity P ’
o f th e c on j u ga t e d i am ete r D ’
h a s, by
Th 1 1 th e coOr d i n a te s
.
,
b Cos
’ ’
a si n
( )
4 x S
q, y
H en c e w e o bta in ,
for th e s qu a r e s ofth e ha l f l en gth s ofD an d -
I
D
2
si n bl si n b
2 2 2 ? 2 2 2 2
a co s ( b b qt , a qt c os
The r e for e ,
a] ?
bl 2
a
2
b
a nd w e h av e a s im p l e p r oof of Th 8, 6
'
. .
But then AA ’
Z
2
5
,
and , a cc ord in g to T h 4 th e l in es D a n d D a r e c on j u ga t e
.
, ,
’
d i a m e t e r s of a hy p e rb ol a of which th e d i a g on al s of th e r ec
'
tan gl e a r e th e a sy m p t ot es Th e ra ti o b/a of th e ax es of th e
.
hyp erb ol a e qu al s th e ra ti o ofel on ga ti on l : ,
b
a
F in a ll y , l e t us S h ow that th e e l on g a ti on car ri es th e r ectangu
l a r hyp e rb ol a
5
( ) a
2
i nt o th e hyp e rb ol a
Th e tw o hyp e rb ol a s hav e th e same

au x il i a ry circ l e a n d th e sa m e e cc en t ric ,
an g l e cpl for p oin t s P :

, (x l y), , a n d , ,
P : ( x1 y l ) with th e sa,
m e a b s ci s s a
, .
H en c e a cc or d i n g to th e m e th od of
,
p a r a m etric r e p r esen ta ti on of a hyp e rb ol a (Ch VI I I th e .

,
co b r d i n a t es ofP a n d P are
5
( ) a yl = a tan ¢1 ;
( 6 a
) y1 b tan cpl .
Th er efor e Q
a
i c b/ l,
' '
or , S n e a y1 lyl
5
.
H e n c e th e el on ga ti on d oe s ca rry th e hy p e rb ol a ( ) in t o th e hy
p e r b ol a
'
Le t P ,with c oor d in a t e s (6 a ) b e an ex tr e m ity ,

of th e d iam
e te r D Th en th e coCr d i nate s ofan e x tr e m i ty P j
’
ofth e con u
‘
g a t e d iamet e r D a r e by (7’
6, ,
g y—1 a tan i n, b s ec
a
D IAM E T E R S . P O L E S AN D P O LAR S 30 9
He re a ga in th e n
, ,
th e u s e of th e e cc en tric an g l e giv es sy m
m e try to th e r e su l t s .
O n e D i men s i on a l S tr a i n s
-
ca se of th e e l l i p s e w e
. I n th e
m ight e q u a l l y w e l l ha v e s u bj e ct e d th e gi v en circ l e to a n el on
g a t i on a n
,
d i n th e ca s e of th e hyp e rb ol a w e m ight h a v e com
p r e s s e d t h e giv e n e q u i l a t e r a l hy p e rb ol a in s t ea d ofe l on g a ti n g it, .
C om p r e s s i on a n d e l on ga ti on i n on e d ir e cti on a r e b u t t w o ty p es
of a s i n g l e k i n d o f d e f o r m a ti on k n own a s a on e d i men s i on a l
,
-
s tr a i n . I f th e coefi i ci en t l of th e s tr a i n i s gr ea t e r th a n u n ity ,
th e s tr a in i s a n e l on g a ti on ; on th e o th e r h a n d if l < 1 th e , ,
s t r a in i s a c om p r e ss i on .
EXE R C IS ES
1 . R ep ea t E x . 1 of 2 , d ra win g th e au x i l ia ry circl e an d
c on s tr u ctin g th e d ia m e t e r s conj u gate to th e giv en d ia m e t e r s
by a p p l ica ti on ofTh eor e m 1 1 .
2 D ra w i n p en c i l th e a sy m p t ot e s a n d a nu m b e r of p a ir s of
.
c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s in cl u d in g th e a x e s of a r e cta n gu l a r
, ,
hyp e rb ol a C on s tr u ct i n i n k th e l in e s in t o which th e giv en

.
l in es a r e c a rri ed by th e c om p r e ssi on of r a ti o a which h a s

a n a x i s of th e hyp e rb ol a a s c en tr a l l i n e Wha t d oes th e r e .
s ul ti n g fig u r e r e pr esen t
3 P r o v e Th 1 0
. 6 by m ean s of fo r m u l a s (6 a ) a n d (7 ) of
.
, ,
th e pr e sen t p a r ag r a ph .
8 . Harmoni c Di v i si on . L et P 1 P 2 b e a l in e -
se g m en t a n d l e t
,
Q1 be on e of i ts p oin t s . Th en Q1 d iv i d e s P 1 P2 in t e rnal l y i n a
5
c e rta in ra ti o , p (
. Ch I ,
. 6)
M
F I QI Q2 P1
‘
1
P2
‘
Q1 P 2 FI G . 19
On P 1 P 2 pr od u c ed c on stru c t th e p oin t Q2 w h ic h d iv i d e s P 1 P2
e x t e rn a l l y i n th e sa m e r a ti o
Th e i t Q1 a n d Q, a r e sa i d to d ivi d e th e
p o n s se gm e n t P 1P 2
h a r m oni ca l ly ; th e y d ivi d e P 1 P 2 i n t e rn a l l y a n d ex t e rn a l l y in
th e sa m e r a ti o
F I QI Q P 2 1
( )
1
Q1 P 2 Q2 P 2
Le t t rt with p a s giv en an d tra c e th e cha n ge s i n Q1 a n d
us s a t
Q2 a s v
u.
,
a ri e s I f p 0 Q1
. a n d Q2 c o in ci d e i n P I As , i n
.
, . u
cr ea s e s fr om 0 to 1 Q m ov es to th e right fr om P I t o th e m i d
, 1
o i n t M of P 1 P 2 a n d Q2 m o v e s t o th e l e ft a n d r e c e d e s i n d efi
p ,
n i te l y .If 1 Q1 i s a t M ; b u t Q2 h a s d i sa p p ea r e d
u.
, , Th u s .
th er e i s n o p oi n t w h i ch , w i th th e mi d p oi n t ofa
-
segment, d i v i d es th e
seg men t h a r mon i ca lly As pt . in cr ea se s fr om 1 with ou t l i m it Q1 ,
p r o c e e d s fr om M t o w a r d P 2 a s i t s l i m it a n d Q a pp ea r s a g a in
, 2
fr om th e tr e m e ex right c on tin u a l l y m ovi n g i n a n d a pp r oa ch

,
i n g P 2 a s i t s l i m it .
Th e p r op orti on (1 ) may b e writt en i n th e f or m

F I QI Q1 P 2
( )
2 ’
an esP s
thi s n ew r
p p o o rti o n s a y s th a t P I a n d P 2 d i v i d e th e s e g m en t
Q1 Q2 h a r m on i c a l l y Th u s w e h a v e th e
. f ol l o win g th e o r e m .
THEOREM 1 If th e p oi nts Q1 a n d Q2 d i v i d e th e l i n e segment

.
-
P 1 P 2 h a r m on i ca lly, th en , r e cip r oca l ly, th e p oi n ts P I a n d P 2 d i v i d e
th e l i n e -
men t 62l
s eg h a r mon i ca l ly .
In o th e r w or d s th e r el a ti on ship b e tween th e tw o p a ir s of
,
p oin t s i s s y m m e tric .
Su p p ose th a t P I a n d P 2 h a v e th e c o o r d in a t e s (x1 y1 ) a n d
_ ,
( 2 yg)
x ,
Th
. e n t h e co O r d i n a t es
( x l y ) a n d (x z y )
g o f Q 1 a n d ’
, l
’ '
,
’
Q2 a r e g i v e n by f o r m u l a s ( )
1 a n d ( )
2 o f 6 C h I I f i n ,
. .
,
e a ch of th e se f o r m u l a s w e d ivi d e th e n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n om i
,
n a t o r by m2 a n d th en se t m l / m2 w e obta in a s th e d es ir e d u,
, ,
c oor d in a t e s
931 M932
1 p.
x1 x
P A:
“72 s
1 — M
Th e c oord ina t e s of Q1 a n d Q2 sa ti sfy Su b s tit u t i n g th e m
i n t u rn i n (1 ) a n d c l ea ri n g ea ch of th e r e su l tin g e qu a ti on s of
fra cti on s w e hav e
5
,
X
M ) +
2
a
0
2
h u
,
Y )
2 = “
2
C
2
10
2
,
2=
MX ) + 06 01 1 M )
Y C 10
2 2 °
2
“ 11 °
To el i m ina t e u
, ,
we su btra ct th e se c on d e qu a ti on fr om th e fi rs t ,
thu s g e ttin g
4 nb 2
x1 X 4 ua 2
y1 Y : 4 2 2
M b,
x1 X 4
3 Y
or , fina l l y 1
?
,
2
(70
Th e l o cu s
th e r e f or e of P i s, tra ight l in e or a p orti on of
,
a s ,
a s tra ight l i n e fi Thi s l i n e i s k n own a s th e p ol a r of th e p oi nt

“
P I wi th r esp ect to th e el l ip s e . H en c e w e m a y sa y
Th e p ol a r ofth e p oi nt (x1 , y1 ) w i th r esp ect to th e ell ip s e ( )

1 h a s
th e equ a ti on
£13 2?
2
( )
Thi s e qu a ti on i s i d en tica l i n for m with th e e qu a ti on of th e

tan ge n t to th e e l l i p se a t th e p oin t Ch I X 2 .
, ,
B u t i n th e p r ese n t p r obl e m (x 1 y1 ) i s i n g en e r a l n ot on th e , , ,
cu rv e an d th en (2 ) r e p r e s en t s a l in e which i s n ot a tan g en t
, .
I f i n p a rticu l a r P 1 :
, ( x 1 yl
) i s on th e e l l i p s e th e n
,
2
( )
,
d oes ,
r ep r e sen t th e tan g en t a t P I Acc or d in gl y w e sh ou l d l i k e t o .

,
say :Th e p ol a r of a p oi nt on th e el l ip se i s th e ta n gen t a t th e

p o i n t . N ow th e r e i s tr ou b l e , g e om e trica l l y , wh en P 1 i s on th e
ip se F or th en Q1 or Q2 c oin ci d e s with P a n d P c oin ci d e s
el l .
I,
with th em s o tha t a c tu a l l y n o p ol a r i s d efin ed Su pp ose

, , ,
.
,
h owe v e r tha t P I i s a p oin t n ea r to P 1 b u t n ot on th e cu rv e

, , .
Th en it ca n b e sh own E x s 1 2 ) tha t th e l i m itin g p ositi on .

,
of th e p ol a r of P I wh e n P I a pp r oa ch es P , a s i t s l i m it i s th e I ,
ta n g e n t a t P I H en c e th e a b ov e s t a t e m e n t i s s u b s ta n ti a t e d
.
,
If P I i s i n si d e th e con i c , t h e l oc u s i s th e en ti re l i n e , b ut if P 1 i s ou t
si d e t h e c o ni c, t h e l ocu s c ons i s ts of on l y th o e
s p oi n ts of t h e l i ne whi ch
are i ns i d e th e c oni c .
D IAM E T E R S . PO LE S AN D P O LAR S 313
n ot a s c on c l u s i on b u t a s a p r op e r d efi n iti on of th e p ol a r of
a ,
a p o in t on th e e l l i p s e .
I fP I i s a t th e o rig i n i t i s a l wa y s th e m i d p oin t of QI QZ an d
,
-
so th e r e i s n e v e r a p oi n t P which with P I d ivi d e s Q1 Q2 h a r , ,
m on i ca ll y C on s e qu en t l y th e or i g i n h a s n o p ol a r
.
, .
Th e for e g oi n g d i s cu s si on i s va l i d for th e hyp e rb ol a
a 2
b 2
e qu a ti on s we r epl a c e b
‘
2
by b
2
. Thu s ,
th e p ol a r of
(x 1, y1 ) w i th r e sp ect to th e h yp er b ol a ( )
3 h a s th e
y
equ a ti on
£131 85 yl y 1
( )
4
a
2
b 2
.
Th e p or ofa p oin t on th e hy p e rb ol a i s d efin ed a s th e tan g ent

l a
a t th e p oi n t Th e c e n t e r of th e hy p e rb ol a h a s n o p ol a r
. .
W e ca n n ow s t a t e th e f ol l o wi n g th e o r e m .
THEORE M 2 G i v en a cen tr a l con i c C E very p oi nt i n th e

.
,
.
t th e cen ter C
f , as
h p ol a r w i th C
'
p l a n e,
ex cep o a r esp ect to .
Le t th e s tu d en t sh ow tha t th e p ol a r of th e p oi nt
(x1, yi ) w i th
r esp ect to th e p a r a bol a
5
( ) y
2
2 mx
h a s th e equ a ti on
( )
6 yy
l
= m ( I
x “ '
931
)
I fw e d efi n e th e p ol a r o fa p oin t on b ol a a s th e tan g en t
th e p a r a
a t th e p o i n t , e q u a ti on ( 6 ) s h ow s th a t th e r e a r e n o e x c e p ti on s
i n thi s ca se . Acc o r d in gl y , w e h a v e th e th e or e m
T H EOREM 3 . E v er y p o i nt i n th e p la n e h a s a p o l a r wi th re
sp ect to a p a r a bo l a .
F r om th e d efi
n iti on p o l a r it
vi d en t tha t th e p ol a r of
ofa is e
a p oi n t i n t e r n a l t o a c on ic d o e s n o t cu t th e c on ic a n d tha t th e ,
p ol a r o fa p o in t e x t e r n a l t o a c on ic d o es cu t th e c on ic I n th e .
in t e r m ed ia t e c a s e wh en th e p oin t l i e s on th e c on ic th e p ol a r
, ,
i s a tan g en t .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . S h ow
tha t th e p ol a r ofa p oi n t P ex t e rn a l to a c on i c i s I
th e l in e L I d ra w n th r ou gh th e p oin t s of c on ta ct ofth e ta n g en t s
t o th e c on ic fr om P I .
Su gg e s ti on P r ov e th a t P (F i g 2 1 ). .
a p p r oa ch e s K a s i t s l i m it wh e n th e l in e ,
L r ot a ti n g a b ou t P I a pp r oa ch e s T
, ,
.
2 P r ov e th a t if th e p oi n t P I ofE x 1
.
,
.
a p pr oa ch e s a p o i n t on th e c on ic a s i t s
F 21 ro . l i m it th e n i t s p ol a r L I wi l l a pp r oa c h
, , ,
th e ta n g e n t a t thi s p oin t .
3 E s t a bl i s h f o r mu l a
.
In ea ch f ol l owin g e x e rci s e s fin d th e e qu ati on of th e

o f th e
,
p ol a r o f th e giv e n p o in t with r e s p e ct t o th e giv e n c o n ic a n d

d ra w a figu r e s h owin g th e c oni c p oin t a n d p ol a r
, , ,
.
4 2 2
9, ( ,
0
5 5 5
x y
5
.
. 3x 2 2
y 1 , ( ,
2
6 2 1 6, 2
( ,
5
. x ,
y
7 . 2y — 2
x = 0, 3,
8 . P r ov e
tha t i n any c on ic th e p ol a r of a f o cu s i s th e cor
r e sp on d in g d ir e ctrix .
9 P r ov e th a t th e p ol a r of a p oi n t P I with r es p e c t to a
.
circl e c en t e r a t 0 i s p e rp en d ic u l a r to th e l in e O R
, , .
10 Sh o w fu rth e r tha t th e p r od u ct of th e d i s t a n c es o f 0
.
, ,
fr om P I an d th e p ol a r ofP I i s th e s qu a r e of th e r a d iu s of th e
circl e .
11 O n th e b a si s of th e r esu l t s of E x s 9 1 0 d i s cu ss th e
. .
, ,
va ria ti on i n p os iti on of th e p ol a r of a p oin t P with r e sp e c t to

a circl e wh e n P m ov es on a s tr a ight l in e thr ou gh th e
( )
a , .
ce n t e r of th e circ l e ; wh e n P tra c e s a circ l e c on c e n tric

( )
b ,
with th e giv en circl e .

ofa p o i with r esp e ct
n t to c en tra l c on ic n ev e r p a s se s thr ou gh
a
th e c en t e r ofth e c on ic . I n oth e r w or d s a d i a meter ofa cen tr a l ,
con i c h as no
p ol e .
W e p r o c e e d t o sh ow tha t e v e ry oth e r l in e h as a p ol e giv in g

,
'
th e p r oof i n th e case ofth e hy p e rb ol a

9 : 2 2
y _— 1
( )
4
“ 2
62
.
An y l in e n ot a d iam e t er of tha t i s, n ot p ai g thr ou gh

ss n
th e o rigin ,
ca n be r ep r e s en t e d by an e qu a ti on ofth e f or m
I ”“
I f (x 1 , y1 ) i s th e p ol e of thi s l in e ,
th e l in e a l so h a s th e e qu a ti on
xl x y1 y
_
“
2
b 2
H en c e
z
b
and d 2
A, y bB2
5
l .
W e th en tha t th e l i n e ( ) h a s a l wa y s a
see , ,
d efi n it e
n a m e y t e p oi t ( a A
l h ,
n 2
b B) q e d
2
, ,
. . .
I n th e c a s e ofth e e l l i p s e th e p r oof i s s i m i l ar .
As r e ga r d s th e p a r a b ol a ,
y
2 2 mx ,
th e e qu a ti on of th e ol
p a r of x l
( , y1 )
yl y mx mx,,
h as on e t e r m which can n ev e r d r op ou t n o m a tt e r wh er e (x1 y1) , ,
l i es — n a m e l y th e t e r m mx
, ,
Thu s th e p ol a r can n e v e r b e
.
p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s of x or c o in ci d e w ith it,
I n o th e r w o r ds .
,
a d i a meter of a p a r a bol a h a s n o p ol e I t ca n b e s h own h ow .

,
e v e r th a t e v e ry oth e r l in e h a s a
, p o l e T h e p r oo f i s l e f t t o th e .
s tu d en t ; cf E x 1 . . .
Th e f or e g oin g r esu l t s w e n ow su mmar iz e i n th e for m of a

th eor e m .
A an d B a e n ot b oth ero r z .
D IAM E T E R S . P O L E S AN D PO LAR S 3 17
T H EOREM 4 . G i ven a con i c C . E ver y l i n e f

o th e p la ne,
wh i ch i s n ot a d i a meter o C
f , h a s a p ol e w i th r esp ect to C .
By c om p a rin g thi s th e or e m with Th e or e m s 2 3 9 we , , ,
s ee th a t th e l i n es which h a v e n o p ol e s with r es p e ct t o a c on ic
g o thr o u gh t h e p o in t which h a s n o p ol a r p r o v i d e d th e s e l in es ,
in t e r se ct .
EXE R C IS ES
1 . G iv e th e p r oof
Th eor e m 4 for th e p a ra b ol a
of .
I n ea ch ofth e f ol l owi n g e x e rci s e s fin d th e p ol e of th e gi v e n
l i n e with r e s p e ct to th e gi v en c on ic
Coni c L i ne
=
5
2 . x
2
+ y 8, 2
2 x — 3y
2 —
3 . x 6y 2
4x + 2 y
3 y — 8 x = 0,
5
4 2
2x
57
.
. x 2
2
+ y = 1 4,
2
6x+ y
6 . P r ov e
th a t th e p ol e of any l i n e th r ou gh th e foc u s of a
c on ic i s a p oin t on th e c orr esp on d in g d ir e ctrix .
7 G iv e n th e circ l e x
.
y
2
a
2
P r ov e th a t t h e p e with
2
o l .
,
r e sp e ct to thi s circl e of a l in e m ov i n g so tha t it i s a l wa y s

,
ta n g en t to a c on c en tric circ l e tra c es a se c on d c on c en tric circ l e .
C f E x s 9 —1 1 ,
. . 9 .
11 . Properti es of Pol es a nd Pol ars . Th e p ol e s an d p ol a r s if
d i s cu s s e d i n
thi s p a r a gra p h a r e al l tak en with r e fer en c e to a n
a rbitr a ri l y gi v en c on ic F or th e .
sa k e o f br e vity m en ti on of th e
c on ic i s i n g en e ra l su pp r e s se d
5
.
, ,
T H EOREM a Ifa p oi n t P I li es .
on th e p ol a r of a s econd p oi n t P2,
th en , con v er s ely, P 2 l i es o n th e p ola r
Le t th e p ol a r s p oin t s P I a nd P 2 b e LI an d L2 Th en
of th e .
th e th eo r e m sa y s th a t if P I l i e s on L 2 P 2 l i e s on L I
,
B u t thi s ,
.
O nl y th ose p oi nts wh i ch h ave p ol ars a nd th ose li n es wh i ch h ave p ol es

it
ar e cons i d e re d .
3 18 AN ALYT I C G E O M E T R Y
i s th e sa m e yin g tha t if
as sa ,
L2 g oe s thr ou gh P I L 1 g oes ,
thr ou gh P 2 or v ice v e r sa Thi s

,
. s e c on d f or m of th e s t a t e m e n t
w e en u n ci a t e a s a th e o r e m
5f
.
T H EOREM b . l i ne L I goes th rou gh th e p ol e of a

I a s econ d
l i ne L2 , th en, conver s ely, L 2 goes th r ou gh th e p ol e ofL I .
S i n c e th e t w oth eor em s a r e e qu iva l en t i n c on t en t a n d d iffe r ,
on l y i n p o i n t of v i e w a p r oof o f on e a l so p r o v es th e o th e r
5
.
,
W e ch oose to p r ov e Th eor e m 3 a n d to giv e th e p r oof i n th e ,
ca s e tha t th e giv en c onic i s th e hy p e rb ol a

m 2
y
2
1 .
a 2
b ?
Th e p r oof s th e r tw o ca s e s a r e s i m il a r
i n th e o .
Let P I a nd P 2 h av e th e c oOr d i n a t e s (x 1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2) .
Th en LI and L2 hav e th e e qu a ti on s
$1 93 yl y 1 M 1
a
2
b2
a
2
b
2
Th e c ond iti on that P I l ie s on L2 i s
972 271 g2 y1 1,
(1
2
b 2
and th e c on d iti on th a t P z l i e s
'
on LI i s
£ 5 1 932 y1 y2 1 .
2
a 2
b
But the se tw o c on d iti on s a r e th e sa m e H en c e if P I l i e s on .

,
L2 th e n P 2 l i es on L 1 a n d c on v e r s e l y q e d
, , ,
. . .
Su pp ose n ow th a t w e j oin th e p oi n tS P I a n d P 2 of F i g 2 2
5
, ,
.
by th e l in e L S in c e P I l ie s on L it f ol l ow s by Th a tha t
.
, ,
.
,
th e p ol e P of L l i e s on L I
, ,
Si m il a r l y s in c e P 2 l i e s on L P .
, ,
l i e s a l s o on L2 H e n c e P i s th e p oin t ofin t e r s e cti on ofL I a n d

.
,
L2 . Thu s w e h a v e th e th e or e m
T H EOREM 6 a Th e p ol e of th e l i ne j oi n i ng two p oi n ts P I a n d
.
,
'
P 2 , i s th e p oi n t o fi nters ecti on ofth e p ol a r s ofP I a nd P2 .
St a rtin g ga in brin g th e l in e s L I
5i
a ,
we and L2 of . F i g 2 2 to.
in t e r se cti on in P . B y Th . b, s n ce ea ch of th e l in es L I and
L, a nd con s tru ct th e ir p o l a s ,
r LI an d L2 .
S i n c e L i s th e l i n e j o i n i n g P I a n d P 2 i ts ,
p o l e ,
P , i s th e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e cti on o f LI
and L2 .
Th e t s h ou l d now e s tabl i sh th e
s t ud en
a n a l o g ou s c on s tr u cti on for th e
p o l a r o f
FI G 2 5 a giv e n p oin t which i s in t e rn a l t o th e
c on i c fi
.
EX E R C IS ES
1 . P r ov e
Th e or e m s 7 a 7 b ,
.
2 P r ov e Th e o r e m 8 b
. .
3 Sh ow h ow t o c on s tr u ct th e p ol a r of a giv en p oi n t which
.
i s in t e rn a l t o th e c on ic P r ov e th e va l i d ity o f th e c on s t r u cti on
'
. .
4 O n th e b a si s of Th e o r e m 8 b d e v e l op i n d e ta i l a m e th od
.
for fi n d i n g th e e q u a ti on s of th e t an g e n t s t o a c on ic fr o m a n
e x t e r n a l p oi n t .
B y m ea n s thi s m e th od fin d th e e qu a ti on s of th e tan g en t s
of
re qu ir e d i n ea ch of th e f ol l o win g ex e rci s e s o f Ch I X 7
5
. .
,
5E x e rcis e
. 6 E x e rci se 6
. . .
7 E x e rci se 9
. 8 E x e rci s e 1 2
. . .
12 . R el ati ve Posi ti ons of Pol e and Pol ar . Cen tr a l (Ioni cs .
Th e f ol l o wi n g th e or e m 1 S i n
s tru ctiv e c on c e rn in g th e r el a
tiv e p os iti on s of p ol e a n d p ol a r
with r e ga r d to a c en tra l c on ic .
THEOREM 9 L et th e p oi n t P I .
a nd th e l i n e L I be p ol e a nd p ol a r
i n a cen tr a l con i c, cen ter a t 0
l et D be th e d i a meter th r ou gh
'
FI G . 26
at
Th e se m eth od s very servi ceab l e i f acc a te constr cti ns a e
a r e n ot ur u o r
d esi re d si n e th e y i nvol ve th e constr cti on n t on l y of th e t ng e nt at a

,
c u , o a
gi ve n p oi nt oft h e coni b t als o of th e t nge nts fr m a n e tern a l p oi nt

c, u a o x
cf . 13 Th ey a e h owever us ef l i n rou gh w ork

. r , ,
u .
D I AM E T E R S . P O LE S AN D P O LAR S 32 1
P I, D th e d i a m eter to D ,
’
j
con u ga te a nd P 2 th e p oi n t of i n ter
s ecti on o f L I w i th D . Th en L1 i s p a r a ll el to D a n d th e h a lf
’
l ength , d , fD
o is a mea n p r op or ti on a l between O P 1 a nd OP 2
( )
1 OP 1 01 0
2 d 2
.
Wwi l l p r ov e th e s e c on d pa rt of th e th e or e m fir s t B y th e
e .
d efi n iti on of th e p ol a r ofa p oi n t P 1 P 2 i s d ivi d e d h a r m on ic a l l y ,
by th e p oin t s Q1 a n d Q2 i n which D m e e t s th e c on ic Gon se

, , .
qu en tl y b y ,
8 ,
Q1 P 1 Q2 2
P = Q2 P 1 P 2 Q1 °
E x p r e s s in g ea ch of th e fou r d i s ta n c e s in t er m s of GP 1 , 0 P 2 ,
an d O Q1 0 622 d, w e ha v e
( O P . 0 P2
d >< on
O n m u l ti p l yin g ou t an d r e du cin g ,
we bta in
o e q u a ti on
q . e (1
. .
W e wil l giv e th e p r oof of th e fir s t p a rt of th e th e or e m in

th e ca s e tha t th e c on ic i s th e el l i p se
2
ii
a
i ”
(9
l 2
b
— 1
Le t th e c oord ina t e s ofP l be (

931 , yl ) th
an d ose o f Q ( z
1 w , , yz) .
Th en th e e qu a ti on s of L I and D ’
a r e r es p e ctiv e l y by
, 9 , ,
and 6 , (2 ) ,
w1 Ly 55
732 17
f _
i
( )
2 _ 1 a nd 0 .
b ? 2
b ?
a
“
Sin c e P I an d are on a l in e with 0, th e ir c oor d in a t es ar e
pr op orti on al
wl z y1 = xz z y2 ,
and h en c e s o a r e th e l e ft han d s id e s of -
e qu a ti on s C on se qu en tl y LI a n d I) ’
,
a r e p a r a l l el q e d ,
. . .
Th e pr oof of th e se c on d p a rt of th e
th e ore m a ssu m es th a t D m e e t s th e c on ic .
T hi s i s n ot tru e h ow e v e r if th e c on ic i s
, ,
a hyp e rb ol a a n d P I l i es i n an op en i n g . FI G 27 .
b e tween th e a sy m p t ot e s n ot c on ta in in g a bran ch of th e hy p e r
b ol a I n thi s ca s e too th e th eor e m i s v a l id b u t th e p oints
.
, , ,
P I a n d P 2 in s t ea d of b e i n g on th e sa m e s i d e of O a r e on
, ,
opp os it e s i d es fi
“
C ORO LL A R Y . Th e p oi n ts PI a nd P2 a r e on th e sa me or
‘
opp o
s i te s i d es o f0 , a ccor d i ng a s D meets or d oes n ot meet th e con i c .
G iv e n , n ow , a i t P a n d i ts p ol a r L with r e sp e ct t o a
p o n , , , ,
c en tra l c on ic I fP tra c e s a d ia m e t e r D th en L m ov es al wa y s
.
,
p a r a l l e l t o th e c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r .
I n th e ca se th a t D in t e r se ct s th e c on ic a n d P i s an i n te r s e c ,
ti on L i s th e ta n g en t a t P I f P th en m ov e s i n al on g D
,
.
t owa r d th e c en t e r a s i ts l i m it L c ea s e s t o m ee t th e c oni c an d , ,
r e c ed e s i n d efin it el y O n th e oth e r han d if P m ov e s ou t

.
,
a l on g D r e c e d i n g in d e fi n it e l y L m o v e s i n t owa r d th e c e n t e r
, , ,
a n d a pp r oa ch e s th e d i a m e t e r c on j u g a t e t o D a s i t s l i m it .
Th e ca se i n whi ch th e c on ic i s a hy p e rb ol a a n d D in t e r se ct s
th e c on j u ga t e h y p e rb ol a r e m a in s I fP i s a t on e o f th e i n t e r .
se cti on s L i s th e t a n g e n t t o th e c on j u g a t e hy p e rb ol a a t th e
,
o th e r ; of E x 6 . I f P th en m ov es i n t owa r d th e c en t e r L
. .
,
m ov e s a wa y fr om it an d so f orth a s b e fo r e , ,
.
P a r a bol a Co rr es p on d i n g t o Th e o r e m 9 w e h a v e th e fol
.
,
l owin g th e or e m th e pr oof of which i s l e ft to ,
th e s t u d en t .
THEOREM 10 . L et P I a nd LI be p ole a nd
p ol a r in a r a bol a , a n d l et th e d i a meter
‘
a p
th r ou gh PI meet L I i n P 2 a nd th e p a r a bol a i n
Q u Th en L I i s p a r a l l el to th e ta ngent at Q,
a nd Q is th e m i d p o i n t ofP 1 P 2
-
.
FIG . 28 C on s e qu en tl y , if a p oin t P tr a ce s a d ia m e t e r
it
Let th e t
s u d en t gi v
p r oof of th f t d h
e a n a n a l y ti ca l
es e a c s a n e n c e o f
the coroll a ry ; of E s 1 2 Th re i s n geomet i ca l p roof n al gous
. x .
,
. e o r ,
a o
t o th at of th e t e t Th e r ol es of Q and Q i n th at p roof ann ot b e

x .
1 2 c
p l y e d h ere b y th e p oi nts i n w h i ch D m eets th e conj g a te h y p erb ol a ;

a u
th ese p oi nts d o n ot d i i d e P P h arm ni c ll y :L i th e p ol ar of P

v 1 2 o a I s 1
wi th resp e ct t o th e gi ve n h yp erb ol a a n d n ot wi th resp e ct t o i ts conj u g ate ,

.
13 . Constru cti on Pr ob l ems . I n p r obl e m s of c on s tru cti on re
l a ti n g to c on ic s d ia m e t e r s p l a y
,
an i m p o rtan t r Ol e To con .
s tr u ct a d i a m e t e r of a c on ic on e ,
h a s b u t t o d r a w t w o p a ra l l e l
chor d s a n d j oin th e ir m i d p oin t s -
.
Cen ter , Ax es , F oci . C on s i d e r

fir s t a cen tra l c on ic d ra wn on ,
a
p p e r . C o n s tr u ct tw o d i a m e t e r s ; th e ir
p o in t o f i n t e r s e cti on
wi ll b e th e c en t e r 0 ofth e c on ic With 0 a s c en t e r d es crib e

, ,
.
,
a circl e cu tti n g th e c on ic i n f ou r p o in t s ; th e l i n e s thr ou gh O
r i r c g t r m i by f r
'
p a a l l e l t o th e s d e s o f th e e ta n l e d e e n e d t h e ou
p o i n t s wi l l b e th e a x es .
I fth e c on ic i s a n e l l i p s e th e l en gth s a a n d b a r e n ow k n own

, ,
an d 0 Va b ca n b e c on s tr u ct e d by m ea n s of a right tri
? 2
a n g l e ; cf Ch VI I F i g 2
. . Thu s th e foci wil l b e l oca t ed
,
. . .
I f th e c on ic i s a hy p e rb ol a on l y a i s kn ow n B u t th en b ,
.
c a n b e f ou n d by r e v e r s in g th e c on s tr u cti on of Oh VI I I 9 .
,
.
H en c e th e a s y m p t ot e s a n d f o ci m a y b e a ccu ra t el y c on s tr u ct ed .
Le t a p a ra b ol a b e giv en. C on s tru c t a d ia m e t er a n d tw o .
chor d s p e rp en d icu l a r t o it ; th e l in e j oin in g th e mi d p oin t s of -
the se ch or d s i s th e a x i s of th e p a ra b ol a Th e c on str u cti on of .
th e f o cu s w e p o s t p on e u n ti l w e h av e giv en tha t of a t an g en t .
Ta ngen ts . To c on s tru ct th e ta n g en t t o
c en tra l c on ic a t a a
p o i n t P c on s tr u ct th e c en t e r 0 a n d th en d r a w OP a n d a ch o r d
, ,
p a r a l l e l t o OP L e t K b e th e m i d p oi n t of thi s ch o r d
. Th e n -
.
th e l i n e thr ou gh P p a r a ll el t o O K i s th e t an g en t a t P Why .
I f th e c on ic i s a p a r ab ol a c on s tru ct th e ,
ax i s L e t K b e th e f oot of th e p e rp en d ic u l a r
.
d r opp ed fr om P on th e a x i s a n d ma k e OM ,
e qu a l t o OK (F i g Th en by Ch VI 3 .
, .
, ,
E x 8 M P i s th e t an g en t a t P
.
,
Th e fo cu s ca n .
n ow b e c on s tr u ct e d by u se of th e f o c a l p r op
e r ty n a m e l y by c on s tr u cti n g th e f o c a l r a d i u s
, ,
F G 29 I .
P F a s th e l i n e m a k i n g 21 M P F 2C TP S .
O f c ou r s e if th e f o cu s or f o ci of a c on ic
"
, , ,
a r e giv e n th e t an ge n t a t a o i n t c an b e c on s tr u ct e d by m ea n s
, p
ofth e f o ca l pr o e rty ofth e c on ic
p .
D IAM E T E R S . P O LE S AN D P O LAR S 2 5
To c on str u ct th e ta n g en t s to a c on ic fr om a n e x t e r n a l p oi n t
i s a m o r e d ifficu l t p r ob l e m W e s h a l l giv e p r e s en t l y a s ol u .
ti on in v ol vin g p ol e s a n d p ol a r s a n d r e fe r th e s tu d en t el se
"
wh e r e for on e b a sed on m or e e l e m en ta ry th ou gh l es s e l egan t , ,
p ri n ci p l es
*
.
P ol es a nd P ol a r s . G iv e n
t ry c on s tru cti on for th e a n el e m en a
tan g en t s fr om a n ex t e r n a l p oi n t w e can c a rry thr ou gh a c ,
cu r a t e l y th e c on s tr u cti on s o f 1 1 for th e p ol a r ofa giv en p oi n t

a n d th e p ol e ofa giv e n l i n e .
W e a r e m o r e in t e r e s t e d h ow e v e r i n th e c on s tru cti on s o f , ,
p o l e s a n d p ol a r s b a se d on th e th e o r e m s o f § 1 2
, W e wi l l .
d e s crib e for e x a m p l e th e c on s tr u cti on by thi s m e th od of th e

, ,
p o l a r o f a giv e n p o i n t P I with r e s p e ct t o a c e n tr a l c on ic .
D r a w th e d i a m e t e r D thr ou gh P (F i g 2 6 ) a n d by d r a wi n g a l .
,
ch or d p a r a l l el to D a n d bi s e ctin g it c on s tru ct th e d ia m e t e r D ,
’
c on j u ga t e t o D O n a s e p a r a t e s h ee t c on str u ct th e thir d p r o
.
p o rti on a l t o th e l e n gth OP l a n d th e h a l f l e n gth d o f D r , ,

.
’
Lay of f th e r e su l tin g l en gth fr om O on D i n th e p r op e r di r e c

ti on a cc or d in g to th e C or ol l a ry ofTh e or e m 9 a n d thr ou gh th e
, ,
“
i t u s r ea ch e d d r a w th e l i n e p a r a l l e l t o D Thi s l in e i s
'
’
p o n th .
th e p ol a r ofP I .
Th e c on stru cti on i s th e sa m e wh e th e r P I l i es in s i d e on or , ,
ou t s i d e th e c on ic .
Ta ngents fr om a n E x ter na l P o i n t Le t th e p oin t b e P a n d .
c on str u ct i t s p ol a r L by th e m e th od j u s t d e s crib e d Th e l in e s .
j oin in g P t o th e p oin t s ofi n t e r s e cti on ofL with th e c on ic a r e ,
by 1 1 Th 8 b th e r e q u ir e d ta n g en t s
,
.
,
.
e x am p l e , W Soli d G eom e try

5
e n tw or t h s P l ane and of
55
’
C f, for .
, Ed .
1 9 00 , pp 4 1 6 , 4 3 , 4
. .
T If D d oes n ot m e e th e t c on i c
( a s may h ap p e n i n th e ca se of a h ype r
b ol a ) an d th e c on j g u a te r
h yp e b ol a i s n ot v
g i e n , t h e l e n gth d ( F i g 2 7 ) .
is un kn own ,
so th t a rt
a s e p a a e c on s tr ct
u i on for i t i s n ec e ssa y He e d r . r
e q u al s t h e b1 of th e fo mu l a , r a 12 bl ? a2 M, of § 6 , Th 1 0 Th e . .
t
l e ng h s a, b, a nd a l a r e k n wn o
o r can be c ons tru cted t
b y m e h od s a l re a d y
i v
g en ; th e l e ng h It t b2 i s fou n d by u si n g a ri gh t tri angl e and ,
finall y ,
th at of bl Va l ? W , i n th e sa me w ay .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . U s in g a
t e mp l e t d ra w a n el l i p se Ca rry thr ou gh i n d e
,
.
ta il th e c on s tru cti on s for (a ) th e c en t e r (b) th e a x e s (c) th e , ,
fo ci D evi s e a m e th od for c on s tru ctin g th e d ir e ctrice s

. .
2 .Th e sa m e p r obl e m for th e hy p e rb ol a C on stru c t a l so .
th e a s y m p t ot es .
3 .C on s tru ct th e a x i s a ta n g ent th e f o cu s an d th e d ir e ctri x

, , ,
o fa p a r a b ol a .
4 .C on s tr u ct th e t an g en t to a hy p e rb ol a a t a giv en p oin t by
u s e o f th e f o ca l p r op e rty U s e a t e m p l e t to d r a w th e hy p e r
.
b ol a a n d c on si d e r tha t th e f o ci a r e giv en
5Th e sam e for an el l ip se
.
. .
6 .P e rf o r m i n d e t a i l th e c on s tru cti on ba s ed on Th eor e m 9

, ,
1 2 ofth e p ol e ofa giv en l in e with r e s p e ct t o a c en tr a l c on ic

'
.
,
7 .C a rry thr ou gh c a r e fu l l y th e c on s tru c ti on ba sed on ,
Th e or e m 1 0 1 2 of th e p ol a r of a giv en p oin t with r e sp e ct

, ,
t o a p a r a b ol a .
8 .Th e sa m e for th e p ol e ofa gi v e n l in e .
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R X IV
D I A ME TER S
1 . P r o v e th a t t w o i m il a r el l i p se s with th e
s sa m e c en t e r
an d th e sa m e tran sv e r s e ax 1 s ha v e th e sam e p a ir s of c on j u g a t e
d i a m et e r s .
2 . A l in e m ee t s a hy p e rb ol a i n th e p oin t s P I an d P 2 an d
m ee t s th e as y m p t ot e s i n th e p o i n t s Q 1 a n d Q 2 P r o v e tha t
.
th e g m en t s R R, a n d Q1 Q2 ha v e th e sa m e m i d p oin t s
se -
.
3 . Us i n g th e r esu l t ofE x 2 sh ow tha t a n y tw o hy p e rb ol a s

.
,
w ith th e s a m e a sy m p t ot es h av e th e sa m e p a ir s of c on j u g a t e
d iam e t er s .
4 . P r ov e th a t th e l in e s e g m en t j oin in g tw o ex tr e m iti es of
-
c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s of a hy p e rb ol a i s pa ral l e l to on e a sy m
p t o t e a n d i s bi se ct e d by th e o th e r .
1 5P r
. v e tha t if P a n d P a r e ex tr e m iti es of a p a ir ofcon
o ,
'
j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s of a c en tral c on ic th e n or ma l s a t P an d P
,
’
a n d th e l i n e thr ou gh th e c e n t e r p e r p e n d ic u l a r to P P m ee t i n
’
a p oin t .
P O L E S A N D P O L AR S
16 . F in d th e p ol a r ofa focu s of a c en tra l c on ic with r esp e c t

to th e au x i l i a ry circ l e .
17 . P r ov e for a c en tra l c on ic th a t th e l in e s e g m e n t j oin i n g

, ,
-
a n y p o in t to th e in t e r se cti on of th e p ol a r o f th e p oi n t with a
d ir e ctrix su bt e n d s a right a n g l e a t th e c orr esp on d in g f o cu s .
18 . Th e sa m e for a p a ra b ol a .
19 . Sh ow fo r a c en tr a l c on ic th a t an y ch or d thr ou gh a f ocu s
, ,
i s p e rp en d icu l a r to th e l in e j oi n i n g th e f o cu s to th e p ol e of
th e ch or d .
20 . Th e sa m e for a p a r ab ol a .
21 . Tw o r e ctan gu l a r hyp e rb ol a s a r e so s itu a t ed tha t th e

a x e s of on e a r e th e a s y mp t ot e s o f th e oth e r P r ov e th a t th e
.
p o l a r s o f a p o in t with r e s p e ct t o th e t w o hy p e rb ol a s a r e a l wa y s
p pe r e n d ic u l a r .
22 . Th e p er p en d icul a r fr om a p oin t P on th e p ol a r of P
.
with r e sp e ct to a c en tr a l c on ic m ee t s th e tran s v e r se a x i s i n A
a n d th e c on j u g a t e a x i s i n B Sh ow th a t P A P B 2 2
. b a .
23 . Th e s e g m en t of th e a x i s of a p a rab ol a i nt e rc ep t ed by
th e p ol a r s of t w o p oi n t s i s e qu a l to th e p r oj e cti on on th e a x i s
ofth e l in e s e g m en t j oin i n g th e tw o p o in t s
-
.
Lo c u s P RO B L EM S
24 . A l in e i s d r a w n thr ou gh th e focu s ofa c en tral c oni c p e r

p e n d icu l a r t o a v a ri a b l e d i a m e t e r F i n d t h e.l o c u s o fth e p oi n t
i n w hi ch it i n t e r s e ct s th e c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r
2 5A p oin t m ov e s s o th a t i t s p ol a r with r e s p e ct to an el l i p s e
.
for m s a trian gl e of c on s tan t a r ea with th e a x es of th e el l ip se .
Wha t i s i ts l ocu s
D I AM E T E R S . P O LE S AN D P O LAR S 329
Ans . A p a ir c on j u ga t e r e cta ngu l a r hyp e rb ol as with th e

of
a x e s ofth e e l l i p se a s a sy m p t ot e s .
26
. F i n d th e l o cu s of th e p ol es with r e s p e ct to a c en tra l
,
c on ic of th e ta n g en t s to a circl e wh ose c en t e r i s th e c en t e r of
,
th e c on ic .
27
. F in d th e l oc u s of th e p ol e s with r es p e ct to th e circl e
,
£27
2
y
?
a o f
2
th,
e t a n g e n t s t o th e p a r a b o l?
a y 2 m
.m
28
. F in d th e l ocu s ofth e p ol e s with r e s p e ct to th e p a ra b ol a
,
y
?
2 m m o,
f th e t a n g e n t s t o th e p a r a b o l a y
?
2 m
. x
29
. F i n d th e l o cu s ofth e m i d p oi n t of a ch or d of a n el l ip se
-
if th e p ol e ofth e ch or d tr a c e s th e a u x i l ia ry circl e .
3 0 Th e sa m e f
. or a hyp e r b ol a .
C HAP TE R X V
TR ANSFOR M ATI ON S OF THE P LAN E . STR AI N
1 Tr ansl ati ons D efini ti on B y a tr a nsl a ti on Of a p l an e

. . .
r e gi on S i sm ean t a d i sp l a c e m en t of S wh e r eby ea ch p oi n t of
S i s c a rri e d i n a gi v en (fix ed ) di r e c
ti on by on e a n d th e sa m e giv en d i s
ta n c e Thu s wh en a win d ow i s
.
,
ra i s e d a p a n e of g l a s s i n th e win d o w
,
e x p e ri en c e s a tr a n sl a ti on
F
.
1 IG .
I t i s n ot i m p or ta n t wh a t p a rtic u l a r
r e gi on S i s c on s id e r ed I n d ee d it i s u su al l y d e sira bl e to
; ,
c on s id e r th e wh ol e u n b ou n d ed p l an e a s S Th e e s s en tial .
thi n g I S th e a b ov e l a w which c onne ct s th e i n itia l p osition of

a n a rbitra ry p oin t ofS wit h i ts fi n a l p os iti on .
An a lyti c R ep r es enta ti on . Le t P :
( at y
) ,
be an rbitra ry
a
p n
o i t of th e p l a n e , a n d l e t P (x , y ) b e th e p oi n t
’ ’ ’
in t o which
P is ca rri e d by th e tr an sl a ti on Le t a .
an d b be r es
p e ctiv el y th e p r oj e cti on s of
th e d ir e ct e d l i n e se g m en t P P on th e
-
’
a x es ofw a n d y . Th en
1
I cc ’
:
a a
l y = ’
y + b
F1G . 2
Th e s e for mu l a s a r e th e sa m e a s th os e which r e p r e s en t a
t ra n s f or m a ti on of c oor d i n a t es th e n ew a x es b e in g p a ra l l e l to
,
th e ol d a n d ha v i n g th e sa m e r e s p e cti v e d ir e cti on s B u t th e .
in t e rp r e ta ti on of th e for mu l a s i s wh ol l y d iffe r ent Th e r e th e .

,
p o in t P r e m a i n e d u n ch a n g e d I t h a d n e w c o o
. r d i n a t e s a s
s ign e d to it by r e f e rrin g it t o a n e w s e t of a x e s H e r e th e
“
.
,
330
Aft e r t h ou r s th ey
52
are
a t, b 1 \/ t .
H en c e
x
’
= x
EX E R C IS ES
1 . E x pr ess
ytic a l l y th e tra n s l a ti on which ca rri e s th e
an al
o rigi n in t o th e p oi n t n d h en c e S h o w th a t th e p oin t
(2 a ,
— 1 2 i s c a rri e d i n t o r a w a fig u r e s h owi n g wh a t
) ,
D
h a p p e s to t e it circ e x y 1
n h u n l 2 ?
,
.
2 .App l y th e tra n sl a ti on ofE x 1 t o th e c u r v e .
y 2 x 2
8x 9 .
3 . D e t e r m in e a tra n sl a ti on which wi l l c a rry th e cu r v e

y = 4 fi — 8x
+ 3
i nto ar b ol a wh os e e qu a ti on i s i n a n or m al for m
p a a .
4 . An a er op l a n e i s flyi n g a t th e r a t e of 1 2 0 m il e s a n h ou r
on a s tr a ight h ori z on t a l c ou r se h a vin g a d ir e cti on 30 s ou th o f
°
,
ea st .I f (x y) a r e a t a giv en i n s ta n t i t s c oor d i n a t e s r e f e rr e d
, , , ,
t o a x e s d ir e ct e d e a s t a n d n o rth r e s p e ctiv e l y d e t e r m in e i ts c o ,
o r d in a t e s x ft r m i t h v
’ ’
( y) a e t,
n u es a e e l a p se d .
P r ov e y tical l y (i e by m e an s of th e r ep r e sen ta ti on (1 )
ana l . .
ofth e t e x t th e f ol l owin g th e or e m s
)
5A tran sl ation ca rri es a stra ight l in e i n gen era l in to a
.
, ,
p a r a l l e l s tr a ight l i n e Wh a t a r e th e e x c e ti on s
.
p
6 . A tr a n sl a ti on c a rri e s a circl e in t o a circ l e of th e sa m e
r a d iu s .
7 . A tra n sl a ti on c a rri e s tw o mu t u al l y p e r p en d icu l a r right

l in e s in t o t w o m u t u a l l y p e r p en d icu l a r right l in e s .
2 . R otati ons . Let th e p l an e b e r ot a t e d a bou t th e o rigin

thr ou gh an an gl e 6. Wha t wil l b e th e c oor d i na t e s , (x ,
’
of
th e p oi n t P i n t o which giv en i with c oor d in a t e s

’
a p o n t P, th e
( x y
, ) i s ca r r,
i e d
T R AN SF O R M AT I O N S OF THE P LAN E 3 33
Th e sol u ti on ca n be r ea d of
f at s ight fr om th e figu r e . W e
h av e
x = OM = 0 M l ; y = M P = M 1P ,
5
x
’
= OM I
'
, y
’
M P ' '
.
N ow , P r oj OP
’
P r oj OM I P r oj M I P -
’
,
and if w e ta k e th e p o e r j cti on s fir s t a l on g th e ax s i of x , a n d
th en g
a l on th e a x s ofy, w e
i m m e d ia t el y th e
i obta i n
d e sir e d r e l a ti on s :
:w
P ( xf
Ix ’
x cos 9 — 3/S i n 9 ,
( )
1 <’=
x si n 9 + y c os d
ly .
It i s ea s y to s ol v e th ese e qu a
ti on s a l g ebr a ica l l y for x a n d y ; or
th e f o r m u l a s for x a n d y i n t e r m s
of x a n d y
’
ca n b e writt e n d o wn
’
,
FIG . 5
,
d ir e ctl y by p r oj e ctin g th e br ok en l i n e OM P ’ ’
a l on g OM and
e
p p r e n d ic u l a r l y t o O M 1
’ ’
i
jl g
x x co s 0 y s n 0,
( )
2
— x
’
si n 9 +y
’
c os 9 .
E xa mp l e . c l ea r g eom e trica l l y th a t a circl e with i ts

It i s
c en t e r a t th e or igin mu s t b e ca rri ed ov e r in t o it sel f by a n y Of
th e a b ov e r ot a ti on s L e t u s s e e wh a t th e a n a l ytic e f
. fe ct on
i ts e q u a ti on i s if su ch a r o ta ti on i s p e rfo r m e d .
Th e e qu a ti on ofth e giv en circl e i s

2 ? 2
x y p .
R ep l a c i n g x an d y by th e ir v a l u e s fr om (2 ) we ha v e
(
’
x co s 0 y S
’
i n x si n 9 y ’
c os
p
2
,
cos 2
9 x
’2
2 Si n 0 c os 9 x y si n 0 y
2 ’3
p
?
.
S i n 2
6 2 si n 6 cos 0 co s 0
2
H en c e ’2 ’2 "
x y p,
an d w e get th e sa m e circl e ,
as we S h ou l d .
EX E R C IS ES
1 Wr i t e d own d ir e ctl y fr om a figu r e th e f or mu l a s whi ch

.
r e p r esen t a r ota ti on Of 9 0 a b ou t th e origin an d v e rify th e r e

°
,
s u l t by s u b s tit u ti n g 9 90 i n
°
Sh ow th a t if th e cu rv e xy 2 a i s r ota t ed a b ou t
‘
2
2 .
,
-
th e or i gin thr ou gh a n a n g l e 9 i t s e qu a ti on g oes

o v e r i n to th e u su al f or m of th e e qu a ti on Of a n e qu i l a t e r a l
hy p e rb ol a .
R ota t e th e p a ra b ol a y = 2 mx thr ou gh 9 0 a b ou t th e
2 °
3 .
origin .
4 P r ov e a na l ytica l l y th a t if a n a rbitra ry s tra ight l i n e b e

.
,
r ot a t ed a b ou t th e or i g i n thr ou gh th e n e w l i n e wi l l b e p e r
p en d i cu l a r t o th e ol d on e .
5P r. tha t if a n a rbitra ry l in e b e r o
ov e ,
ta t e d a b ou t th e
o rigin thr ou gh th e an g l e 9 th e a n g l e fr om thi s l in e t o th e
,
n ew
l in e wi l l b e 9 .
3 Tr ansformati ons ofSi mi li tu de Le t th e p l an e b e str etch ed

. .
,
l i k e a n el a s tic m e m br an e u n if o r m l y i n a l l d ir e cti on s a wa y fr om
,
th e o rigin Thi s tr an for m ati on .
i s e vi d en tl y r e p r e s en t e d a n a l y ti
ca ll y by th e e qu a ti on s
’
x lax
( 1 ,
y kyr
wh e r e k i s a c on s tan t gr ea t er
Fm 6 ,
th a n u n ity I f k i s p o s iti v e b u t.
,
l e ss th a n u n ity th e tra n s f or m a ,
ti on r ep r es en t s a sh r i nki ng t owar d th e origin Th e s tr e tchin g s .
a n d sh r i n ki n g s d e fin e d by r e k n own a s tra n sf or ma ti on s of
( )
1 a
si mi l i tu d e .
Th e se tran s f or ma ti on s l i k e th e tran sl a ti on s
,
an d th e r ota
ti on s p r e se rv e th e s h ap es of a l l figu r es ; b u t
, ,
u nl ike th ose
tran s for ma ti on s the y a l t e r th e s i zes offig u r e s
,
.
2 . S h ow tha t th e effe ct Of rfor m in g tra n s for m a ti on (1 )

pe
and th en tran sf or ma ti on (2 ) i s t o l e a v e th e p l an e un cha n g e d
’
.
4 . R efl ecti ons i n th e Ax es . Le t th e p l a n e b e r e fl e ct e d i n
th e i
a x s of x . In the r w or d s
o ,
l e t i t b e r ota t e d thr ou gh 1 8 0
°
a b ou t th e a x i s of x Le t P : (x y ) b e a
. n ,
a rbitr a ry p oi n t and l et P : ( y)
x ,
b e th e
’ ’
,
’
p o i nt i n to which P i s c a rri ed Th en .
,
Obv i ou sl y ,
I QJ ’
a) ,
<>
n
1
Si m i l a r l y , r efl e cti on i n th e
a a x s of i y is
r ep r e sen t e d by th e f or mu l a s
—x
,
FI G 7 2
.
( ) = a
r
Th e c on d iti on tha t a cu rv e b e sy mm e tric i n on e ofth e ax e s
( cf C. h V .2 ) i s obt a i n e d a t on c e fr o m th es e tr a n s f o r m a ti on s
,
.
Thu s th e c u rve 0 wi l l b e s y mm e tric i n th e a x i s of x if th e

c u rv e i n t o which 0 1 s c a rri e d by I S th e s a m e c u rv e a s C ;
a n d th e t e s t f o r thi s i s th a t th e e q u a ti on Of 0 b e e s s e n ti a l l y
,
u n cha n g e d w h e n th e tr a n s f o r m a ti on rf r m it
( )
1 i s p e o e d o n .
F or ex a m p l e if 0 I S th e cu rv e ,
i ts e qu a ti on i s un chan g ed by a n d h e n c e O i s s y mm e tric i n
’
th e a x i s of x B u t it i s ch a n g e d by
. a n d O i s th e r e f o r e , ,
n ot s y m m e t r ic i n th e a x i s ofg .
I sogon a l Tr a n sfor ma ti on s A
tr a n s f or m a ti on i s sa i d to b e
.
e qu i a ngu l a r o r i s ogon a l if th e a n gl e which a n y tw o i n t e r s e cti n g
c u rve s 0 1 an d 0 2 m a k e with ea ch oth e r i s th e sa m e a s th e

, ,
a n g l e which th e tr a n s f or m e d c u rv es an d m a k e with ,
e a ch oth e r .
Al l ofth e tran s f or ma ti on s c on s i d e r e d th u s fa r a r e e v i d en t l y
i sog ona l W e t u rn n ow to a tran s for m a ti on which i s n ot
. .
T R AN S F O R M AT I O N S OF THE PLAN E 3 37
EX E R C IS E
Sh o w tha t qu a ti on s of th e i n v e r se of th e r efl e cti on ( 1 )
th e e
a r e p r e ci s e l y of th e sa m e f o r m a s th e e q u a ti on s of th e
[ or
r efl e cti on A tran s fo r m a ti on for which thi s i s tru e i s sa id to

.
b e i nvol u tory .
5 mp
. Si l e El ongati ons and Compressi ons . Le t th e p l an e b e
s tr e tch e d d ir e ctl y a wa y fr om th e a x i s of x , s o th a t ea c h p oin t
i s c a rri e d a l on g a p a r a l l el t o th e
,
a x i s of y t o twic e i t s o rigin a l d i s
,
t an c e fr om th e ax i s of x (F i g .
E v i d e n tl y th e a n a l ytic c on d i ti on
,
i s th a t
fl=x y = 2g
M or e g e n e ra l l y if a p oin t ,
P : ( x y) i s to b e ca rri ed t o l ti m e s
,
F 8 IG .
i t s origin a l d i s ta n c e fr om th e a x i s
o f x wh e r e l m a y h a v e a n y p o s itiv e c on s t a n t v a l u e
,
n ot u n i ty ,
th e tr a n s f or m a ti on wil l b e gi v e n by th e f o r m u l a s
’
Ix x,
( )
I
1 '
y ly .
Wh en I i s gr ea t er tha n u n ity th e s e f or mu l a s r e p r esent an ,
e l on ga ti on ; wh e n I i s l e s s th a n u n ity th e y r e p r e s e n t a c om ,
p r e s s i on .
I fth e e l on ga ti on i s a w a y fr o m th e a x i s of v or th e c ompr e s
s i on i s t o w a r d it th en ,
'
x h x,
( )
2 '
y u
wh e r e k i s gr ea t e r than u n ity i n th e fir st c a se an d l ess than

u n i ty b u t os itiv i n th e s e c on d
, p e ,
.
Th e se tr an s for m a ti on s w e r e d i s cu s s e d g eom e trical l y i n Oh .
XI V , 7 Th e r e w e ca ll ed th e m on e d i mens i ona l or si mp l e
.
'
, ,
el o nga ti o ns an d comp r ess i ons ; or j oi n tl y one d i mensi ona l , ,

-
s tr a i n s .
E xa mp le 1 . L e t th e circl e
i) x
2
y = 1
?
be su bj e ct e d to th e tran s for ma ti on Th en it g oe s ov e r in to
x
y v2
72
Thu s th e circl e i) is ca rri ed i n t o th e el l i p se

?
y 1,
11
) 1 b?
wh ose a x i s l yin g a l on g th e a x i s of x i s i d en tica l with th e cor

r e sp on d in g d ia m e t e r of th e circl e b u t wh ose a x i s l yin g a l on g ,
th e a x i s of y i s th e c o rr e s p on d i n g d i a m e t e r of th e circl e
s tr e tch e d i n th e r a ti o l :1 .
E x a mp l e 2 Le t th e el l i p s e ii ) b e su bj e ct e d to th e tra n s
.
f or m a tion Th en
” ’2
as y _ 1 .
?
k b ?
Thu s th e el l i p se ii) is ca rri ed in t o th e el l i p se
5
2 ?
$ y
11 1
) 1, a It
b
.
F r omth e s e e x a mp l es w e see tha t th e pa rticu l a r circl e i) can b e

c arri ed by m ean s of tw o on e d i m en s i on a l s tra in s in t o a n a rbi
-
t r a r y e l l i p se iii ) wh o se a x e s l i e a l on g th e a x e s o f c oor d ina t e s .
E x er ci se Sh ow th a t th e circl e i) ca n b e c a rri e d i n t o th e
.
e l l i p s e iii ) by a s i n g l e on e d i m en s i on a l s tr a in a n d a tra n s f or m a
-
ti on ofs i mi l itu d e .
P r od u ct of Tw o T r a n sfor m a ti on s Th e c om bin ed e fiect o f .
th e tw o tr a n s r m ati on S of E x a m p l es 1 a n d 2 ca n b e r e p r e
se n t e d a n a l ytica l l y a s f ol l ow s F ir s t w e h a v e .
,
' ’
( )
a 93 96 .
y ly .
N e x t, th e p oin t (
’
x , y
'
) is ca rr i e d i n t o (x g ) by ,
"
th e t ran s
for ma ti on
5
( ) w
"
y
k w, y
’ '
E l i m in a tin g th e i n t e r m e d ia t e s t a g e ( x
’
,
w e g et
” "
()c x h x, y lg .
It fol l ow s fr om thi s e x t en s i on tha t if tw o cu rve s 0 1 an d 0 2 , , ,
a r e t a n g en t t o ea ch o th e r th e tr a n s f o r m e d c u rv e s
,
and ,
wil l a l so b e t an g en t F or if 0 , an d 0 2 a r e tan gen t the y ha v e

.
, ,
th e s a m e s l op e A a t th e p oi n t of ta n g e n cy H en ce a t th e cor .
,
r e sp on d i ng p oin t an d
,
wi l l ea ch ha v e th e Sl op e A lA ’
a n d c on s e qu e n t l y wi l l b e t a n g en t to ea ch o th e r .
An gl es a r e n ot i n g en e r al p r ese rv e d by a on e d i m e n s i on al -
s tr a i n
. I t i s tr u e th a t right a n gl e s wh os e s i d es a r e p a ra l l el
r e sp e ctiv e l y to th e c oord in a t e a x e s g o ov e r in t o right a n g l es
s a ti s fyin g th e s a m e c on d iti on B u t c on s i d e r for ex a m p l e th e
.
, ,
a n g l e b e tw e e n a l in e L a n d th e a x i s o f x i
(p 3 0 4 F g .
,
.
L i s ca rri e d i n t o L by th e tr a n s f or m a ti on a n d th e a x i s ofx
r em a in s fi x ed I t i s c l ea r th en tha t th e n e w an gl e i s n ot
.
, ,
e qu a l t o th e o rigin a l on e .
Th e a r ea s of figu r es a l so a r e , ,
chan g ed a n d chan g e d i n p r e ci s el y
,
th e ra ti o of l ( or k) 1 Thi s i s ob v i .
ou s l
y tr ue f o r r e ct a n g l e s wh os e s i d es
,
are p a r a ll e l t o t h e c o o r d i n a t e a x es .
Th e a r ea A of an y o th e r figu r e i s th e
, ,
l i m it a pp r oa ch e d by th e su m B of , ,
th e a r eas of r e ct an g l e s in s c r ib ed a s
S h own i n th e d r a win g
B y th e tran sf o r m a ti on A isc a rri ed

in to A ’
and B i n to B
’
ev i d en t l y
FIG . 10 A ’
11111 B ’
,
Sin c e th e r ch r e ctan gl e r e p r es en t ed i n th e su m B ’
a ea of ea
is l ti m es th e a ear of th e r e ct a n g l e fr om which it o rigina t e d ,
’
B ID .
A’
l i m lB l l im B ,
A ’
l A, q . e . d .
E x a mp l e . Th e a r ea of th e circl e i ) is f ol l ows th en
It , ,
tha t th e r
a ea of th e el l ip se ii) is 7r b . App l yin g th e m e th od
T R AN S F O R M AT I O N S OF
‘
THE L
P AN E 34 1
a ga in to thi s el l ip se Obta in a s th e a r ea of th e e l l ip s e iii )

,
we
th e v al u e n a b . \
Ve ha v e thu s Obta i n e d th e f ol l owi n g r esu l t .
The a r ea ofth e ell ip s e
EX E R C IS ES
1 . Sh o w tha t th e circ l e x
2
g
?
a
2
ca n be ca rri ed in t o th e
el l ip se
2 2
C
13 y _
+ 1
m m
by a on e -
d i m en s i on a l
tra in ; of p 3 0 6 s . . .
2 P r ov e th a t th e r e ct a n gu l a
. r hy p e rb ol a x
2
ca rri e d in t o th e hy p e rb ol a
? ?
w y 1
2
a
2
b
by a on e -
d i m en S I O n al s tra i n .
3 . I n E x a m pl e s 1 , 2
(
r d e r of th e tra n s
of p . 338 ca n th e o
f or ma ti on s b e r e v e r se d P r o v e y ou r a n s w e r .
4 A on e d i m
. e n s i on a l s tr a i n ch a n g e s i n g e n e r a l th e S h a e s
-
p , ,
of c u r v e s I S thi s tru e i n a ll c a se s ? F or e x a m p l e i n th e
.
,
ca se ofa p a rab ol a
5P rov e anal yt ica l ly that th e tran sformation (1 ) ca rri es a
.
;
s tr a igh t l i n e i n t o a s tr a ight l i n e .
6 Sh ow a n a l ytic a l l y th a t if a l i n e L i s c a rri e d by ( 1 ) in t o
.
,
a l in e L th e s l op e s ofL a n d L a r e c onn e ct e d by f o r m u l a
’ ’
,
7 F i n d th e e qu a ti on s of th e tr a n s f or m a ti on which i s th e
.
pr od u c t ofth e tw o tra n s f or m a ti on s
, _ ,
D
C y °
8 . Th e sam e for th e r ota ti on a b ou t th e origin thr ou gh

fol l ow ed by th e tran sl a ti on which ca r r i e s th e origin in t o
th e p oin t (3 ,
34 2 AN ALYT IC G E O M E TR Y
9 . Th e sa m e tran s for m a tion of si mi l itu d e which

for th e
d ou b l es a l l th e l en gth s fol l ow e d by a r efl e cti on i n th e a x i s ofy
,
.
10 P r ov e a n a l ytica ll y for th e f ol l ow i n g tra n s fo r m a ti on s

.
, ,
tha t th e p r odu ct of a t ra n s for ma ti on a n d i ts inv e r se i s th e

or ma ti o n,
’ ’
i d en ti ca l tr a n sf x x, y y .
( )
a tr a n s l a ti on s ; ( )
b r o t a ti on s ;
()
c r e fl e cti on s ; ( )
d on e d i m e n s i ona l s tr a in s-
.
11 . F a ct or th e tra n s f or m a ti on
’ ’
x 4 x, y 2 g,
a
( ) i n t o t w o on e d i m en s i on a l s tr a i n s
-
( )
b i n t o a on e d i m e n s i on a l s tr a in a n d a tr a n s fo r m a t i on of
-
s i m i l itu d e .
P r ov e th a t th e r ota ti on a b ou t th e o rigin thr ou gh 1 80

°
12 .
a l so c a l l e d th e r efle cti on i n th e or i gi n — i s th e p r od u ct of th e
r efl e cti on s i n th e a x e s .
13 . F a ct or th e tra n sfor m a ti on
' ’
x 4 x, y 2y
in t o t w o on e -
d i m en s i on a l
tr ai n s an d th e r efl e cti on i n th e a x i s
s ,
ofx . H ow el se can it b e fa ct o r e d
E x p r e s s e a ch of th e f ol l owin g tr an s f or m a ti on s a s th e p r od
u ct of tw o o r m o r e S i m p l e tr a n s f or m a ti on s .
14 — 3 x,
5
.
’ — x
1 . x + 2,
16 .
’ x _ y_ 6
x _ ,
6 Th e Gener al Afli ne Transformati on

. .
m ean t th e tra n s for m a ti on

Ix ’
ax + by + c,
ha v e j u s t s een tha t w e can p a ss fr om e qu a ti on s (1 ) to
5
for w e
e qu a ti on s ( ) by a tr a n s l a ti o n a n d thi s i s on e of th e tr a n s f
,or
m a ti on s a d m itt e d by th e th eor e m .
C on s i d e r a n a rbitra ry circl e with i ts c e n t e r a t th e or I gm
( )
2 2 2
7 $ 31 P
Le t u s see in t o wha t cu r v e it i s ca rri ed by
To d o thi s s ol v e e qu a ti on s (6 ) for x and
, y . Th e r e su l t is
th e in v e r s e of na m e l y
Ix = Ax + B y ’ ’
’
b b
whe r e A ’ ’
A :
A A
b— 1
' '
— “ b — a
AB '
_ AB
'
A 2
A
N ex t , su b s tit u t e th e se v a l u es for x an d y in ( 7
( )
9 (A I
2 ' ‘
2 (A B y
'
(B 2
B
/z
)y
’2
_
Th e l ocu s Of thi s e qu a ti on i s a n e l l ip s e with i ts c en t e r at

th e origin F or fir s t th e e qu a ti on h a s a l o cu s s in c e a l l th e
.
, , ,
p oin t s (x y ) in t o which th e p oin t s ’

,
’
x y ofth e c i r cl e r e c a rri e d by
( ) ( )
7 a ,
l i S e c ond l y th e l o cu s
( )
6 e on ,
d oe s n ot ex ten d to i nfi nity i n a ny
d i r ecti on fl ‘
g en e ra l thi s e l l i p se wi l l n ot
In ,
b e a circl e Le t L b e th e ex tr e m ity
.
’
of a n a x i s Si n c e th e tra n s f or m a
.
ti on (8) ca rri es an y s tra ight l in e

thr ou gh th e origin in t o a s tra igh t
l in e thr ou gh th e o rigi n OL wi l l ,
’
c orr e sp ond t o a c e rt a in rad iu s OL

ofth e circ l e ( 7
FI G 11 W e n ow r ota t e th e (x y) p l an e ,
-
O r , th e r
e x p e ss i on B2 4 A C ( C h X II .form e d fo , is r
n ega ti ve
4 ( AB AB )
’ ’ 2 4 (A 2
A ”
) ( B 2 B ’2
) 4 ( AB ’ A' B ) 2 O .
T R AN SF O R MAT I O N S OF THE P LAN E 34 5
a bou t th e origin thr ou gh a n a n g l e 9 su ch tha t OL c ome s to l i e
a l on g th e p os itiv e a x i s ofx :
x1 = c S 9 —
y s n i 9,
( )
1 0
I y1 = x si n 9 + y cos 9 .
F u rth e r m or e , w e r ota t e th e (x y ) l b ou t rigin

’ ’
,
-
p a n e a th e o
thr ou gh su ch an an g l e 9 tha t ’
OL ’
c om e s to l i e a l on g th e
p o s itiv e a x i s ofx
I I
9
I
— I
9
I
I
x1 x cos y S1 n
11 ,
8m
’ ’ ’ ’
yl x 9 y co s
Wh a t i s th e fi r
n al t O bvi ou sl y th e f ol l owin g An
esu l ? .
a rbitr a ry p oi n t (x 1 y,) of th e p l a n e i s c a rri e d by th e in v e r s e of

,
( )
1 0 in t o a p oin t (x y) ; thi s p oi n t i s ca rri e d by ( 6 ) i n t o a
,
p o in t (
’
x ,
a n d fi n a l l y th e p o in t
(x y ) th u s Ob ta i n e d i s
’
,
’
ca rri e d by (1 1 ) in t o To writ e ou t th e s e tr a n s f or m a
ti on s ex p l icitl y wou l d b e a l on g p i e c e of w or k ; b u t it i s n ot
n e c e s sa ry t o d o S O F or fir s t of a l l ea ch i s l i n ea r a n d l e av e s
.
, ,
th e origin u n ch an g e d H en c e th e fi n a l tr a n s f or m a ti on ca rry
.
,
i n g th e p oin t (x y1 ) d ir e ctl y in t o th e p oin t (x l i s al so ’

1, ,
l in ea r ,
*
a n d it l ea v e s th e o rigi n u n ch a n g e d I t i s th en ofth e .
, ,
f or m
,
I 371 “ x1 "
I 3 9 1,
“
( )
1 2 { ’
= 931 8m
l y1 7 .
C on s i d e r n ex t w ha t w a b ou t thi s tran s f or m a ti on
w e kn o .
i) I t c a rri es th e p os itiv e a x i s ofx1 ov e r in t o it s el f H en c e .

,
wh en y1 0 y, m u s t a l so v an i sh n o m a tt e r wha t va l u e x1 m ay
,
’
,
hav e thu s
0 7 271 ,
an d , c on s e qu en tl y , y 0 .
ii) Th e ax e s of th e el l ip se which c orr esp on d s

circl e ,
( )
1 3 5I 9
01
2 " “
1
2
P
2
:
ar e th e coOr d i n a t e a x e s .
Cf E x . . 1 at t h e e n d oft h e ch ap e tr .
To fin d th e e qu a ti on of th e el l ip s e ,
s ol v e 1
( )2 for x 1, y1 , re
m e mb e r i n g tha t y 0
915 23W ,
'
{
931 61
91 $9 1 3
1 1 ,
8 a
Thu s (1 3 ) is seen to g o in t o th e el l ip s e
( 1 5
) 21 5
2
01
” 2 QIQSwI yI ’ ’
p
Si n c e t h e ax es of th e el l 5
ip se (1 ) l i e a l on g th e c oor d in a t e
a x es , th e ter m in xl
’
yl
’
m u s t d i sa pp ea r a n d s o w e m u s t ha v e ,
2123 0
N ow , 91 c ann ot b e 0 , for A 1/a . H e n c e 3 mu s t5 v a n i sh

£8 0 .
It fol l ow s th en th a t
, ,
3
1
O)
and thu s ( 1 2 ) r e d u c e s t o th e tra n s fo r m a ti on

,
“71 a “71 >
16
89 1
M or eov e r , i c
s n e th e p os itiv e ax s i of x , g oe s o v e r i n t o th e
p ositiv e i
a x s o fx l , we see tha t
0 < a .
B u t 8 m ay b e n e ga ti v e I n thi s c a s e , a r e fl e cti on i n th e a x i s
.
ofx 1 wi l l ch a n g e th e S ig n o f 8, a n d h e n c e th e c ase i s r e d u c e d
to th e on e in which 8 i s p os iti v e
F i n a l l y , th e tra n sf or m ati on (1 6 ) i s th e p r od u ct of t w o on e
d i m en s i on a l s tr a in s
’ ’
x x x,
’ '
y y, y 3a
on e a l on g i
th e g th e a x i s ofy
a x s o fx a n d on e a l on .
Le t u s n ow r e c ap i t u l a t e Th e p oin t (x y) i s ca rri e d in t o th e
.
,
p oin t (xl y,) by th e r ota ti on (1 0 ) (x 1 y1 ) i s ca rri e d i n t o

, ,
a= = i b = zt p
— '
( )
1 8 si n
’
b s i n qt,
p co s
p a
p cos 1
<»
an d hen c e ,
( )
1 9 b
'
j :a ,
a
’
3F b .
C on v e r se l y , v e ry tra n s for m a ti on
e fo r which (1 9 ) i s tr u e
for on e s e t of s ig n s ca n b e writt e n i n on e of th e f o r m s 1 7
, (
a n d h e n c e i s i s o g on a l F or if a b a b a r e giv e n sa ti s fyin g ’ ’
.
, , , , ,
1 for on e s e t of s ign s v a l u e s o f
( ) 9 p c os d a n d s i n qs ca n b e
, , ),
f ou n d s o tha t e qu a ti on s ( 1 8) h ol d for th e s a m e s e t of Sign s

, .
Th e s e va l u e s a r e n a m el y , ,
p co s <; 1
Th e f ol l owin g th e o r e m su m m a ri e s ou r r e su l t s .
THEOREM 2 Th e tr a nsfor ma ti on ( 1 ) i s i s ogon a l

. w h en a nd
on l y w h en ei th er
b ’
a a nd a
’
b
’
a a nd a
’
=b .
Ifi t i s i s ogo na l , i t ca n be w r i tten i n on e o f e for ms

th ( 1 7
H omogen eou s a nd N on H omogen eou s

-
Tr a nsfor ma ti on s . A
p o l yn om ia l in x and y i s h om og en eo u s ,
if i t s t e r m s a r e al l Of
sa m e d e gr e e i n Thu s , th e l e ft han d S i d e s
*
th e x and y .
-
offor
m u l a s (6 ) h om og en e ou s p ol yn om ial s ofth e fir s t d e gr e e Ao
ar e .
c o r d i n gl y a tr a n s f or m a ti on of th e f or m ( 6 ) i s c a l l e d a h omo
,
en eou s afi n e tr a n sfor m a ti on ; a n d i n d i s ti n cti on a tr a n s f or m a

g , ,
ti on of t h e f or m wh e r e c an d c a r e n ot b oth z e r o a non ’
,
h om ogene ou s a ffin e tr a n s fo r m a ti on .
Sin c e ( 1 ) ca n b e r e d u c ed t o ( 6 ) by m e a n s ofa tr a n sl a ti on w e ,
h av e th e th e or e m .
THEOREM 3 A n on h omog en eou s dj i ne tr a n sfor m a ti on i s th e

.
-
p r od u c t o f a tr a n s l a ti on a nd th e cor r esp on d i n g h om ogen eou s

tr a n sfor ma ti on .
t term s w i th n on van i h i ng coe ffici ent n ee d b e c n i d er e d

O nl y h os e -
s s o s ,
si nce a term w h o effi i e nt v ni s h s h s th val e of0 a nd 0 i s n ot d e

s e co c a e a e u ,
fin e d as h avi n g a d egr F am p l e if i n t h e p l y n m i a l x
ee . or2 xy ex , ,
o o 2
ax a h as th e val e 0
, th e p ol y n om i al i s h m oge n e o us of th e se cond
u ,
o
d e gr ee .
T R AN SF O R M AT I O N S OF THE P LAN E 3 49
EX E R C IS ES
1 . P r ov e ytica ll y tha t th e affin e tran s for m a ti on ( 1 )

an al
ca rri e s a stra ight l in e i n t o a s tr a ight l i n e .
2 Sh o w th a t if L i s a l i n e of Sl op e A th e l in e in t o w hich L
.
, ,
i s ca rri e d by (1 ) h a s th e S l op e
’ ’
a bA
AI
a bA
fi
3 . U s i n g th e r e su l t of E x 2 , p r ov e
. tha t (1 ) ca rri e s p a r
a l l el
l in e s i n t o p a ra l l e l l in e s .
7 . Transfor mati ons W e pr oc e e d

Fa ctor i z ati on ofPa rti cu l ar .
to i l l u s tra t e th e th e ory of th e p r e c e d in g s e cti on by ca rryin g it

thr ou gh s t ep by s t e p for a p a rticul a r ca se
, , .
Le t th e giv en tr a n s f or m a ti on b e
’
— 3 —
( )
’
1 x x + 3 y, y x y.
Th e fir s t s t e p i s to fin d th e el l i p se i n t o which th e circl e ,
( )
2 2 ? 2
$ y 9 7
is ca rri e d by Sol v i n g qu a ti on s (1 ) e for x and y, a n d su b
sti tu ti n g th e va l u e s obt a i n e d n a m e l y , ,
3 31 3
’ ’
t
’
w — w y sw sr ,
in we h a v e fin a l l y
5 5
, ,
( )
3 x
’2
6 x
’
y
’
y = 32 p
’2
2
.
Thi s e l l i p se i s a s sh ow n O n e a x i s .
,
O L l i e s a l on g th e l i n e x
’
, y 0
’ ’
.
B y a dd in g e q u a ti on s w e ha v e
’ ’ — 2 x + 2 y,
x +y
an d h en c e th e r a d iu s OL of th e circl e
whi ch i s ca rri ed in t o OL i s a l on g th e ’
l in e x y : 0 F u rth e.r m o r e if L ,
’
l i e s i n th e f ou rth qu a d r a n t a s i n th e ,
figu r e th en L l i e s i n th e fir st — n ot
,
i n th e thir d .
FI G . 12
5
Con s eq u en tl y , r ota ti on b ou t 0 thr ou gh
5 (
a of th e x, y) p a n e
-
l a
°
4
“3
4
2
brin g s g th e p ositive a x i s of x An d i
5
OL to l i e a l on . a r ota t on
a b ou t 0 thr ou gh
’ °
ofth e y) l
( 4
’
x ,
-
p a n e
! !
5
( )
m l
y w y
I
d oe s th e sa m e for OL ’
.
Th e n ex t s t e p i s to fin d tran sf or ma ti on ca rryin g (x1 y1)

th e ,
d ir e ct l y in t o (x l ’
,
Thi s w e d o by el i m i na tin g x y an d ,
x
’
, y fr
’
o m Thu s ,
vs
1 — w+ y
3x — = 2
( -
y 1)
V2
or
( ) 4 ml , 2 311
’ ’
6 w. 311
F inal l y , w e
'
s ol ve ( ) 5 for x
’
an d y
’
x ; 1”
( )
7
V2
Th e tran s for ma ti on (1 ) i s n ow seen to b e th e p r odu ct Of th e
tran s for m a ti on s a n d (7 ( )
4
ca rri es (x y) i n t o (x1 y1 ) by a r ota ti on , ,
a b ou t 0 thr ou gh c a rri e s
( )
6
( y1 )
x1 in t o ( 1
x by t w o O ne,
d i ’
,
-
m en s i on a l s tra i n s ; (7 ca rri e s (x l ’
,
“ 371 ? in t o (x y ) by a n othe r r ota ti on a b ou t

3 ’
,
’
0 thr ou gh “3
FIG . 13 Tech n i qu e
S i mp l if In
i ca ti on s in .
s t ea d of See k in g th e e l l i p se i n th e
'
(
’
x , y )p l’
a n-
e in t o which th e circl e (2 ) i s ca rri e d w e mig ht ,
e qu a l l y w e ll a sk f or th e e l l i se i n th e l w hi ch i
p (x y)p a n e s ,
-
5
I f th e l i n e on e it a b ov e th e x a x i s S l i d e s to th e right
un -
thr ou gh th e d i s ta n c e to th en th e l in e y u nit s a b ov e th e x ax i s
,
-
wi l l e vid en tl y sl id e to th e
right thr ou gh th e d i s tan c e Icy ,
whil e a l in e which i s say 2 , ,
u n it s b el o w th e x a x i s wi l l -
Sl i d e a d i s t an c e 2 k to th e
l e ft I n oth e r w or d s th e
.
,
a l g e br a ic d i s ta n c e thr ou gh
which e a ch l in e S l i d e s i s
e qu a l t o 70 ti m e s th e a l g e br a i c
d i s t an c e of th e l in e fr om th e
x ax i s -
.
F IG 14
.
T hi s i s tr u e a l so of th e , ,
m oti on of ea ch p oi n t of th e
r e cta n gl e s in c e th e l in es Sl id e a s u n i ts I f th en th e wh ol e
,
.
, ,
p l a n e i s twi s t e d a cc o r d in g t o thi s l a w a n a rbitr a ry p o,

in t ( y)
x ,
wil l b e c a rri e d a l on g a p a ral l e l to th e a x i s Of x thr ou gh th e

a l g e b r a ic d i s t an c e Icy . H en ce
’
x x Icy,
,
y y)
ar e th e qu a ti on s ofth e tr an sfor ma ti on
e .
Thu s fa r w e ha v e a s su m ed tha t It i s p os i tiv e I t ma y .
e qu a l l y w e l l b e n e g a tiv e Th en p oin t s a b ov e th e ax i s ofx a r e

.
s hift e d t o th e l e ft a n d p oi n t s b e l ow it t o th e righ t
, .
I fth e s l i d i n g w e r e a l on g p a r a l l el s to th e a x i s ofy th e tra n s ,
f or ma ti on w ou l d b e
2
( )
i,
wh e r e l i s any c on stan t n ot z e r o , .
The se tran s f or m a ti on s a r e kn own a s s i mp le sh ea r s an d ,

th e
m oti on s which th e y g en e r a t e a r e c a l l ed s h ea ri ng moti on s .
E xa mp l e 1 . S u bj e ct th e cu r ve
T R AN SF O R M AT I O N S OF THE P LAN E 3 3 5
to th e S hea r
— 2 x +y
H ere
( )
4 w = w,
and ( )
3 b e c om es
2 x
’
+y = ’
5
or
’ ’3
( ) y x
5
.
C on v e r sel y , th ec u rv e ( ) i s ca rri e d by th e sh ea r (4) in t o th e

cu r v e Th e S h ea r (4 ) a dd s t o th e or di na t e of a p oin t
m un t 2 x q
’ ’
( y)
x ,
t h e a o e u a l t o t h e cor
'
r e s p on d i n g ord ina t e of th e l in e y = 2 x ’ ’
.
C on se q u e n tl y th e or d in a t e s Of th e cu r v e
,
3 n b e Ob ta in e d by a d d in g t o th e o r d i
( ) ca
n a t es o ft h e l i n e y 2 x th e c orr e s p on d i n g
’ '
o r d i n a t e s of th e c u rv e wh os e grap h i s
k n ow n . Thu s th e cu rv e (3) can b e ea sil y
p l ott e d I t i s tan g en t to th e l i n e y = 2 x
.
a t th e orig i n .
E x a mp l e 2 . Con s tr u ct th e cu rv e
4 33
5
3 '
y (L .
FI G . 1
Thi s i s d on e by p l o tti n g th e l i n e y x
an d th e c u rv e y 4 x , a n d th e n a d d in g
3
th e ir or d in a t e s a l
g e b r a i ca l l y for a n e w o r d i n a t e — tha t of th e r e q u ir e d c u rv e .
Th e p r o c e ss i s e q iv a en t to su bj e ctin g th e cu rv e y
u l 4 x to
3 ' '
th e sh ea r
, '
1 3/ w + y
P r op er ti es f S i mp l eoS h ea r s S in c e .
th e tra n s form a ti on s (1 ) an d (2 ) a r e
Sp e cial a ffin e tran sf or ma ti on s (of .
it f ol l ow s tha t s i m pl e Sh ea r s c a rry
s tr a ight l i n e s in t o s tr a ight l in e s p a r a l l e l ,
l i n e s i n t o p a r a l l e l l i n e s a n d t a n g en t
,
( 1) y = 4x
3
,
(2) y = -
x cu rv es in t o tan g en t cu rv es Th ey d o .
FIG 16 n ot i n g en e ra l r e se rv e a n g l e s
.
p .
5
S i mp l e h ow e v e r p reserve
sh ea r s d o, ,
a r ea s F or fir s t thi s i s tr u e for a n y
.
, ,
r e ctan g l e wh ose ba se i s pa ral l el to th e

d ir e cti on of sh ea r i n g s i n c e su ch a r ec ,
tan gl e i s ca rri e d i n t o a p a ra l l el ogra m

with th e sa m e l en gth s of ba s e an d a l ti
tu d e; cf F i g 1 4 . Se c on dl y th e a r e a A
. .
,
o f a n y o th e r fig u r e can b e c on s i d e r e d
a s th e l i m it o f th e s u m o f th e a r e a s o f
r e ctan g l e s of th e ty p e j u s t d e s crib ed ,
which a r e in s crib e d i n th e figu r e a s

S h own B u t thi s s u m i s e q u a l a l wa y s
.
to th e s u m of th e a r ea s of th e c orr e
s p on d i n g p a r a l l e l ogr a m s w h ose l i m it i s ,
o
FI G . 17
th e a r ea A of th e tra nsf or m ed fig u r e
’
.
Con s e qu en tl y, A A, ’
q e (1 . . .
EX E R C IS ES
C on s tru ct th e foll ow m g cu rv e s .
1 4 x = y
3
+ 3 y
5
. . .
=
'
2 .
y = 2 x 3 —
g x . . 3x y
3 —
6y .
3 .
y
-
x 3
+ x . 6 . 2 x — 4y 3 -
3y .
Th e sa m e for th e f ol l owin g cu rv es ,
m a k in g u s e ofa tr a n s l a
ti on as w el l as a s h ea r .
7 .
y = 3
x + x — 2 . 9 . x = 2 y2 — 3y+ 1 .
8 2 y = 2 m3 — x
+3 10 3x — 6 2 — 2 — 7
. . .
y y .
11 . C on s tr u ct th e cu r v e
= 2x 3 — 6 2
x — 1,
+ 7
‘
y x
be gin n in g by p u ttin g th e e qu a ti on in t o th e f orm

b = 2 (x — a
y ) .
Th e sam e for th e cu rve s

12 .
W ehav e n ow fa ct or ed (1 ) in t o th e tran sfor m a ti on s
wh e r e 70 a a na m el y in t o : ’
,
972 ;
,
a
x2 + y2 7 y1 = y
E
Th e fir s t an d l a s t ofth ese tra n s f or ma ti on s a r e s i m pl e Shea r s .
Th e s e c on d can b e fa ct or e d in t o t wo on e d i m en s i ona l s tra in s -
o r i n c a s e a or A a o r b oth a r e n e g a tiv e in t o th es e a n d a r e
, ,
fle cti on i n on e or th e o th e r or b oth a x e s Thu s th e the or em .
i s p r ov ed i n thi s ca s e .
Th e p r oof i s S i mi l a r i n th e c a se tha t b qt 0 Th e fa ct or s of ’
.
( )
1 a re
A
wl )
( )
7 a
y
’
= y2 ,
x +y .
Ca s e 2 a b
’
0 . H e r e (1 ) b e c om e s
’
x b
Thi s tran sf or m a ti on ca n be fa ct or ed i n t o a r otati on a b ou t th e

o rigin thr ou gh 9 0
°
( )
9 91 w)
and th e tra n s for m a ti on

’ ’
x bx ] , y a yl .
It can be h own tha t

s th e r ota ti on (9 ) i s th e p r od u ct of thr ee
s i mpl e s h ea r s n a m e l y
, ,
J
I
r % 7
l
y2 = y1 ,
and thi s c ompl e t e s th e p r oof ofth e th e or em .
H omogen eou s S tr a i n s . Th e e x t en si on to spa c e Of th e tran s

f or ma ti on s (1 ) IS giv en by th e for m u l a s
T R AN SF O R M AT I O N S OF TH E P LAN E 5
7
Th e th r e e d i m en si on a l ca se a d m it s a tr e a t m en t s i m i l a r
-
to th e f or e g oi n g a n d th e r e su l t s a r e l i k e th ose obt a i n e d
,
a b ov e .
Tran sfor ma ti on s of th e f or m ( 1 ) or (9 ) a r e kn own i n

phy sic s a s h omogeneou s s tr a i ns Th ey a r e of p a rticu l a r .
i m p orta n c e i n th e th e ory of el a sticity F or it ca n b e sh own .

,
tha t i f an e l a stic b od y s u ch a s a s ol i d p i e c e of r u bb e r
, ,
or of s t ee l i s S l ightl y d e f o r m e d fr om i t s n o r m a l s ha p e th e
, ,
d i s p l a c e m en t of i t s p oin t s ca n b e r e p r e s en t e d to a high
d e gr e e of a pp r ox i m a ti on by a tra n s f o r m a ti on of th e f o r m ( 1 )
or
It i s fa ct which w e sha l l n ot a tt e m p t to p r ov e tha t a

a , ,
tra n s for m a ti on ( 1 ) r e p r e s en tin g i n th e a b ov e sen s e a s l ight d e

for m a ti on c an n ot h a v e a r efl e cti on i n an a x i s a s one ofi ts com
p o n e n t tr a n s f o r m a ti on s .
O n e d i m en s i on a l s tr a i n s
-
s i m p l e e l on g a ti on s a n d c om p r e s
m
s i on s — a n d s i m p l e S h ea r s a r e o ft e n giv en th e s i n g l e n a m e ,
s i mp l e s tr a i n s Ad op ti n g thi s t e r m i n ol ogy w e ca n sa y :
. E v ery ,
h omoge neou s s tr a i n r ep r es en ti ng i n th e a bove s en s e a s l i gh t d efor ma
ti on ca n be genera ted by a s u cces s i on of si mp l e s tr a i n s w i th ou t

reflecti ons .
EX E R C IS ES
F a ct o r th e
f ol l owin g h om og en e ou s s tra in s by th e m e th od of
thi s pa ra gra p h .
1 . Th e s tra i n of Ex 1 ,
. 7 . 2 . Th e s tr a i n ofE x . 3, 7 .
3 .
— 2x +y . 4 . x
’
= 3x
Th e f ol l owi n g h om og e n e ou s tra in s r e p r e s en t s l igh t s
p l a c e m ents F a ct o r th e m a n d n ot e th a t a r efl e cti on i n a n
.
n e v e r a p p ea r s a s a c om p on e n t tr a n s f o r m a ti on .
5 .
6 .
— . 1 y,
7 .
wh er e a, 8
, , y,
8'
a r e smal l qu an titi es ,
su ch as . 01 or . 08 .
5
F a ct or th e fol l owin g tra n s for m a tion s .
8 . Th e tr an sf or m a ti on ofE x 4 7 .
,
.
9 . x
’
y
’
= 3 x — 2y+ 1 .
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R XV
1 . tha t th e p r od u ct ofa ny t w o a ffin e tran sfor ma ti on s

P r ov e
i s a n a ffi n e tr a n s for m a ti on .
D efin i ti on Th e g en e ral affi n e tran sfor ma ti on

. 6 is ,
cal l ed non S i ngu la r if

-
’
AE ab
if A it i s ca l l ed s i ngu la r Th e ex p r e s si on A i s kn own a s
0, .
th e d eter m i na nt ( cf Ch X VI ) o f th e tra n s f or m a ti on
. . .
2 Th e i nv e r s e of an y n on s i n gu l a r affin e tra n sfor m a ti on

.
-
i s n on si n gu l a r
-
Thi s w a s p r ov e d in ci d e n t a l l y on p 3 44 i n
. .
th e c a s e of a h omog en e ou s tra n sf or m a ti on P r ov e it i n th e .
g en e r al c a se .
3 Sh ow th a t th e p r od u ct of tw o n on s i n g u l a r a f
. fin e tran s -
for ma ti on s i s n on s in g u l a r -
.
Su gg e s ti on P r ov e th a t th e d e t e r m in a n t of th e p r od u ct
.
tran sf or ma ti on i s th e p r od u ct Of th e d e t e r m inan t s ofth e giv en

tran sfor ma ti on s .
4 Th e tran s for m a ti on
.
,
x
’
= 2 x — y, y
’
= 4 x — 2 y,
is g
si n u l a r . Ve rify
thi s an d S h ow tha t th e tran sfor m a ti on
ca rri e s a l l th e p oi n t s of th e p l an e in t o p oin t s of th e l in e
2x 0 H h e tr a n s f or m a ti on a n y in v e r s e
’ ’
y a s t
5Th e pr odu ct of th e g en eral rotation abou t th e origin

.
.
,
f ol l owe d by th e g en e ra l tra n sl a ti on i s a tran s for ma ti on kn own ,
a s th e g e n e r a l r i i d moti o n F i n d i t s e qu a ti on s
g . .
Ans x .
’
x co s 9 y s in 9 + a ; b .
6 Th e p r od u ct of th e tra n s f or m a ti on of s i m i l itu d e of § 3
.
a n d th e g e n e r a l rigi d m o ti on of th e p r e c e d i n g e x e rci s e i s
k n own a s th e genera l tr a nsf or m a ti on of s i mi l i tu d e F i n d i ts .

C HAP TE R X VI
DE TE R M I NANTS AND THE I R APPLI CATI ONS
I . D E TERM I N A N TS
1 . Si mu l taneou s Li near Equ ati ons . Th e s ol u ti on of th e

s i mu l tan e ou s e qu a ti on s ,
"
I 6 13]
“
kl )
W + bzy = k2 1
1s
la1 b2 — 7c2 b1
2 ,
ai bz — a zbl
)?
p I O
'
V Id e d (1 1 62 0 1 2 121 Of
I f we hav e thr ee s i mu l tan e ou s l in ea r e qu a ti on s
u n kno wn s ,
!
al x by cl z kl ,
“ 233 192 3 0 22 702 ,
d 3x by 0 32 ks ,
a ndfir s t el i m in a t e z ob tam I n g t w o e qu a tion s i n x and y an d

, ,
then fr om these e q u a ti on s e l i m in a t e y w e fin d a s th e v a l u e Of x
5 I 755 5 756
, , ,
76 1 620 3 I 7 2 5 kabZ Cl 5
72
5 5 5 5 5 6
30 1 1 02 103 3 02
“ “ ' '
1
( )
3
4
5
x
“ 1 203 61 2 30 1 “ 3 1 02 (1 3 2 0 1 0 2 103 “ 1 30 2
S i m il a r l y , w e fin d th e va l u e s ofy a n d 2 Th ese wi ll a l so b e
ca n .
i n th e f or m o f qu oti en t s with th e s a m e d e n om in a t o r a s i n ,
I fa b
*
la bg 0 ( b u t a l a nd b
z l an d a and O a e n ot b oth e ro ) l, 2 2, r z ,
th e t w o s tra i gh t li n e s re p r ese nte d b y e q u ati ons ( 1 ) a e e i th e r p a ra l l e l

5
r
o r c oi n ci d e nt C T form e r ca se th e e q u ati ons

( h 2 1 0 h
. s 3 ) ,i n t h e ,
.
,
h ave n o s ol u ti on i n th e l atte r i n
, fin i tel y ma ny s ol u ti ons B oth case s a e
, . r
e x c e pti o n al t o th e ge n e r al cas e a b a b q e O i n whi ch th e sol u ti o n , 1 2 g l ,
(2) is u ni q u e .
D E T E R M I N AN T S 36 1
a nd th e sol u ti on is v a l id su bj e ct t o th e c on d ition tha t t h i s

d e n om i n a t or i s n ot z e ro .
2 . Tw o Three B ow ed Determi n ants Th e ex p r e s si on s

a nd -
.
i n th e n u m e r a t or s a n d d en om i n a t or s of th e q u o ti e n t s i n (2 )
a n d (4 ) a r e of s o gr ea t i m p o rta n c e th a t th e y a r e giv e n a n a m e .
Th e y a r e ca l l ed d eter m i na nts —th os e i n d eter mi n a nts of

,
th e s econd or d er a n d th os e i n , d eter mi n a n ts of th e th i r d
or d e r A d e t e r m i n a n t th en i s a p olynomi a l of th e a b ov e ty p e
.
, , .
Th e d e t e r m in an t ofth e s e c on d or d e r
5 5
,
“ 1 2 (1 2 1,
ca n e a s il y be re mem b e r ed by m ea n s of th e d i a gra m
in which th e l in es a n d th e S ign s Sh ow h ow th e te rm s o f th e
d e t e r m i n a n t a r e t o b e Obt a in ed .
Th e d i a gra m
fu l fil l s th e sa m e pu r p os e for th e d e t e r m i n a n t o fth e thir d o r d e r

5 5 5 5 5
,
“ 1 20 3
“
I
“
“ 2 30 1 “ 3 1 02 (1 3 6 2 0 1 “2 1 03 “ 1 30 2 .
Th e f ou r q u an titi e s a l Q 2 bl b2 a rra n g e d i n a s qu a r e a s i n
'
, , , ,
f or m wha t i s kn own a s a squ ar e a r r a y ofth e s econ d or d er .
Si m i l a r l y th e s y s t e m ofn i n e q u a n titi e s which f o r m s th e ba s i s

, ,
ofth e d i a gr a m i s k n own a s a s qu a r e a r r a y ofth e th i r d or d er .
Th e s q u a r e a rra y i s n ot it s el f th e d e t e r m i n an t I t i s m e r el y .
a c on v e n i e n t a rr a n g e m e n t ofth e giv en f ou r o r n in e q u a n titi e s , , ,
fr om which th e va l u e Of th e d e t e r m ina n t ca n b e writt e n d own .
H ow e v e r it i s c om m on p r a ctic e t o u s e a s a s y m b ol or n ota
, ,
tion for th e d e t e r m i n a n t , th e qu a r e a rra y in cl ose d b etween

s
v e rtical ba r s ,
and to writ e a cc ord in gl y
,
“ 1 62 “ 2 1; 5
“ I bl CI
( )
4 as b2 02 ai bzca 5 55 5 5
0 2 30 1 03 1 02 “ 3 10 1 “ 2 10 3 “ 1 1330 2 :
as b3 03
The se sy m b ol s for th e d e te r m i nan t s a r e som e ti m e s a bbr ev ia t ed

s t i l l fu rth e r I n s t ea d of th e fir s t w e Oft e n fi
. nd
| a 1 b2
| or ,
m e r e l y [ a b | a n d for th e se c on d
, a l bg c
l [
or a b , a
Th e sol u ti on of th e e qu a ti on s 1 w e can n ow writ e ,
i n th e f or m
or m or e c om pa ctl y ,
5
( ) ’ l a b | ¢0 .
l ]a b
Th e s ol u ti on oft h e e q u ati on s 1, b e c om e s
(6 ) m= m ’
M ’
M ’ I
a b c
| a b c | [ a b c
l | a b c
|
Th e va l u e Ofgiv en x is § 1
as Th e d e te r m inan t by .
n th e d en om i n a t o r i s e v i d e n t l y th e d e t e r m in a n t of
| a b c
] i
th e c oeffici en t s Of x y z i n th e giv en e qu a ti on s a n d th e
, , ,
d e t e r m i n a n t Ik b c ] i n th e n u m e ra t or i s Obta in e d fr om [ a b c ]
by r e pl a cin g r e s p e ctiv el y a a a — th e c oeffici en ts of x
, , ,, 2, 3
b y k 70 k — th e c on s ta n t t e r m s
l, 2, 3 S i m i l a r l y th e n u m e r a t o r .
,
a k c ofth e v a l u e O fy i s obt a in e d fr o m by r e p l a ci n g
| ] a b c
|
9“
Th e verti cal b ars m us t n ot b e confus e d wi th th e b sol te val u e si gns a u .
Th ey h ave n oth i ng t o d o wi th th ese Th cont t wi ll always Sh ow . e ex
wh i ch m e a ni ng i s i nten d ed .
3 . Determi nants of th e F ou rth and Hi gher Order s . G i v en
i t
s x ee n q u an titi es a rra n g ed in a s qu a r e a rray
aI
'
bI 61 dl
Wha t sha l l w e m ea n by th e d e t e r m in a n t sy mb ol iz e d or de
n ot e d by
“ 1 bl 01 d1
(1 2 b2 02 d2
I
(1 3 D3 C3 d
5
o
0
(1 4 4 64 614
or, m or e s i mp l y by [ a ] b2 c3 d 4 l or l a 6 c d l?
, ,
I f we w e r e to pr o c ee d a s b e f o r e w e S h ou l d writ e d o wn fou r
,
s i m u l t an e ou s l i n ea r e qu a ti on s i n f ou r u n kn own s with th e ,
e l e m en t s of (1
) a s th e c oe f fi ci en t s of th e u n kn o w n s a n d k k z l, ,
kg Is, a s th e c on s tan t t e r m s a n d th en s ol v e th e e qu a ti on s
“
, , .
Th e v a l u e of e a ch un kn own w ou l d b e a qu oti en t a n d a l l f ou r ,
qu oti en t s w ou l d ha v e th e sa m e d en om in a t or which w e sh ou l d ,
th en d efin e a s th e d e t e r m in an t a b c d As a m a tt e r offa ct ,
thi s d en om in a t or a n d ea ch ofth e nu m e ra t or s c on t a in s 2 4 t e r m s .
Th e p r o sp e ct of s ol vin g th e e qu a ti on s i s th en f orbi dd i n g , , .
Why n ot f or m th e p r odu ct s su gg e s t ed by a d i a gr a m b a s e d on
'
s i m i l a r t o th e d i a gr a m fo r th e thr ee r o w e d d e t e r m i n a n t
-
p re ,
fix th e p r op e r s ign s an d ca l l th e r e su l t th e d e t e r m i nan t
, Un
fortu n a t e l y thi s m e th od yi el d s b u t 8 t e r m s wh e r eas a cc or d in g ,
t o ou r p r e d icti on th e d e t e r m in an t p r op e rl y d efi n e d c on t a i n s 2 4
, ,
.
W e a d op t h e r e a n e w m e th od Of a tta ck Le t u s i n sp e ct .
m or e c l o s el y th e r e l a ti on shi p b e tw ee n th e s qu a r e a rr a y s of
o r d e r s tw o a n d thr e e a n d th e c o rr e s p on d in g d e t e r m i nan t s .
Con s i d e r a s p e ci m en t e r m ofth e d e t e r m i n a n t 2 I t con .
ta in s j u s t on e a j u s t on e b an d j u st on e o ; fu rth e r m or e e a ch of
, , ,
th e su b s cri p t s 1 2 3 a pp ea r s j u s t on c e
, ,
I n o th e r w o r d s th e
.
,
term i s th e p r od u ct ofth ree el e men ts, on e f m ro ea ch r ow a n d on e

f m
ro each col u mn ofth e s qu a r e v e ry p r od u ct
a rr a y . M or eov e r , e
o fthi s ty p e i s p r e s e n t a s s o m e t e r m i n th e d e t e r m i n a n t a s ca n ,
b e s h own by writin g d own a l l su ch p r od u ct s a n d c om p a rin g

the m with th e t e r m s ofth e d et e r m inan t .
B y a n a l o gy th en to f or m th e d e t e r m i n a n t [ a b c d ] w e
, , ,
S h oul d writ e d ow n a l l th e p r o d u ct s o f e l e m e n t s of e a ch o f
which c on ta i n s j u s t on e fa ct or fr om ea ch r ow a n d j u s t on e
fa ct or fr om ea ch c ol u m n of tha t i s a l l th e p r od u ct s Of th e ,
for m wh e r e i j k l a r e th e n u m b e r s 1 2 3 4 i n a l l
, , , , , ,
p os s ib l e o r d e r s Th e r
. e a r e 2 4 s u ch
p r o d u ct s F o r w e ca n .
,
ch oos e th e fir s t fa ct or s ay fr om th e c ol u m n ofa s i n f ou r wa y s
,
’
,
_ fr om a n y on e ofth e f ou r r ow s ; a n d th en th e s e c on d fa ct or ,
s a y fr o m th e c ol u m n o fb s i n thr ee w a y s fr om a n y on e o fth e
’
,
thr ee r e m a ini n g r ow s ; a n d th e thir d fa ct or i n tw o wa y s ; th e ,
fou rth i s th e n u n iqu el y d e t e r m i n ed Th e n u m b e r of p os s ibl e .
p r o d u ct s i s th e r e f o r e 4
,
3 2 1 ,
4 2 4 .
I t r e m a in s to d e t e r m in e th e s ign s t o b e giv en t o th e 24
p r o d u ct s
. T o w a r d thi s e n d l e t u s writ e d o w n t
,
h e s u b s cri t s of
p
th e t e r m s of 2 i n th e or d e r i n which th e y o ccu r w h en
, ,
th e l etter s a b c a r e i n th ei r n a tu r a l or d er
, ,
F or th e t e r m s w ith .
p l u s s ig n s w e h a v e
1 2 3,
an d for th e t e r m s with m i nu s S ign s ,
3 2 1, 2 1 3, 1 3 2 .
Th e fir s t s e t 1 2 3 i s n or m a l I n th e s e c on d s e t 2 3 1 2 a n d .
, ,
3 e a ch p r e c e d e 1 a n d w e sa y th a t th e r e a r e t w o i n v er s i on s fr om
,
h
t e n o r m a l o r d e r I n 3 1 2 .3 p r e c e d e s 1 a n d 2 — a g a
,
i n tw o ,
in v e r si on s I n th e thr ee se t s for th e n e ga tiv e t e r m s th e n u m

.
b e r of in v e r s i on s i s r e s p e ctiv el y thr e e on e a n d on e , , .
I t a pp e a r s th en th a t th e n u m ber ofi nv er s i on s i n th e s et ofsu b

, ,
scr ip ts for a ter m w i th a p l u s s i gn is e ven ( or z er o ) ,

wh er ea s for a
ter m wi th a mi nu s s i gn , th i s nu mber i s a l w a ys o dd .
P r o c e e d in g a cc or d in g to thi s ru l e w e sh ou l d giv e to ea ch of
,
th e 2 4 p r od u ct s , for m ed fr om (1 ) a p l u s S ign or a m inu s

S ign cc o rd in g a s i j k l p r e sen t s a n e v en or a n odd nu mb e r of
,
a
i n v e r s i on s fr om th e n or mal or d e r 1 2 3 4 Thu s th e p r odu ct .
b d 1 a 30 4 w ou l d b e ta k en a s p l u s s i n c e wh en th e fa ct or s a r e
2 , ,
a rr a n g e d i n th e o r d e r Of th e l e tt e r s v i z — a 3 b2 c4d th e n u m ,
.
l,
b e r ofin v e r s i on s i n th e s u b s cri p t s 3 2 4 1 i s e v en n a m e l y 4 , .
Th e p r od u ct a 4bzc3 d 1 w ou l d b e ta k en a s m in u s ; s i n c e th e nu m
b e r ofi n v e r s i on s i n 4 2 3 1 i s od d n a m e l y ,
5
.
W e can n ow giv e a c omp l e t e d efi n iti on of th e d e t e r m i na n t of

th e f ou rth o r d e r .
D EF I N I TI ON . F or m a ll th e p r od u cts f el emen ts of (1 ) w h i ch
o
conta i n j u st o n e a ctor f
f r om ea ch r ow a nd o ne fa ctor fr om ea ch
col u mn f( )
o 1 to ea ch p r od u ct a , b ckd ,
, p r e fix a p l u s si
gn or a
mi nu s s i gn , a ccor d i ng a s th e n u mbe r o fi n v ers i on s ofi j k I fr om

th e n or ma l o r d er 1 2 3 4 is e ven or o dd . Th e su m f
o th e
p rod u cts , th u s s i gn ed , i s th e d eter mi n a n t .
D e t e r m in an t s fifth S i x th a n d high e r o r d e r s a r e
of th e , ,
s i m il a r l y d e fi n e d Le t th e s t u d en t thi n k thr ou gh th e d efi n iti on

.
for a fi v e r ow e d d e te r m i na n t a n d l e t h i m Sh ow a l s o th a t i n th e
-
, , ,
ca se oftw o an d thr ee r ow e d d e t e r m ina n t s th e d efi n iti on yi el d s

- -
p r e ci se l y th e e x r es s i on s which w e r e d e fi n e d a s th e s e d e t er mi
p
na n t s i n 2 .
Th e Sign ed p r od u ct s which m a k e u p a d e t e r m i n an t a r e k n own

as th e ter m s of th e d e t e r m i n a n t Thu s a 3 bgc4d 1 a n d .
,
a 4b c3 d 1 a r e t e r m s of a b c d
2 [
EX E R C IS ES
1 Wha t i s th e n u m b e r ofi n v e r s i on s o fe a ch Of th e fol l owin g

.
o r d e r s fr om th e n o r m a l o r d e r
5 5
,
( ) 3 1 4 2 ; ( )
5 5
a c 2 3 l 4; () e 3 1 6 4 2 ;
( )
b 2 4 3 1 ; ( )
d 4 3 2 1 ; (f) 6 4 3 2 1 .
2Writ e ou t a l l th e t e r m s of a b c d
. TO h ow m an y p r o
d u ct s h av e y ou p r efi x e d p l u s s ign s To h ow m an y m in u s s ign s ,
3 H ow m an y t e r m s h a s a d e t e r m i n a n t of th e fifth or d e r ?
.
P r ov e y ou r a n s w er .
th e p r od u ct s typ e d es crib ed an d h en c e ar e a l l th e
of th e
p r o d u ct s o cc u rrin g i n II
I q e d ,
. . .
I t wil l b e s h o wn l a t e r 7 ) th a t th e t e r m s of mM a s th e y
s t an d ,
or th e t e r m s o f m M wi th a ll th e ir s ig n s ch a n g e d a r e
,
p r eci s ely t e r m s of A a cc or d i n g a s th e su m Of th e n u m b e r of
,
th e r ow a n d th e n u m b e r of th e c ol u m n i n which m s ta n d s i s
e v e n o r od d As su m in g thi s w e can n ow s ta t e th e th e or e m
.
,
THEOREM 1 Ifm i s th e element i n th e i th r ow a nd j th col u mn

.
- -
o A
f , a nd M i s i ts mi n or , mM or m i ll , a ccor d i ng a s i +j
is e ve n or od d , con si s ts o
f a ll th e term s f
oA w h i ch con ta i n m .
Thu s ,
i n th e c a se of th e el em en t a 2 of i : 2 j 1 , ,
an d
i +j : 3 ; a cc or d in g l y a zA2 giv es a l l th e t e r m s of 1
‘ , ( ) con
ta in in g a 2 F or b2 i : 2 j 2 an d i + j
.
, , ,
4, an d s o b2 B 2
c on si s t s of a l l th e t e r m s of (1 ) c on ta i n in g Si m il a rl y if ,
0 2 i s th e m in o r of 0 2 0 2 0 2 c on s i s t s of a l l
, th e te rm s of
( )
1
c on ta ini n g c2 .
Th e su m
( )
2 “ 21 42 ‘
I
'
5
2 3 2 02 02
is pr e ci sel y th e va l u e of th e d e t e r m i n an t F or it c on s i s t s ,
o f a l l th e t e r m s o f 1 c on t a in i n g a 2 o r b2 or 0 2 i e c on ta i n in g
( ) ,
. .
a n e l e m en t of th e s e c on d r ow a n d e v e ry t e r m of 1 c on ta in s
( ) ,
s u ch a n e l e m en t Th e s tu d en t s h ou l d a l so v e rify th e s ta t e
.
m e n t by c om p a rin g th e t e r m s of wh en ex pan d e d with ,
th os e of
I n (2 ) w e h a v e th e s u m of th e p r od u ct s of th e e l e m en t s of
th e s e c on d r ow by th e ir m in o r s ea ch p r od u ct h a vin g th e ,
r
p p o e r S ig n a cc o r d i n g t o Th e o r e m 1 W e sa y th a t 2
( ) i s t h e .
eva l u a ti on or exp a n s i on o f th e d e te r m i n a n t ( ) y
1 b th e m i n or s f
o
th e s econd r ow .
Si m i l a rl y , th e su m ,
( )
3 01 0 1 02 02 I " ‘
03 0 3,
of th e p r o d u ct s o f th e e l e m e n t s o f th e thir d c ol u m n o f ( )
1 by
th e ir m in or s wh e r e th e s ign s ha v e b een d e t e r m in ed by Th eor e m
,
C m p ar th ese res lts wi th th ose ob ta i n e d d i r ctl y a t t h e b egi n n i ng

o e u e
oft h e s ecti on .
D E T E R M I N AN T S 369
1 , i s p r e ci s e l y th e d e t e r m in a n t W e S p ea k of
( )
3 as th e
e v a l u a ti on of ( 1 ) by th e m i n o r s thir d c ol u mn ofth e .
Th e r e a s on i n g h e r e i s p e rf e ctl y g e n e ra l a p p l yin g to a , d eter

m in a n t of a n y o r d e r a n d to a n y r ow or c ol u mn of th e d eter
m i n an t Th e r esu l t w e su mm a ri z e a s fol l ow s
.
E V A L U ATI ON OF A D E TERM I N A N T BY TH E M I NOR S OF A
R ow OR A C O L UMN . S i n gl e ou t .
a r ow or a col u mn of a
d eter mi na nt . M u l tip ly ea ch el emen t i t by th e m i n or of

of
th e el e men t a nd p r efix to th e p r o d u ct t h e p p
r o er si n , a s
g
d eter m i n ed by T h eor em 1 . Th e s u m of th e s i n ed p r o d u cts i s
g
th e d eter mi n a n t .
W e h a v e a fea s ibl e m e an s of fi n d in g
n ow th ev a l u e s of d e
te r m i n a n ts Of th e f ou rth a n d high e r o r d e r s . F or ex a m p l e th e ,
d e t e r m i na n t
5 2
9 3
6 — 4
4 3
ev a l u a e d t by m i n or s ofth e fir s t r ow , is e qu a l to
'
—9 3 7 4 3 4 4 —9 7 4
5
- -
6 —4 4 —4 —2 —3 4 8 —3
5 5 5
2 ) 6
4 —3 — 1 —3 —1 4 —1
'
Wh en th e v a l u e of ea ch of th e thr ee r ow e d d e t e r m in an t s i s -
com pu t ed by th e a b ov e m e th od or by tha t of th e d ia gra m of

,
2 thi s b e c om e s
5
,
34 ) 2 1)
which yi el d s fi na l l y ,
as th e va l u e of th e giv en d e t e r m i na n t ,
1 03 .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . G iv en th e d e t e r m i n a n t [ a b c
l an d th e thr e e qu a n titi e s
kl ) 102 , 163 . P r ov e th a t:
kl Al s g + k3 A3 = l k b C
] .
G n e ra l i z a ti on G iv e n d e t e r m i na n t A
2 .
( e of Ex . a of
th e n th o rd e r and th e n q u a n titie s kl , kg, kn . S in g l e ou t a
c ol u mn (or r ow ) of A for m th e m in or s of i ts el e m en t s an d
,
p r e fi x t o e a ch t h e S ig n p r e s crib e d by Th 1 M u l ti p y ea ch
l . .
s ig n e d m in o r by th e c o rr e s on d i n g to a n d t a k e th e s u m ofth e s e
p
p r o d u ct s P r
. o v e th a t thi s s u m i s e qu a l t o th e d e t e r m in a n t
Obta in ed fr om A by r ep l a cin g th e c ol u m n (or r ow ) i n qu e s ti on

by kl kg ) k
, n
B y th e m e th od of thi s se cti on ,
e va l u a t e th e fol l owin g de
te r m i n a n ts
3 Tha t ofE x 5 2 4 Tha t o fE x 7, 2
5
. . . . . .
,
2 3 1 3 2
2 1 4 3
°
5 5
3 4 6 2 — 6 2
'
_ 1 2 3 3
5
2
O
2
5m . Si pli fied E v a l u a ti on b y M i n or s . G iv e n th e d e t e r m in a n t ,
3 2 0 1
5
2 1 3 4
4 0 2
2 6 0 3
Thr ee of th e f ou r el e m en t s i n th e thir d c ol u mn a r e z e r o .
Acc or d in g l y if w e ex pa n d th e d e t e r m i na n t by th e m in or s of
,
th e thir d c ol u mn thr e e o f th e f ou r r e sul tin g p r od u ct s ha v e

,
z e r o fa ct or s a n d d r op ou t s o th a t th e r e i s l e ft m e r e l y
, , ,
1
5
3 2
3 4 2
2 6 3
H en c e 3 (7 2 1 i s th e va l u e o f th e d e t e r m inan t .
ad ded t o th e thir d r ow giv es 0, 6, 5 ,

11 as a n ew t h ir d
r ow . Thu s (2 ) h as b e c om e
0 13 8 18
5
0 7 9 13
5
0 6 11
1 4 3
a d e t e r m i nan t wh os e va l u e by Th 2 i s e qu a l t o tha t of
,
.
,
E xp an s i on of 3
( ) by th e m i n o r s o fth e fir s t c ol u mn giv e s
13 3 1s
5
1) 7 13
— 6 11
Th e e va l u a ti on of thi s thr ee r ow ed d e t e r m in an t by m ean s of

-
th e s ch e m a tic d i a gra m Of 2 i n v ol v e s th e m ul ti p l ic a ti on ofl a rg e

nu mb e r s Thi s m ay b e a v oid e d a s fol l ow s Appl y Theore m 2
. .
so a s t o i n tr od u c e 1 or 1 a s a n e l e m en t ; for i n s t an c e by m u l ti ,
p l yi n g th e l a s t r ow thr ou gh by 2 a n d a d d i n g t o th e fir s t r ow
1 2
5
7 9 13
6 11
N ow writ e th e d e t e r m in an t p u ttin g i n j u st th e fir s t c ol u mn
re , .
M ul ti p l y th e fir s t c ol u m n by — 2 a n d a dd to th e s e c on d
c ol u m n for a n e w s e c on d c ol u m n ; a n d m u l tipl y th e fir s t
,
c ol u m n by 4 an d a dd t o th e thir d c ol u m n for a n e w thir d ,
c ol u mn Th e r e sul t i s th e e qu al d e t e r m in an t
.
1 o o
5
7 23 41
6 17 3
which ,
on e x p an s on i by th e m in or s ofth e fir s t r ow ,
h a s th e v a l u e
41
5
23
17 3
3 5
) 17 41 80 5 69 7
Th u s th e d e t e r m in a n t (1 ) h a s th e v a l u e 1 0 8 .
H er t oo th l on g m l ti p l i cati ons c oul d b e r p l c d b y Si mpl e r ones

it
e, ,
e u e a e ,
th ro gh th e ppl i cati on ofth e ab ove meth od ofred u cti on

u a .
EX E R C IS ES
E v al u a te, by th e bov e m e th o d , th e fol l owin g d e t e r m in a n t s

5 5
a .
5 5
8 9 7 10 12 1 7 3
1 . 7 6 21 26 30 3 . 8 9
6 7 4 30 33 37 6 0 1
4 . Tha t of E x . 5 ,
4 . 5Th
. a t ofE x . 6, 4 .
6 . Tha t ofE x . 7, 4 .
6 . Fund a mental Pr operti es of Deter mi nants . Th efol l owin g

th eo r e m s a re f u n d a m en t a l i n th e tra n s fo r m a ti on a n d e v a l u a
ti on of d e t e r m in a n t s Th e y . l ea d u p to a S i m p l e p r o of Of
Th e or e m 2 .
THEOREM 3 . If a ll th e el e men ts fa
o r ow
( or colu mn ) are
m u lti p l i ed by th e sa me qu a n ti ty, th e v a lu e o f th e d e te r m i n a n t i s
mu l tip l i ed by th i s qu a n ti ty .
F or , e a ch t e r m ofa d e t e r m in ant A c on ta in s a s a fa ct or j u s t on e
'
e l e m en t fr om th e r ow or c ol u m n i n qu e s ti on a n d c on se qu e n t l y
( ) , ,
when th e el e m en t s of thi s r ow (or c ol u mn ) a r e a l l mu l tip l i e d

by th e sa m e qu an tity m th e t e r m s of A wil l a l l b e m u l ti p l i e d
, ,
by m a n d th e r esu l tin g d e t e r m in an t wil l hav e th e v a l u e mA

,
.
Th e th e or e m I s oft en of u se i n e va l u a tin g a d e t e r m i n an t .
F or ex a m p l e if A i s ,
5 2 1 2 1 1
20 42 4 42 4 21
THEOREM 4 . If two r ows ( or col umns) of a d eter mi n a n t a r e

i d en ti ca l, ele men t for el emen t, th e d eter mi n a n t h a s th e v a l u e z er o .
Le t tha t it i s tw o r ow s which a r e i d en tica l Th e

u s a s su me .
p r oo f i s s i m i l a r if it i s t w o c
,
o l u m n s .
F o r a d e t e r m in a n t of th e se c on d o r d e r th e th e o r e m i s ,
ob v i ou s :
ab —l a b :0 .
C on s i d e r , n ex t ,
a d e t e r m i n an t
thir d o rd e r with tw o of th e ,
r ow s i d en tica l E x p a n d th e d e t e r m in a n t by th e m in o r s of
.
th e thir d Or O d d r o w
,
E a ch ofth e s e m in or s h a s i t s t w o r ow s
,
.
i d en tica l a n d i s th e r e for e z e r o S in c e th e th e or e m h a s b een

, , ,
p r o v ed f or t w o r o w e d d e t e r m in a n t s
-
C on s e q u e n t l y th e giv e n .
,
d e t e r m i n an t i s z e r o .
Si m il a r l y h a vin g p r ov e d th e th e or e m for thr e e r ow e d d e

,
-
t e r m i n an t s w e ca n p r ov e it for a f ou r r o w e d d e t e r m in a n t
,
-
.
F or w e h a v e b u t t o e x p a n d th e f ou r r o w e d d e t e r m i n a n t by th e
,
-
m i n o r s o f a r ow which i s n ot on e of th e t w o i d en tic a l r o w s .
Thi s ex p an s i on wi ll ha v e th e va l u e z ero s i n c e ea ch of th e ,
m i n o r s i n qu es ti on i s a thr e e r o w e d d e t e r m in ant with tw o -
i d en tic a l r ow s .
Th e p r o c e s s p e rp e tu a t e s it s e l f H en c e th e th e or e m i s tru e .
for a d e t e r m in a n t ofa n y o r d e r .
Th e m e thod of p r oof u se d h e r e i s kn o wn a s m a th ema ti ca l

'
i n d u cti on Th e fa ct tha t th e th e or e m i s tr u e for a tw o r owe d

.
-
d e te r m in a n t l ea d s u p t o i t s tr u th for a thr ee r o w e d d e t e r -
m i nan t e tc ,
.
C ORO LL A R Y . If th e e l e m en ts o f tw o r ow s
( or co l u mn s
) f
o a
d eter mi n a n t a re r
p po o r ti o n a l, th e d eter m i n a nt h a s th e v a lu e
z er o .
F or , ea ch t of on e of th e tw o r ow s (or c ol u mn s) i n
el e m en
q u e s ti on i s by hy p oth e s i s a m u l tipl e m of th e c orr e sp on d in g , ,
e l e m e n t o f th e o th e r Thu s m can b e ta k e n ou t fr om th e fir s t
.
of th e tw o r ow s
( or c ol u m n s
) a s a fa ct or
( Th T h e t w o .
r ow s ( or c ol u m n s ) a r e th en i d en tical a n d Th e or e m 4 can b e ,
a pp l i e d
5
.
THEOREM Ifea ch el ement ofa r ow (or col u m n) i s th e s u m

.
of tw o qu a n ti ti es ,
th e d e ter m i n a n t ca n be w r i tte n as th e su m of
two d eter m i n a n ts .
D en ot e th e d e t e r m i n an t by A and th e e l e m e n s of t th e c ol
u mn ( or r ow
) i n q u e s ti on by m1 ml ’
,
m2 m ’
2 , D en ot e by
A th e d e t e r m in a n t Obt a in e d by r ep l a cin g a ll th e m s i n ”
A by
r
z e os , a n d by A ’
th e d e t e r m i n a n t obta i n e d by r e p l a cin g a l l th e
al b1 + k a 1 01 al bl Cl al [ Ca l 01
b2 + ka 2 5 + ka z 02 = A+ 0 = A
5
av 02 a2 2 02 as
as bg + lca 3 03 as 3 63 as ka 3 03
EX E RC IS ES
1 . P r ov e th e th eor e m :Ifa ll th e elements ofa row
( or colu mn)
a r e z er o, th e d eter m i n a n t h a s th e v a l u e zer o .
2 . G iv en th e d e t e r m in a n t | a b c
| . U si n g E x 1 , . 4, S h ow
th a t
bI AI b2 A2 O .
G e n e r a l i z a ti on of E x If to th e m i n o rs col u mn
3 .
( .
f
o a
(or r ow ) f
o a d eter m i n a n t a re p re fi x ed th e s i gn s p r es cr i bed by
Th eor em 1, a nd f
i a ch
e s i gn ed mi n or i s th en mu l tip l i ed by th e
ment of a d i fi mn ( ) m
‘
corr esp on d i ng el e er ent col u or r ow ,

th e su
5
ofth e r es u l ti ng p r od u cts h a s th e va lu e z ero . P r ov e thi s the or e m .
Cf E x 2 ,
. . 4 .
E va l u a t e th e fol l owin g d e t e r m i n an t s , m a k i n g mu ch
5
as u se
as p ss
o ibl e ofTh s . 2— .
8 6 6 2 3 2
4 . 2 9 2 5 .
— 4 8 24
6 6 1 16 20 16
7 . Inter ch anges ofR ow s and ofCol u mns . G i v e n th e fir st n
in t e g e r s in t r
na u a l o rd e r
( )
1
in thi s o rd e r (1 ) in t e rchan g e tw o s u cces s i ve in t e g e r s ,

l an d
l + 1 z
( )
2 1 2 3 - o o
l + 1 l -
n .
C on s i d e r , n ow , th e n in t e g e r s in an a rbitra ry or d e r ,
( )
3 p q r t,
an d c om pa r e th e n u m b e r of I n v e r si on s of thi s o rd e r fr om th e
or d e r (2 with h n u m b e r ofi ts inv e r s i on s fr om th e o r d e r
) t e
E a ch p a ir of i n t e g e r s i s i n th e r d e r i n (2 ) a s it
sa m e o
w as i n ex c e p t th e p a ir I, l 1 C on s e qu en tl y if a p a ir
.
,
of i n t e g e r s i n n o t th e p a ir I l + 1 p r e s en t s a n i n v e r s i on
, ,
fr om th e it a l s o p r e se n t s an in v e r s i on fr om th e
or d e r a n d vic e v e r s a B u t th e p a ir l l
. 1 i n (3 ) p r e s en t s,
a n in v e r s i on fr om on e o f th e o r d e r s fr
( )
1 a n d a n,d n ot om
th e oth e r . H en c e w e c on cl u d e
,
LEMM A 1 . Th e tota l n u m ber f

oi n ver s i on s fr om th e or d er
w h i ch ( )
3 p r e s en ts , d iz
fe r s by o n e fr om th e tota l n u mber o f v er
i n
s i on s fr om th e o r d er wh i ch i t p r es en ts
5
.
e x a m pl e, in v e r s i on s fr om r
5
F or 2 3 1 4
5
h a s tw o th e n a tu a l
o rd e r 1 2 3 4 a n d thr ee fr om th e o r d e r 1 2 4 3 .
I n th e g en e r a l d e t e r m in a n t ofth e n th o r d e r ,
th e n or m a l or d er f or th e s u bscr i p ts i s th e or d er f th e
o r ows ,
n a m el y th e o rd e r Acc or d i n gl y , i fi n A
j c en t r o w s
-
tw o ad a ,
th e l th a n d a r e i n t e rch an g e d th e n or m a l o r d e r for,
th e su b s cript s i n th e n e w d e t e r m i n a n t A i s th e o r d e r
’
, ,
Th e t e r m s i n A a n d i n A a r e th e sa m e ex c e p t p e rh a p s for
'
,
S ign .To d e t e r m i n e th e S ig n of a t e r m a c , k a s a t e r m p ”
ofA th e n u mb e r of in v e r s i on s which th e su b s cri p t s

,
( )
3 p q r
p r e s e n t fr o m th e o r d e r ( )
1 i s c ou n t e d ; t o d e t e r m in e i t s S ig n ,
a s a t e r m o fA th e n u mb e r of in v e r s i on s of (3) fr om th e o r d e r
’
,
( )
2 i s c o u n t ed W .e h av e j u s t s h ow th a t t h e t w o r e su l t s
d iff e r a l w a y s by u n ity C on s e q u en t l y th e t e r m i n qu e s ti on
.
,
h as on e S ign in A an d th e op p o s it e S ign i n A ’
. T he re for e ,
A ’
A . W e ha v e thu s pr ov e d th e th eor e m
THEOREM 6 . Iftw o j
a d a cen t r ows o fA a r e i nter ch a nged, th e
s i gn o fA i s ch a nged .
Su p p os e , tha t w e c a rry a r ow ov e r m r ow s Thi s can

n ow , .
b e effe ct e d by m in t e rch a n g e s of a d j a c en t r ow s ; for e x a mp l e ,
if th e r ow i s to b e ca rri e d d own wa r d by in t e rchan gin g it with ,
th e r ow j u s t b e l o w i t th en with th e r ow j u s t b el ow i ts n e w
‘
p o s iti on e tc S i,
n c e e a ch in te rch a n g e ofa d j a c en t r ow s ch a n g es
.
th e Sig n of A th e fi n a l d e t e r m in an t wi ll b e e qu a l to A or
,
. A ,
a cc o r d i n g a s m i s e v e n o r odd Thi s r esu l t w e s ta t e i n th e .
f or m ofa th e or e m
THEOREM 7 . Ifa r ow o fA is ca r r i ed over m r ows, th e r esu lt
is A or A, a ccor di ng a s m is even or odd .
F in a l l y ,
in t e rch an g e a ny tw o r ow s I f th e r e a r e m r ow s .
b e tw e en th e tw o th e in t e rchan g e can b e efiected by ca rryin g

,
on e ofth e r o w s o v e r th e se m a n d th e n by c a rryi n g th e se c on d
on e ov e r thi s on e a n d th e m i e o v e r m + 1 r ow s Th e reby ,
. . .
th e d e t e r m in a n t ex p e ri en c e s m m 1 2m 1 chan g e s of
S ign i e a n od d n u m b e r
,
. . Th u s w e hav e th e r e su l t .
T H EOREM 8 . If a ny tw o r ows o f A a re i n ter ch a nged , th e s i gn
ofA i s ch a nged .
N ew R u l es f D e ter mi
or n i ng th e S i gn of a Term . W e fi r st
t t
s a e th e fol l owin g l e m m a :
LEMM A 2 . Ta ke th e fir s t n i n teger s i n a n a r bi tr a ry or d er
( )
4
a nd i n th i s or d er i n te r ch a nge two AD J A C EN T i n teger s , i a nd j

5
( ) 10 q r j i
5
'
Th en th e n u m ber o f i n v er si on s f ( ) from th e na tu r a l or d er
o
di fi f r om th e n u mber ( )
of i nv er si on s of 4 f m th a tu r a l
'
er s ro e n
or d er by on e .
Th e p r oof ofthi s l e m m a i s ex a ctl y l i k e th e p r oof ofLe mma 1 .

I n th e b ov e m eth od s of d e t e r m in in g th e Sign of a te r m th e
a
l e tt e r s an d su b s cri p t s (or th e c ol u mn s a n d r ow s) en t e r sy m - x
m e trica l l y Th e c ol u mn s an d r ow s a l so p l a y th e sa m e r ol e s
.
i n th e ch oic e o f th e fa ct or s which c on s tit u t e th e t e r m In .
o th e r w o r d s th e f or m a ti on of a d e t e r m in a n t fr om i t s s qu a r e
,
a rr a y b e a r s e q u a l l y on th e r o w s a n d c ol u mn s of th e a r ra y .
W e h a v e th en th e f oll owi n g th eor e m

, , .
THEOREM 9 . Ifth e r ows a nd col u mn s of A a re i nterch a nged ,

A is u n ch a nged .
C on se qu en tl y , Th eor e m s 6 7 an d , ,
8, which hav e b e en p rov ed
for r ow s ,
ar e tr u e al so for c ol u mn s .
Comp l eti on of th e P r oofof Th eor em 1 I fm i s th e el em ent .
in t h e i th r ow a n d j th c ol u m n of A, w e h a v e to s h ow th a t
_
+ mM or — mM gi v e s t e r m s of A a cc or d in g a s i + j i s e v en
,
or O d d ; or m or e bri efly th a t 1) m
”
, a l wa y s giv e s t e r m s
ofA
I fi : 1 , j 1, i . if m i s th e el em en t i n th e u pp e r l e ft han d
e .
-
c or n er ofA, th e n a t u r a l o r d e r s of l e tt e r s a n d s u b s cri p t s i n M
ar e
b e and 2 3 o
u .
A t er m TofM wil l p r e sen t th e sa m e nu m b e r of in v e r s ion s i n

l ett e r s an d su b s cri p t s with r e sp e ct t o th e se o r d e r s a s th e cor
r es p on d in g t e r m a l T of A p r e s en t s w i th r e sp e ct t o th e or d e r s
, ,
a b c ~ -
k an d 1 2 3
H en c e i t i s which giv e s t e r m s of A an d s in c e i j 2
mM , ,
th i s i s i n a cc or da n c e with th e th e ore m .
Con s i d e r n ow th e g en e r a l c a se :
,
m i n th e i th r ow an d j th
,
c ol u mn Ca rry th e i th r ow ov e r i 1 r ow s to th e top of A
.
an d th en ca rry th e j th c ol u m n ov e r j 1 c ol u m n s to th e ex
t r e me l ef t ofA B y T h 7 th e r esu l t i n g d e t e r mina n t i s
. .
,
( )
9
an d in it m i s i n th e p p e r l e ft ha n d c orn e r I t fol l ow s th en
u -
.
, ,
fr om th e c a se fi r st c on sid e r ed t ha t mM giv es ter ms of,

H en c e 1) ”
m giv e s t e r m s of
1) 2 t +2 j 2
A’
-
a nd the r e for e o fA, s n i ce 2i 2j 2 is e ven q

,
. e . d .
*
EX E R C IS ES
1 . P ro v e Le m m a 2 .
2 . D e t e r m in e , by ea ch ofth e thr ee m e th od s a b ov e d e s crib e d ,

th e s ign s to b e giv en to th e f ol l owin g p r od u ct s
( )a baCI a z 5 ( )
b C2 a 4d 3 b1 ()
0 5
d b3 e 1 a 4 c2
’
8 . Cr ani er
’
s R ul e . I n § 2 , w e s t a t ed tha t th e thr e e S i mu l
ta n e ou s e qu a ti on s in thr e e u n kn own s ,
alm “
19 I
I “
5 “ “
0 12 kl )
+ b29 + = kx
( )
1 a 2x 0 2z
a 3x "
I bsy I
" “ “
0 32 ks,
have th e s ol u ti on
I I
|
I
k b c a ls o
( )
2 — ’ y ’
a b c
l a b c
p r ov1 d e d
'
[ a 6 c :o .
Thi s rul e for fi n d in g th e s ol u ti on of (1 ) i s d u e to G a br i el

C ra m e r W e p r o c e e d to p r ov e i t .
As su m in g tha t e qu a ti on s ( 1 ) h a v e a s ol u ti on w e b e gin by ,
m ul ti p l yin g th e m r e s p e ctiv el y by A1 A2 A3 i e b y th e , , ,
. .
s ig n e d m in o r s of a 1 a 2 a 3 i n th e d e t e r m in a n t [ a b c l
,
Ad d ,
.
i ng th e r esu l tin g e q u a ti on s w e h a v e
5 5
,
( Alal az Az + d 3A3 ) x
~ ( 4 1 1 21 42 bsAs) y
A
( I
CI 02 4 4 2 “
I “
0 3 4 43 x
) kl Al 5
7 2 1 42 I k3A3
“ ”
.
Th e c oeffici en t ofx i s th e e v al u a ti on of Ia b c by th e m in or s
of t h e a s Si m i l a r l y th e c on s ta n t t e r m i s [ k b c
’
.
, cf § 4 .
,
All th e th eorem s of th i s p aragra p h h ave b e e n p rove d d i re ctl y from

th e d e fini ti on ofa d ete rm i n a nt wi th o t t h e u se of a n y of th e p re ce di n g
5
, u
th e orems of 4 6 SO th e p aragr ph cou ld b e i nserted i mm ed i atel y

ter § 3 I ts i mp ortan ce i n comp ari son wi th th at of 4 5
, , , . a
af .
, 6 i s n ot , , , ,
h owever s u f fici e nt to j u stify th i s

,
.
Ex . 1 . Th e c oeffici en t s o f y an d z are
[ b b | c and
[ c b c
l
,
an d th e se d e t e r m in ant s a r e z e r o ( Th . C on s e qu e n t l y ,
Si n c e we a r e a ssu m n i g tha t a b c
-
_0 ,
4
Thi s i s th e v a l u e of x a s giv en by M u l ti p l yin g th e

,
e qu a ti on s (1 ) r e sp e ctiv el y by R I B 2 — B 3 a n d a dd in g , , ,
w e Obta i n th e v a l u e ofy Tha t of z i s a rriv e d a t i n a S i m i l ar

.
m ann e r .
Wha t w e h av e p r ov ed i s thi s :I f th e e qu a ti on s (1 ) h a ve a
s ol u ti on i t i s gi v en by f o r m u l a s
,
I t f ol l ow s th en th at , ,
e q u a ti on s (1 ) h a v e a t mos t on e s ol u ti on s i n c ef or m ul a s (2 ) gi v e ,
u ni qu e v a l u e s f or x y 2 , ,
.
I t r e m a i n s to Sh ow th a t th es e v a l u e s ofx y 2 a ctu a l l y a r e a
'
, ,
s ol u ti on i e a ctu a l l y sa ti s fy e qu a ti on s ( 1 ) i n a l l c a ses
,
. . Thi s .
ca n b e d on e by d ir e ct su b s tit u ti on S e ttin g th e va l u e s in t o .
th e fir s t ofe q u a ti on s (1 ) a n d m u l ti p l yi n g thr ou gh by a b c l ,
w e hav e
l
— kl = 0
( )
3 d l
l k b c
| + b1 | a k c
| + cl
| a b h I l |
a b c .
B y p r op e r rran g e m en t of c ol u m n s
r ea in th e fir s t tw o d e t er
m i n an t s ( cf Th s 6 thi s b e c om e s
. .
| al lb lc h — b
l a c h | + cl
| a b k I — k
l l a b c
| :0 .
Th e l ef t h an d s id e h e r e
-
i s th e e va l u a ti on ofth e d ete r m in an t
a, bl cl to,
al bl cl kl
ag b2 c2 702
as b3 03 as
by th e m inor s ofth e fir s t r ow B u t thi s d e t e rm in an t i s z e r o .

,
b e cau s e th e fir s t tw o r ow s a r e i d en tic al C on s e qu en tl y (3 ) i s
v
.
,
a tr u e e qu a ti on a n d th e v a l u e s of x y 2 gi v en b ti fy
y ( )
2 s a s , ,
i n th e two wn s x y a r e sa i d to b e comp a ti bl e or con s i st
u n kn o , ,
ent if th e y h a v e a s i m u l tan eou s s ol u ti on Th e y wi l l i n

, .
,
g en e ra l b e i n comp a ti ble S in c e a s ol u ti on of tw o of the m wil l

, ,
n ot i n g e n e r a l
,
s a ti s fy th e thir d I t i s i m p o rt a n t th en to
, .
, ,
d e t e r m i n e th e c on d iti on for th e ir c om p a tibi l ity .
Tw o ca se s a ri se a cc or d in g a s th e m in or s C1 C2 C3 of th e
, , ,
e l e m en ts c C3 i n th e d e t e r m in a n t
'
02 l, , | l
a b c a r e n ot or a r e , ,
a l l z er o I n c a s e th e y a r e n ot a l l z e r o a t l ea s t on e of th e m
.
,
mu s t b e d iff e r e n t fr o m z e r o Su pp o s e th a t C3 : a , bz | i s .
n ot z e r o Th en th e fir s t tw o of th e e qu a ti on s (1 ) ha v e by
.
,
Th 1 0 on e an d on l y on e s ol u ti on n a m el y :
.
, ,
2 w= I1
b c2 |
’
a1 c2 l .
I ai bz | I al bz l
Thi s wi ll be a s ol u ti on ofth e thi r d e qu a ti on if a n d on l y if

I =
a3 I1
b Cz — bs la i 02
I+ 03
| a1 b2 I O)
or , s i n c e th e l e ft ha n d S i d e h e r e i s th e ex pan s i on
-
of a b c
] by
th e m i n o r s ofth e thir d r ow if a n d onl y if ,
B e for e f or m u l a tin g thi s r e su l t as a the or e m ,

we giv e a
d e fin iti on .
D EF I N I TI ON . Th e n u m b er s al , a2, a3 a nd b] ,
b2 , b, are p ro
p or ti on a l
ifa nd on ly i fth er e ex i s t tw o n u m ber s I a nd m, n ot both zer o, s u ch
th a t
( )
4 m bl :
I fbl , b2 , b, a r e a l l z e o an d r we ta k e l 0 an d m an y n u m ber
qu a tion s (4 ) a r e sa ti sfi ed n o m a tt e r wha t v a l u es a a 2 a 3
0,
‘
e l, ,
hav e I n oth e r w or d s thr ee a rbitra ry nu m b e r s d a2 a 3 on

.
, l, , ,
th e on e ha n d a n d 0 0 0 on th e oth e r a r e a l wa ys p r op orti on a l
, , , , ,
.
I n p a rticu l a r d a 2 a , m ay a l so a l l b e z e r o
, l, , , .
Su pp ose n ow th a t bl b2 b3 a r e n ot a ll z e r o a n d l e t bl for
, , , , ,
ex am pl e b e n ot z e r o ,
I f th en l w e r e 0 w e sh oul d h av e .
, , , ,
DE T E R M IN AN T S 38 5
fro m th e fir st
qu a ti on s ofem 0 ; bu t l : 0 m 0 i s con ,
tr a r y t o th e d efi n iti on Con s e qu e n tl y i n thi s c a s e l c a nn ot

.
, ,
be 0 H en c e w e can d ivi d e ea ch e qu a ti on thr ou gh by l

. Th e .
r esul t i s th e e qu a ti on s
a' 1 k bl ; a2 k b2 ) a3 k b3 ;
wh e r e It h a s th e va l u e m l C on v e r s el y if i n a n y giv en c a s e .
,
th e r e ex i s t s a n u m b e r k z e r o or n ot z e r o su ch th a t th e s e e qu a
, ,
ti on s h ol d th en a l a 2 a 3 a n d bl b2 b, a r e p r op orti on a l F or
, , , , , .
,
t h e e q u a ti on s a r e b u t a s p e ci a l c a se of e qu a ti on s wh en
I : 1 and m k W e h av e thu s p r ov e d th e f ol l owi n g th e o r e m
.
Ifbl , b2 , b, a r e n ot a l l zer o, th e n u mber s al , a2 , a s a nd bl , b2 , b3

are p r op or ti ona l if a n d on ly i f th er e ex i s ts a n u mber k, z er o or
5
n ot zer o, s u ch th a t
( ) a1 k bl , 5
C2 k bz, 61 3 70 63 .
By a pp l ica ti on of th e d efi n iti on
h ow tha t th e it is ea s y to S
m in or s C 0 2 C3 i n th e a b ov e d i s c u ss i on a r e n ot a l l z e r o wh e n
l, ,
a n d onl y wh en a l a 2 a 3 a n d bl b2 b; a r e n ot p r op o rti on a l ; cf
, , , , .
Ex 2 . Th e fo r e g oin g r e su l t can b e s ta t ed th en a s foll ow s

.
, ,
THE OREM 1 1 If i n th e equ a ti ons .

,
ai as as bl bz bs)
th e th r ee equ a ti on s w i l l be co mp a ti bl e w h en and on ly w h en th e
d eter mi na n t f
o th ei r coe fi i ci en ts v a n i s h es . Th ey th en h a v e on e
a n d on l y on e s ol u ti on .
Th e c a se in which C 1 : 0 2 : C3 0 i s l eft to th e t
s u d en t;
of. Ex 3 . .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . Sh ow tha t th e e qu a ti on s ,
5I
a 1 23 ' "
bl "
(l l “ 2 4 17 0,
ar e c on s i s t en t if an d onl y if [ a b |
2 Th e p r op o rti on a , a g a 3 b, b2 b3 i s v a l i d if a n d on l y
.
if th e thre e tw o r ow ed d e t e r m in an t s which a r e for m ed fr om

-
th e a rra y
by d r opp in g ea ch c ol u m n in tu rn ,
are al l ze o r . P r ov e thi s
th eor em
3 . qu a ti on s (1 ) a a 2 a 3 bl b2 b;, a r e n ot a l l z e r o
I fi n th e e ] , , , , ,
a n d a l a 2 a ;, a r e p r op o rti on a l t o b l b2 b3 th e thr ee e q u a ti on s
, , , , ,
wil l b e c om pa tibl e if a n d onl y if cl C2 0 3 a r e p r op orti on al to a l , , ,
a 2 a 3 an d b
, b2 b3 Th ey th en hav e i nfi n it el y m an y s ol u tion s
l, ,
. .
P r ove thi s th e or e m .
In ea ch
f ol l owin g e x e rci se s d e t e r m in e wh e the r or
o fth e n ot
th e gi v e n s y s t e m o f s i mu l ta n eou s e qu a ti on s i s c om p a tibl e . If
it is fi n d th e s ol u ti on
5 5
.
,
4 y+ = 0, 4 w + 3 y — 2 = O, w+ 7y
52
.
. 90 + y
— 1 = O, 3m x
6 — :
3a + 6y — 9 = O,
'
2w
5
. x
7 . 4 w+ 2 y — i = 0, 2 x + y
— = O, — 6x
8 . T H EOREM . If,
i n th e eq u a ti on s
th e fou r mi n or s D 1 , D 2 , D 3 , D 4 ofth e el emen ts al l , d 2 , d 3, al l i n th e

d eter mi n a nt a b c d | a r e n ot a ll z er o, th e equ a ti on s a r e com
p a ti bl e wh en a n d on ly w h en a b c d ] 0 . Th ey th en h a v e on e
a n d on ly one s ol u ti on . P r ov e thi s th eor e m .
D e t er m i n e i n ch ca se if th e fou r giv en e qu a ti on s
ea a r e c om
pa tibl e I fs o, wha t i s th e c omm on sol u ti on

5
.
4 w — 2 y + 2 z — = O,
5
2 w+ 3 y + 4 z
x 2 93 y+ z + 3 = 0,
x + 3y 6x
3w — 2 w+
y z + 2 = 0 .
11 St a t e th e g en e ra l iz a ti on of Th e or e m 1 1 a n d th e
‘
th eor e m of E x . 8 for th e c a s e of n + 1 l in ea r e q u a ti on s in n
u n k n ow n s .
n ot v a n i s h , th e on ly si m u lta neou s s ol u t i o n of th e equ a ti ons is
t= 0 .
I f, th en ,
th e e qu a ti on s ti on oth e r tha n th e
ar e to ha v e a s ol u
o bv i ou s sol u ti on 0 O O 0 it i s n e c e s s a ry tha t th e d e te r m i
, , ,
m
, ,
n a n t o f th e c o e ffici e n t s v a n i s h I t ca n b e sh o wn c on v e r s e l y .
, ,
tha t i f thi s d e t e r m in a n t d oes v an i sh th e e qu a tion s wi l l h av e

s ol u ti on s o th e r th a n th e Obvi o u s s ol u ti on Tha t i s th e foll ow .
,
i n g th e o r e m i s tru e .
THEOREM 1 4 A sys tem ofn h omogeneou s l i nea r equ a ti ons i n

.
n u n k n ow n s has a s ol u ti o n oth e r th a n th e o bv i o u s s ol u ti on , 0 , O,
0, 0, if a n d o n ly ifth e d e ter m i n a nt ofth e coe i c i en ts fi v a n i s h es .
To c om p l e t e r oof of thi s th e or e m i n th e ca se of e qu a
th e p
ti on s w e m u s t s h ow th a t if Ia b c O th e e qu a ti on s h a v e , ,
s ol u ti on s o th e r th a n 0 ,0 O Thi s w e sh al l d o by a ctu al l y ex
,
.
h i b i ti n g su ch s ol u ti on s .
B y hy p oth es i s [ a b e
l O Th
,
en t w o c a s e s a ri s e a s z .
,
f o l l ow s :
Ca s e 1 N ot a l l th e m i n or s i n | a b c l a r e z er o
. I n thi s ca s e .
a t l ea s t on e m i n o r i n oe s n ot v a ni s h o se th a t
[ a b c
] d S u
pp .
th e m in o r | a 1 b2 | i n th e u p p e r l e f t ha n d c orn e r i s n ot
, ,
-
W e pr o c ee d th e n to s h o w tha t e qu a ti on s (1 ) h av e a sol u ti on
, ,
at y z i n which 2
, , ,
1 i e th a t th e e qua ti on s . .
,
:
!
by cl 0,
5
ala
ag e: 23 02 0,
a 3v by C3 0,
o bta ined fr om th e e qu a ti on s (1 ) by s e ttin g 2 1 h a v e a s i mul ,
ta n e ou s s ol u ti on for ac a n d y .
S in c e by hy p oth es i s | a b c l: 0 a n d | a 1 b2 |
,
0 e qu a ti on s
, ,
2 a v e a cc o r d in g t o Th 1 1 j u s t on e s ol u ti on th a t giv en by
( ) h ,
.
, ,
f or mul a s 9 n a m el y ,
_ l l
b |
5
02
’
l al bz l l
al
] 2
Ifi n a ny pa rti cu l a r c as e th i s mi r w re er th e e q ti ns an d th e
no e z o, ua o
te rms i n th em c ou l d be rearrange d , so th at th e mi n or wo l d n ot b e z ero u .

Con se qu en t l y , e qu a ti on s (1 ) ha v e th e sol u ti on
4 , 9
l a1 b2
an d h en c e by Th 1 2 , th e s ol u ti on
5
.
,
( ) x = bl
| y =
or , fi n al l y ,
a ga in by Th . 1 2 , th e s ol u ti on s
— k = k
6
( ) y ' a1 C2
1 , z
l a1 b2
Th e r e a r e infi n it el y ma n y sol u ti on s giv en by s in c e k
may hav e a n y va l u e I n a s m u c h a s | a 1 b2 | ¢ 0 on l y on e of
.
,
th e s e s ol u ti on s i s th e s ol u ti on 0 O 0 n a m e l y th e on e for which , , ,
k 0. H e n c e th e th eo r e m i s p r o v e d i n thi s c a s e .
F u rth e r m o r e ( 6 ) giv e s a l l th e s ol u ti on s of
,
To p r ov e
thi s l et (t o ya 2 0 b e an a rbitra ry s ol u ti on of
, , ,
If 20 0 ,
th en 930 yo 0 s in c e for z O th e fir s t tw o of equ a ti on s (1 )

,
b e c om e
an d th e onl y sol u ti on qu a ti on s i s O 0 b e ca u s e
of th e s e e , ,
| |
a 1 b2 ¢ 0 ; cf Th 1 3
I f. z o ¢ 0 th en reg 2 0 yo z o 1 i s a s ol u
.
/ /.
, , ,
ti on of (1 ) a n d coo/2 0 yo/zo i s the r e f or e a s ol u ti on of

,
But
th e onl y s ol u ti on of (2 ) i s gi v en by f or m u l a s H en c e it
f oll ow s th a t
| b 1 02
| y o | a 02
| ’
1
’
1 0 1 b2
l Z 0 a 1 b2
|
or th a t
yo
— k | a1 02 ; a1 bz I,
wh e r e k h as a d efi n it e r
v a l u e , n ot z e o .
W e m ay t t
s a e th e fin a l r e su l t by yin g tha t ev er y solu ti on
sa
of( ) 1 i s p r op or ti o n a l to th e s o l u ti on m ea n in g th e r e by th a t , ,
it i s giv en by e qu a ti on s ofth e f or m ( )
6 cf 9 eq
.
,
.
Ca s e 2 . Al l th e m i n or s i n [ a b c a r e zer o I n thi s ca se it
.
f ol l ow s by ,
9 , Ex 2, . tha t
a j z b l z cl
'
a2 3 b2 3 02 = a3 z b3 3 03 .
Thi s m ean s tha t th e l e f t han d s i d e s of e qu a ti on s (1 ) a r e p r o

-
p o rti o n a l t o on e a n oth e r C on se qu e n t l y a
. l l t h e s ol u ti on s o f ,
on e of th e e qu a ti on s a r e s ol u ti on s o fth e o th e r t w o a n d h e n c e ,
a r e a l l th e s ol u ti on s ofth e sy s t e m
Th e e qu a ti on thu s s in g l ed ou t m u s t b e on e i n which th e
thr e e coeffici en t s a r e n ot a l l z e r o Thi s i s tr u e of a t l ea s t on e
°
.
ofth e e qu a ti on s s i n c e b y hy p oth e s i s n o t a l l th e c o e f
,
fici en t s ,
i n (1 ) a r e z e r o Le t it b e tr u e of s a y th e fir s t e qu a ti on
.
, ,
( )
7 a l as by cl z O,
an d l et al ,
for ex a m p l e , be n ot z e o r .
In s ol vin g th e va l u e s of y and 2 ca n be ch osen at

p l ea s u r e :y = k z ,
l, an d th e va l u e of a :i s th en d e t e r m in ed .
C on se q u e n tl y , al l th e s ol u ti on s of
( 7 an d h en c e of ar e
giv en by
( )
8 a : z I
.
H e r e th e r e rbitr a ry c on s ta n t s k a n d Z W e say th en
ar e two a , .
, ,
tha t th e e qu a ti on s (1 ) ha v e a tw o p a r a meter fa mi ly of s ol u ti on s -
i n thi s c a s e ; a n d i n d i s tin cti on a one p a ra meter f

, a mi ly o f ,
-
s ol u ti on s i n C a s e 1 .
Th e p r oof o f Th e or e m 1 4 for n = 3 i s n o w c om p l e t e I n , , .
th e g en e ra l c a s e th e fa ct s a n d c on se qu e n t l y th e pr oof a r e , ,
m u ch m or e com p l i ca te d fi S e e p 4 0 3 f oot n o t e
“
.
, .
E X E R C IS ES
1 . P r ov e Th eor e m 1 4 for th e c a s e n 2 .
2 . P r o v e th e Th e o r e m :If it , y ] ,,
-
,
t1 a nd 032 , yg,
m
,
t2 are
two si mu l ta neou s s ol u ti o n s o f n h omogen eou s l i n ea r e qu a ti o n s in

th e n u n kn ow ns v,
.
y, z, t, th en 5
191 $2 , yl yz, m
,
t1 t2 i s
a lso a s ol u ti on . T ak e fir s t n 3 .
C on tinu a ti on of E x Sh o w , fu rth e r tha t kwl

3 .
( .
,
kyl + l yz, m
,
kt, l t2 i s a s ol u ti on .
C f B Och e r , I n tr odu cti on to H i g h er A l ge br a , C h

. . IV .
r e ga r d in g th e for e g oin g w or k a s p ri ma ri l y ofv al u e i n fu rn i sh
i ng u s e qu a ti on
To Sh ow tha t e qu a tion (3 ) r e p r e s en t s th e l in e thr ou gh
232 y2) d e v e l op th e d e t e r m i n a n t by th e m in o r s of th e
( 1131 yl
, ) ( , , ,
fir s t r ow E qu a ti on (3) th en t a k e s on th e u su al for m (1 ) of a
.
l in e a r e qu a ti on i n a: a n d y ; m or e ov e r th e v a l u es Obt a in e d for ,
A and B
A = y1 B = x 2 — x1 ,
'
y2
-
ar e n ot b oth z e r o si n c e th e giv en p o in t s d o n ot c oin ci d e

,
.
C on s e qu en tl y (3 ) r e p r e s en t s s om e s tra ight l in e
, .
Thi s l in e i s th e r e qu ir e d l in e if th e c oor d ina t e s ofth e giv en ,
p o i n t s s a ti s fy Th e y d o f or if w e r e l a c e 23 y i n th e d e
p , , ,
t e r m in a n t by 931 yl or by 5 02 y2 tw o r o w s of th e d e t e r m in a n t
, , , ,
wil l b e i d en tical an d h en c e th e val u e of th e d e t e r m i na n t wi l l

b e z ero .
Th r ee P o i n ts on a Li n e . Let th e thr ee p o i t which w e

n s ,
a s su m e a r e di tin ct b e
s , yl ) ( ,
x2 ,
) (
yz , x3 , y )
3 . T h e e q u a ti on
ofth e l i ne thr ou gh th e c
s e on d a n d thir d i s, a cc or d i n g t o
a: y 1
{C2 yz 1 O .
933 ya 1
Th e fir s t pi t l i e s on thi s l in e if
o n an d on l y if (ml , y l ) i fies
sa t s
i . e . if a n d onl y if
1
5
971
19 1
( ) at ya 1 0 .
933 1
Thi s r e su l t w e s t a t e a s fol l ow s
T H EOREM 1 5
Th e th r ee p oi nts (901
5
.
, yl ) , ( x2 ,yz) , (x3 , y3 ) a re
col l i n ea r , i fa n d on ly i fth e d eter mi n a n t i n ( ) v a n i sh es .
Th ree L i nes th r ou gh a P oi n t . Con s i d e r th e th r ee d i s tin ct

l i nes
A1 w+ B 1 y + 0 1 0,
A2 x + B 2 y + 0 2 0,
A3x + B 3y + C3 0 .
Th ey ar e p a a l l r
e l ,
by Ch I I ,. 1 0, Th . 3, if a n d onl y if
A1 :
B1
i . e
. i fan d on l y if
( )
7 A1 3 A2 1 A3 = B 1 1 B z z B 3 .
Su pp ose , tha t th e thr ee l in es g o thr ou gh a p oin t

n ow , .
Thi s m ean s a na l ytica l l y tha t th e e qu a ti on s (6 ) ha v e a c omm on

, ,
s ol u ti on f or x y i e a r e c om a tib l e H e n c e it f l l w by
p , ,
. . o o s .
, ,
Th 1 1 s in c e i n thi s ca se (7 ca nn ot h ol d th a t l A B C ] 0
.
, , .
Th e d e t e r m i na n t | A B O | v a n i sh e s a l s o wh e n th e thr e e '
l i n e s a r e p a ra l l e l s in c e th en (7 ) i s v a l i d a n d th e fir s t t w o
,
c ol u mn s i n th e d e t e r m in a n t a r e p r op orti on a l .
C on v e r se l y if | A B C | = 0 th e l i n e s (6 ) a r e p a r a l l e l or
, ,
c on cu rr en t F or if th e d e t e r m in a n t va n i s h e s by vir tu e of th e
.
,
fir s t tw o c ol u mn s b e i n g p r op orti on a l (7 h ol d s a n d th e l in e s a r e ,
p a r a l l e l O n th e o th e r h a n d if
.
( )
7 d o e s n o t h ol d e q u a ti on s , ,
by Th 1 1 a r e c om p a tibl e a n d thi s m e a n s g e om e trica l l y

.
, , ,
th a t th e thr ee l in es h a v e a p oin t i n c om m on .
W e h a v e thu s p r ov e d th e th e o r e m
THEOREM 1 6 Th e th r ee li n es (6 ) a r e con cu r r en t or p a r a l l el
.
ifa n d on ly ifth e d eter m i n a n t o fth e i r coe fi ci en ts va ni s h es :

A B O|=O .
E X E R C IS ES
F in d th e e qua ti on s Of th e f ol l owin g l in e s i n d e t e r m in a n t
f or m .
1 . Th e l in e thr ou gh (v l .
, yl ) with i n t e rc ep t b on th e ax si
o fy .
2 . Th e l in e wit h i n t e rc ep t s a an d b .
F in d , i n d e t e r m i n a n t
f or m th e e qu a ti on s of th e l i n e s r e ,
qu ir e d i n th e f ol l o wi n g ex e rci s e s of C ha p t e r I I R e d u c e th e .
equ a ti on e a ch ti m e t o th e u su a l f o r m
5E
.
3 Ex 1 , § 1 4 Ex 2, 1 4, 1 6 E x 6, 1
5 5
. . . . . . . x . . . . .
7 . Ex 7 , . 1 . 8 . E x 1 0,
. 1 . 9 . EX 1, § . . 10 . Ex 3, §
. .
B y th e m e th od thi s pa ra gra p h d o th e fol l owin g e x e rci s es
of ,
a t th e e n d of C h a p t e r I I I c on c e r n in g thr e e l i n e s thr ou gh a
p o i n t o r thr e e p oi n t s o n a l i n e .
11 Ex 1 12 Ex 2
5E 5
. . . . . .
14 . Ex 4 . . 1 . x . .
Ar e th e l i n es giv en i n th e f ol l o win g ex e rci se s c on c u rr en t ?

p a ra l l el ?
17 . Ex 4, § 9
. . 18 . Ex . 5§ ,
9 . 19 . Ex 7, § 9
. .
12 Th e Ci rcl e and th e Coni cs E qu a ti on ofth e C i r cl e th r ou gh

. .
Th r ee P oi n ts I f th e thr e e p oin ts
.
y)l y ) (
2 93 , , 3,
which w e a s s u m e a r e n ot c ol l in ea r l i e on th e circl e ,
( )
1
5
it fol l ow s th a t
4 4 0131 2 “
I 91
“
+ 3 931 Cy1 I '

"
D O)
A ( I 3129 + 1 3332 I D 0,
2
18 2 “ “ " “
A (w32 ”
I
“
B ib s I “ “ “
I D
”
0 0
In ( )
1 an d h a v e fou r h om og en eou s l in ea r e qu a ti on s
( )
2 w e
i n th e fou r u n k n own s A B C D which h a v e a s ol u ti on oth e r , , , ,
than th e obv i ou s sol u ti on 0 0 0 0 C on se qu en t l y by Th 1 4 , , , ,

.
, .
,
93 2
y
2
a :y 1
x1
2 ‘
I 19 1
‘
2
971 9 1 1
972
2 "
I 92“
2
5 02 92 1
973
2 “
I 1
“
1
13
2
5 33 ya 1
E qu a ti on ( )
3 i qu a tion of th e circl e thr ou gh th e thr e e
s th e e
giv en p oin t s F or if w e d ev el op th e d et e r m in a n t i n (3 ) by
.
,
th e m in o r s of th e fir s t r ow w e Obt a in a n e q u a ti on of th e f or m ,
wh e r e
931 yi 1
A: “2 S
92 1
5
173 ys 1
i ce
s n thr e e p oin t s we r e a s su m e d
th e n on c ol l in ea r
-
C on se qu en t l y e qu a ti on (3 ) r e p r e sen t s
, ,
a circ l e or a,
When th e d e t e r m in a n t i s d e v e l op e d by th e m inor s of th e
fir s t r ow e qu a ti on (6 ) ta k e s on th e f or m
,
Tw o c a se s then
a ri se a cc or d i n g a s th e v a l u es Obt a i n e d f or A B C a r e n ot or , , ,
,
ar e al l z e ro
,
.
Ca s e 1 A B 0 n ot a ll z er o I n thi s ca s e i t f ol l ow s tha t
.
, ,
.
e q u a ti on ( )
6 r e p r e s en t s som e c on ic i n p a rticu l a r a c on ic , ,
thr ou gh th e fiv e giv en p oin t s s in c e it i s c l e a r tha t th e coOr d i ,
n a t e s ofe a ch o fth e p oi n t s s a ti s fy th e e q u a ti on .
W e s t a t e with ou t p r oof th a t thi s c a se o ccu r s u n l e s s fou r

, , ,
or a l l fi v e ofth e giv e n p o i n t s a r e c ol l i n e a r
,
.
I fn o thr ee of th e p o in t s a r e c ol l i n e a r th e c on ic j u s t f oun d
m u s t b e n on d e g e n e r a t e I t i s th e on l y c on ic thr ou gh th e
'
-
.
fiv e poin t s F or if th e r e w e r e a s e c on d c on ic thr ou gh th e m
.
, ,
th e tw o c on ic s (b oth n on d e g e n e r a t e) w ou l d i n t e r se ct i n fi -
ve
p o in t s a n d thi s i s i m p os s ib l e
,
*
.
I f t h r ee of th e p oi n t s a r e c ol l in ea r th e c on ic f ou n d mu s t ,
b e d e g en e r a t e ; Ti n p a rticu l a r it m u s t c on s i s t oftw o s tra ight

l in es (F i g Cl ea r l y th ese l in e s .
,
a r e u n iqu e l y d e t e r m in e d by th e fi ve
p o i n t s a n d h e n c e s o i s th e c on ic .
F G 1 I .
T h e r e sul t s of thi s c a s e w e for m u
l a t e a s a th e o r e m
THEOREM 18 . Th r ou gh fi ve p o i n ts ,
no fou r f o w h i ch
a re
col l i n ea r , th er e p a s s es on e a nd on l y on e con i c . If th r ee of th e
p oi n ts a r e c ol l i n ea r , th e con i c i s d egen er a te ; oth er w i se, it is n on
d egen er a te .
Ca s e 2 . Th en D = E = F = 0 a l so, a n d
equ a ti on (6 ) r e du c e s to th e trivial e qu a ti on :0 0 . S ta t e d
with ou t p r oof .
Thi s ca se o ccu r s if at l eas t fou r of th e fiv e p o n s i t

a r e c ol
it Th at tw o rate c ni cs can not i nterse ct i n m ore th an fou r

n on -
d e ge n e o
p oi nts i s g e om etri c all y evi d e nt a n a n al yti cal p roofi s b ey on d th e cop e of s
th i s b ook .
I If i t w re n n d g n e rate w e Sh o l d h ave a n n d ege n erate coni c

e o -
e e ,
u o -
i nterse cte d b y a li n e i n th re e p oi nts a n i m p ossi b i l i ty .

l in ea r . f ou r a r e c ol l in ea r th e r e a r e infi n it el y m an y
I f j u st ,
d e g en e ra te c on ic s thr ou gh th e fi v e p o i n t s ea ch c o n s i s tin g of ,
th e l i n e ofth e f ou r p oi n t s a n d s o m e l i n e thr ou gh th e fifth .
I f all fi v e p oi n t s a r e c ol l i n ea r th e ir l i n e tak en with an y

, ,
l i n e i n th e p l an e f o r m s a d e g e n e r a t e c on ic thr ou gh th em s o
, ,
tha t h e r e t oo th e r e a r e infin it el y m an y d e g en e r a t e c on ic s
, ,
thr ou gh th e fiv e p oin t s *
.
D e m an d in g th a t th e c on ic
5
P a r a bol a s th r ou gh F ou r P oi n ts .
d efin e d by e qu a ti on ( ) b e a r b ol a
p a
a p u t s on e c on d iti on on
th e c o e fici en t s i n n a m el y ,
( )
7 B 2
C on s e q u e n t l y , w e c ann o t p r e s crib e m or e th an fou r p o n s i t

thr ou gh which a p a r a b o l a m u s t p a s s .
L et 0
( , ( ,
1 1, ( , )
3 9 b e th e f ou r p o n s i t . Th en
E = 0,
A B + 0 D + E + F = O,
To s ol v e e qu a ti on s (7 a n d (8) si m u l t a n e ou sl y fin d th e v a l u e s ,
o fD , E ,
F i n t e r m s of A B C fr om th e fir s t thr ee of e q u a
, ,
ti on s (8)
( )
9 D E A C, F 0,
a n d su b s ti tu t e th e m ln th e fou rth e qu a ti on . Th e r esu l t is
( )
1 0 B 3C .
H e n c e (7 b e c om e s
9 C 2 4 AO 0,
and C 0 or C 3 A .
F r om e qu a ti on s (9 ) and
( )
1 0 w e h a v e th e n : ,
B = 0, D = O, E —A F = O,
,
or O= A
% , B -
A
§ , D = A
% , E _ 1 3
—
9
-
A, F = O .
Th e re is ap a r a me te r fa m i l y of d e ge n e a e
on e -
rt comi cs i n th e first
ca s e , a tw o p a ra m eter f
-
a mi l y i n t h e s econ d ; of p 3 9 0 . . . C an t h e t
s u d en t
e x p l ai n wh y
S e tti n g A = I i n th e fir s t c a s e A = 9 in c
'
and th e se on d , we
find as th e r e sul tin g e qu a ti on s
9 = O) x 2 —
9 x
2 — 12 w + 4 2 + 12 x — 13 = 0
y y y .
Th e r e are th en tw o p a rab ol a s thr ou gh th e f ou r giv en p oin t s

, , .
W e s ta t e with ou t p r oof th a t thi s i s i n g en e ra l tru e Of , ,

.
c ou rse on e or b ot h of th e p a ra b ol a s m a y b e d e g en e ra t e a nd
, ,
for s p e ci a l p os iti on s of th e f ou r p oi n t s th e t w o m a y c oin ci d e .
F i n a l l y if th e f ou r p oi n t s a r e c ol l in ea r th e r e a r e a n i nfin it e
, ,
nu m b e r o fd e g en e r a t e p a r a b ol a s thr ou gh th e m .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . St a t e p ran d
o v e t h e th eo r e m gi v i n g th e c on d iti on th a t
s i x p oi n t s n o f ou r of which a r e c ol l i n ea r l i e on a (n on d e g en
, ,
-
e r a t e o r d e g en e r a t e ) c on ic I f f ou r o r m o r e o f th e p oin t s a r e
.
c ol l in ea r i s th e r e a c on ic thr ou gh th e si x
,
F in d , i n d e t e r m i n a n t
f o r m th e e qu a ti on s of th e circ l e s r e
,
qu ir ed i n th e fol l owin g ex e rci s e s of Cha p t e r I V R ed u c e th e .
e qu a ti on e a ch ti m e t o th e u s u a l f o r m .
2 . Ex . 3 . Ex . 4 . Ex .
In ea ch ofth e f ol l owin g ex e rci se s d e t e r m in e wh e th er or n o t
th e fou r given p oin t s l i e on a circl e .
5 . 3
( , o
( , ( ,
2
e . 2
( , 3,
9
o ) o, 9
7 .
( ,
b ( , c ,
F in d , i n ea ch e x e rci s e th a t fol l ows th e e qu a ti on ofth e c on ic ,
thr ou gh th e giv en fiv e p oin t s I s th e c on ic n on d e g en e ra t e

5
-
.
8 . 0
( , ( ,
2 0
( , ( , ( ,
2
An s . 2 st 2
3 xy + 2 y 2 4 33 4y = 0 .
9 .
( ,
0 0
( ,
40 0 A N ALYT I C GE O M E T R Y
P r ov e fol l owin g d e t e r mi nan t s h av e va l u e ze o r .
al bl 2 a1 3 b1
am C2 2 a? 3 b2
Q3 C3 + 3 b3
1 3 a1 — b1 —
I—2 a, bl
1 3 az — b2 — 2 a2 b2
2 3 a3 — b3 + 4 a3 b3
1 3 a4 — b4 + 2 a4 b4
De fi n i ti on . Le t P I , P 2 , "
up " , 9 1, 9 2, 9m and T2 , "
3
'
7n be
thr e e c ol u m n s (or r ow s ) of a d e t e r m i na n t . Th e thir d isid sa
to b e a l i n ea r co mb i n a ti o n of th e fir st t w o, if tw o n u mb e r s ,
k an d l, i t
ex s Su ch th a t
T1 hp l ZQD T2 kp 2 7
7 11
kp n l Qn ‘
I n th e d e t e r m in an t of thir d c ol u mn i s
E x 6 , for ex a m p l e , th e
‘
a l i n ea r c om bi n a ti on of th e fir s t t w o ; a n d i n th a t of E x 7 th e .
se c on d c ol u m n i s a l i n e a r c om b i na ti on ofth e thir d f ou rth an d , ,
fir s t .
8 . THEOREM . If on e col u mn , or r ow , o f a d eterm i n a nt i s a

l i n ea r co mbi n a ti on of two oth ers , th e v a l u e of th e d eter m i n a n t i s
z er o . P r ove thi s th e or e m H ow can it b e . t

e x en d e d
S ol v e th e fol l owin g e qu a ti on s for a

t .
c
c + 1
113 — 9
v —
. l
D ete rm ine k so tha t th e fol l owin g e q u a ti on s ha v e sol u ti on s

o th e r than 0 ,
0, 0 ; th e n fin d th e sol u ti on s .
kx + 3 y + z = 0 , kw y+
11 . w + 4 y — 3 z = 0, 12 . 4 w— 2 y + h z = 0,
76 23 + y + 3 z = 0 . 6x
D e t e r min e k so tha t th e f ol l owin g e q u a ti on s are c om pa tibl e .
F i n d th e c omm on s ol u ti on i n ea ch c a se .
2 x — 3y — k = 0, w
13 . kw y
— k = 0, 14 . kzv — 4y + 5 0,
kx + 3 y x + 2y — 1 = 0 .
F ind al l th e s ol u ti on s o f th e fol l owin g e qu a ti ons .
x +y — z = 0,
2x —
y
— z = 0 . 3 5
13
17 Sh ow tha t al l th e s ol u ti on s ofth e e qu a ti on s ,
ll x my nl z 0,
l 2 £13 m zy n zz O
are g i v e n b y w zy zz = |m l| [ l m ,
p r o vi d e d n ot al l thr ee ofth e d e t e r m in a n t s on th e right are ze or .
AP P L I C A TI ON S
18 . Sh ow tha t th e r
a ea of th e trian gl e with v e rtic e s at th e
p oi t (5
n s 131 ; ( 932 ,
( 933 ;
93 ) is
931 91 1
it $2 92 1
503 93 1
19 . P r ov e tha t th e qu a ti on of th e l in e of sl op e
e A th r ou g h
th e p oin t (m l, yl ) ca n b e writt en i n th e f or m .
a
t y 1
C
01 9 1 1 O .
1 A 0
20 . Sh ow tha t ev e ry e q u a ti on o fth e f or m
a :y 1
d l a2 a3
,
0,
bl b2 b3
wh e r e th e m in or s of a; an d y a r e n ot b oth z e o, r r e p r e s en t s a
s tr a ight l i n e .
21 Sh ow tha t th e p oi n t s (231 yl )
.
yz) , ,
a re c ol l i nea r with
th e origin wh en a n d on l y wh en
931 91
x2 92
22 . P r ov e tha t th e d i s ti n ct l i n e s L I , L2 of Ch . II, 1 0, are
p a r
a l l e l if a n d on l y if
AI B1
A2 Bz
23 . Sh o w
tha t th e l in es L 1 L2 of Ch I I 1 0 a r e i d en tica l
,
.
, , ,
if a n d on l y if th e thr ee tw o r ow e d d e t e r m ina n t s which a r e

-
f or m e d fr om th e a rra y
by d r op p in g ea ch c ol u m n i n tu rn a r e a ll z e ro , .
24 Sh ow th a t th e d i s cri m i n a n t A ofth e q u a d r a tic e qu a ti on

.
, ,
A $ O,
( cf . Ch . IX, 5
) ca n be writt en i n th e for m
A E
B 2
2 5Sh
. o w tha t th e d i s cri m in an t A of th e g en e ra l e qu a ti on
, ,
of th e s e c on d d e gr e e i n x a n d y X n be
( of C h I I § 4 ) ca . .
,
writt en as
2A B D
AE % B Z C E .
D E 2F
26 P r ov e th a t th e p ol a r s ofa l l p oi n t s (ha v i n g p ol a r s)
. with
r es p e ct t o a d e g e n e r a t e c on ic a r e c on c u rr e n t or p a r a l l e l .
Su gg e s ti on . Th e c on ic can be r e p r e sen t e d e ith e r by

ax
2
b
+ y = 0 2
or by y = 2
c .
SOLID ANALY TIC GEOMETRY
C HAP TE R X VI I
P R OJECTI ON S cooR DI N ATE s

'
1 Di r ected Li ne Segments
. I n th e I n tr od u cti on to P l a n e
-
.
An a l y tic G e ome try d i r e ct e d l in e se g m en t s on a l in e L w e r e -
d efin e d a n d d i s cu s s e d S in c e L m ight b e s it u a t e d a n ywh e r e i n

.
sp a e , c th e ory th e r e d e v el op ed h ol d s e qu al l y w el l for th e
th e
g e om e try of s pa c e Th e st u d en t s hou l d r evi e w th e d e ta il s of
.
thi s th e ory O f th e for m u l a s l et h i m r e ca l l i n p a rticu l a r th e

.
,
r el a ti on ,
( )
1 MMI MM “
I “ “
I M
'
—Z M n —l
“
I M
“
n -
1 N = M N;
which h ol d s for an y n + 1 p oin t s , III , M 1 , M 2 , M P 1, N,

l y i n g on L .
2 . Pr oj ecti on ofa Br ok en Li ne . G i v en a p o i n t P an d a l in e
L in c Th e p r oj e cti on ofP on L
spa e . i s d efi n e d as th e f oo t ,
M
ofth e p e r p e n d ic u l a r d r op p e d fr o m P
on L o r a s th e p oi n t M i n w hi ch th e
,
p l a n e p p a,
s s in g thr ou gh P e
p pr en
d i cu l a r t o L m ee t s L ,
I f P l i e s on .
L it i s i t s ow n p r oj e cti on on L
,
.
Le t P Q b e a n y d ir e ct ed l i n e se g -
m en t i n s p a c e a n d l e t M a n d N b e
th e p r oj e cti on s of P a n d Q on L
Th e p r oj e cti on of th e d ir e ct e d l in e
s e g m e n t P Q on L i s d efi n ed a s th e
d ir e ct ed l in e s e g m en t M N
-
. FIG . 1
I fp a nd q h
t p e
a rel a n e s thr ou gh
rp end icul a r to P a nd Q p e
L th e , p r oj e cti on ,QM N
o n
,
oLf i
P s e q u a l to th e d ir e ct e d l i n e
se g m e n t i n t e rc e p t e d by th e p l a n e s p a n d g on a n y p a r a l l e l t o L .
F or e x a m p l e it i s e qu a l to th e d ir e ct e d l in e se g m e n t P R i n
,
-
Fi g .
'
Con s i d e r br ok en l in e j oin in g P to Q a n d c on si s tin g of th e
a
d ir e ct ed l in e se g m e n t s P P ] -
P 1P 2 P _ 1 Q which d o n ot , ,
m
, n ,
n e c e s s a ri l y l i e i n a p l a n e Th e su m ofth e p r oj e cti on s ofthe s e

.
d ir e ct e d l i n e s e g m e n t s i s
-
M M I M 1M 2 I “ ' “ “ “
I M “
n -
1N
By thi s su m i s e q u a l to M N t e
1, ,
. . to th e p r oj e cti on on
L Of th e d ire ct e d l in e se g m e n t P Q -
Thu s Th e or e m 1 ofth e I n tr od u ction ,

3, i s e te
x n d e d to
\
th e
g eom e try ofsp a c e
THEOREM . Th e s u m ofth e p r oj ecti on s on a ny li n e L f
o sp a ce ,
ofth e d i r e cte d l i ne -
seg ments , P P ] ,
P 1 P 2, , P n _1 Q, f
o a ny br oken
l i n e j oi n i ng a p o i n t P o f sp a ce w i th a s econ d i
p nt
o Q is equ a l to
th e p r oj ecti on on L o fth e d i r ected l i ne -
s eg men t P Q .
Th e or e m 2 of th e I n tr od u cti on 3 m ay b e ex t en d ed i n a , ,
s i m i l a r m a nn e r Le t th e s t u d en t s ta t e a n d p r ov e th e r e su l t
. .
Th e p r oj e cti on ofa p oin t P on a p l a n e If i s d efin e d a s th e

foot ofth e p e r p en d icul a r d r opp e d fr om P on If I f P l i e s i n .
B it i s i ts ow n p r oj e cti on on K
'
.
,
Le t a p l a n e K a n d a l in e L b e gi v en I f L i s n ot p e r p e n .
d i cul a r to I f th e p r oj e cti on o fL on K i s d efi n e d a s th e l in e i n
,
which th e p l a n e thr ou gh L p e r p en d icul a r to K in t e r se ct s K .
I fL i s p e r p en d ic ul a r to K th e p r oj e cti on o fL On If i s m e r e l y
,
a p o in t th e p o in t i n which it m ee t s K
,
An gl e b etween Tw o Di r ected Li nes G iv en . a ny tw o

s tr a ight l i n e s i n s p a c e a n d on e a ch of th e m a s en s e ;
to d e fin e th e a n g l e b e tw e en th e s e tw o d i r ected l i nes .
* In d r aw i n g th i s fig re u , we h a ve p l a ce d r v in
o u se l es sp a c e s o th t th e
a
p l an e h r ou gh Lt a nd P a p p ea s r to u s as a verti cal pl an e .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . F a s t en h ee t ofp a p e r to th e fl oor with on e ed g e a ga in s t

a s
th e w a l l a n d ta c k a s e c on d s h ee t t o th e w a l l with on e e d g e
,
a l on g th e fl oo r D r a w on ea ch s h e e t a d ir e ct e d l i n e s o that th e
.
t w o l in e s m e e t ( I t
. i s wi s e to d r a w th e l i n es b e f o r e fi x i n g th e
s h e e t s i n p os iti on C r e a se a thir d s h ee t o f a e r so a s t o f o r m
) .
p p
a n a n g l e which wi l l j u s t fit b e tw ee n th e t w o d ir e ct ed r a y s By .
m e a su rin g thi s a n g l e with a p r otra ct or d e t e r m i n e th e a n gl e b e

tw een th e tw o d ir e ct ed l in e s .
2 R e p ea t E x 1 with t w o d ir e ct e d l i n e s d if
. . fe rin g wi d el y i n
p os iti on fr om t h e fir s t tw o ch ose n .
3 Wh a t i s th e a n gl e b e tw een th e tw o l in e s ofE x 1 if th e
. .
,
s e n s e on on e of th e m i s r e v e r se d
4 B y th e m e th od o f E x 1 fi
. n d th e a n g l e b e tw ee n tw o
.
d ir e ct e d l in es on e on th e fl oor a n d on e on th e w a l l if th e tw o
, ,
l in e s d o n ot m e e t
5P rov e tha t if L an d L a r e any tw o l in es i n sp a ce and any

.
’
.
,
p l a n e F i s p a s s e d thr o u gh L th e r e wil l b e a
p
,
l a n e W th r ou gh
L p e r p e n d icu l a r t o F
’
Tha t i s sh ow th a t th e a bov e m e th od i s
.
,
a p p l ic a b l e t o th e p r ob l e m of d e te r mm m g th e a n g l e b e tw ee n
a n y tw o d ir e ct e d l in e s .
al u e of th e Pr oj ecti on of a Di r ecte d Li ne Segment

-
.
to a l in e L c e a sen s e a n d a d op t a u ni t of
of s p a
l en gth for a l l m e a su r e m e n t s i n sp a c e Th en a d ire ct ed .
l in e se g m e n t AB on L i s r e p r e se n t e d by a n a l g ebr a ic n u m
-
be r e qu a l n u m e rica l l y t o th e l en gth of AB a n d p os itiv e or

,
n e ga tiv e a c co r d in g a s th e d i r e cti on fr om A t o B i s th e s a m e
as ,
o r O p p o s it e to th e d ir e cti on giv en to L ; cf I n tr od u c
,
.
ti on 2 ,
.
I n p a rticu l a r to th e p r oj e cti on M N on L o f a d ir e ct ed l in e
,
s e g m e n t P Q c o rr e s p on d s a c e rt a in a l g e br a ic v a l u e or nu m b e r ,
which w e can with ou t c on fu si on d en ot e a l s o by M N Cl ea rl y

, ,
.
,
P r oj P Q . P roj .
QP .
P R OJE C TI O N S . C O OR D I N AT E S 40 9
l gth | P Q | Of th e d ir e ct ed l i n e s e g m en t P Q b e giv en
Le t th e en -
a n d a l s o th e a n g l e 6 which th e l i n e o fP Q d ir e ct e d fr o m P to
‘
Q m a k e s with th e d ir e ct e d l in e L I f
,
.
P Q l i e s i n a p l a n e with L w e kn ow fr om ,
P l a n e Trig on o m e try tha t
( )
1 M N : P r oj | Q|.
L P Q P co s 0 .
N
Th e g en e ra l c a se i n which P Q i s n ot i n ,
a p l a n e with L i s s h o w n i n F i g 1,
C on . .
s i d e r th e
p r o j e cti on P R o f P Q o,
n th e l i n,
e L thr ou gh ’
P,
p a r a l l e l t o a n d h a vi n g th e sa m e s e n se a s L S i n c e P Q l i “
e s . in
a p l a n e with L w e h a v e th e p r e vi ou s ca s e C on s e qu en t l y
’
,
.
PR | P Q| co s 9 .
Bu t P R MN and th u s fo r mu l a (1 ) is es a t bl i sh e d i n th e gen
r
e al ca s e .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . D r a w F i g 1 for . va ri ou s p os iti on s ofP a n d Q and in ea ch

ca se v e rify fo r m u l a
2 . By a pp l ica ti on
v e rify tha t P r oj P Qof 1P r oj QP
( ) . .
3 I fP a n d Q l i e i n a p l an e p e r p e n d icu l a r t o L M a n d N
.
,
c oin ci d e a n d M N : 0 P r ov e thi s by a pp l yin g f or m u l a

.
P r ov e th a t th e d ir e ct e d l in e se g m en t s M N a n d M N
' '
4 .
-
which a r e th e p r oj e cti on s on L of tw o d ir e ct e d l in e se g m en t s -
P Q an d P Q onth e s a m e l i n e a r e p r op o rti on a l to P Q an d P Q
’ ’ ' ’
,
MN P Q
M N I I !
P Q
!
5P r . o v e tha t th e t h e or e m ofth e p r e c ed in g ex e rci se is tru e
if P Q a nd P
'
Q
'
are on p a r a l l e l l i n e s .
Thr ee di r ected l i n es d r a wn thr ou g h a p oint

Coor di nates .
0 of s p a c e s o th a t e a ch i s p e r p e n d icu l a r to th e oth e r tw o
, ,
fo r m a system ofr ecta ngu la r coor d i n a te a x es Th e c oor d ina t e s .
ofa p oi n t P of s p a c e with r e s p e ct t o th e s y s t em of a x e s a r e
d efi n e d as th e nu m b e r s which r e p r e sen t a l g ebra ica l l y th e
p r oj e cti o n s of th e d ir e ct ed l i n e s e g m en t O P on th e thr ee
-
d ir e ct e d l in e s Thu s if Orv Oy Oz
.
, , ,
d en ot e th e thr ee d ir e ct e d l i n e s a n d w y 2 , ,
s ta n d f or th e c o or d i n a t es of P ,
: P r oj
a .
o,, OP , y Pr oy oy OP ,
2 P r oj .
02 OP .
Th e p r oj e cti on s Of O P on th e thr e e
d ir e ct e d l in e s ca n b e c on s tru ct e d by p a ss
i n g p l a n es thr ou gh P p e r p e n d ic u l a r t o
FI G 4 .
th e thr ee l i n e s ( F i g Th e s e f or m with .
th e p l a n e s o f th e l in e s a r e cta n g u l a r p a ra l l el e p i p e d or b ox ,
.
Th e d ir e ct e d e d g e s of th e b ox whi ch i ssu e fr om O a r e th e
p r o j e cti on s o f O P .
E v e ry p oi n t P ofs p a c e h a s u n iqu e c oor d in a t e s (at y C on , ,
v e r sel y if a n y thr ee nu m b e r s w y z a r e giv en th e r e i s a

, , , ,
u n iqu e p oin t P h a vin g th e se n u m b e r s a s i t s co Or d i na t es Thi s .
p o in t ca n b e l o c a t e d e ith e r ,
by c on s tr u ctin g a b o x o r m or e ,
s i m p l y by l a yi n g O fi OM : a:
,
on th e a x i s of a) th e n M N : y ,
on a p a r a l l e l thr ou gh M to th e a x i s o fy a n d fi n a l l y N P 2 on ,
a p a r a l l e l thr ou gh N t o th e a x i s of z a s s h own i n F i g 4 It ,
. .
i s to b e r em e m b e r e d th a t OM JI N a n d N P a r e d i r ected l i n e
, ,
se g m e n t s Th e d ir e cti on of
. for e x a m p l e i s th e sa m e ,
as o r o pp o s it e t o
,
tha t of Ox a cc ord in g a s th e n u m b e r a:
, ,
i s p os itiv e or n e ga tiv e Th e figu r e i s d ra wn for th e ca se tha t

.
as y z a r e a l l p o s itiv e
, ,
.
Th e p oi n t 0 i s th e or i gi n of coOr d i n ate s th e d ir e ct ed l in e s ,
Ox , Oy, Oz th e cob r d i n a te a x es , a n d th e p l a n e s v Oy, y Oz ,

’
are
2 0 5 0 ar e th e co or d i n a te p la n es Th e
. o rigi n h a s th e co Or d i n a tes
a p oi t
n on a c o or d i n a t e a x i s
w a y s h a s t w o of i t s al
coOr d i n a te s z e ro
a n d a p oi n t i n a c oor d i n a t e p l a n e a l wa y s h a s
,
on e z e r o c o Or di n a t e Thu s th e p oin t on th e a x i s Of y thr e e u n it s

.
d i s ta n t fr om O i n th e p o s iti v e d ir e cti on h a s th e c oOr d i n a t e s

a n d th e p o in t i n th e wh r d i n a te s
(y ) p
z l a n e ose c o O,
-
i n th a t p l a n e a r e y 2 z 3 h a s th e coOr d i n a te s (0 2
, , , ,
An y th e r r e ctan gu l a r sy s t e m of a x e s i s es s en tiall y th e
o
s a m e a s on e or th e o th e r of th e s e ; th a t i s it i s e ith e r righ t ,
han d ed or l e f t han d ed by th e ab ov e t e s t (cf E x 7

-
, . .
E X E R C IS ES
1 . P l ot t h e
fol l owin g p oin t s d ra win g th e l i n e r ep r e s en ti n g ,
th e a x i s of a a t a n a n g l e of 1 2 0 with th a t r e p r e sen tin g th e

: °
a x i s o fy a n d t a k i n g i n a s th e u n it on th e a x e s of y an d z
,
.
and i n a s th e u n it on t h e a x i s of:
g v
5
. .
( ) a ( 0 ,
3 , ( )
b ( O,
1 , () c
( ,
2 ,
( )
d () e 0
( , 2, (f)
(g) ( 5 )
2 , 4) 00 ( ::
3 2 ()
t 2 , 3:
(j ) ( 1 ,
“
1, ( )
k 2 4 ) ? ()
l 1; 1,
2 . D e t e r m i n e th e
c oord in a t e s of th e p oi n t P i n F i g 4 wh en .
th e u ni t s on th e a x e s a r e t a k e n a s i n E x 1 . .
3 .Th e sa m e for th e p oin t m a r k e d by th e p e ri od i n F i g 4 “

.
,
if thi s p oin t i s 4 a u n it a b ov e th e (at y) p l a n e ,

-
.
4 .Wha t a r e th e c oor d in a t e s of th e p r oj e cti on s o f e a ch o f

th e f ol l o wi n g p oi n t s on th e c o or d i n a t e a x e s O n th e coOr d i
,
na t e p l a n e s
( ) a 3
( ) 5 ) ( )
b 3) 2 , ()
C
( x) 9) z
)
5Wh . t e qu a ti on i s sa ti sfi ed by th e c oor d in a t e s of thos e
a
p oi n t s a n d onl y th os e p o i n t s w hi ch l i e i n th e
(y z
) p l a n e ? ,
-
I n th e (z, c
v
) -
p l a n e I n th e y) p l
-
a n e
6 . Wha tqu a ti on s a r e sa ti sfi ed by th e c oor d in a t es of

tw o e
th os e p oi n t s a n d onl y th ose p oin t s w hi ch l i e on th e w— ax i s

‘
O n th e y a x i s O n th e z a x i s
- -
7 . Thr ou gh a p oin t 0 d ra w thr ee mutu a l l y p e r p en d icu l a r

l i n e s whi ch wh en d ir e ct ed a r e to se r v e r e s p e ctiv el y a s th e
, , ,
a x es of v y a n d 2 . S h ow that th e r e a r e e ight p o ss ibl e com

, ,
.
b i n a ti on s ofth e d ir e cti on s which ca n b e giv e n to th e l in e s a n d

tha t of th e e ight r esu l tin g sy s t em s of a x e s fou r a r e r igh t
, ,
han d ed an d fou r l eft hand ed ,

-
.
K P R O JE C T I O NS . C O OR D I N AT E S 413
cti ons ofa Di r ected Li ne Segment -

on th e Ax es . G iv e n
P1 an d P2 with
c oor d ina t e s (x y, 2 1 ) a n d th e 1, ,
( x 2 y2
, ,
T o d e t e r m i n e th e p r oj e cti on s o f th e d ir e ct e d l i n e
s e g m e n t P 1 P ? on th e c o or d i n a t e a x e s p r oj e ct th e br o k en l in e ,
P I OP Z on e a ch ofth e a x e s i n t u rn Si n c e a l wa y s .
P r Oj P 1 P 2 P rOj P 1 0
. F l oj 0 P 2 .
'
.
,
it fol l ow s tha t
P r oj P 1 P 2 . P r oj . OP 2 P r oj . OP l .
B u t th e p r oj e cti on s of O P 2 and OP I on th e thr e e ax es a r e, by

d e fin iti on , th e c o or d in a t e s of P2 an d P1 . C on s e qu e n tl y , th e
p r oj e cti on s o f th e d ir e ct e d l i n e s e g m e n t -
P 1P )
. on th e thr e e
a x es a r e r e s p e ctiv e l y
, ,
( )
1 932 5 171 92 91 z1 °
B y p a s s i n g p l a n e s thr ou gh th e p oin t s P I an d P 2 p er p e n
di cul a r t o th e thr e e a x e s , w e Obt a in on th e ax e s th e a ct u a l
p r o j e cti o n s X n ,
Y l Y g Z I Z
, Q , ,
o f th e d ir e ct e d l in e se g m en t -
P 1 P2 *
. Th e p l a n es a l so d e t e r
m i n e a re cta n g u l a r p a r a l l el e
i
p p e d o r,
b o x wh o s e ,
thr ee
d i m e n s i on s a r e e qu a l to th e
n u m e ric a l v a l u e s o f th e thr e e 2
p r o j e cti on s A .cc o r d i n g l y t h e ,
e d g e s ofth e b ox wh e n p r o p e r l y,
d ir e ct e d a r e p r e ci s e l y e qu a l to
,
F 6 IG .
th e p r oj e cti on s I n p a rtic u l a r
.
,
th e thr e e e d g e s e m a n a tin g fr om P I i e th e d ir e ct e d l in e ,
. .
s e g m e n t s P I R P I S P 1 T a r e e qu a l r e s p e ctiv e l y t o th e thr e e
, , ,
pr oj e cti on s X l Y I Y2 Z Z 2 , , I .
EX ER C IS ES
1 . P l ot P 1 P 2 wh en P I i s th e p oi n t ( )
b of Ex . 1 5 ,
an d P2
is D e t e r m in e th e p r oj e cti on s fr om th e figu r e an d v e rify
by a pp l yi n g fo r m u l a s
To k ee p th e fig re si m p l u e , o nl y X 1X 2 and Y1Y2 a r e sh o wn .
2 . Th e sa m e wh en
i) PI is () an d P2 i s (f) ) PI i s (f) an d P2 i s (g)
5
c ; 11 .
3 . Th e p r oj e cti on s of P 1 P2 on th e ax es a re 2, ,
3 a nd
thos e ofP 2 P 3 a r e 3 2 1 , ,
. Wha t are th e p r oj e cti on s of P 1 P 3
Ju s tify y ou r a n s w e r .
I f th e p oi n t s P I R T of F i g ha v e r esp e ctiv el y
5
4 .
, ,
S, . 6 , ,
th e co Or d i n a t es 2 1
( , , ( ,
1, (2 4 , , ( 2 1 ,
wh
,
a t a r e
th e c oor d in a t e s ofP )
5I f th e p roj e ction s of P 1 P 2 5
.
. on th e ax e s are 3, — 2
,
a n d P , h as th e c o or d in a t e s 2 1 wha t th e c oor d ina t es

( , ,
ar e
Two Poi nts Le t th e tw o p oin t s b e

cc b etw een .
P I P 2 of 6
'
Th en th e s e g m en t P 1 P i s a di a g ona l
, .
2
o f th e b ox i n F i g 6 I t i s a s i m p l e m a tte r to Sh o w th a t th e
’
. .
s qu a r e o f th e l e n gth of a d i a g o n a l e q u a l s th e su m of th e
.
s qu a r es of th e l e n gths o f th e e d g e s
P 1P = P 1R + P 1S + P 1 T
2
2
2 2 2
H en c e D 2
5
13
0
2
I (9 2 ( Z 2 z
0i
2 “ “
I n a sm u ch as qu a r es of th e qu an titi es
i t i s th e 6 s
-
which a p p ea r h e r e u n d e r th e r a d ica l it i s i mm a t e ri a l tha t ,
th e s e qu a n titi e s ha v e a l g ebra ic va l u e s i e m a y i n som e ca se s ,

. .
b e p os iti v e a n d mo th e r s n e ga tiv e ; of Oh I 3 ,
. .
,
.
EX E R C IS ES
1 . F in d t h e d i s t a n c e s b e tw een th e f ol l owi n g p a ir s ofp oin ts ,
r
e x p e ss n i g th e r e s u l t s c orr e ct to thr ee sign ifican t fig u r e s
5
.
( ) ( 1) (4 3 :2 ) 5 ( )
b ( )
2 _ 1’ 1:— 3
) 5
5
a ) )
() ( )
2 _ 1) _ 3) ( )
d (3 6 _ 2) a ( _ 1)
5
C ) 7 )
()
e ( ,
2 3, 1 , 4, ) (f) ( , ,
1 2 1
( , 3,
2 . F in d th e d i s ta n c e s of ea ch of th e foll owin g p o n i t fr om
s
rigin
5 )5()
th e o
( )
a
( 4 :2 7
8) 5 ( )
b ( :
3 a
2 c ( :9 :)
x z ’
3 . Sh o w
th a t th e l i n e se g m en t s j oin ing th e m i d p oin t s of
- -
th e op p o sit e s i d e s of th e qu a d ri l a t e r a l of E x 2 i n t e r se ct a nd .
bi se ct e a ch oth e r .
9 . Di vi si on of a Li ne Segment i n -
it b e a Gi ven R ati o . Le t
r e qu ir ed to fin d th e coOr d i na te s (x y z) of th e p oin t P d ivi d , ,
i n g th e l in e s e g m e n t P 1 P 2 i n th e giv e n r a ti o m1 /
-
m2 Si n c e .
th e d ir e ct ed l in e segm en t s P 1 P a n d P F 2 a r e to b e i n th e r a ti o
-
ml / mg thi s mu st a l so b e th e r a ti o of th e ir p r oj e cti on s on a ny
,
on e of th e a x es 4 Ex Acc or d i n gl y w e obta in th e
,
.
,
e qua ti on
an d S i m i l a r e qu a ti on s in v ol vin g th e y a n d z coOrd i na te s -
.
Sol v in g th e s e e qu a ti on s r e sp e ctiv el y for x y a n d 2 gi v e s , , ,

as
th e r eq u ir ed coOr d i n a te s ofth e p oi n t P ,
I m 1 z2
“
m2 + m1 m2 + m1 m 2 + m1
Extern a l D i v i s i on . It i s s om e ti m e s of val u e to ha v e at
han d for m u l a s giv i n g the coOr di n a te s (x y z) of a P , , p oin t

which l i e s on th e l in e of P I a n d P 2 b u t ex t e ri or to th e seg ,
m en t P 1 P a n d wh ose d i s ta n c es t o P 1 a n d P 2 a r e i n a giv en
2,
ra ti o ml /mz n ot e qu a l to u n i ty Le t th e s tu d en t sh ow tha t
,
.
i n thi s ca se it i s th e d ir e ct e d l i n e se g m en t s P I P a n d P 2 P -
which a r e i n th e giv en ra ti o m /mz a n d tha t th e ty p e of l ,
e q u a ti on n o w obta in e d i s
x ..
so tha t th e r e qu ir ed coOr d i n a te s ofP a r e
”1 2 371 771 1 932 m2 9 1 9 1 19 2

( )
2 x
m1 m2 ml
m2
Th e p o i t P i s sa i d to d ivid e th e s e g m en t P 1 P 2 i ntern a lly

n ,
i n th e fir s t ca se ; exter na lly i n th e se con d Th e n u m b e r s m 1

,
.
and m2 e n t e ri n g in t o th e r a ti o o f d ivi s i on d o n o t h a v e to b e th e
P R OJE C TION S . C O OR D I N AT E S 4 17
a c t u al l e n gth s o f th e c orr e s p on d n i g l in e -
se g m en t s ,
b u t m ay b e
a ny n u m b e r s p r op orti on a l to th e s e l en gth s fi “
EX E R C IS ES
F in d th e
c oor d in a t e s of th e p oin t on th e l in e se g m en t
5
1 .
-
j oin in g (2 3 6 ) with ( 4 ,
wh ich i s twic e a s fa r fr om
, , ,
th e fir s t p o in t a s fr om th e s e c on d An s (4 g g) . .
, ,
.
2 F i n d th e p o in t on th e l in e thr ou gh th e t w o p oi n t s ofE x
. .
1 which i s ou t s i d e th e l i n e s e g m en t b ou n d e d by th e m a n d i s
,
-
twic e a s fa r fr om th e fir s t p oin t a s fr om th e s e c on d .
F i n d th e p oin t which d i v i d e s in t e r n a l l y th e l i n e se g m en t
5
3 .
-
fr om (2 3 4) to ( 3 0 ) i n th e r a ti o 3 :
, ,
4 , ,
.
4 Th e pr e c e d in g e x e rci se for ex t e rn al d ivi s i on

. .
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R X II I V
1 . Sh ow tha t th e p oin t s ( 2 ,
4 ,
1
( , ,
4 1
( ,0 1 , 6) ar e
th e rtic e s ofa n i sos c el es right trian gl e

ve .
2 P r ov e th a t th e t e tra h e d r on with v e rtic e s a t th e p oi n t s

.
( 0 0, (,
0 1 ( 1 0 , ( 1 1
,
0 ) i s a r e gu l
,
a r t,
e t r a h e d r o n , ,
“
3 Sh ow th a t th e p o in t s (0 0 V2 ) ( 1 1
.
( 0 0 , , , , , , ,
2 0 a r e th e v e rtic es ofa r e g ul a r pyr a m i d

1 1 , (2 )
, , ,
with a s qu a r e ba s e .
4 G iv en th e p oi n t s A B C with coOr d i n a tes (2

.
, 3 , , ,
( 4 2, (,
6 7 B y p r o vi,
n g ,
th a t A B + E C = A O s h o w th a t ,
th e thr ee p oi n t s l i e on a l i n e
5Show tha t th e three p oints of E x 4 l i e on a l in e by

.
. .
p r o vi n g th a t th e ir p r o j e cti on s o n ea ch o f t w o co Or d i n a t e
p l a n e s l i e on a l i n e J u s tify thi s m e th od o f .
p r o o f .
6 D e t e r m in e th e p oi n t on th e a x i s of y which i s e q u i d i s
.
tan t fr om th e tw o p oin t s (3 2 2 6 , , , ,
Th u s t r d i vi s i on if P P 1 00 cm and P P
i n th e cas e of i n e n a l
25
It
, , 1 .
2
cm m a nd m m i gh t b e p rop e rl y a n d wi se l y ch os e n as 4 a n d 1
.
, 1 2 .
I E e c i ses 1 6 1 4—1 8 of C h
x r x rx 1 a n—d E e,
r ci se 1 —8 1 8—2 2 .
, ,
x s ,
of
C h XX .1 m ay b e i ntr od u ce d h ere i fi t s ee m s d esi rab l e

, , , .
418 AN ALYT I C GE OM E TR Y
D e t e r m in e th e p oi n t i n th e
7 .
(y, 2
) -
p l a n e which is e qu i
d i s tan t fr om th e thr ee p o in t s (3 , 0 , (2 ,
3 , ( 1 ,
0 ,
Tw o v e rtic es of a r e gu l a r t etra he d r on a r e a t
8 . th e p oin t s
( 0 0,
2 x/2 ) ( 0 2
,
I f th e oth e r tw o v e rti c e s
, , ,
l i e i n th e
x y p l an e , fin d th e ir coOr d i na te s
( )
,
-
.
9 r e gu l a r p yra m id of a l titu d e h h a s a s qu a r e ba se
. A , ,
wh os e v e rtic e s l i e on th e a x e s Of x a n d y and wh os e e d g e s a r e
of l e n gth a Wha t a r e th e coOrd i na te s of th e v e rtic e s of th e
.
pyram i d
I f P i s th e m i d p oi n t o f th e l in e se g m en t P 1 P 2 a n d P
5
10 .
- -
a n d P 2 h a v e th e co Or d i n a te s 3 3
( 2 ) a nd 2 4 ) r es p e c , , , ,
ti v e l y wh a t a r e th e coOr d i n a te s ofP I
,
11 I f P d i v i d e s th e l in e se g m en t P P 2 i n ter n a l l y i n th e
.
-
1 _
ra ti o a n d P I a n d P h av e r e s p e cti v e l y th e c oor d i n a t e s
‘
( 1 ,
4 3 ) a n d
,
d e t e r m in e t h e coOr di n a tes of P 2
“
Ans .
( ,
6 1,
12 . F i n d th e
ra ti o i n which th e p oint B ofE x 4 d ivi d es th e .
s e g m en t A C o fth a t e x e rci se Ans 1 1 . .
13 A p oin t with x—coor d in a t e 6 l i e s on th e l in e j o in in g

.
th e tw o p oin t s (2 — 3 ( 8 0 F in d i t s o th e r t w o , , , ,
c o Or d i n a t es .
Su gg e s ti on D e t e r m in e th e
which th e p oin t d iv id e s
. ra ti o in
th e l i n e se g m en t b oun d e d by th e tw o gi v en p oin t s
-
.
F in d th e p oin t i n which th e l in e j o in in g th e tw o
5
14 .
p o i n t s
(2 — 3
( 4 6 ) m
, e e t s th e ( )
z x p l an e
, , , ,
-
.
An s (33, 0 ,
5I f th
.
1 . e l e n gth of th e l in e -
se g m en t P 1P2 i s D and th e
l e n gth s ofi t s pr oj e cti on s on th e coOr di n a te p l an es ar e D 1 , D 2,
D3 , s h ow th a t
2D 2
B1 2
D2 2
D3 2
.
16 . Sh ow tha t
j oin in g th e m i d p oin t s of th e
th e l in e s -
o pp o s it e s i d e s ofa n q u a d ri l a t e r a l AB CD in t e r se ct an d bi se ct
y
e a ch o th e r N B Th e p oin t s A B C D d o n ot n e c essa ri l y l i e
. .
, , ,
in a p l a n e .
C HAP TE R X VI II
CTI ON COS I NE S . DIR E CTI ON COM P ONENTS
i recti on Cosi nes of a Di r ected Li ne . G iv en a d ir e ct e d

l in e L i n s pa e c ; to fin d a m ea n s ofd e e t r m in i n g or fix i n g i ts
d ir e cti on .
Th e d ir e ct e d l ine L ma k e s d efin it e an gl e s a B y with th e , , , ,
p ositiv e a x e s ofx y 2 r e sp e ctiv el y I fL d oes not go thr ou gh

, , ,
.
th e origin 0 d ra w L thr ou gh 0
'
, ,
p a r a l l e l t o L a n d a gr e e in g with it i n
sen s e Th en a B y a r e e qu a l r e sp e c
.
, ,
ti v el y to th e a n g l e s which L m a k e s
’
with th e ax e s (Ch X VI I Th e .
,
an gl e s a B a re ca l l e d th e d i r ecti on
y , ,
a ngl es of th e d ir e ct e d l i n e L .
D i r ecti on Cos i n es . Th e c os in e s of
th e an gl es a, B7 , ,
n am el y cos (2 ,
co s B ,
cos
y ,
ar e k n ow n as th e d i r ecti on
cos i n es of L . Sin c e
B y by
a, d e,
fi n iti on ( C
are,h X VI I .
,
a n g l e s b e tw e en 0 a n d 1 80 in c l u s iv e th e y a r e u ni qu e l y d e t e r
° °
,
m in e d wh en th e ir c o s i n es a r e giv e n an d c on v e r s e l y Acc or d ,
.
i n gl y w e ca n u se e ith e r th e d ir e cti on a n gl es or th e d ir e cti on

,
c os in e s to fix th e d ir e cti on of L W e ch oose th e d ir e cti on .
c os in e s .
E v i d e n tl y tw o d ir e ct ed l i n e s which a r e p a r a l l e l an d h a v e
,
th e sa m e se n se h a v e th e sa m e d ir e cti on a n g l e s a n d th e sa m e
d ir e cti on c os in e s .
E x e rci s e . I ftw o l in es are p a a llre l but ha v e O p p os it e se n se s ,
S h ow th a t th e d ir e cti on an gl e s of on e a r e th e s u p p l e m e n s of t
D I R E C T I ON C O SIN ES 42 1
th e d ir e cti on an g l e s ofth e oth e r an d tha t th e d ir e cti on cos in es

,
ofon e a r e th e n e g a tiv e s ofth e d ir e cti on c o s i n es o fth e oth e r .
E x a mp l e 1 . Wha t are th e d ir e cti on c osin e s of t h e

p os iti v e
ax s i f
o y ?
H e r e, a
y 90
°
an d co s a B 0, y 1, cos 0 .
E x a mp l e 2 F i n d th e d ir e cti on c o s in e s
. of th e l in e b i
s e cti n g th e a n g l e b e tw e e n th e n e g a tiv e a x i s
of y a n d th e p os iti v e a x i s of z an d d ir e ct e d ,
u pw a r d .
I n thi s c a s e
55
,
5
0 °
0C 90 B 7 4
CO S a O, CO S ,8 CO S
y
FI G . 2
THEOREM 1 . Th e s u m ofth e s qu a res o h

f e d i r ecti on cos i nes
t
ofa d i r ected l i ne i s e qu a l to u n i ty .
( )
1 co s 2
a co s 2
B cos 2 -
y 1 .
To pr ov e thi s th eor e m t a k e a p oi n t P : ( 0 yo 0)
x , 2 o n L , ,
’
( g )
F i 1 . s o th a t t h e d ir e cti on fr o m O t o P wil l b e t h e d ir e cti on
an d c on s i d e r th e p r oj e cti on s ofth e d ir e ct e d l in e s e g m e n t
’
ofL -
OP on th e a x e s Th e se a r e e qu a l on th e on e han d t o th e coOr
.
, ,
di n a te s x0 yo 2 0 of P (C h X VI I
, ,
a n d on th e o th e r t o th e
.
, ,
quan titi e s OP cos a O P cos B OP c os y ( Ch X VI I , ,

.
,
H en c e
5
( )
2 x0 OP c os a , y0 OP cos B ,
20 OP cos
y;
S
O
( )
3 co s a B 3
3 ,
P
Thu s
32
But 01 970 2 “
I 90 I
“
2 “ “
zo
z
’
an d th e or e m i s p r ov ed
th e .
W e h a v e s h own th e n th a t e v e ry d ir e ct e d l i n e h a s d efi
, ,
n it e
d ir e cti on c os in es th e s u m of wh ose s q u a r es i s u n ity

,
Th e con .
r
v e se is a l so tru e :Any th r ee n u m b e r s , th e su m ofwh os e s qu a r es
is uni ty, a r e th e d i recti on cos i nes fsome
o d i r ected Z i n e .
P r el i m i n a ry to p r ovi n g thi s , w e r e v e rt
t o th e p r oof of Th e o r e m 1 a n d ch oos e
th e p oi n t P i n p a rticul a r a s th e p o in t
i n which th e r a y i s s u i n g fr om O i h th e
'
d ir e cti on of L '
m e e t s th e un it sph e r e
F
( gi . Th en O P : 1 , or
9302 “
I 90
“
2 “
I
“
202 1,
an d ( )
2 b e c om e s
FIG . 3
( )
4 x0 cos a , yo cos B ,
20 co s y .
Tha t i s , th e d i r ecti on cos i n es o fa r ay
i s su i ng from O a r e equ a l to th e coOr d i n a te s o f th—

e p oi n t i n wh i ch
th e r a y p i er ces th e u ni t sp h ere .
Th e d es ir e d p r oof i s n ow s i m pl e . I f th e r e are giv en a ny
thr ee n u m b e r s , x 0 , yo, 2 0 , th e
su m of wh ose s qu a r e s i s u n ity ,
th e y wil l b e th e coOr d i na te s ofsom e p oin t P ofth e u n it sp h e r e ,
a n d h e n c e th e y wi l l a l s o b e th e d ir e cti on c o s i n e s of a c e rt a in
‘
'
d ir e ct e d l i n e n a m e l y th e l i n e L p a s s in g thr ou gh 0 a n d P a n d
'
, ,
d ir e ct e d fr o m O t o P q e d ,
. . .
E x a mp l e 3 . Th e thr e e nu mb e r s 4
,
2 ar e
3;
th e d ir e cti on
c os i n e s of s o m e d ir e ct e d l i n e , for
er + er + < —
: r =
Th e d ir e cti on an gl e s of th e l in e a r e, r e sp e ctiv el y ,
48
°
°
1 31
°
70
E xa mp l e 4 . A d ir e ct ed l in e m a k e s an gl es of 6 0 an d 4 °
5 °
with th e a x es o f x a n d y, r e sp e ctiv el y . Wha t a n gl e d oe s i t

mak e with th e i
a x s o fz ?
I I e r e,
CO S a 00 8 60
0
3
,
CO S 4 5°
H en c e
co s
2
y 1 and c os
y :
1:
2 . A l in e
bi s e ct s th e a n gl e b e twe en th e p os itive ax e s of y
a n d z a n d i s d ir e ct e d u p wa r d Wha t a r e i t s d ir e cti on c os in e s
.
3 Wha t a r e th e d ir e cti on c os i n e s of a d ir e ct e d l in e which

.
l i e s i n th e (z x ) p l a n e a n d m a k e s a n a n g l e si 3 0 with th e °
-
,
-
p os itiv e z a x is -
T w o a n s w e r s .
A l in e i n th e (x y) p l a n e h a s th e sl op e Wha t a r e
'
4 .
, 3 -
i t s d ir e cti on a n g l e s an d d ir e cti on c os in es if it i s d ir e ct ed for ,
wa r d s
5Con stru ct th e d i r ected l i n e s throu gh th e origin havin g th e
.
fol l owin g d ir e cti on c os i n e s Wha t a r e th e d ir e cti on a n gl e s

.
( )
a _ 1 , 0 , o; ( )
b o; () c cg ,
( )
d 0) _
fl
2 52VE 5( ) e
5
5
3
L “
350 5 (f) _
V3
3 5
6 . F in d th e d ir e cti on an gl es an d th e d ir e cti on c osm e s of a
l in e if
( ) a c os a : 1 ;
( )
b co s B _
4 ,
co s
7
: l 3;
() 0 c os a
g
, e
7 . F in d th e d ir e cti on an gl e s and th e d ir e cti on c osin e s
d ir e ct e d l in e if
( ) = i zo , °
B = 6 O
°
a e ; (e)
( ) B
I
c _
' ’ 7 ( )
d
= fi = = = 1 80 °
( )
e a
ri (f) a
r
—
B o
8 . F i n d th e d ir e cti on c os in e s ofth e l in e p a s s in g thr ou gh th e

o rigin a n d ea ch of th e f ol l owin g p oi n t s a n d d ir e ct ed fr om th e
,
o rig i n t o th e p o in t
( )
a ( 2 53 5 ( )
b ( 5 5
4 _ 1
( ) C 3
( 9 “
45O) 5( ) (58:
d ?
9 . F i n d th e d ir e cti on
c osin e s ofth e l in e s d e t e r m in ed by th e
p a ir s o f p o in t s i n E x 1 o f O h X V I I .7 if e a ch l i n e i.s d ir e ct e d , ,
fr om th e fir s t ofth e giv en p oin t s to th e s e c on d .
10 A l i n e se g m en t P P h a s th e l en gth 6 a n d th e l in e ofP ,
.
-
, 2
a n d P 2 d ir e ct e d fr o m P , t o P 2 h a s th e d ir e cti on c os i n e s _
4
5
, , ,
4 , I f th e co O r d i n a t e s o fP a r e — 3 2
) wh a t a r e th o se
, , ,
o fP 2
D I R E C T I ON C O S IN E S 2 5
Tw o Di rect ed Li nes Le t it b e re qu ir e d to
en .
e a n g l e 6 b e t w e e n th e t w o d ir e ct e d l i n es L , a n d L2 , ,
wh ose d ir e cti on a n g l es a r e a , B, y, , ,
and “ 2 58 2 57 2
1
°
W e ca n a s su m e with ou t l os s of
g en e ra l ity tha t L , an d L2 p a ss
thr ou gh th e or i gi n fi T a k e a ny
=
‘
p oin t P : 2
) on L , s o th a t th e 0 ,
d ir e cti on fr om O to P i s th a t o f L , ,
a n d d r a w th e br ok e n l in e O M N P ,
wh ose d ir e ct ed s e g m en t s OM M N ,
N P a re r e sp e ctiv e l y th e coOr d i
‘
, ,
FI G 4
na t e s x0 Th e p r oj e cti on
.
2 0 of P
,
.
ofthi s br o k en l i n e on L 2 e q u a l s th e pr oj e cti on of O P on L2
1
( ) P r oj .
, O P : P r oj .
, OM P r oj .
L2 MN P r oj .
L
2
NP .
2 z
B y Ch . X VI I , 4,
P r oj '
13 OP OP co s 9 .
Si m i l a r l y , P r oj . O M : IOM ] cos
2C KO M ,
wh e r e K i s i t on L2 su ch tha t OK h a s th e d ir e c ti on of
a p o n ,
L2 . I fth e d ir e ct e d l i n e s e g m e n t OM h a s th e d ir e cti on o f th e
.
-
p os itiv e a x i s o fx a s i s th e c a s e i n th e fi u r e w e h a v e
,g ,
= OM :
OM I X K O M a2,
an d th e r e f or e ,
P r oj .
,
2
OM : O M cos
I f OM h a s th e d ir e cti on o fth e n e ga tiv e i

a x s o fx ,
OM X M :
|
°
O M an d K O 1 80
in thi s c a se th en , ,
P r oj OM OM ( 80 ) O Z II
°
.
,2 cos 1 a? c o s (2 2 .
C on s e qu en t l y , i n e ith e r c a s e ,
we h a v e s in c e ,
OM : x0 ,
P r oj .
, x0 c o s 0t2 .
t
F or , if h ey di d n ot , w e cou ld cons i d e e q u all y r w ll th e a ngl e b etwe en
e
th e r t r
t w o p a al l e l li n e s h ou gh th e o i gi n h a i ng r v re p e cti vel y th e s am e
s
se ns es as t h e gi ve n li n es .
Si m il a rl y ,
P r oj .
,2 M N : y0 c os B ,, P roj .
,2 NP 2 0 co s
72 .
Thu s (1 ) b e c om es
( )
2 OP co s 0 x0 cos a , y0 co s B 2 2 0 co s
yg .
By M .
we OP OP B OP
'
c os a ,, y co s zo CO S
, i , ri
Su b s tit u ti n g th e s e v al u e s in 2
( ) and d ivi d i n g thr ou gh by OP ,
we o bta in ,
fina l l y ,
( )
3 cos 0 co s a , cos a , c os B , co s B , cos
7 , c os 72 .
W e ha v e th en , ,
th e r e sul t :Th e cos i n e o f th e a ngl e betw een
tw o d i r ected li n es e qu a l s th e su m of th e p r od u cts of th e cor r e
sp on d i n g d i r ecti on cos i n es o fth e l i n es .
E x a mp l e . F in d th e gl e b e tw een th e tw o d ir e ct e d l in e s
an
wh ose d ir e cti on c os in e s a r e r e sp e ctiv el y g _ 4

,
a nd i
}3 g _
, , , , , .
3 7
when c e 0 i s foun d to b e 1 1 2
°
P a r a l l el a nd P erp en d i cu l a r D i r ected L i n es . L, an d L2 ar e
p er p en d icu l a r if a nd onl y if 0 90
°
o r cos 0 0, tha t i s , ifa n d
onl y if
( )
4 co s a , co s 0 2 5 cos
B , co s B 2 co s
7 , cos 7 , 0 .
In w or d s Tw o d i rected l i n es a re p erp en di cu l a r , if a n d on ly if
th e su m ofth e p r od u cts of th e corr esp on di n g di r ecti o n cos i n es of
th e li n es i s equ a l to z ero Thu s th e d ir e ct ed l in e s which ha ve

—5a r e
.
T5 1 5
th e d ir e ction c os in e s an d il -
, p e r p e n d ic u l a r ,
i c
s n e
3 -
1 5
rem emb ered th at th e angl e b etwee n tw o di rected
I t i s to b e a ngl es is
a n a ngl e b etwe e n 0 a n d 1 80 i n cl us i ve X VI I
° °
cf C h 3 . .
, .
B oth t
ir e cti on c os in e s a r e p r op orti ona l to th e qu an
s e s ofd
titi es 2 3 6,
C on s e qu en t l y th ese qu a n titi e s p e rt a in n ot to
,
.
, ,
th e l in e d ir e ct e d i n th e on e s e n se or th e o th e r b u t t o th e l i n e ,
b a r e ofsen se t e to th e u n d i r ected l in e W e ca l l th e m d i r ec
,
. . .
ti on comp on en ts o fth e u n d i rected l i n e .
I t i s cl e a r th a t in s t e a d of 2 3 6 w e m ight h a v e ta k en , ,
e qu a l l y w e l l 2 3 — 6 or 4 6 1 2 or 2 00
, , 3 0 0 6 00 s in c e
, , , , , , ,
th e t w o s e t s ofd ir e cti on c o s i n es a r e p r op orti on al t o th e qu an

titi es i n a n y on e of th ese trip l e s I n oth e r w or d s th e d i r e c .
,
ti on c om p on en t s ofth e u n d ir e ct ed l in e a r e n ot un iqu e l y d e t e r
m in e d Th e r e a r e i nfin it e l y m a n y s e t s ofd ir e cti on c om p on en t s ;
.
if on e se t i s 2 3 6 a l l a r e giv en by th e q u a n titi es 2 p
, , ,
3p , ,
6 p wh e r e p i s a n a rbitr a ry n u m b e r n ot z e r o
, ,
.
C on v e r sel y if w e h a v e giv e n th e s e t ofd ir e cti on c om p on e n t s

, ,
2,
3 6 ofth e u n d ir e ct e d l i n e a n d d ivi d e ea ch by th e s qu a r e
, , ,
r oot ofth e su m ofth e s qu a r es ofth e thr e e t e by ,

. .
we bt a in the d ir e cti on c os in e s _g g g of th e l in e d ir e ct ed
o ,
.
’ , ,
i n on e s en se Th ose ofth e l in e d ir e ct e d i n th e op p osit e s en se

.
a r e th e n e g a tiv e s 2 3 6 o f th e giv en d ir e cti on com

, , , ,
o n e n t s ea ch d ivi d e d by th e a b ov e s q u a r e r oot
p , .
Th e G en er a l Ca s e given a n d on it th e a rbi
. Le t a l in e L b e
tr a r y d ir e ct e d l in e se g m en t P 1 P 2 wh os e p r oj e cti on s on th e
-
a x es a r e X l Y l Y g Z l Z z (Ch X VI I F i g
,
Th e d ir e cti on
, .
, .
c osin es ofL wh en d ir e ct ed i n th e s en se of P 1 P 2 a r e by
, , ,
si .
YI YQ 2 12 2
( )
1 .
,
D D
if howev e r
, , L is opp o s it el y d ir e ct ed ,
i n th e sen s e ofP 2 P 1 , th ey
are
( )
2
whe r e ,
in ea ch c a s e ,
( )
3 D VXi
2
Y 1 Y2 2
Z 1Z 2
2
°
D I R E C TI ON C O M P ON E N T S 429
Th e tw o se s t of d ir e cti on c os in e s are r
p po o rti on a l t o th e
qu a n titi e s *
( )
4 X 1 X2) Yl I 7
2, Z I Z 2 .
T he s e qu a n titi es p e rt a in m e r el y to th e u n d i r ected l in e L . W e
c a l l th e m a s e t ofd i r ecti on comp on en ts ofL .
Si n c e th e qu a n titi e s (4 ) a r e th e p r oj e cti on s o f 1 l 9
on th e
a x e s thi s d e fi n iti on ca n b e s t a t e d a s f ol l ow s
,
.
D EF I N I TI ON . A set o fdi r ecti on co mp on en ts ofa n UN D I RE C TE D

li n e L are th e p r oj ect i on s on th e a xes o f a d i r ected l i n e -
segm e n t
on L .
I n s t ea d of X l ight h av e t a k en a s d i r e c
,
Y I Y Q, Z I Z Q, we m ,
ti on c om p on en t s Of L X 2 X 1 Y n Z 2 Z t e th e p r oj e cti on s of , , , 1, . .
P 2 P 1 on t h e a x e s ; or 3 X X 2 3 Y l Y g 3 Z I Z Z i e th e p r oj e c 1 , , ,
. .
ti on s ofa d ir e ct e d l in e s e g m en t on L hav in g th e s a m e s en se a s -
P 1 P 2 b u t thr e e ti m e s th e l e n gth .
Th e r e a r e th en i nfin i tely m a ny s et s of d ir e cti on c om p on en t s

, ,
for L An y tw o s ets a r e h ow e v e r p r op or ti ona l F or t w o a rbi

.
, ,
.
,
tr a r y s e t s c on s i s t o f th e p r oj e cti on s on th e a x e s X I X Q Y 1 2
7
, , l ,
Z 1 Z 2 a n d X l f z Y l Y z Z l Z z o f tw o a rbitr a ry d ir e ct e d l i n e
’ ’ ' ' ' '
, , ,
se g m ent s P 1 P 2 a n d P P B u t th e p r oj e cti on s ofP P 2

’ ’ ’
on L
’
, I Z , .
I
on a n y l i n e a r e i n th e sa m e r a ti o a s P P z a n d P 1 P 2
' ’
an d P l l
C h X V I I E a n d th e r e f o r e
( . 4 x , ,
.
, ,
' ' ’
Xi X z ' ’ ' ' ' ' ' ' '
P l Pz Y l Yz P l P2 Z l Z Z Pl PZ ‘
X1X2 P11 0
2 Yi °
1 l Z IZ 2 P 1P 2
OT
5
( ) X i
'
Xz '
p X i ,
'
Y 1 Y2
'
p Y 1 Y 2, Z i
'
Z z
'
p Z I Z 2;
wh e r e th e fa ct o r ofp op o r rti on a l ity , p,

i s q . e (1. .
N ot a ll th r ee d i r ecti on if X I X ,”comp on en ts ca n be zer o . F or ,

Y l ,
Z l Z g w e r e a l l z e r o th e n b y I) IP 1 2 ] w ou l d b e , , 1
3
r
z e o; B u t thi s i s a b s u r d s in c e P I a n d P a r e d i s ti n ct p oi n t s , 0 .
W e s u m m a riz e ou r r e su l t s i n th e f o r m o fa th eor e m .
is Th e fa c tor ofprop orti on ali ty i s ,

i n th e first case , 1 D i n th e se con d ,
1 /D .
THEOREM 1 . An u nd i r ected li n e L h a s i n fin i tely ma ny s ets of
d i r ecti on comp on en ts ; ifl , m, n is o ne set, a l l th e s ets a r e i e n by
g v
l
p , p mp ,
n, w h er e p i s an a r bi tr a r y n u mber , n o t z er o ; m or eover ,
l , m, n a r e n ot a ll zer o . Any l i n e p a r a l l el to L h a s th e sa me sets
o fdi recti on comp on en ts a s L .
Th e l a s t s t a t e m en t h as b e en e x p l icit l y p r ov e d W l ea v e
5
n ot . e
r oof t t;
"
th e p t o th e s u d en of . C h X VI I ,
. 4, E x . .
E xa mp l e 1 . F i n d th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s o fa l in e p a ra l l e l
to th e i
a x s of2 .
Ta k e any d ir e ct e d l i n e -
se g m en t P 1 P2 on th e l in e . I ts p r o
j e cti on s on th e a x es a e r 0, 0, P 1P 2, or , if a i s th e nu m ber
r e p r e s en tin g P P 2 th e y a r e 0 1 , ,
0, a . One set of d ir e cti on c om
p o n e n t s i s th e n 0 ,
0 a , , ,
a s im pl e r s e t, a n d th e on e
g en e r a l l y u s e d i s 0 0 1 , , ,
.
E x a mp l e 2 A l in e bi s e ct s
. gl e b e tw een th e p os itiv e
th e an
a x e s ofy a n d 2 . t a t ar e i t s d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s
Th e p r oj e cti on on th e cc a x i s of a ny d ir e ct ed -
l in e se g m e n t P P 2 on th e giv en l in e i s z e r o
-
1 ,
a n d th e p r oj e cti on s on th e a x e s o f y a n d z a r e
'
e qu a l I f th e n u m b e r r e p r e se n ti n g b oth th e
.
l a tt e r p r oj e cti on s i s a a se t of d ir e cti on com ,
FIG . 5 p o n e n ts f o r th e l i n e i s 0 a a A s i m p l e r s e t , ,
.
i s 0, 1 , 1 .
Geometr i ca l R ep r esen ta ti on of D i r ecti on C omp on en ts Th e .
d ir e ct e d l in e s e g m en t s X l
-
,
Y 1 Y 2, Z l Z z, which a r e th e p r o
cti on s ofP 1 P , on th e a x es , r e p
j e
r es en t g e om e trica ll y th e se t of
d ir e cti on c om p on en t s (4 ) of L .
I n s t ea d ofth e m w e p r e fe r to u s e
th e e qu a l d ir e ct e d l i n e s e g men t s -
P I R P I S P I T i s su in g fr om P I
, , ,
( g
F i . Th e se f o r m wh a t w e
sh a l l cal l a d i r ected tr i h ed r a l ; X1
P l R , P IS , P I T are i t s d i r ected
edges , a n d P I , i ts v er tex . FI G . 6
p r o c e e d h ow fu rth e r tha t L a n d th e l in e s p a ra l l el to i t
to S , ,
a r e th e on ly l in e s h a vi n g thi s tri p l e o r m o r e g e n e r a l l y th e , ,
tri pl e s 4 p 3 p 2 p p qt:0 a s d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s

, , , .
,
.
E vi d e n t l y L i s th e on l y l in e thr ou gh P I with th e d ir e cti on

c om p on en t s 4 3 2 F o r th e s e c om p on en t s d e t e r m in e th e
, ,
.
,
trihed ra l a t P I u n i qu ely th e trih ed ra l d e t e r m ine s th e b ox,
u ni qu ely a n d th e b ox th e l in e
,
.
I fw e t ook 8 6 4 in s t ea d of 4
,
3 2 a s th e giv e n d i r e c
, , ,
ti on c om p on en t s th e r e su l tin g trih ed ra l w ou l d hav e ed g e s with

,
th e sa m e d ir e cti on s b u t twic e a s l on g a s th e e d g e s of th e
, ,
o rigi na l trih e d r a l i e it w ou l d b e s i m i l a r t o th e o rig i na l trib e

,
. .
d ra l . Th e d i a g ona l of th e n e w b ox which i s s u e s fr om P I
w ou l d b e on a l in e with th e d ia g on a l P P 2 of th e ol d b ox 1
\
a n d s o th e sa m e l i n e L w ou l d b e d e t e r m i n e d Si m i l a rl y .
,
if an y m ul ti p l e 4 p — 3 p 2 p of 4 — 3 2 whe r e p i s any
, , , , , , ,
p os itiv e or n e g a tiv e n u m b e r w e r e ta k en a s th e d ir e cti on com ,
p on e n ts .
F in a ll y , if
t rt fr om a n e w p oin t P l it i s cl ea r
we s a
’
,
tha t th e l in e L thr ou gh it with th e giv e n d ir e ction com

'
p on en t s wi ll b e p a r a l l e l t o L o r i n c a se P l l i e s on L th e ,
’
,
sa me a s L .
Th e r ea s on i n g h e r e i s p e rf e ctl y g en e ra l , appl yin g to a ny
trip l e ofn u m b e r s ,
l , m, n , n ot al l z e r o Th e . r e su l t i s th e fol
l owin g c on v e r s e of Th e or e m 1 .
THEOREM 2 . If l, m, n are a ny th r ee n u m b er s , n ot a ll zer o,
th e tr ip l es f
o nu mbers l m n
p , p , p , w h e r e p i s a r bi tr a ry bu t n ot
z er o , a r e s ets o f d i r ecti on comp on ents o f s om e u n d i r e cted li ne L

a nd o fth e l i n es p a r a l l el to L , a nd o fth es e l i n es on ly .
R em a rk . c omp on en t i s z e r o th e c orr e
I f on e d ir e cti on ,
s p on d i n g e d g e of th e d ir e c te d trih e d ral d i sa pp e a r s a n d th e ,
b ox b e c om e s a r e ct an g l e with L a l on g i t s d ia g on al ,
I f tw o .
d ir e cti on c om p on en t s a r e z e r o th e d ir e ct e d trih e d r al b e c ome s ,
a d ir e ct e d l in e a n d L l i es al on g thi s l in e .
D IR E C TI ON C OM P ON E N TS 4 33
EX E R C IS ES
In ea ch fol l owi n g ex e rci s e s fin d a l l th e se t s of di r e c

of th e
ti on c om p on en t s ofth e giv en l in e a n d th en ch oose fr om th e m

a s impl e s et .
1 . A l in e p a ra l l e l to th e i
a x s o fa) .
2 Th e l in e bi s e ctin g th e a n gl e b e tw e en th e
.
p o s itiv e i
ax s
o fa: a n d th e n e ga tiv e a x i s o fz .
3 A l i n e i n th e (ax y) p l a n e h a vin g th e s l op e
.
,
-
2 .
An s .
p 2 p ,
0
, ; 1 , 2, O .
4 . A l in e i n th e (y, z) p l an e m a k in g -
an an gl e of 60
°
with
th e y -
ax s i Tw o an swe r s
5A l i
. .
. ne m a k in g e qu a l an gle s with th e thr e e c oor d in a t e

a x es .
6 Th e l i ne thr ou gh th e o rigin an d th e p oi n t (2 1
.
, ,
7 Th e l in e thr ou gh th e p o in t s (2 3
.
(4 7 , , , ,
8 Wha t ca n y ou say ofth e p o s iti on of a l in e if on e

. of i ts
d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s i s z e r o I f tw o a r e z e r o
In ch ofth e f ol l owin g e x e rci se s c on s tr u c t th e l in e thr ou gh

ea
th e giv en p oi n t with th e giv en d ir e cti on c om p on en t s .
D i r ecti on Comp onen ts

3, 5 ,
2 .
2, 3, 6 .
3, 0, 1 .
0, 1 , 0 .
Formul as for th e Use ofDi r ecti on

L
C m
l
o onents
p .
e th r ou gh Tw o P oi n ts . Le t th e tw o p oi n t s
PI y ] , P2 ( 5
132 , be giv en . Si n c e th e p r oj e cti on s of
P 1P 2 on th e a x e s ar e
( C h X VI.I ,
1
( )
1 931 , $
92
“
yl } zl )
th e s e thr ee qu a n titi e s a r e a s e t ofd ir e cti on c om p one n t s of th e
u n d ir e ct e d l i n e p a s s i n g thr ou gh P I a n d P 2
'
R el a ti on s h ip betw een D i r ecti on Comp on e nts a nd D i recti on

Co s i n e s . W e sa wtha t th e d ir e cti on c om p o n e n t s of an
in 3
u n d ir e ct e d l i n e ar e a n y thr e e n u m b e r s n o t a l l z e r o p r op o r , ,
ti on a l to th e d ir e cti on c os i n e s of th e l in e d ir e ct e d i n on e s en se ,
o r th e o th e r .
C on v e r s e l y s ta rt i n g with th e a rbitr a ry s e t of d ir e cti on

,
c om p on en t s X 1 X 2 Y 1 Y 2 Z I Z Z of a n u n d ir e ct ed l in e a n d
, , , , ,
d ivi d in g e a ch c om p on e n t by th e s qu a r e r oo t o f th e s u m
o f th e s qu a r e s o f th e thr e e i e by th e qu a n tity D giv en by
,
. .
3 w e Obta in th e d ir e cti on c o s in e s
,
3 of th e
l i n e d ir e ct e d i n on e s en s e
,
An d d ivi d in g th e n e ga tiv e s
.
o f th e d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s by th e s a m e s qu a r e r oo t we ,
g e t th e d ir e cti on c os i n es 3 o f th e l in e d ir ect e d ,
o pp os it e l y .
W e s ta te th i s r e su l t a s a th e o r e m
'
THEOREM . IfI, m, n a re a s et o f d i r ecti on mp on en ts

co o fan
u n d i r e cted l i n e L , th e d i recti on cos i n es o f , h en gi v en
L w a s en s e,
a re
:
0
t l
c os a .
w h er e ei th er a l l th e upp er s i
gn s ,
or a ll th e l ower s i gn s , a r e to be
ch os en a ccor d i ng to th e s en se wh i ch h a s been gi ven to L .
I fw e h a d u se d , a s th e d ir e cti on
c om p on en t s of L th e a rbi ,
tr a r y se t pl pm pn (P , 0 ) i n s t e a d ofth e p a rtic u l a r s e t l m n
, , , ,
th e sa m e f o r mu l a s (2 ) w ou l d h a v e r esu l t e d F or if i n ( 1 ) l .
,
m n a r e r e p l a c ed by pl pm pn p c om e s ou t a s a fa ct or fr om
, , , ,
th e s qu a r e r oot i n th e d en om i n a t or of e a ch fr a cti on a n d can

Th e l i n e s L I a n d L 2 a r e p a ra l l e l if a n d onl y if the ir d ir e cti on
c om p on e n t s a r e p r op ortion a l t e if a n d onl y if
5
. .
,
( ) Z2 2
P 1, 7712 m
P ], P 72 1 ;
wh e r e p i i s a nu m ber n ot 0 . Thi s fol l ows d ir e ctl y fr om

Th e or e ms 1 ,
2, 3 .
EX E R C IS ES
1 F r om th e d e on c osin e s of th e d ir e ct ed l in e s of
.
‘ ir cti
Ex s . 1 , 4, 6, § 2, fin d th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s of th e l in e s ,
u nd ir e ct ed .
2 F r om
. ir e cti on c om p on en t s of th e un d ir e ct e d l in es
th e d
ofE x s 9 —1 3 . 3 fi n d th e d ir e cti on c o s in e s ofth e l in e s d ir e ct e d
, , ,
firs t i n on e s en se a n d th en i n th e o th e r .
3 A l in e h a s th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s 2 8 9
. Wh a t a r e , ,
.
i ts d ir e cti on c os in e s i f it i s d ir e ct e d u p wa r d s
,
4 F in d th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s of th e l in e s j o in i n g th e
.
o rigi n with th e p oin ts V

5 ( f) ( ) ( )
i l o f E x 1 of Oh X I I , ,
. .
,
5F i
.
. nd ir e cti on c om p on en t s of th e
th e d l i n e s d e t e r m in e d
by th e p a ir s o f p o i n t s i n E x 1 of O h X V I I . .
,
7
In ea ch fol l owi n g ca s e s d e t e r m in e th e
o fth e an g l es b e t ween
tw o l i n e s with th e gi v en d ir e cti on c om p on en t s . F ir s t t e s t th e
l in e s for p a r a l l el i s m or p e r p en d icu l a rity
5
.
6 .
— 1 ; 7 . 4, — 9 .
,
8 . 2, — 1 . 9 .
10 . Sh o w tha t th e l in e j oin in g th e origin to th e p oin t

( 2 1 is r ic r h l i t r m i d by h
)
5
, ,
1 e
p p e n d u l a t o t e n e d e e n e t e
p o ni t (3
s , , (4 ,
3 ,
Perpendi cul ar to Two Gi v en Li nes . I f tw o l in es ,

in a p o i n t
giv en th e r e i s a s in gl e l in e
P, are ,
thro u gh P p e rp e n d icu l a r to ea ch of th e m n a m el y th e l ine , ,
thr ou gh P p e r p en d ic u l a r to th e p l a ne d e t e r m i n ed by the m .
D IR E C TI O N C O M P ON EN TS 4 37
M or e g en e ra l l y l e t a ny tw o n on pa ra l l e l l i n e sfiL I a nd L 2
,
-
“
,
with th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s l l m1 u l an d Z2 mg n , b e , , , ,
giv en Let L b e a l in e p e rp en d icu l a r to e a ch o f th e m ]

.
L
a n d l e t it b e r e qu ir e d t o fi nd f o r i t a se t o f d ir e cti on co m
p on e n t s ,
l , m, n .
W b e gin with a sp e ci a l ca se Le t 2 3 1 a n d 1 4 2 b e th e
e .
, , , ,
d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s o f L I a n d L 2 r e s p e ctiv e l y Si n c e L , .
with th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s l m n i s p e r p en d ic u l a r to L 1 , , ,
a n d a l s o t o L 2 w e h a v e by ,
4 , ,
2l + 3m + n = 0,
( )
1
F r om th e se two h om og en eou s l in ea r e qu a ti on s it i s i m p oss ib l e

t o d e t e r m i n e u n iqu e l y th e th r ee u n k n ow n s l m n B u t thi s
'
.
, ,
w a s to b e ex p e ct e d F or th e r e i s n ot a u n iqu e se t ofd ir e cti on

.
,
c om p on en t s l m n ofL b u t infin it el y m an y s e t s
, , , , , .
I n g e n e r a l th en th e r e wil l b e a s e t for which n

, ,
1 To .
d e t e r m in e th e v a l u e s of m a n d n for thi s s e t w e m u s t s ol v e ,
s i m u l tan e ou sl y th e e q u a ti on s
Th e ti on s a r e l =
s ol u m C on s e q u e n tl y , on e s et of
d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s of L is A i m pl e r
5
1 . s se t i s 2,
3, .
I n th e g en e ra l ca se ,
s ni ce L is p e r p en d icu l a r to both LI and
L2 , it fol l ow s tha t
l l l + ml m nl n 0,
l2 l m gm 71 2 71: 0 .
rom n ow onwe d rop th e q ali fy i n g a d j e cti ve u nd i re cted

F u nd
“
,
”
a
Sp e a k m e re l y ofl i n e a n d d i r cte d l i n es as us u al
s e , .
1 Th e re a e i nfin i tel y m a ny comm on p e rp en d i cu l rs to L

r nd L a a
-
1 2 .
Th y a e h owever all p ar l l el t o on e a noth er a n d h e n ce th di r e ti on

e r , ,
a e c
co mp o n ents of a n y o n e of the m wi ll b e th di recti n c m p on e nts f ll, e o o o a
th e oth e rs .
He r e, t o o, w e try to fin d a se t of d ir e cti on c om p one n t s l , m, n
ofL , for which n 1 Th en eq u a ti on s (3 ) b e c om e

.
ll l ml m
( )
4
zzz mgm
Th e i
s ol u t on s of th e se e qu a ti on s ar e
5
( )
m l n 2 T m2 n 1
l1m2 l2 m 1
7
-
‘ ” l l?
l l m2
n2 z
l
[ 2 7774
The se v al u e s for l a nd m t og e th e r with n ,

1, fo r m a s e t of
d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s ofL A s i mp l e r s et i s .
ml u 2 7772 71 1 ; I2 ” 2 11 , l l mZ lzmn
or , i n d e t e r m in a n t f or m ,
( )
6
,2
F or th e Sp e cia l c a se fir s t tr ea t e d th e se ,
d e t e r m i n a n ts h av e
th e va l u e s
3 1 3
’
4 2 ’
4
or 6 1 4 — 3, 8 Bu t 2 , w er e th e
d ir e cti on c om p on en t s fou n d ,
and thu s th e w or k i n th e sp e cial
ca s e is ch e ck ed .
R u le o f Th u m b .To obta in th e d e t e r m in an t s i n (6 ) ea s il y ,
writ e th e t w o giv en s e t s of d ir e cti on c omp onen t s un d e r on e

a n oth e r :
11 m1 ”1 ;
l2 m2 ”2 0
Th e first d e t e r m in an t i n f or m ed fr om th e secon d an d
( )
6 i s
th i r d c ol u m n s of thi s a rr a y ; th e s e c on d i s f o r m e d
fr om th e th i r d an d fir s t col u mn s é n ot th e fir s t
a n d thir d a n d th e thir d fr om th e fi r s t a n d s eco n d
-
c ol u m n s Thu s th e se t s of nu m b e r s 2 3 3 1
.
, , ,
1 2 r e p r e sen t th e c ol u mn s u s e d i n th e thr ee d e
,
te r m i n a n t s Th e fir s t se t 2 3 i s a ll tha t n ee d
.
, ,
f or m a d ir e ct ed trih e d ra l (with ed g es of in d efi n it e l en gth )
which i s right han d ed by th e t e s t -
o fOh . X VI I , 5 .
An s 0 , 0 , 1
. .
8 . Th e a b ov e pr obl e m if th e d ir e cti on c os in e s ofL I an d L 2

,
a r e, r e sp e ctiv el y 3 an d 4 3 , 9 ,
A n
} g3
s é , ,
. .
, ,
.
6 Thr ee Li nes Par all el to a Pl ane G iv en thr e e l ine s with

.
.
,
th e d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s l l ml n ] l g mg a n d Z3 m3 n3 , , , , , , ,
.
Th e l in e s wi l l b e p a ra l l el to a p l a n e or wi l l l i e i n a p l an e ,
if an d on l y if the r e i s a l in e with th e d ir e cti on c omp on en t s ,
l m n which i s p e r p e n d icu l a r t o ea ch of th e m i e if a n d
, , , , . .
onl y i f
l 1 l + ml m n1n = 0,
M mgm 0,
l 3l m3m n3u 0 .
B u t, by Ch XVI 1 0 th e s e thr ee h om ogen e ou s l in ea r e qu a

.
, ,
ti on s h a v e a sol u tion for l m n oth e r than th e Obvi ou s s ol u , , ,
ti on 0 0 0 wh en an d onl y wh en th e d et e r m inan t of th ei r
, , ,
c oeffici en t s v ani sh es
ll m1 71 1
Z2 m2 71 2 0 .
ls ma ”3
W hav e the r e for e th e th eor e m

e , ,
THEOREM Th r ee li n es a r e p a ra ll el
. to a p l a n e or l i e i n a
p l a n e , f
i a n d on ly ifth e d ete r mi n a n t ofth e i r di r ec ti on comp onents
h a s th e v a lu e zero .
EX E R C IS ES
S h ow tha t thr ee l in es thr ou gh rigin with

5
1 . th e o th e
d ir e cti on c omp on en t s 2 — 1 3 2 , , , ,
— 4
,
7 , 0, 6 l i e i n a
p l a n e .
Th e p roof covers onl y r

th e gen e al case , w h e n th e gi ven li nes
at n ot
ha ve b ut on e comm on r r r t
p e p en d i cu l a d i ec i on an d th e e q u a i ons ( 1 ) a t
on e -
pa ra m e t r e t
fami l y ofs ol u i on s , b u t al so th e sp eci al case i n h i ch th e w
given l i n es r w ar e p a all el , h e n th e l i n e s h ave i n fini e l y m any comm on t
p e rp en di c l ar di re cti ons a nd
u th e equ a ti ons (1) a r
t w o p a am e e tr fa mi l y
-
ofs ol u ti ons .
D I R E C T I ON C O M P ON E N TS 44 1
In ea ch ofth e f ol l owin g ex e rci se s sh ow th a t thr ee l in e s with

th e giv en d ir e cti on c o m p on en t s a r e p a ra l l e l to a p l a n e .
2 .
3 . 2,
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R V
X III
Sh ow th a t th e tri an g l e with rtic es a t th e p oin t s

5
1 . ve
1 3
( , , ( , ,
3 4 ( ,
2 ,
3) i s a right trian g l e .
P r ov e tha t in t s (2
5
2 . th e p o ,
( — 3, 9 ) th e v e rtic e s ofa l r
l l gra m
5 5)
,
are p a a e o .
3 . Sh o w tha t (2 3 (4 , , , , (3 ,
7 , ( ,
1 ,
2 are
th e v e rtic es ofa s qu a r e .
P r ov e th a t th e thr ee p oin t s A with th e c oor d ina t e s

(5
B, C
5
4 .
,
—2
( , li e on a l in e by s h o w i n g th a t
, , (2 ,
0 ,
1 1 — 6
, )
th e l in e AB h as th e sa m e d ir e cti on a s th e l i n e A C
5Show that th e tw o poin ts (4 — 2

.
. 6 3 9) li e , , , ,
on a l i n e with th e o rig i n .
6 .Sh ow th a t tw o p oi n t s (x 1 y1 (x 2 y2 2 2 ) l i e on a l in e
, , , ,
with th e o rigin wh en a n d on l y wh en th e ir coOr d i n ate s a r e

p r op orti on a l x1 : y1 2 1 x2 y2 2 2 .
Sh ow th a t th e f ou r p oin t s A B C D wit h th e co
5 5
7 .
, , , ,
o r d in a t e s (3 4 by
(
,
1 6 , ( 3 (4, ,
l i e i n a p
,
l a n e
, , ,
p r o v i n g th a t th e s u m o f th e a n g l e s which B C a n d C D s u bt e n d
a t a n g l e A e qu a l s th e a n g l e which B D s u bt en d s a t A .
8 .F i n d th e p r oj e cti on on a d ir e ct ed l i n e h a vi n g 3 , 3 g , ,
a s i t s d ir e cti on c o s i n e s of th e d ir e ct e d l in e s e g m en t j oi n in g th e
5
-
o rigi n t o th e i t A
p o n
( 2 , ,
n s 4 . .
Su gg es ti on U se th e m e th od of 2 or e m p l oy f o r m u l a (2 )
.
of C h . X VI I , 4 .
9 . Sh o w th a t th e p r oj e cti on , on a d ir e ct ed l in e hav in g
cos a , c os 8 co s a s i t s d ir e cti on c os i n e s of th e d ir e ct ed l i n e
, , y ,
se g men t j oin in g th e o rigin t o th e p o i n t (x , y, z

) is
x cos a +y cos B+
,
z cos
y .
44 2 AN ALYT I C G E OM E T R Y
10 . F in d th e p r oj e cti on , on a d ir e ct e d l in e with th e d i r ec
ti on c os in e s g, g, 4, of th e d ir e ct e d l in e s e g m en t j oin in g th e
5 5
-
p o i n t ( 3 2 , ) t o th e p o i n t (8 0
, , , An s . .
11 Th e p r e vi ou s p r obl e m i n th e g en e r al ca se
.
,
.
12 . Tw o l in e s , LI and ha v e th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s 1
L2 , ,
1, 0 a nd 0, 1 , 1 r e s p e ctiv e l y
,
F i n d th e d ir e cti on co m
.
p on e n t s of a l in e which i s p e rp en d icu l a r to LI a nd m a k e s a n
an gl e of30
°
with L2 . An s 1 , . 1, 2 .
13 . P r ov e tha t ea ch tw o opp os i te ed ge s of th e t etra h e d r on ,
with ve rtic e s at th e p oin t s 0 0

( , , ( , ,
1 1 ( , ,
0 1
( 1 ,
0 ,
1) ar e pe rp en d icu l a r .
14 . t e trah ed r on h a s thr ee p a ir s of op p osit e ed g e s

A .
P r ov e th a t if th e e d g e s ofea ch oft w o p a ir s ar e p e r p en d icul a r

, ,
th e e d g e s ofth e t hi r d p a ir a r e a l s o p e r p en d ic u l a r C h oo se th e .
c o Or d i na t e a x es s k il l ful l y
1 5P r ov e th e i d en tity
.
(”l ”2 1 0
2
( ) (A 4 244 0
2 2
V1 4 2 V2 4 1 '
I
‘
I 42
/
( 1
4 2 “
I MI" Z
VI
?
)( 2
4 2
$
42
2 "
I
”
V2
?
) A
( 2
I A HI M V1 V2
) 2
I n th e f ol l owin g ex e rci s e s X1 MI 1 X2 z 2 (an d A3 , , v , ,

u
, , v ,
i
pg , 3)
v d e n o t e th e d ir e cti on c o s in e s o f d ir e ct e d l in e s L I L 2 , ,
a which thr gh rigi

5
( n d L 3) ,
w e ca n a s s u m e g o o u t h e o n I n .
s ol v in g th e ex e rci se s th e i d en tity of E x 1 ,
wil l b e foun d .
u se f u l .
16 . I f0 i s th e an gl e b e tw een LI an d L,, S h owtha t

si n ( M2 V1) ( M ) (MM
?
0 F z
l l ’
2 '
I
‘
VI V2 >\I
Z
17 . P r ov e tha t if L I a n d L2 a r e p e r p en d icu l a r ,
th e d ir e cti on
c osin e s o f th e ir c o mm on p e r p e n d icu l a r L , a r e
I:
: (MI 1 2 mm) , ( Vi kz Vzl u , ) :(b l i
21 tz A2114 1 )
18 . Sh o w tha t if th e p l u s Sign s ar e ta k en i n
, ,
th e b ov e
a
f or m u l a s ,
L3 wil l b e s o d ir e ct e d tha t th e l in e s L I , L2 , L3 wi l l
C HAP TE R X I X
THE P LAN E
a ces and E qu ati ons E xa mp l e 1 Th e e qu a ti on

5
. .
is sa ti sfi e d by th e c oor d ina t e s of those p oin t s a n d onl y thos e

i t which r l l h (y ) p l d
5
l i i th l l t t
'
o n s e n e p a n e p a a e o e z a n e a n
p
-
-
u n it s i n f r on t of it W e say t ha t th e e qua ti on r ep r es en ts
.
thi s p l a n e .
E xa mp l e 2 . C on s i d e r th e e qu a tion
x y .
Th e p o i t
n s i n th e ( y) px,l a n e wh o s
-
e c o o r d i n a t e s s a ti s fy it a r e
th e p o in t s of t h e l in e L bi s e ct i n g th e a n g l e b e tw e en th e p os i
tiv e x an dy
-
ax e s . r Si n c e
trict e d by th e e q u
2 a ti ois
n u n es ,
th e p oin t s i n sp a ce wh ose coOr d i n a te s s a ti s fy it a r e th e p oint s

wh ich l i e d ir e ctl y a b ov e or b el ow L or a r e on L i e th e , ,
. .
p oin t s of th e v e rtic al p l an e th r ou gh L T h e e qu a ti on th en .
, ,
r ep r esen t s thi s pl an e .
E xa mp l e 3 Th e e qu a ti on
5
.
2
£13 Z 2 2
r e p r e sen t s p l a n e, a ci r cl e , C, with i ts c en t e r a t th e
5
,
i n th e ( z, x
) -
o ri gi n a n d r i of a d u s . B u t th e e q u a ti on d oe s n ot r e s trict i n
a ny w a y th e v a l u e of y C on s e qu e n t l y it r e p r e s en t s i n sp ape
.
,
th e circu l a r cy l in d e r f o r m e d by d ra win g thr ou gh ea ch p o in t

o f th e circl e C a l in e p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s of y a n d e x t en d in g
in d efini t el y i n b oth d ir e cti on s .
Th e p l a n es a n d th e cy l in d e r r e p r e s en t e d by th e
"
S u rfa ces .
thr e e e qu a ti on s c on si d e r ed a r e kn ow n a s s u rfa ces ; th e cyl in d e r

THE P LAN E 44 5
is a cu r ved s u rfa c e a n d th e pl an e s a r e p l a n e su rfa c es I n .
gen
e ral i z i ng th e for e g o in g d i s cu s s i on s w e S h ou l d th en say , ,
An equ a ti on in x, y, 2 r ep r es en ts , u s u a l ly,
*
a f
s u r a ce . Th e
f
s u r a ce con s i s ts o f a ll th os e p oi n ts a nd on ly th os e p oi n ts wh os e
coOr d i n a tes, wh en s u bs ti tu ted for x, y, z in th e equ a ti on ,
s a ti s fy i t .
Shifti n g th e p oi n t of v i e w , w e a ssu m e n ow t ha t it i s a su r
fa c e , a n d n ot an e qu a ti on , which i s giv en Th en w e sh ou l d .
sa y :
Th e equ a ti on o f a g i v e n f i s a n eq u a ti on i n x y, 2 wh i ch
s u r a ce ,
is sa ti s fi d b h d i of ev ery p oi n t of th e s u rfa ce a n d by
’
e y t e coor n a tes
th e coor d i n a tes ofn o oth er p oi n t

‘
P robl em 1 . F i n d th e
qu a ti on of th e spher e whos e c en t e r e
i s a t th e o rigi n an d w h os e r a d iu s i s a .
A p oi n t (x y z) l i es on th i s s ph e r e if an d onl y if th e s qu ar e
, ,
'
o fi ts d i s t an c e f r om th e or igi n i s e qu a l to a 2
$ 2
y2
z
2
“
2
.
Th e r e for e th i s ,
i s th e r e qu ir ed e qu ati on .
P robl em 2 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e p l an e wh ich p a sses

th r ou gh th e ax s i of x and makes an an gl e of
30 with th e (x y) p l a n e a s s h own i n F i g 1
°
-
, , .
.
Thi s pl an e in t e r s e ct s th e (y z) p l a n e i n th e ,
-
l in e wh ose e qu a ti on i n th e (y z) p l a ne i s ,
-
z = ta n 30 y °
or z =
FI G . 1
B u t thi s qu a ti on c on s id e r e d a s a n e qu a ti on i n
e ,
x , y z l,
e av e s x,
u n r e s trict e d ; c on s e qu e n tl y it r e pr e s e n t s i n ,
sp a ce th e giv e n p l a n e i e i t i s th e e qu a ti on of th e giv en ,
. .
p l a n e .
it
An e qu a ti on in x, y, z d oe s ways rep resent a surface F o
n ot a l . r
ex a m p l e , th e equ a ti on x2 y
2 0 re p res e nts a l i ne n a me l y th e z a i s , ,
-
x
t
th e e q u a i on x 2 y
? z 2 0 repres ents j u st one p oi nt th e ori gi n ; and ,
th e e qu a ti on x 2
y
? 22 1 0 re prese nts n o p i nt wh atsoever o .
EX E R C IS ES
Wha t d oes ea ch ofth e fol l owin g e qu a ti on s r ep r esen t D raw

a figu r e i n ea ch ca se .
1 .
2 .
y+ 3 = Q .
3L x +y = 2
23 — 9
®
.
4 . z — 2x = z
z =2x 12 .
13 . Wh i ch of th e su rfa c es r epr e sen t e d by th e a b ov e e qu a

tion s p ass thr ou gh th e o rigi n ? Which c on ta i n a c oor d ina t e
ax is
F in d th e e qu a ti on s ofth e f oll owin g f c

s u r a es .
14 Th e (y z) pl an e -
1 5T
. .
,
h e p l an e p a ra l l el
. t o th e ( x, y) p l a-
n e an d 3 un it s a b ov e
Th e pl an e p a ra l l e l to th e (z x) pl an e a nd 2 u n it s to th e
16 .
,
-
l eft of it .
17 Th e pl an e bi se ctin g th e a n g l e b e tw e en th e (x y) a nd
.
,
— l a n es a n d a s s in g thr ou gh th e fir s t o ct a n t
(y ) p
z , p .
18 Th e pl a n e p e r p end icu l a r to th e (x y) p l an e wh ose tr a c e

.
,
-
on th a t p l a n e h a s th e s l o p e 3 a n d th e in t e rc e p t 2 on th e a x i s
ofy .
19 Th e circu l a r cy l in d e r wh ose ra d i u s i s 3 an d wh o s e a x i s
.
i s p a r a l l el t o th e x a x i s a n d p a s se s thr ou gh th e p oi n t (0 1
-
, ,
20 Th e pa rab ol ic cy l in d e r wh os e ru l in g s a r e p a ra l l el t o th e
.
x i s a n d wh ose tr a c e on th e r b with
y a
-
( )p
z x l a n e i s a p a ,
a ol a -
i ts v e rt e x a t th e origin a n d i ts f o cu s a t th e p oin t (2 0 , ,
21 Th e el l i p tic cy l in d e r wh os e r u l in g s a r e p a ra l l e l to th e
.
z a x i s a n d wh os e tr a c e on th e (x y) p l a n e i s a n e l l i p s e which
-
,
-
h a s i t s c en t e r a t th e origin i t s foci on th e x a x i s a n d a x e s of
,
-
l en gth s 6 a n d 4 .
i T h e tra ce of a s u rfa ce on a p l a n e i s th e li n e or c u rve of i nt erse c

s
, ,
ti on ofth e su rfa ce w i th th e p l an e .
ot her . It i s th e ir c om m on d ir e cti on or , a na l ytica ll y th e ir
,
c om m on d ir e cti on c om p on en t s which a r e , e s s e n ti a l Acc or d

.
i n gl y , w e s p ea k of ( )
1 as th e eq u a ti on o fa p l a n e th rou gh a g i v en
p oi n t w i th a gi v en d i re cti o n o f ts
i n or ma ls .
EX E R C IS ES
In ea ch of th e fol l ow i n g ex e rci se s fin d th e e qu a ti on of th e
p l an e thr ou gh th e giv en p oin t with th e giv en d ir e cti on of i t s
n or mal s .
P oi n t Di r ecti on P oi n t D i r ecti on
1, 1, 1, 2 5O rigi n, 3, — 2 , 0
5 5
. . .
3, — 2, 2, 1 ( 0, 1 , 0
5
.
, , .
3 ( ,
4 3, 0, 3 7 (3 1 0, 0, 1
5
.
.
, , ,
. .
4 . O rig i n , 2, 3, . 8 . O rigin , l, m, n .
F in d qu a ti on s of thr ee which p as s
5
9 . th e e th e p l a n e s
thr ou gh th e p o i n t ( ,
6, — 3) and ar e p a a r
l l e l r e sp e ctiv el y to
th e c oor d i n a t e p l a n e s .
10 . H ow i s a p l a n e itu a t ed if on e of th e d ir e cti on
s c om
f i ts no rm al s i s z ero I f tw o a r e z e r o
Gener al E qu ati on of th e Fi r st Degree Sin c e a ny .
b e d e t e r m i n e d by on e o fi t s p o in t s a nd th e d ir e cti on
c om p on en t s ofa n or m al th e r esu l t ofth e p r e c e d in g p a ra gra p h
,
e m br a c es a l l p l a n e s M o r eov e r e qu a ti on (1 ) Of th a t p a r a gra p h
.
,
i s of th e fir s t d e gr ee i n x y 2 W e h av e thu s p r ov ed th e , ,
.
th e or em :E v ery p la n e ca n be r ep r esen ted a na lyti ca lly by a

l i n ea r equ a ti on in x, y ,
2 .
G i v en , c on v e r sel y ,
th e ge ner a l equ a ti on of th e fi rs t d egr ee i n
x, y, 2, na m el y ,
( )
1
wh e r e A, B , C, D are a ny fou r c on s t an t s ,
of which A, B , C
a r e n ot a l l z e r o fi“
I n d e ali n g wi th equ a ti on he re a nd h e n ceforth ,

we sh all a l ways
ass u m e th at A, B , C ar e n ot a ll z e o r .
THE P LAN E 44 9
Le t ( x0 , yo, 2 0 ) be a p o i t wh ose c oor d ina t e s

n sa ti sfy e qu a ti on
( )
1 3
( )
2 ACCO B yo 020 D O .
Su btra ct i n g e qu a ti on (2 ) fr om e qu a ti on ( 1 ) we obta in
A (x x0
) + B (y y0 ) + C (z
— z
o ) = 0 .
B u t th i s e qu a ti on is ofth e f or m 2, wh e r e
Th e r e f or e it r e pr e s en t s a p l an e w h i ch h a s A B C a s th e , ,
d ir e cti on c om p on en ts ofi ts n or m a l s Thi s r e su l t w e st a t e a s a .
the or e m .
T H EOREM Th e gener a l l i nea r equ a ti on (1 ) a lw a ys r ep r esents

.
a p l a ne . Th e coe fi c i e nts A, B , C a re th e d i r ecti on co mp on ents

ofth e n or ma l s to th e p l a n e .
E xa mp le 1 . Th e e qu a ti on
2x — 3y + 4z
r e p r e sen t s a p l a n e wh os e n or m al s hav e 2 ,
3, 4 as d ir e cti on
c om p on en t s Th e p oin t (2 2 2 ) for ex a m p l e
.
, , ,
l i es i n th e p l an e s in c e wh en w e s e t x = 2 , ,
y = 2 i n th e e q u a ti on we fi nd a s th e ,
v a l u e of2 .
W e bta in a r ou gh p l ot of th e p l an e by
o
c on s tru ctin g th e p oin t (2 2 2 ) a n d th e l in e , ,
thr ou gh i t with th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s 2 F 3 ,

IG .
3 4 a nd by d ra win g th en a s a ccu r a t el y
, ,
,
a s p oss ib l e th e p l a n e thr ou gh th e p oi n t p e rp en d icu l a r

,
to
th e l i n e .
E xa mp l e 2 . Th e e qu a ti on
x = 2, or
"
i s th e qu a ti on of a p l an e h av in g th e l in e s with th e d ir e cti on
e
c om p on en t s 1 0 0 a s n or ma l s B u t th e se l in es a r e p a ral l el
, ,
.
to th e a x i s of x a n d h e n c e th e p l an e i s p a r a l l e l to th e (y z) ,
pl an e I n p a rticu l a r it i s tw o u n it s i n fr on t oftha t p l ane

.
,
.
5
4 0 AN ALYT I C GE O M E T
RY
R ema rk . I n th e p r oof o f th e th e or e m it was a s su m e d tha t

th e r e i s al wa y s a p oin t wh ose coOr d i na te s sa ti s fy e qu a ti on
Thi s a ssu m p ti on i s ea s il y j u s tifi ed B y hy p oth e si s a t l ea s t .
.
on e o f th e thr e e c o e ffici e n t s A B C i s not z e r o Su p p os e th a t

, ,
.
C 0 . Th en e qu a ti on (1 ) can b e s ol v e d for z :
Ax + B y + D
z :
C
G I v In g t o x an d y d e fi n it e v a l u e s , x0 and yo, w e obta i n for 2 fr o m

thi s e qu a ti on a d efi n it e va l u e , zo . Th en th e p oin t (x0 , yo, 2 0)
h a s c oor di na t e s which sa ti s fy .
F or ex a m p l e , if x0 0 an d
yo 0 th
,
e n 2 0 D / C a n d th e , p o n i t is (0 ,
0 , D /C ) .
EX E R C IS ES
In ea ch of th e fol l owi n g ex e rci s e s d e t e r m in e th e d ir e cti on

c omp on en t s ofth e n or m a l s to th e giv en p l an e a n d th e coOr d i
n a t e s o fa p o i n t l yi n g i n it C on s tru ct th e p l a n e by th e m e th od
.
le 1
5 52
.
x + y + 6 z . x + 3y
2 x — x —
5
y + z 6 . 3 2 2
=
5
3 . 4 x + 2 y 7 .
y + 8 0 .
x — 2 y 8 . 2 2
pts
e . giv en by m ean s ofi ts e qu a ti on
Le t a p l a n e be .
m e th od
ofp l ottin g th e p l a n e i n c a s e it c u t s th e ax e s ,
i s ti n ct p oi n t s (on e on ea ch a x i s ) c on s i s t s i n d e te r m i n ,
l in g fr om th e e qu a ti on th e c oo r d in a t e s of th ese thr e e p oin t s

'
a n d th en i n p l o ttin g th e p o in t s a n d c on stru ctin g th e p l an e
thr ou gh th em .
Th e p oin t ofi n te r s e cti on o fa p l an e for ex a m p l e , ,
2 x — 3y +4
( )
1 z
with th e i of x h a s i ts y a n d z c oor d in a te s both e qu al to

’
ax s -
z ero C on s e qu en t l y t o fin d th e x c oor d i n a t e of th e p oin t w e

'
,
.
,
ha v e m e r el y t o s e t y 0 an d z 0 i n th e e qu a ti on ofth e p l an e
and to s ol v e for x Thu s i n thi s ca se w e hav e
.
, ,
2 x iv = 3 .
4 2 5 AN ALYT I C GE O M E TR Y
throu gh th e thr e e p o n i t (a
s ,
0, ( 0 ,
b , ( , ,
0 0 Le t thi s
e q u a ti on b e
( )
1
wh e r e th e va l u e s of A, B , C, D are t o b e d e t e r m i n ed . S in c e
th e p l a n e d oe s n ot g o thr ou gh th e o rigin , D ¢0 . it
Si n ce
c on ta in s ea ch of th e giv en p oin t s ,
th e fol l ow m g e qu a ti on s m u s t
h ol d
Aa + D = O, E b + D = O, Cc + D = 0 .
H en c e A D/a, B D/b, C D/c . Su b s titu ti n g

th e se va l u e s for A, B , C i n ( )
1 and d ivi d in g thr ou gh by D, we
obt a i n
”
2
0
if
+ +
a b c
Th a t thi s i s th e d e sir e d e qu a ti on can ea sily b e ch e c k ed by

su b s ti tu t i n g su cc e ss iv e l y i n it th e c o Or di n a t e s o f th e thr ee
p oin t s i n qu e s ti on .
O nl y p l a n e s whi ch i n t e r s e ct th e a x e s i n thr ee p oin t s th a t a r e

.
d i s tin ct ca n h a v e th e ir e qu a ti on s writt en i n th e f or m A
p l a n e thr o u gh th e o rigi n i s a n e x c e ti on b e c a u se a t l ea s t on e o f
p ,
i ts i n t e rc e p t s i s z e r o a n d d ivi s i on by z e r o i s i m p os s ibl e A .
p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o a n a x i s i s a l so a n e x c e ti on S i n c e it h a s n o i n
p ,
t e r ce p t on th a ax 1 s .
EX E R C IS ES
F th e e qu a ti on s of th e p l a n e s with th e fol l owin g in te r
5 _ 4 — 6, —2
5
. .
,
2 . 2, _ s, _ 1 .
— _ 3, 2 . 6 . 2, — 6 .
,
F in d th equ a ti on s ofth e f ol l owin g p l an es

e .
7 With i n t e rc e p t s on th e x an d y ax e s e qu al to 2 an d 3
.
-
and
p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s ofz .
8 With in t e rc ep t
. 3 on th e z a x i s a n d p a r a l l e l to -
th e
x y p l an e
( ) ,
-
.
THE P LAN E 5
4 3
9 . A r e gu l a r qu ad ra n gu l a r p yra m i d h a s i ts ve rtic e s at th e
p o ni t
s
( 0 ,
0 , (2 ,
0 ,
0 2
( , , 2 , 0, ( ,
0 2,
F in d th e e qu a ti on o fi fa c e s
ts .
10 . Th e sa m e , if th e v e rtic e s are at th e p o n i t s (0 ,
0, c
) ,
( a, 0, ( 0 ,
a, a, 0, ( ,
0 a,
6 . Pl ane th r ou gh Thr ee
i t l yin g i n a
P oi nts . Thr e e p o n s ,
n o t
s tra ight l i n e d e t e r m i n e a p l a n e
,
I n a n y p a rticu l a r ca s e th e .
e qu a ti on ofth e p l a n e ca n b e f ou n d by th e m e th od o f th e p r e
c e d in g p a r a gra p h I n th e g en e ra l ca se wh en th e p oin t s a r e
.
,
a rbitr a ry a n d h a v e th e c o Or d i n a t e s (x , y,
( x2 y2 , , , ,
( y
x3 , 3 thi
,
s m e th od c o u l d s ti l l b e a pp l i e d I t i s h o w e v e r .
, ,
S i m p l e r t o w rit e th e e q u a ti on i n d e t e r m in a n t f o r m by a n a l ogy ,
to th e e qu a ti on i n th a t f o r m of th e s tr a ight l in e thr ou gh t w o
p oin t s (Ch X VI . W e ha v e n a m el y
, , ,
x y z 1 M od e l s »
95
1 5 91 xi 1
we yg Z 2 1 It
Q l ca
d
,
933 23 1 L W
ya 3
To s h o w th a t thi s
'
qu a ti on a ct u a l l y r e p r esen t s th e p l an e
e
thr ou gh th e thr e e p oi n t s d e v e l op th e d e t e r m in a n t by th e m in or s
,
o fth e fir s t r ow Th e e qu at i on th en ta k e s on th e u s u a l f or m
.
,
Ax + B y + OZ + D = O,
o fa l in ea r e qua ti on m o r e ov e r , th e v a l u e s obta in e d fo r A , B , C
'
yl zl 1 ml 21 1 971 3h 1
A: $
92 22 1 B 372 51
32 0 = 932 yz 1 ,
23
, 1 933 2s
'
1 933 ya 1
a r e n ot a l l r
z e o, s n i c e oth e rwi s e th e p r oj e cti on s of th e thr e e
i t e a ch of c o Or d i n a t e p l a n e s w ou l d l i e on a l i n e
5
p o n s on th e
=
=
( C h X VI.
,
11, Th
h e n c e s o w ou l d th e thr ee p oin t s
. 1 )
x
and
th em s el v es C on se qu en t l y (1 ) r e p r e sen t s s om e p l a n e
.
,
.
at
I f C fo e a m p l e we re e ro t h th r e e p oi nts ( x y
, r x , (x y
z ,
e 1, 1, 2, 2,
( x 3, 0 ) i n t h e ( x y ) p 1 n w ld l i e,
o n a l i n -
B t tah e e
s e p oi nts are
ou e . u
t h e p roj ecti ons ofth e gi ve n p oi nts on t h e ( x y ) p 1 n e ,

-
a .
5
4 4 AN ALYT I C GE OM ETR Y
Thi s i s th e p l a n e thr ou gh th e thr e e p o in t s , s m ee th e su b
s ti t u ti on of th e coOr di n a te s of a n y on e o f th e p o in t s f
:
or x, y,
z i n (1 ) m ak e s tw o row s ofth e d e t e r m i n an t id en tica l a n d hen ce
ca u s e s th e d e t e r m inan t to van i sh an d th e e qu a ti on to b e
sa ti sfi e d .
EX E R C IS ES
F in d th e qu a ti on s of th e foll owin g
e p l a n e s by a pp l yin g
a n d s i m p l ifyin g th e r esu l t .
r ou gh (1 2 2 3 (3 1
5 5
, , , , , ,
Thr ou gh (2 ,
2 ,
3 ( 3 , , , ,
3 .Thr ou gh (1 1 ( 0 1
, , ( 1 0 , , , ,
4 Thr ou gh ( 1 1 ( 6 4 4 2
5Throu gh (4 5
,
.
, , , , ,
.
,
3 ,
2 th e o rigi n
, ,
-
6 .Thr ou gh (x 1 y ( x2
, y2 1, th e o rigi n , ,
. K ee p th e
e qu a ti on i n d e t e r m i n a n t f or m b u t s i m p l ify it ,
.
7 . E s t a bl i sh th e in t e rc ep t for m of th e e qu a ti on of a p l a n e
by yin g for m u l a
a pp l
8 B y th e m e th od Of
. th e p r e c e d i n g p a a r gra p h fin d th e
e qu a ti on o f th e p l a n e of
( ) a E x e rci se 1 ; ( )
b E x e rci s e 3 ;
() on E x e rci s e 5 .
9 . F i n d th e qu a ti on s of th e fa c e s of th e t e trah ed r on wh os e
e
v e rtic e s ar e at th e p oin t s (0 0 (0 3 , ( 2 1 , ( 1 1 , , , , , ,
An s . z = 0, 2 x = z, 2 x — 4
y + z _
7 . Perp endi cul ar , Parall el , and I denti cal Pl anes . Angl e b e

tw een Two Pl anes . Th e no rmal s t o th e tw o p l a n e s ,
( )
1 A1 5
1} B ly 0 12 D1 O,
(2 ) A2w + B 2y + s + D 2 = O;
ha v e AI , B 1 , Cl an d A2 , B 2 , 0 2 , r e sp e ctiv el y ,
as d ir e cti on com
p on e n t s .
Th e p l a n es are p e r p en d icu l a r if an d y if the ir n or m al s

onl
ar e pe r p en d icu l a r ; an d p a arl l e l ( or i d en tica l ) if an d onl y if

,
5
1 . 5 x 3 x — .
y
2 . 2 x — y + 32 2 x
3 . 3x + 6y
2 x 3x — 3y+ 6z
5 . 3x —
y
6 . 2 x +y+ z x +y
7 . x + z = 0 .
8 . 4 x + 8y + z y + z
9 . 2 x + y + 32 x
10 . Sh ow th a t tw o p l a n e s ar e p a a l r
l e l wh en a n d onl y wh en
th eir e qu a tion s ca n be writt en i n th e form s
'
D ¢D .
8 . Pl anes Pa rall el or Perp endi cul ar to a Gi v en Pl ane .
E xa mp l e 1 F in d th e qu a ti on th e p l an e whi ch p asse s
5
. e of
thr ou gh th e p oin t ( ,
2, 4) an d is p a r a l l e l t o th e p l a n e
— 6z
( )
1 2 x 4
+ y
Th e n or m al s to th e p l a n e ( )
1 ha v e th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s
m or e i m pl y Th e r e qu ir e d
5
2 , 4, 6 or , S ,
1, 2, 3 .
p l a n e h a s
th e sa m e nor m al s an d p a s s e s thr ou gh th e p oin t ( ,

2,
By 2 , i ts e qu a ti on is
l — 2
( x
)
x + 2y — 3z
Thr ou gh a giv en
i t a n d p a ra l l el to a giv en p l an e th e r e i s
p o n
b u t on e p l an e ; i ts e qu a ti on ca n a l wa y s b e f ou n d by th e a b ov e
me th od B u t thr ou gh a giv en p oi n t a n d p e r p en d icu l a r to a
.
giv en p l an e th e r e i s n ot j u st on e p l an e b u t infin it el y m an y , ,
n a m el y a l l th e l a n e s which a s s thr ou gh th a t n o r m a l t o th e
, p p
giv en p l an e which g oe s thr ou gh th e giv en p oi n t To S in gl e .
ou t on e o f th e s e p l a n e s w e m u s t i m p ose a f u rth e r c on d iti on .
W e m ight d e m a n d for in s t a n c e th a t th e r e qu ir e d p l a n e p a ss
, ,
thr ou gh a se c on d giv en p oin t or a ga in w e m ight sp e cify t ha t , ,

THE PLAN E 4 7 5
it b e p e r p en d icu l a r to a se on dc giv en p l an e W e pr oc e ed . to
c on si d e r il l u stra ti v e ex a m p l es o fth ese t w o typ es .
E xa mp l e 2 . F in d th e e qu a ti on ofth e p l a n e p a ss i n g thr ou gh
th e tw o p oi n t s ( ,
3 2, 6, 0, 4 ) a n d p e rp en d icu l a r to
th e p l a n e
( )
2 2 x — y + 4 z
F i r s t M eth od . L e t th e e
q ua ti on of th e p l a n e i n qu e sti on he
( )
3
Sin c e th e p l a n e c on ta i n s th e tw o giv en p o n s,i t w e mu st ha ve

3A
5
( )
4
( ) 6A
Si n c e it i s p e rp en d ic ul a r to th e p l a n e it is c
n e essa ry tha t
( )
6 2A
In ( )
6 w e ha v e
i m u l tan eou s l in ea r e qu a ti on s
th r ee s
i n th e f ou r u n k n own s A B C D B u t fr om thr ee l in ea r
, , ,
.
e qu a ti on s it i s i m p o s s ib l e t o d e t e r m i n e u n iq u el y th e v a l u e s of
fou r un kn own s I t m ay b e p os s ibl e h ow ev e r to d e t e r m in e

.
, ,
th e v a l u e s of thr ee of th e u n k n o w n s i n t e r m s of th e f ou rth ,
say th e v a l u es ofA B C i n t e r m s ofD

, ,
.
Acc or d in g l y w e r e writ e th e e q u a ti on s i n th e f or m
,
3A— 2B + 9 0 — D,
6A . IL
2A B + 4 0 a
an d s ol v e for A, B , C, ith e r d ir e ctl y or by
e d e t e r m i n an t s . W e
do obta in a s ol u ti on ,
n am el y ,
A = 4Q B =
H en c e (3 ) b e c om e s
4D x — Dy
Th e p l an e r ep r e s en t e d by thi s e qu a ti on i s a l wa y s th e sa m e n o ,
m a tt e r wh a t va l u e o th e r th a n z e r o i s giv e n to D
,
A simpl e , .
ch oic e i s :D : 2 W e obt a in th en a s th e e qu a ti on of th e
.
, ,
r e qu ir ed p l a n e ,
{I} 2 3] z 2 0 .
4 8 5 AN ALYT I C GE OM E T R Y
S econd M eth od . r m al t o th e r e qu ir e d p l an e
Le t N b e a ny n o .
Si n c e th e p l an e c on t a i n s th e t w o giv en p oi n t s N i s p e r p e n ,
d i cu l a r t o th e l in e L I j oi n i n g th e s e p oi n t s S i n c e th e p l a n e i s .
e
p p r e n d ic u l a r t o th e giv e n
p l a n e N i s p e r p e n d ic ul a r t o
a n y l i n e L 2 n or m a l t o Thu s N i s a c om m on p e r p end icu l a r

t o th e l i n es L I an d L 2 .
Th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s of L , a r e by Ch X VI I I § 4 ,
.
, ,
3 — 2 0, 9 t. e .
9, 2, 13 ;
th os e ofL 2 a re 2, 1, 4
5
.
C on s e qu en t l y , by Ch X VI I I , .
,
th e d ir e cti on c omp on en t s
o fN a r e
— 2 13 13 9
’ ’
— 1 4 4 2
— 10 — 5,
or 1, — 2,
O u r p r obl e m I s n ow r ed u c e d toth a t of fi n di n g th e e qua ti on
of th e p l a n e which p a s s e s thr ou gh on e of th e giv en p oi n t s ,
sa y 3
( , — 2, an d h as 1 , — 2, 1 as th e d ir e cti on c om
p on e n t s o fi t s n o r mal s Thi s e qu a ti on
. is
— l
1 ( x — 3) ( x
x — 2y
E xa mp l e 3 F in d th e qu a ti on ofth e p l a ne pa s sin g thr ou gh

5
. e
th e p o n i t (2 , ,
8) a n d p e r p en d icu l a r t o ea ch of th e
p l an es
2 x 4x+y
E ith e r of th e m e th od s e mp l o yed i n th e p r e vi ou s ex a m p l e is
a pp l ica bl e . ch oose th e
W e A n or m a l N to th e r e l a tt e r .
qu ir e d p l an e i s p e r p en d icu l a r to th e n or m a l s to b oth th e g i v en
p l a n e s .Th e se h av e r e s p e cti v e l y th e ,
d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s ,
2 ,
3 4 an d 4 1
,
2 ,C on se qu en t l y th e d i re cti on c om p o
,
.
,
n eu t s of N a r e 2 2 0 1 4 or 1 1 0 7
5
.
, , , ,
Th e e qu a ti on of th e p l a n e thr ou gh (2 8 ) with 1 1 0 7
a s th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s ofi t s n o r m
, , , ,
al s i s
to th e p l a n ewh ose e qu a ti on i s 2 x 3 y z 1 0 0 Wh y ? 5 .
J u s tify y ou r a n s w e r .
14 Wh a t i s th e e qu a t i on ofth e p l an e which p a sses thr ou gh

.
th e p oin t ( 1 — 2 1 ) a n d i s p e r p e n d ic u l a r to ea ch of th e
, ,
p l a n es :
3x+y+ z x
App l y b oth m e th od s, ch e c k in g th e r e su l t of on e by tha t ofth e

o th e r . An s . 3 x— 2y
Th e pr ev i ou s p r obl e m for th e f ol l owin g giv en

5
p l a n e s and
giv en p oin t I n E x s 1 — 1 7 u se e ith e r m eth od ; i n

. . E x s 1 8, 1 9
.
obta in th e r e sul t d ir e ct l y fr om a figu r e .
P l a n es
5 l2 + 3y + 6z
x
l
1 .
6x+2y
i x
1 _ 1’ 13
x + 3y + z
0 0 0
2 x + y
— 6 = Q
18 .
( ,
2
19 . 2x + z = 0, 3 x — z = 6,
Th e r e infin it el y man y p l a n e s which p a ss thr ou gh

5)
20 . are
th e p o in t (2 , ,
0 and ar e e
p pr e n d ic u l a r t o ea ch of th e
p l a n e s
4x— 2y
Why ? J u s tify y ou r an s wer .
9 . r om
Di stance of a Poi nt f a Pl ane . To fi
nd th e d i stan c e
A ofth e p oi n t P :
(x 0, yo, 2 0 ) fr om th e p l an e
d ra w a l i ne thr ou gh P p e r p e n d icu l a r to th e (x y) p l an e an d ,
-
m a r k th e p oin t Q i n which thi s l in e cu t s th e giv en p l an e .

THE PLAN E 46 1
Th en a s th e fig u r e sh ow s
, ,
A i s th e nu m e rical v al u e of th e
pr od u ct QP cos 0 i e , . .
A QP cos 9
wh e r e 0 i s th e c t
a u e an gl e b e tween th e l i n e no r mal
’
P P t o th e p l a n e .
Th e n or m a l P P h a s th e d ir e cti on
'
c om p on en t s A B C a n d th e l i n e QP
, ,
h a s th e d ir e ct i on c omp on en t s 0 0 1 , ,
.
C on se q u en t l y ,
c os 0 = i
It i s i mma t e ria l to u s which of th e

t w o S ig n s i s th e p r op e r on e for w e a r e i n t e r e s t e d on l y i n
,
n u m e r ic a l v a l u e s
I t r e m a in s to fi
.
n d QP Th e x a nd y c oor d i na t e s of Q a r e
.
-
th e s a m e a s th os e ofP n a m el y x0 yo ; d en ot e th e z c oor d i n a t e
, , ,
-
of Q by 2 S i n ce Q :( l i i h e gi p l n e it f l
Q)
42
. x0 yo z es,
n t ,
v e n a o ,
l ow s tha t
Aw0 + B y0 + CZ Q + D = O,
a nd h en c e tha t
Ag ni B il e I D - “ “
=
A 5
5I ' “
B yo I D' ‘
Q
0
P zo — z
Q
O
A5
5
0 I 3 9 0 + OZ O I D
“ “ ' “
M u l ti p l yi n g th e v al u e s o bta in ed for QP an d co s 9 t og e th e r
an d ta ki n g th e n u m e ric al v a l u e of th e p r odu ct ,
we Obta in th e
d es ir ed f o r mu l a
A13 0 I B yo I OZ O
' "
D " "
,
/
x A + B + O
2 2 2
462 AN ALYT I C GE OM ETR Y
whe r e i n th e s e c on d for mu l a
, ,
th e S ig n to b e t a k en is t ha t
which gi v e s a p O Si ti v e r e su l t
'
.
I n th e b ov e d ed u cti on w e a ssu m ed tha t th e l i n e thr ou gh P

a
e
p p r e n d ic ul a r t o t h e (x y
)p l a n e m ee t s th e,
giv e n p l-
a n e i e th a t , . .
th e giv en p l a n e i s n ot p e r p e n d icu l a r to th e (x y) p l a n e Thi s ,

-
.
m ea n s a n a l ytica l l y th a t w e ha v e a ssu m e d tha t C

, , 0 .
Si n c e w e kn ow tha t a t l ea s t on e of th e thr e e c oe f fici en t s

A B C i s n ot z e r o an d s in c e th e fi n a l f or m u l a (1 ) b ea r s e qu al l y
, ,
on A B a n d C it i s i mm a t e ri a l which on e of th e thr ee coe f

, , ,
fi
ci e n t s w e a ss u m e n o t z e r o Th e r esu l t w oul d h av e b een th e
.
s a m e if w e h a d a ss u m e d sa A = 0 i s t ea d o f C 0
“
’
y a n , , ,
.
EX E R C IS ES
1 . f or mu l a (1 ) on th e a ssu m p ti on th at A 0
E s t ab l i sh .
F in d th e d i s t a n c e of ea ch of th e giv en p oi n ts fr om th e cor
‘
r es p on d i n g gi v en l a n e I n E x s 6 7 ch e c k t h e r esu l t by i n
p . .
,
s p e cti on o fa fig u r e .
P oi n t P lan e
2 .
( ,
3 2 x
°
9 6x — 3y + 2 z
n
s O rigi n , 8x + y — 4 z
o y
s
m F i n d th e l en gth s of th e al tit u d es of th e t e trah ed r on of
Ex 9 ,. 6 .
10 . Poi nt of Th ree Pl anes Let th e r e b e

Intersecti on of .
giv en thr e e pl an e s which in t e r s e ct i n a p oin t t e thr ee p l an es ,

. .
which ha v e j u s t on e p oin t i n c omm on a s for ex a m p l e th e , , ,
p l a n e s o f th e c e i l i n g a n d t w o i n t e r se cti n g w a l l s o fa r oo m o r ,
th e p l a n e s ofthr ee fa c es ofa tetra h ed r on .
Th e p oin t of i n t e r se cti on of th e pl an e s i s tha t p oin t wh ose

c oor d ina t e s sa ti sfy ea ch of th e thr e e e qu a ti on s of th e p l an e s .
p l a n es w ou l d h a v e n o p oin t i n c ommon I n e ith e r case th e .
hy p othe si s i s c on tr ad ict ed H en c e w e m ay s ta t e th e th eor e m

.
THEOREM Th e th r ee p l a n es (1 ) i n ter sect i n a s i ngle p oi nt i f

.
,
a n d only i f A B
] C ]
I f[ A B C 0 t w o or a l l thr ee ofth e p l an es m ay b e p a r a l l el ;
,
th e se ca s e s a r e e a s il y d e t e ct ed by i n sp e cti on of th e e qu ati on s .
O r th e thr e e p l a n e s ta k en i n p a ir s m ay i n t e r se c t i n thr ee
, , ,
d i s ti n ct p a r a l l el l i n e s O r fi n al l y th e y m ay h a v e a l i n e i n
.
, ,
c om m on W e sh al l l ea rn l a t e r Ch XX I § 2 h ow to di s
.
,
.
, ,
ti n gu i sh fr om th e e q u a ti on s ofth e p l an e s b et w e en th e s e l a s t
, ,
tw o ca s e s .
EX E R C IS ES
In ch ofth e f ol l owi ng ex e rci ses sh ow that th e thr e e giv en

ea
p l a n es in t e r s e ct i n a s i n g l e p oi n t a n d fin d th e c oor d i n a t e s of ,
th e p oin t .
1 . Th e p l an e s ofOh . X VI , 2, Ex 1 0 . .
2 . Th e p l an es ofOh . X VI , 2 , Ex 1 1 . .
3 . Th e p l an e s ofOh . X VI , 2, Ex 1 2 . .
4 . Th e p l an es ofCh . X VI , 2, Ex 1 3 . .
5F i. nd th e coOr di n a t e s of th e v e r tic es of th e t e tra h ed r on

wh ose fa c es l i e i n th e p l an e s
z = 0, 2y — 3 z = 0, x 5 x
F i n d th e p oi n t s of i n t e r se cti on s of th e f ol l owin g su rfa c es .
D r a w a fig u r e i n e a ch c a se
5
.
6 . x = 4, z — 2
,
x 2
+y = 2 2
.
7 + y 2, x — = 0, 2
+
2
5 5
. x z
y x x
8 . x + y — 3z = ,
Ans .
( , ,
2 1 g g , ,
* O r , th e th r ee e qu a ti on s (1) h a ve a u n i qu e s ol u ti on , if a n d on l y if
A T s i s t h e con ve rs e of T ave
| B C | gt 0 h i . h 1 0 , C h X V I , § 8 W e h . . .
th u s com pl eted , b y ge om etri c m eth od s, th e p roofofan i m port ant fa ct i n

th e th eory ofli n e a r e q u ati ons .
THE P L AN E 46 5
In ch ofth e ex e rci se s th a t fol l ow gi v e
ea a ll th e i n f or m a ti on
y ou can c on c e r n i n g th e r e l a ti v e p o s iti on s of th e thr ee gi v e n
p l an e s .
8x — 4 9 + 6y
5
y x
-
2 x + y+ z + = 0, 10 . x — 2y + z + 3 = 0,
6 x — 3 — 3 2 6 x + 4y —2 z
y
2 x 5
3x + y
4 x — 3z 3x + 5 z
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R X IX
1 . Wh en wi l l th e p l an e Ax + B y + Cz + D 0 p a ss thr ou gh '
a coOr d i n a t e a x i s e g th e a x i s ofz, . . Wh en wi l l it b e p a ra l l el
to a oo c r d i n a t e a x i s e g t h e a x,
i s o f
. x ? .
2 . F i n d th e e q u a ti on of th e p l a n e thr ou gh th e a x i s of z
a n d th e p oi n t (1 2 , ,
3 . F i n d th e e q u a ti on ofth e p l an e t h r ou gh th e a x i s ofy an d
th e p oin t (2 3 , ,
4 . Wha t i s th e e qu a ti on ofth e p l an e wh ose in te rc ep t s a r e

on e h a l f th ose ofth e p l a n e 2 x — 3 y + 4 z 12 0?
5A p erp en d icu l a r from th e origin m eet s a pl an e i n th e

.
p o in t (2 ,
3 ,
Wh a t i s t h e e q u a ti on of th e p l a n e
A l in e th r ou gh th e p oi n t (2 3 7 ) m e e t s a p l a n e I n th e
5
6 .
, ,
p oin t ( ,
1 ,
F in d th e e qu a ti on ofth e p l an e .
F in d th e e qu a ti on of th e p l a n e which bi s e ct s p er p en d i c
5
7 .
u l a r l y th e l i n e j oin i n g th e p oi n t s (4 3
(2 , , , ,
8 . D e t e r m i n e th e p oi n t on th e a x i s of y which i s e q u i d i s
tan t f r om th e p oin t s (3 7 1 1 , , , ,
9 . O n e v e rt ex 0 of a b ox i s a t th e o rigi n a n d th e e d g e s
i s su in g from O l i e al on g th e p os itiv e c oor d ina t e a x es P r ov e .
th a t th e i n t e rc ep t s of th e p l an e which bi se ct s p e r p en d icu l a r l y
th e d i a g on a l thr ou gh 0 a r e i n ve r se l y p r op o rti on a l to th e
l en gth s of th e e d g e s .
10 F or wha t va l u e ofm wi ll th e tw o p l a n e s ,
5
.
2 x + my — z = 4, 6 x — y
( ) a b e p e r p e n d icu l a r ( )
b b e p a ra l l el ?
11 . F or wha t va l u e of m wi l l th e t w o e qu a ti on s
mx 4 x
r e p r e sen t th e sa m e pl an e
12 .F i n d th e a n gl e which th e l i n e thr ou gh th e p oi n t s
( 3,
2 , ( 0 4 1 ) m,
a k e s with th e p l a n e 2 x
, y z 3 0 .
Su gg e s ti on F in d fir s t th e a n g l e b e tw e en th e l in e a nd a
.
n o r m a l t o th e p l a n e
5
.
13 .Wha t a n gl e d oe s th e p l an e 3 x y z m a k e (a ) with
th e (x y) p l a n e
,
-
( )
b with t h e y ax i s -
14 .F i n d th e d i s t a n c e b e tw e en th e t w o p a ra l l e l p l a n e s
2 x 2 x — 3y+ 6 z
Su gg es ti on . F i n d th e di t
s an ce o fa ch os en p o i t
n o f th e fir st
p l a nfr om th e s e c on d
e .
1 5Sh ow th a t th e d i s t a n c e b e tw e e n
. th e t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s
16 Th e r e a r e tw o p oin t s on th e a x i s of 2 which a r e d i stan t

.
fou r u n it s fr om th e p l a n e 2 x y 2 z 3 0 F in d th e ir .
c oor d in a t e s . An s (0 0 ( 0 0 7 .
, , , ,
17 Sh ow tha t th e e qu a ti on of a n y p l a n e p a r a l l el to th e
.
p l a n e
can be writt en i n th e f or m
18 . U s i n g th e m e th od of C h . II, 11, w or k
th e p r e sen t cha pt e r .
is 5it un s d i s ta n t fr om th e o rigin an d tha t 4 3 4} a r e th e di , ,
r e cti on c osin es of a n or m a l to it d ir e ct ed a wa y fr om th e
,
o rigin .
28 S ta t e an d p r ov e for th e p l an e
.
( )
1 p 2 0,
th e r e su l t s c orr esp on d in g to th ose giv en i n th e p r e c e d in g e x e r
ci s e Sh ow tha t th e e qu a ti on ofe v e ry p l an e can b e writt e n i n
.
th e f or m P r ov e a l s o th a t th e d i s ta n c e o f th e p oin t
, ,
(x0 yo 2 0
, ) fr om th e p l a n e i s
,
l xo co s a + yo cos fi+ zo c O S
Y
—
p | .
29 P r ov e th a t if
.
,
a p l a n e h as t h e in t e rc e p t s a, b, c an d is
d i s ta n t p u n it s fr om th e o rigin ,
1 1_ 1 1
+ + — _
u
z
b c 2 ;
1
SY MME TR Y
30 . A f
s u r a ce i s symm etr i c i n th e ( x, y ) p l a n e ifth e s u bs ti tu
-
ti o n o f z for z i n i ts equ a ti on l ea v es th e equ a ti on essen ti a lly
u n ch a n
ge d . P r ov e thi s th eor e m a n d s ta t e th e c orr e sp on d in g
th eor e m s for s y mm e try i n th e y z) a n d (z x p l a n e s
( ) , ,
-
.
31 . A s u r a cef is sy mmetr i c i n th e axi s o f 2 if th e s u bs ti tu ti on
of x f or x , a n d o f y f y, or l ea ves th e e qu a ti on es s e n ti a lly u n
ch a n ged . P r ov e thi s th e or e m a n d s ta t e th e c orr e sp on d in g

th eor em s for s y mm e try i n th e ax e s ofx a n d y .
32 . P r ov e th a t a f
s u r a ce is symmetr i c i n th e or i gi n i f th e
s u bs ti tu ti on o f x f , f
or x o yf or y, a nd o f z for 2, l ea ves
th e equ a ti on ess en ti a l ly u n ch a nged .
33 T e s t th e s u rfa c e s of th e fol l ow m g ex e rci s es of § 1 for

.
s y mm e try i n e a ch c oor d i n a t e p l a n e i n ea ch c oor d in a t e ax i s a n d , ,
i n th e origin .
( ) a Ex 8 ; .
( )
b E x 9 ;
( ). 0 Ex 1 0 ;.
( )
d E x 12 . .
34 . P r ov e th e fol l owin g th e or e m s
TH E P LAN E 469
( )
a If a su rfa c e is s y mm e t r I c in ea ch of tw oc oor d in a t e
p l a n e s ,
it is s y mm e tric i n th e coOr d i n a te a x s i in which th e tw o
p l a n es m ee t .
( )
b I fa su rfa c e
y m m e tric i n ea ch coOr d i na te p l an e it i s
is s ,
sy mm e tric i n th e o rigi n .
u rfa c e i s sy mm e tric i n a c o or d i n a t e p l a n e a n d i n
()
0 I f a s
th e coOr d i n a te a x i s pe r p en d icu l a r to thi s p l an e it i s s y mm e tric ,
i n th e origin .
C HA P TE R X X
THE STR AI GHT LI NE
1 . E qu a ti ons of a Curv e . E xa mp l e 1 . G iv en th e t o e qu aw
ti on s
( )
1 {B = 0, y = 0 .
Th e p oin t s wh ose c oor d in a t e s sa ti s fy both equ a ti ons s i mu l ta n e
o u s ly a r e th e p oin t s on th e i
a x s o fz , a n d n o o th e r p o ni ts . W e
sa y tha t th e tw o e qu a ti on s r ep r es en t th e a xi s o f 2 .
E x a mp l e 2 C on s i d e r th e tw o e qu a ti on s
5
.
( )
2 3 x — 4y z + 6 = 0, x + 3y+ 2 2
A p oin t wh ose c oord ina t e sti sfy both e qu a ti on s a t on c e mu s t

sa
l i e i n ea ch of th e tw o p l a n e s r e p r e se n t e d by th e e qu a ti on s i e ,
. .
it m u s t b e a p oin t on th e l in e of in t e r s e cti on of the s e p l an e s .
C on v e r s e l y th e c o or d in a t e s of a n y p oi n t on thi s l i n e sa ti s fy
,
b oth e qu a ti on s Thu s th e tw o e qu a ti on s con si d er ed s i mu l ta n e

.
,
ou s ly r e p r e se n t a l in e th e l in e o f i n t e r se cti on ofth e tw o p l a n es
, ,
which th e tw o e qu a ti on s ta k en in d ivi du al l y d efin e

, , .
E xa mp l e 3 . T ak e ,
n ow, th e p a ir ofe qu a ti on s
= 0
( )
3 x — y .
By r ea s on in g s im il a r to tha t of E x a mp l e 2 it f oll ow s tha t ,
th ese e qu a ti on s ta k en t og e th e r r ep r e s en t th e cu rv e of in te r
, ,
s ecti on o f th e tw o s u rfa c e s which a r e d e fi n ed by th e tw o e qu a
ti on s c on si d e r e d in d ivi d u a l l y Th e fir s t e qu a ti on i s tha t ofth e

.
s p h e r e wh os e c en t e r i s a t th e o rigi n a n d wh ose r a d iu s i s tw o
u n it s l on g Th e s e c on d e qu a ti on r e p r e sen t s th e p l an e thr ou gh
.
th e a x i s ofz bi se cti n g th e a n g l e b e tw e en th e p os itiv e x a n d y

470
47 2 1
I fon th e th e r ha nd it i s a cu rve
o ,
a n d n ot a p a ir ofe qu a ti on s ,
which is giv e n w e sh ou l d sa y
,
A sp a ce cu r v e ca n be r ep r es en ted by tw o s i mu l ta n eo u s equ a ti on s .
Th ese ca n be A N Y two equ a ti on s i ed s i mu l ta n eou sly

w h i ch a r e sa ti sf
by th e coor d i n a tes ofe very p o i n t of th e cu r ve a n d by th os e of n o

oth er p oi n t Thi s m ean s , g e om e trica l l y , tha t th e cu rve ca n b e
.
c on s i d e r e d a s th e in t e r s e cti on ofa ny t w o su rfa c e s on whi ch it

l i es p r ovi d e d th e tw o su rfa c e s h a v e n o o th e r p oi n t i n c om m on
,
.
F or e x a m p l e a s tr a igh t l in e ca n b e c on s i d e r e d a s th e in t e r
,
s e cti on O fa n y tw o p l a n e s thr ou gh it C on s e qu e n tl y it ca n b e .
,
r ep r e sen t ed by th e e qu a ti on s of an y t w o of the s e p l an e s I n .
oth e r w o r d s th e tw o e qu a ti on s ofth e l i n e a r e n ot u n i qu e
,
Thu s .
,
a s e qu a ti on s o f th e a x i s of2 w e m ight t a k e th e e q u a ti on s ( 1 ) or
w e m ight ta k e e qu a l l y w el l a n y o th e r tw o e q u a ti on s r e p r e s en t
, ,
i n g p l a n es thr ou gh th e a x i s ofx a s
5
,
"
x -
2 y = 0, 17 x + 6 y= 0 .
E qu a ti on s ( )
1 are, h ow e v e r
i m p l e s t ch oic e an d n atu r all y
,
th e S ,
w e sh a l l fi n d it o fa i d i n a n a l ytic a l w o r k to ch oo se a l w a y s th a t
~
p a ir o f e q u a ti on s r e p r e s en tin g th e c u r v e u n d e r c on s i d e r a ti on
which s ee m s m os t s i m p l e .
P r obl em 1 . Wh a t a r e th e e qu a ti on s of th e Stra ight l in e L

thr ou gh th e origin with th e d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s 2 3 1 , ,
If P : ( y )
x z i s a n,y p,
o i n t on th e l in e ,
o th e r th a n th e o rigi n 0 th e n x y 2 con , , , ,
s i d e r e d a s th e p r oj e cti on s of O P on th e a x e s ,
a r e a l s o d ir e cti on c o m p on en t s of L H en ce .
,
r‘
rti l t 2 3 1 :
5
x y z are , p p
,
o o o n a o , ,
m” m= 2 e, =
( ) y 3 p, “
P:
wh e r e th e fa ct o r ofp r op orti on a l ity p i s n ot c on s t an t b u t v a ri , , ,
a bl e d e p e n d i n g fo i t s v a l u e on th e
r os iti on o f P on th e l in e *
, p .
i F rom
s
p z
i t
.
Th at r
i s, p i s e q u al n u m e i c all y t o th e di st an ce of P f om 0 , di i d e d b y r v
V1 4 I ts S i gn d e p end s on th e Si d e of O on
. h i ch th e p oi n P li es w t .
THE S T R AI G HT LI N E 47 3
if P :
Conv e r sel y , s a n y p o in t o th e r th a n 0 wh
5
(x y z
) i , , ose ,
coOr di n a te s sa ti s fy e qu a ti on s ( ) f or s o m e va l u e o f
p th e s e ,
e qu a ti on s sa y th a t th e d ir e cti on of O P i s th a t of L a n d h e n c e
tha t P l i e s on L .
Th e coOr d i na te s (0 0 0 ) of th e ex c e p t e d p oin t 0 Obvi ou sl y

5
, , , ,
s a ti s fy wh giv q t y q
5
( ) e n p i s e n t h e v a l ue 0 C o n se u e n l e ua .
,
ti on s ( ) r e p r e s en t th ose p oin t s a n d onl y th os e p oin t s which

l i e on L t e th e y r e p r es en t L
5
. . .
,
I n s t ead ofe qu a ti on s ( ) it i s m or e c on v en i e n t to writ e
6
x y z
2 3 1
Thi s c on tin u e d e qu al ity yi el d s th e thr e e e qu a ti on s

( )
7 3 37 — 2 y = 0 , y+ 3 z = 0, x +2 z = 0 .
th e se e qu a ti on s mu st b e su p e rfl u ou s s in c e w e kn ow
On e of ,
th a t tw o e qu a ti on s a r e a l l tha t a r e n e c e s sa ry to r e p r e s en t a
l in e As a m a tt e r of fa ct th e thr ee p l an e s d efi n ed by th e
.
,
three in d ivi d u a l e qu a ti on s a l l p a ss thr ou gh L a n d h en c e on e of

th e m i s su p e rfl u ou s i n d e t e r m in in g L W e pr ov e thi s a n a l y ti .
ca l l y by sh owin g t ha t a s i mu l tan e ou s s ol u ti on of any tw o of

th e thr ee e q u a ti on s a l wa y s sa ti sfi e s th e thir d Thu s i f x0 yo .
, , ,
z o a r e an y v a l u es ofx y x which s a ti s fy th e fir s t tw o e q u a ti on s
, , ,
if
’
i . e .
3 x0 — 2 y0 = 0 , y0 + 3 z0
= 0 ,
el i m in a ti on o fy0 giv e s th e r el a ti on
930 “
I 2
"
zo O)
which sa y s tha t th e s e va l u es a l s o sa ti s fy th e thir d e qu a tion ,
q e d . . .
Sin c e on e ofth e e qu a ti on s (7 i s su p e rfl u ou s w e m ight t a k e ,
a n y t w o of th e s e e qu a ti on s a s ,
3 x — 2 y = 0, y + 3 z = 0 ,
to r epr es en t L I t i s m or e c onv en i en t h owe v e r to c on si d e r

.
, ,
th e c on tin u ed i n e qu a l ity (6 ) a s d efi n i n g L a n d to c a l l thi s ,
c on tinu ed in e qu a l ity th e equ a ti ons ofL r e m e mb e rin g a l wa y s , ,
that one ofth e e qu a ti on s which f ol l ow fr om it i s s u p e rfl u ou s .

P r obl em 2 . F i n d th e
qu a ti on s of th e c u rv e of in t e r s ecti on
e
C of t w o circu l a r cy l in d e r s of th e sa m e r a d iu s a wh o s e a x e s ,
a r e r e s p e cti v e l y th e a x e s o fx a n d y .
Th e e qu a ti on s ofth e tw o cy l in d e r s ar e
( )
8 z 2 2 2
y 2 $ 2
and the s e tw o e qu a ti on s ta k en t og e th e r r e p r e s en t th e cu rv e C
, ,
.
Th ey a r e n ot h ow e v e r th e s i m p l e s t pa ir of e qu a ti on s p os si
, ,
bl e . I fx0 yo 2 0 a r e a n y s e t ofva l u es ofx y z s a ti s fyin g th e m

, , , ,
s i m u l ta n eou s l y i e if ,
. .
90
2 “
I
“
202
930
2 “
I
'
5
20
2
el im i na ti on Of 2 0 giv e s th e r e l a ti on
3702
2
.
y0
which sa y s tha t x0 , yo,

2 0 a s o sa l ti s fy th e e qu a tion
( )
9 x 2
y
2
0 .
Th a t i s , th e cu rv e of n e i t r s e cti on C o f th e cy l in d e r s (8) l i e s on
th e rfa c e
su
C on v e r se l y th e su rfa c e (9 ) in t e r se ct s e a ch of th e cy l in d e r s
,
8 i n th e c u rv e C a n d i n n o o th e r p o i n ts o r if x0 yo 2 0 a r e
( ) F .
, , ,
a n y v a l u e s o fx y z s a ti s fyi n g e qu a ti on (9 a n d th e fir s t s ay
, , ) , ,
o fe qu a ti on s w e ha v e
z
970
2
y o
z
O: 190
2 “
I “
zo
E l i m i na ti on ofyo giv es th e r e l a ti on
z 2
wo “
I
”
20
which sa y s tha t x0 , yo, 2 0 sa ti sfy al so th e se c ond e qua ti on of
q . e . d
‘
W h a v e p r ov ed th en th a t th e t otal in t e r se cti on ofan y tw o

e , ,
ofth e su rfa c es ( 8) a n d
( )
9 i s th e cu rv e C H e n c e a n y t w o of .
th e e qu a ti on s ( 8 ) a n d (9 ) d e fi n e C A s i m p l e r p a ir th an th e .
ir 8 i h c m bi ti f h e e qu a ti on s (8) with th e
p a
( ) s t e o n a on o f on e o t
e q u a ti on for e x a m p l e
( )
1 0 x 2
z
?
y
2
0 .
F i n d th e qu a ti on s
e of th e fol l owin g cu r v e s
18 . Th e a x i s ofy .
19 . Th e l i n e i n th e (
x, y) p
-
l a n e 3 un it s in fr on t of th e
(y, z ) -
p l a n e .
20 . Th e l in e 2 un it s t o th e l e ft Of th e ( z, x
) -
p l a n e and 3
un it s a b ov e th e ( x, y) p l a-
n e .
21Th e l in e 3 u n it s b e hin d
. th e (y, z ) -
p l a n e an d
4 un it s to
th e right o f th e (z x) p l a n e ,
-
.
22 Th e l in e which l i es i n
. th e p l a n e p a ss in g thr ou gh th e
x ax s
-
i an d bi s e ctin g th e a n g l e b e tw e e n th e p o s itiv e y an d
a n d i s 4 u n it s a b ov e th e ( x y p l a n e
z ax es
-
) ,
-
.
23 . Th e l in e thr ou gh th e origin with th e d ir e cti on co m
p o n e n t s 1, — 1, — 1 .
24 . Th e l in e thr ou gh th e o rigin with th e d ir e cti on c om
p on e n t s 2 , 0, 3 .
2 5Th . r a d iu s 3 wh os e c en t e r i s on th e ax i s of z
e circl e of
a n d w h ose p l a n e i s 4 u n it s a b ov e th e (x y p l a n e
) ,
-
.
Th e circl e of r a d iu s 2 wh ose c en t e r i s a t th e o rigin

‘
26 .
a n d wh ose p l an e p a s s e s thr ou gh th e y a x i s a n d bi s e ct s th e -
a n gl e b e tw ee n th e p os iti v e a x i s o fx a n d th e n e g a ti v e a x i s o f2 .
F in d a i m p l er p a ir of e qu a ti on s t o r ep r e sen t th e cu rv e
s
giv en i n ea ch of th e f ol l owin g e x e rci ses a n d th en i d en tify th e

cu r v e . D ra w a fig u r e .
27 . 2 y
28 .
29 . Th e cu rv e o fE x . 14 .
30 . x
2
+y + 2 z
2
a 2
,
2 y 2 -
l
-
z 2
2 . Li ne ofI ntersect on of i Two Pl anes . Le t th e p l an e
Al m + B l y 0 12 D1 O
‘
and th e p l a n e
A2x + B 2y + n D2 0
THE ST R AI G HT L I N E 47 7
b e t w o p l a n e s w hi ch m ee t Acc or d i n g to th e th e ory o f th e
.
p r e c e d i n g p a r a gr a h
p , th e ir l i n e o f i n t e r s e cti on i s r e p r e s e n t e d
by th e tw o si mu l ta n eou s e qu a ti on s
A1 5
1) B 13] 0 12 D1 0,
1
( ) A2 ?) q + 0 2 2 D2 O,
i . by th ese e qu a ti on s wh e r e th e on l y s e t s of va l u e s of x y
e .
, , ,
z c on s i d e r e d a r e th os e which s a ti sfy both e qu a ti on s .
Sin c e th e l i n e l i es i n ea ch p l a n e it i s p e r p e n d icu l a r to th e ,
n o r m a l s to e a ch p l a n e Th a t i s it i s a c om m on p e rp en d icu l a r
.
,
t o th e n o r m a l s t o th e tw o p l a n e s F r o m thi s fa ct i ts di r ec .
ti on c om p on en t s can e a sil y b e d e t e r m i n ed by th e m e th od of
5
,
Ch X VI I I , . .
C on s i d e r , for ex a m p l e , th e l i n e ( )
2 of 1 Th e rm al s
5
. no to
th e tw o p l a n e s d e t e r m in in g thi s l in e h a v e 3 ,
4, 1 an d ,
3 , 2 a s d ir e cti on c o m p on en ts . C on se q u e n tl y ,
— 4
55
— 4 -
1 3 3
’
3 2 3
or 5,
1 1 , 29ir e cti on c om p on en t s ofth e l in e
are th e d .
Th e p l an e s d e te r m I n I n g th e l in e (1 ) h av e n or m a l s with (
AI ,
B 1 Cl a n d A2 B 2 C a s d ir e cti on c o m p on e n t s
, , , 2 H en c e .
, th e
d i r ecti on comp onen ts of th e l i n e (1 ) a r e
B1 C1 01 A1 AI B1
2
B. 02 02 A2 A2 B2
P a r a ll el P l a n es p l ane s a r e pa ra l l el an d s o hav e n o
. I f tw o
l in e of i n t e r se cti on th e ir e qu a ti on s a r e i n comp a ti bl e i e th e y
, , . .
ha v e n o s i mu l ta neou s s ol u tion F or e x a m p l e th e e qu a ti on s .
,
2x + y — z 4x + 2 y
which r ep r e s en t tw o p a r a l l el pl a n e s a r e Obvi ou sl y i n com p a ti ,
b l e s i n c e th e fir s t sa y s th a t th e qu a n tity 2 x
, y
— z h a s th e
v a l u e 3 wh e r e a s th e se c on d sa y s t h a t i t h a s th e v a l u e
, g .
EX E R C IS ES
F i n d th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s of ea ch of th e f ol l owing
l in e s . D e t e r m in e a l s o a p o in t on th e l i n e a n d h e n c e c on s tr u ct
th e l in e .
1 . w
2 . 3 w— 4y 2 x — y
/
3 m+ 3 y 3w+ 4 y + 6 z
5
.
4 2 w— y — z = 0, w+ y = f
5
.
5 . 3 w— y
— z — 1 = O,
6 . x 2
+ y = O, y
— 3z = 0 .
7 . Wha t qu a ti on s of th e e d g e s of th e t e tra h ed r on
ar e th e e _
of Ch X I X . 6 E x 9 ? D ra w a fig u r e a n d l a b e l th e e d g es
, ,
.
a n d th e p a ir s o fe qu a ti on s t o c o rr e s p on d
5
.
8 Th e sa m e for th e t e tra h e d r on of Ch X I X 1 0 E x
. .
, ,
. .
9 Sh o w th a t th e l i n es of E x s 1
. .
a n d 4 a r e p e r p en d icu l a r .
10 Sh ow th a t th e l in e s of E x s 3. -
.
a n d 6 a r e p a ra l l e l .
F 4 IG
l i
.
E a ch s i d e of a h i p r oof (F i g 4 )
. .
ma k e s a n a n g l e with th e h ori z on t a l wh o se t a n g e n t i s Wha t

a n g l e d o th e e d g e s ofth e r oof m a k e with th e h ori z on t a l
3 . Li ne th r ou gh a Poi nt w i th Gi v en Di r ecti on Components .
Le t it b e r e qu ir ed to fin d th e e qu a ti on s of
th e l in e L which g oes thr ou gh th e p oi n t
P, : m
( o y ,)
, z ,
a n d h,
a s th e d ir e cti on c o m
p on e n t s l , m, n .
Le t P :
(w , y, 2
) be an y p o n i t on th e r
L, o
than P0 . Th en th e d ir e cti on c o m p on e n t s
ofP 0 P , n a m el y ,
Fm 5
( )
1 37 970 , y yo, z zoa
4 80 AN ALY TI C GE O M E T R Y
x 3 O is on e of th e e qu a ti on s of th e l i n e . Th e o th e r ,
o bta in ed fr om th e e qu al ity o fth e l a s t tw o m e m b e r s of is
or 3 x — 5 z — 42 = O .
H en c e th e d e sir e d e q u a ti on s are
x 3 x — 5 z— 42 = O .
Aga in , l e t th e p oin t b e (1 , 2 , 3) and l e t th e d ir e c ti on com
p on e n ts b e 0 , O, 1 . In thi s ca s e ,
i : O, and m 0 ; th e r ef or e
x — xo =
. 0 an d y
—
yo
= 0 ,
i . e .
x _ 1 = a y
_ 2 = a
an d th ese a r e th e e qu a ti on s of th e l in e Thi s r e su l t m ight .
ha v e b een obta in ed d ir e ctl y by in sp e cti on S i n c e it i s cl ea r , ,
tha t th e l ine i s p a ral l el to th e a x i s ofz .
R ed u cti on fo C a
on ti n u ed E qu a l i ty to th e F or m Ex
a mp le 1 Wha t a r e th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s ofth e l in e
5
.
— 4
x
_ y + z + 3,
6 3 2
Thi s c on tinu e d e qu al ity wi l l b e ofth e for m if th e m in u s

s ign b e f o r e th e s e c on d fr a cti on i s a s s o ci a t e d with th e d e n omi
n a t or .Acc or d in gl y th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s a r e 6
,
3 2 , ,
.
E xa mp l e 2 C on s i d e r a m or e c om p l ic a t ed ca se
5
.
— 1 2
2 y_ 3 z
x —
3 4 2
To p u tthi s c on tin u e d e qu a l ity i n th e f or m d ivi d e th e

n u m e r a t or an d d en om in a t o r o f e a ch fr a cti on by th e c oe ffici en t
ofth e v a ri ab l e i n th e n u m e r a t o r
H e re ,
ch v a ri abl e x y z a s it a pp ea r s i n th e n u m e ra t or
ea , , , ,
h as
th e c oeffici en t u n ity a n d th e r e i s c om p l e t e c on for m ity to
,
Th e d ir e cti on
c om p on en t s of th e l in e a r e th en
5 3 or , ,
7 ,
4 ,
— 24 20 F u rth e r m or e it i s c l ea r th a t th e l in e g oes
,
.
,
thr ou gh th e p oin t (4 O) ,
.
EX E R C IS ES
In each ofth e f ol l owin g e x e rci se s fi

n d th e e qu a ti on s of th e
l in e thr ou gh th e gi v en p oi n t with th e giv en d ir e cti on com

p on e n t s .
Comp on en ts
5
P o i nt
1 .
( ,
2 3, ,
2, 4 .
2 ( 0 O O), 3, 1, 2
5
. .
, ,
3 . 4
( , 1, 6, ,
8 .
4 ( 2 O 1, 1, 1
5(3
.
, ,
.
.
,
2, 1 , 3, O .
6 .
( 2 ,
0 ,
4 , O, 1 .
7 . 3, 4 , O, 1 , O .
In ch of th e e x e rci se s which foll ow find th e d ir e cti on

ea ,
com p on e n t s of th e l in e r e p r e s e n t e d by th e gi v e n e qu a ti on s
‘
a n d th e c oor d in a t e s ofa p oi n t on th e l in e Con stru c t th e l ine . .
l — l
x — y +2
5
z
2 3
3 x +2 y 2 z — 1
9 — 6
1 — x = y — 2 = z — 6 .
2 x = 1 —
y = 3 z .
Sh ow tha t th e l i n e s ofE x s a nd 10 a re p e rp en d icu l a r .
Sh ow th a t th e l i n e s ofE x s . an d 12 are p a r a l l.e l
4 . Li ne thr ou gh Two Poi nts . Th e l i n e thr ou gh th e tw o

p oin t s (xl , y,, ( x, , y , , z, ) h as th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s
5
132 931 : yz yn
It ca n c on sid e r ed th en a s th e l in e which h a s th ese d ir e cti on
be , ,
c omp on en t s a n d g oes thr ou gh th e p oin t (xl y, C ou se , ,
qu en t l y by 3 it i s r ep r e s en t ed by th e e qu a ti on s
, ,
( )
1 x xl
P( 2
w y 19 1 F( yz z zl F(zz z1 ) °
I n s t ea d of
( )
1 w e can writ e ,
as th e e qu a ti on s ofth e l in e , th e
c on tin u ed e qu al ity
w _ w1 _ y _
y1 z
( )
2
— — ‘ 22
971 yz f
li
Sin c e bbr e via t e d for m of

2
( ) i s an a it f ol l ow s tha t if a ,
d e n om in a t o r i n (2 ) i s z e r o th e cor r e s p on di n g n u m e ra tor i s a l s o
5 5
‘
,
z er o Thu s i f th e tw o p oin t s a r e (3 8
.
, ( so , , , ,
tha t y, — y = O a n d z, 1 w e h a v e y — y1 = 0 a n d
z z, 0 tha t i s
5
, ,
y 0 z 4 0 ,
.
Th e se a r e th en th e e qu a ti on s of th e l in e Th e r e su l t mi ght
, ,
.
h av e b een obta in ed d ire ctl y by n otin g i n th e b e ginn in g th a t

th e y c oor d in a t e s a n d a l s o th e z c oor d in a t e s ofth e tw o p oi n t s
-
,
-
a r e e q u a l a n d by c on c l u d in g th e n th a t th e l in e i s p a r a ll e l t o
, ,
th e a x i s ofx .
EX E R C IS ES
F i n d th e e q i
u at on s ofea ch ofth e f ol l owin g l ines
5
.
Thr ou gh (2 ,
1 6 , , ,
Thr ou gh 1 O (3 4
5
, , , ,
Throu gh th e o rigin a n d ( 2 , ,
m Thr ou gh (2 O (O 3
5
, , , ,
e Thr ou gh (2 (
,
2 3 , , ,
g Thr ou gh ( 3 2 (
,
3 2 , , ,
7 . Th e e d g e s o fth e t e tra h e d r on of Ch X I X 6 .
, ,
8 . Th e e d g e of th e qu ad ran gu l a r p y ra m i d of Oh .
Ex 1 0. .
P r obl em 3 . Le t t w o n on -
p a r
a l l el l in es , L, a n d L, , an d a p oin t
P b e giv en Thr ou gh P pa ra l l el to ea ch ofth e l in es th e r e i s a
.
u n iqu e p l a n e To d e t e r m in e thi s p l ane

. .
A n or m al t o th e p l an e i s a c om m on p e r p en d icu l a r to th e l in e s
L , a n d L , a n d s o i ts d ir e cti on c om p on en t s ca n b e f ou n d by th e
m eth od o f Ch X VI I I .
,
5
Th e p r obl e m i s th en tha t offi n d in g
.
th e e qu a ti on o fa p l a n e thr ou gh a giv en p oi n t with giv en d i r e c

ti on c om p on en t s of i ts n or m a l s .
I fL , a n d L , h a v e th e e qu a ti on s
5
x — 1 _ y 2 x + 3 y z — 1
’
4 2 3
the ir d ir e cti on c om p on en t s a r e r e sp e ctiv el y 3 2 and 4 2 , ,

5 , , , ,
Th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s o f a c omm on p e r p en d icu l a r to

5
3 .
th e m a r e by C h X VI I I
,
. 13 — 23 2
, Thu s th e , , ,
.
p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o L , a n d L , a n d p a ss in g thr ou gh a gi v en
p o in t ,
s a y (3 2, ,
h a s th e e qu a ti on
— 3 — 2 3 (y — 2)
l3 ( x
)
1 3 x— 2 3 y — 2 z — 1 = O .
P r oblem 4 . G iv en tw o
in t e r se ctin g p l an es M , an d M , a n d , ,
a p oin t P . Thr ou gh P p a ra l l el t o ea ch ofth e p l an es the r e i s a

u n iqu e l in e .To fin d thi s l in e .
Sin c e th e l in e i s p a r a l l e l t o ea ch of th e p l a n e s it i s p a r a l l el ,
t o th e ir l in e ofi n t e r se cti on I t i s th e r e f o r e it se l f th e l i n e of
.
, ,
i n t e r s e cti on of th e tw o p l an e s which p a s s thr ou gh P a nd a r e

p a r a l l e l r e s p e ctiv e l y t o III , a n d M, .
F or ex a m pl e if P i s (2 O ,
1 ) an d M an d M , ar e
, , ,
2 x — 3
y + z — 6 = O, 4x
th e p l a n e s thr ou gh P p a r al l el r esp e ctiv el y t o III , an d M, hav e

q ti
th e e u a on s
2 (x — 2 ) 4 (x — 2) — 2 y ;}
2 x — 3y+ z — 3 = O, 4x — 2y + 3 z
Th e s e e qu a ti on s c on s i d e r ed s i m u l tan e ou sl y r ep r e s en t
, , th e re
qu ir ed l in e .
THE S T R AI G HT L I N E
Th e p r obl e m m ight h a v e b e en s ol v e d by d e t e r m in in g th e d i
r e cti on c omp on en t s ofth e l in e ofi n t e r s e cti on of M , a n d JII , a s ,
giv en by 2 a n d by fi n d i n g th e e qu a ti on s ofth e l in e which

,
h a s th e s e d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s a n d p a s s e s thr ou gh P
P r o bl em 5T fin d th e e qu a ti on of a l in e which p a s s e s
. o
thr ou gh a giv en p oin t a n d i s p a ra l l e l to a giv en l in e .
I fth e l i n e i s giv en a s th e in t e r s e cti on o f tw o p l a n e s thi s i s ,
th e p r e vi ou s p r ob l e m I fi t s e q u a ti on s a re giv e n i n th e f o r m of
.
a c on ti nu e d e q u al ity th e s ol u ti on i s s i m p l e
, W e l ea v e it to th e
.
s t u d en t .
P r obl em 6 .To fin d th e e qu a ti on s of a l in e which p a s se s

thr ou gh a giv en p oin t an d i s p e rp en d icu l a r to ea ch oftw o giv en
n on p a r a l l e l l i n es
-
.
Th e s ol u ti on ofthi s p r ob l e m we a l so l ea v e t o th e s tu d e n t .
EX E R C IS ES
In each on e ofth e f ol l owin g ex er ci ses i n which i t i s p os s ibl e ,
s ol v e th e giv en p r obl e m d ir e ctl y by in s p e cti on ofa fig u r e

,
,
.
F i n d th e qu a ti on s of th e l in e p a s s in g thr ou gh
e th e giv en
p oi t
n an d e
p pr en d ic u l a r t o th e gi v e n p l a n e .
P oi n t P la ne
1 . 2
( , x + 2y — 3z — 2 = O .
2 6x
5
.
3 . 3
( , x
4 .
-
1, 2z + 3 = 0 .
F in d th e qu a ti on of th e p l a n e p a ssi n g thr ou gh
e th e giv en
p oi n t an d e
p pr e n d ic u l a r t o th e gi v en l in e .
P oi nt Li ne
5 .
2
4
x
5
13
— 3
y + 6 z — 4 = O,
3x + 2y + z
6 .
P oi n t
— 2
5
— 1
7 . 3, — 2, -
8 _ _ fl z
3 6
8 1 — 3x = 2y = 4z — 3
5
. .
9 .
( ,
4 2y+ = 0, 3 z — 2 = O .
F i n d th e qu a ti on
e of th e p l a n e p a s s i n g thr ou gh th e giv en
p oi t
n an d p a r a l l e l t o e a ch o fth e gi v e n l i n e s .
P o i nt Li nes
10 .
( ,
3 5)
,
1 Th e l in e s giv en in Ex s 7 , 8 . .
11 2
( , ,
O 3) Th e l in e s giv en i n E x s 6, 7
5
. . .
12 .
( O,
O,
O) Th e l in es gi v en i n Exs .
,
6 .
13 . 2
( ,
F i n d th e e qu a ti on s of th e l i n e p a ss i n g thr ou gh th e giv en
p oin t an d p a arl l e l to ea ch o f th e giv en p l a n e s .
P oi n t P l a nes
14 (O O O) Th e p l a n es giv en in Exs 1 , 2
5(2
,
.
, . .
1 .
,
1, 3) Th e p l a n e s giv en i n Exs 1 , 3 . .
16 . 2
( , ,
0 g) Th e p l a n e s giv en i n Exs 2, 3 . .
17 .
(4,
O, Th e p l a n e s giv en i n E x s 3, 4 . .
F in d th e qu a ti on s of th e l in e p a s s in g thr ou gh
e th e giv en
i t n d p a r a l l e l to th e giv e n l in e
5
o n a
p .
18 Th e p oi n t a n d l in e giv en i n E x
. . .
19 Th e p om t an d l in e give n i n E x 7
. .
20 Th e p oin t a n d l i n e giv en i n E x 8
. . .
21 Th e p oin t a n d l in e giv en i n E x 9
. . .
F in d th e qu a ti on s of th e l in e p a s sin g thr ou gh
e
p oin t a n d e
p pr en d icu l a r t o th e gi v e n l i n es .
P oi nt L i nes
22 ( 0 O O) Th e l in es given i n Exs 7 , 8
5
. .
,
.
,
23 . 3
( , 2, ) Th e l in e s gi v en i n Ex s 6, 7 . .
4 88 AN ALYT I C GE OM E T R Y
3 Thr ou gh (O O, O) , (1 , 2 , 2 6y+3 — 4 = 0
5
.
,
x z .
4 . Thr ou gh (2 , , ( ,
4 1, y 2 x 4 O
.
5F i. nd gl es which th e p l an e giv en
th e an i n E x 1 ma k e s
.
with th e c oor d ina t e ax e s .
6 F in d th e a n g l es which th e l in e giv en
. i n Ex . 2 m a k es
with th e cobr d i na te p l an e s .
7 . Poi nt ofIntersecti on ofa Li ne and a Pl ane . G iv en a p l an e ,
1
( )
and a l in e ,
( )
2
which in t er se ct s th e pl an e Th e cobr di n a tes of th e p oin t of .
int e r se ction sa ti s fy th e e qu a ti on of th e p l a n e sin c e th e p oin t ,
l i e s i n th e p l a n e Th e y a l so sa ti sfy ea ch of th e e qu a ti on s of
.
th e l in e for th e p oin t l i es on th e l in e
,
Th ey ar e then th e .
, ,
s i mu l ta n eou s sol u ti on ofth e th r ee e qu a ti on s
A w + B y + C z + D = O,
E xa mp l e . F i nd th e c oor d ina t es of th e p oin t of i n te r se cti on

of th e l in e an d th e p l an e of § 6 . T ak e , a s th e e qu ati on s of
th e l in e, those obta i n ed by e qu a tin g th e fir s t a n d s e c ond m em
b e r s a n d then th e fir s t an d thir d m e m b e r s of th e c on tinu ed
, ,
e qu a l ity which r e p r es en t s th e l in e Th en th e thr ee e qu a tion s .

,
which ar e to b e sol v ed s i mul ta n eou sl y a r e ,
2x— y = 1 3, —
x +2 z 2 x 3
+ y 2z
Th e sol u ti on i s fou n d to b e x : 1 y : 3 , ,
Thu s ,
th e
l i n e m ee t s th e p l an e I n th e p oin t (1 3 , ,
I n ter secti on f o a C Th e a b
u r 've a ndov e m e th oad S u rfa ce .
a p p l i e s a l s o t o th e p r ob l e m o f fi n d in g th e p oi n t (or p o in t s )
of in t e r s e cti on o f a cu rv e a n d a s u rfa c e which a r e giv e n by
th e ir e qu a ti on s Th e tw o e qu a ti on s of th e cu r v e a n d th e
.
e qu a ti on of th e su rfa c e a re to b e c on si d e r ed a s si mu lta n eou s

equ a ti o n s i n th e u n kn own s , x , y ,
z, a n d s ol v e d a s su ch .
P la ne a nd Th e l i n e (2 ) h a s on e a n d j u s t
L i n e Ar bi tr a ry .
on e p oi n t i n c omm on with th e p l a n e if a n d on l y if th e
thr ee pl a n e s (3 ) in t e r se ct i n a s in gl e p oin t i e by th e th eor e m ,
. .
of C h XX I X . 1 0 if a n d on l y if th e d e t e r m i n a n t ofth e coe f
, ,
fi
ci e n t s o fx y z i n e q u a ti on s (3 ) d oe s n o t v a n i s h
, , .
I f thi s d e t e r m in an t v a n i s h e s it f ol l ow s e ith e r d ir e ctl y or

, ,
fr om th e d i s cu s s i on i n Ch XX I X , 1 0 tha t th e l in e e ith e r i s
.
,
p a rall el to th e p l an e or l i es i n it .
EX E R C IS ES
Sh ov tha t
giv en l in e h a s Ju s t on e p oi n t i n c omm on with
th e
'
cr
th e giv en p l a n e a n d fin d th e c oor d in a t e s of th e p oi n t .
1 Th e l in e a n d p l an e ofE x 1 6
. .
,
.
2 Th e l in e a nd p l ane ofE x 2 6
. .
,
.
3 Th e l in e a n d p l an e ofE x 3 6
. .
, .
F in d th e p oin t s of in t e r s e cti on ofth e giv en cu rv e with th e

gi v en su rfa c e D ra w a figu r e for ea ch ex e rci se
. .
C u r ve
4 x = y= z,
5
.
— 9,
7 .
F in d ou t a l l y ou ca n a b ou t th e r el a tiv e p ositi on s ofth e

l i ne an d th e giv en p l a n e .
Li n e P la ne
i 4x — 5 + 6 = o
x y+ z +
5
y ,
9 . x : y _
= z x + 3y -
87 .
— 3 = O .
8 = 0,
{
2 x + 3y 8x y — 6 —
O
3x
8 . Par a metr i c R ep r esenta ti on ofa Curv e . Th e S tr a i gh t Li n e .
G iv en a d i r ected stra ight l i n e p a ssi n g thr ou gh

th e p o i n t P 0 ( x, , y, 0 )
2 ,
a n d h a vin g th e d ir e cti on
c os in e s cos (it cos 8 cos 7 Le t P : , ( x, y 2
,) b,e a n .
,
a rbitr a ry p o in t of th e l i n e o th e r th a n P 0 a n d l e t
r b e th e a l g e br a ic d i s t a n c e fr om P 0 t o P p os itiv e ,
if th e d ir e cti on fr om P , t o P i s tha t of th e l in e
a n d n e g a tiv e if thi s d ir e cti on i s o pp os it e t o th a t
ofth e l in e .
FI G , 7 Th e p r oj e cti on s of P OP ea ch d ivi d e d by r a r e , ,
e qu a l r e s p e ctiv e l y t o th e d ir e cti on c o s in e s o f th e
l i ne, by Ch . X VI I I 1 Th 2
,
Thu s
,
. .
x — x0
c os a , — Cos '
y
.
Th e se e qu a ti on s ca n b e pu t in t o th e for m
( )
1 x x0 + r cos a , y = y0 + r co s
B , z = zo +r cO S
y .
E qu a ti on s ( 1 ) giv e
c oord in a t e s (x y z ) ofth e p oin t P on
th e , ,
th e giv e n l in e a t th e a rbitra ry d i s t a n c e r fr o m P 0 If r i s .
a l l ow e d t o v a ry thr ou gh a l l v a l u e s p os itiv e z e ro a n d n e ga , , ,
tiv e P t a k e s on a l l p os iti on s on th e l in e a n d a l wa y s i ts
, ,
c oor d in a t es a r e giv en by e qu a ti on s Th ese e qu a ti on s th en , ,
r ep r e sen t th e l in e Sin c e th ey e x p r e s s th e c oor d in a t e s of th e

.
p o i n t P :( x y z
) tr,
a ci,
n g ,
th e l i n e i n t e r m s o f th e a u x i l i a r y
v a r i a b l e or p a r a m eter r w e c a l l th e m a p a r a metr i c r ep r es en tx
, , ,
ti o n ofth e l in e .
I f th e l i n e i s d e t e r min e d by th e p oin t P 0 (x, y, 2 0) a n d i t s , ,
d ir e cti on c om p on en t s l m n w e h a v e a cc o r d in g t o, , , § 3 , ,
th e fol l owin g p a r a m e tric r e p r e sen ta ti on
( )
2 x = x0 + pl , y = y0 + m
p ,
= 2, -
h on .
Th e p a a m r
e e t r p i s n ot, i n g e n e r a l , e q u a l t o th e d i s ta n c e fr o m
P 0 to P :
(x , y, b u t i s m e r e l y p r op o rti on a l t o thi s d i s ta n ce fi“
C f foo . tn ot e, p 47 9
. .
cyl in d e r with a u n if or m s t e e p n e s s I t . i s th e cu r v e of th e
thr ea d of a m a chin e s cr e w a n d i s c a l l ed a ci r cu l a r scr ew o r a
c i r cu la r h el i x .
Th e Tw i sted C u bi c . C on s i d e r th e cu rv e r e p r ese n t e d p a ar
m e trica l l y by th e e qu a ti on s
( )
4 x a t, y bi z
,
z ci
3
,
wh e r e t i s th e p a ra m e t e r a n d a b c a r e c on s tan t s n ot z e r o
, , , , .
Li k e th e h el ix thi s cu rv e i s a twi s t e d cu rv e
,
I t i s k n ow n a s .
a tw i sted cu bi c .
P oi n ts ofI nter s ecti on ofa Cu rve a nd a S u rfa ce . E x a mp l e 1 .
Th e s tra ight l in e of 6 can b e r e p r e s en te d p a r a m e trica l l y by

s e ttin g ea ch of th e m e m b e r s ofth e c on tin u e d e qu a l ity
2x + 2 = y + 1 — 4 z + 28
e qu a l t o a p a r a m e t e r t and by s ol vin g th e thr ee r esu l tin g

e qu a ti on s for x y z
5
, ,
( ) x = é —t — 1
, y = t — 1
,
z = 7 —
i -
t .
A p oi n t ofthi s l i n e l i e s i n th e p l an e of 6,
2 x + 3y
if a nd onl y if i ts c oo r d in a t e s a s gi v en by ,
sa ti s fy th e e qu a
ti on of th e p l a n e ; i e if a n d onl y if t . . is a s ol u ti on o f th e
e qu a ti on
2 (% t 3 (t 1) 1 0,
g t _ i s= o .
H en c e t =4 . B u t th e p oi n t t : 4 ofth e l i n e i e th e p oi n t . .
c orr es p on d in g t o th e v a l u e 4 for th e p a ra m e t e r t, h a s th e
c oor d in a t e s
x = 2 y = 4 Z = 7
H en c e th e l in e in t e r se ct s th e p l a n e i n th e p o in t (1 3 , ,
E xa mp l e 2 . F i n d th e p o i n t s o f in t e r s e cti on o f th e twi s t e d
cu bic
THE ST R AI G HT LI N E 49 3
( )
6 x = t, y = 2
t, Z = t3
with th e p l a n e 2 x y z O.
A p oin t o f th e cu bic l i es i n th e giv en p l an e wh en an d onl y

wh en i ts c oor d i na t e s a s gi v en by
,
s a ti s fy th e e qu a ti on of
th e p l a n e . H en c e th e s ol u ti on s ofth e e qu a ti on
zi + tz— t3 =0
for t d e t e r m i n e al l th e p oi n t s ofin t e r s e cti on .
On e ti on i s
s ol u 1 Th e
t = 0 ; th e oth e r s a r e t = 2 , t .
p o in t s o f t h e c u bic
( )
6 c o rr e s p on di n g t o th e s e v a l u es of t a r e
r e sp e ctiv e l y (O O O) (2 4 , ,
1 1, ,
Thu s th e cu bic
, , ,
m e e t s th e p l an e i n th ese thr e e p oin t s an d i n n o f u rth e r p oin t .
Th e a b ov e m e th od m a y b e in t s of in t e r
u se d to fin d th e p o
se ct i on of a n y giv e n c u rv e with a giv e n s u rfa c e p r o vi d e d th e ,
c u rv e i s d efin e d by a p a ra m e tric r e p r e se n ta ti on Th e s i m .
p l i ci ty a n d e ff e ctiv e n e s s o f th e m e th o d i s on e of t h e a d v a n
ta g e s of r e p r e s en tin g a cu rv e p a r a m e trica l l y .
EX E R C IS ES
F in d a p a arm e tric r ep r e s en ta ti on for ea ch of th e f ol l owin g

s tra ight l in e s
5
.
1 Thr ou gh (2 3, ) with th e d ir e cti on c os i n e s g ?

3
5
. 7
, ,
2 . Thr ou gh (2 ,
3, ) with th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s
2, 6, 3 .
3 . Thr ou gh (x , , y ,, ( x, ,
y,, cf . 4 .
4 . 3 af— 4 y 2x —
y
Su gg e s ti on . F ir s t fin d th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s o f th e l in e
an d th e c oor d i n a t e s ofa p o i n t o n it .
Th e sa m e for th e l i n e s of th e f ol l owin g ex e rci s e s r vi ou s

o fp e
p a ar gra p h s .
5E . x . 1, 3 . 7 . Ex 1 , . 4 . 9 . Ex 1 ,
. 2 .
6 . Ex 2, . 3 . 8 . Ex 2, . 4 . 10 . E x 3,
. 2 .
F ind qu a ti on s
e for th e l i n e s with th e fol l owing p a a mret ric
r e pr e s en ta ti on s .
11 =3 — 2 t, = t — 4, z = 3t + 2
5z
. x y .
12 . x = 3 t, y = t, — 8t .
13 I f fr om th e p oi n t
. 6) on e p r o c e ed s 1 2 u n it s i n
th e d ir e cti on wh os e c os i n e s ar e g
, wha t a r e th e coor d i
t
n a e s ofth e i t r ea ch e d
p o n An s (1 1 2 .
, ,
14 D r a w to s ca l e th e circ u l a r h e l ix for which a 4 k 2
1 5Sh ow th a t th e twi s t e d c u bic ( 6 ) i s th e t ot a l i n t e r se cti on

.
,
.
o f th e p a r a b ol ic cy l in d e r y x with th e cyl i n d e r z x
2 3
.
H e n c e c on s tru c t th e cu bic .
16 F i n d a p a r a m e tric r e p r e s e n ta ti o
. n ofth e cu rv e
y
2
2 £13, z 3y 3
.
17 . Th e sa m e for th e cu rv e of 1 , E x a m pl e 4 .
Su gg e s ti on . Le t x si n 29 .
B y th e m e th od thi s p a ra gra p h fin d i n e a ch ofth e fol l ow

of ,
i n g e x e rci s e s th e p oi n t ( or p oi n t s ) ofi n t e r s e cti on of th e giv e n

,
cu rv e an d th e giv en su rfa c e .
18 Th e l in e a n d p l a n e ofE x 1
. 6 .
,
.
19 Th e l in e an d p l an e ofE x 3 6
. .
,
.
20 Th e l i n e a n d cyl in d e r ofE x 6 7
. .
, .
EX E R C IS ES ON C HAPTE R XX
1 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on s of th e l in e which p a s se s thr ou gh
th e p o in t — 2 , 3) an d in t e r s e ct s th e a x i s of z a t right
an gl e s .
F in d th e c oor d in a t e s of th e p oin t s i n which th e given

l in e m ee t s th e c oor d i n a t e p l a n e s a n d h e n c e c on s tru ct th e
l in e
5
.
x y Z 7 0, y
3 ,
w — 1 = 2 — z .
2 x
l in e s ha vin g l ,, m,, n, and l , , m, , n, a s d ir e cti on c omp onen t s
ca n b e writt en i n th e f orm
93 930 — z — zo
y y
-
11
la
1 5T . in e s with th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s l , m, n , an d
wo l , ,
l m , n , i n t e r s e ct i n th e p oi n t (x y
,, ,
F i n d th e e qu a ti on ,, ,,
o fth e p l a n e c on t a i n i n g th e m .
16 F i n d th e e qu a ti on s o fth e l in e d e t e r m in ed by th e p oin t
.
1 a n d th e p oi n t ofi n t e r s e cti on of th e thr e e p l a n e s

( 2 ,
O ) ,
x 3x 2 x +y+ z — 4 = O .
17 . F i n d th e
qu a ti on s of th e l in e thr ou gh th e origin a n d
e
th e o i n t o f i n t er s e cti on ofth e pl a n e a n d th e l i n e wh os e e qu a
p
tion s are x + 2y
18 . D e t e r m i n e th e e qu a ti on s of i n e which l i es i n
th e l th e
p l a n e 2 x y z 3 0 and is e
p pr e n d ic u l a r t o th e l in e
3 x + 2y — z —8 = O, x — 3
y + 1 = 0
i n th e p o in t i n which thi s l in e m ee t s th e p l a n e .
x — 2 y 1
12
thr ou gh th e origin wi th th e d ir e cti on c osin e s

A l in e
5
19 .
2
7)
i
7
i n t e r s e ct s th e p l an e 3 x + y+ 2 z — 6 = O i n th e
p o i n t P F i n d th e l en gth of O P
. A ns .1 4 . .
Su gg e s ti on R e p r e s en t th e l i n e p a ra m e trica l l y
5
. .
20 A l in e thr ou gh th e p oi n t A :(3
. 2 ) with th e di r e c , ,
ti on c osin e s T” 3 m e e t s th e p l an e 2 x 3 y z 7 O i n th e
1
p o i n t P Wh a
. t i s th e l e n g th o f A P ?
21 . F i n d th e l o cu s of a p o n i t which is al way s e qu id i stan t

fr om
'
th e th r ee p oi n t s (2 , O ( ,
0 2, (4 ,
2 ,
THE ST R AI G HT LI N E 49 7
22 D e te r m i n e th e p oi n t i n th e p l a n e x
.
y 2 z 0 w hi ch
e qu i d i s ta n t fr o m th e thr ee p oin t s (2 , 1 , — 3
is ( ,
4 ,
2, 1, An s .
(g,
1, l
g ) .
23 . Sh ow tha t th e l oc u s of a p oin t m ovin g so tha t it i s

a l w a y s e qu i d i s t a n t fr om thr ee giv e n n on c ol l in ea r p oi n t s i s a
-
l in e p e r p e n d icu l a r to th e p l a n e ofth e thr ee p oin t s I n wh a t

.
p o i n t d oe s it i n t e r s e c t thi s p l an e
Su gg e s ti on C h oos e th e c oor d i na t e a x es s k i l l fu l l y
. .
24 . F in d th e l o cu s ofa p oi n t which i s e qu i d i s t a n t fr om th e
i t n d a l s o e q u i d i s t a n t fr om th e
5 (
p o n s (2 ,
3 ,
4 ,
1 2 )
-
a ,
p o i n t s
( 2 (3 O
2 5T
, , , ,
. h e p r e vi ou s p r obl e m for a n y f ou r n on c op l an a r p oin t s

-
P , P , an d P ,
, ,
Sh o w th a t th e l o c u s i s a l in e which i s
e r e n d ic u l a r t o ea ch of th e l i n es P ,P P P a n d g o e s
p p 3 ,, 4
thr ou gh th e c en t e r of th e sp h e r e d e t e r m in e d by th e fou r p oin t s .
26 . F in d th e l o cu s of a p o in t which m ov e s So th a t th e d i f
-
f e r en c e ofth e squ ar es ofi ts d i st an c e s fr om tw o giv e n p oin t s i s

c on sta n t .
C HAP TE R X X I
THE PLAN E AND THE STR AI GHT LI NE .
ADVAN CE D M E THODS
1 . Li near Comb i nati on of Tw o Pl anes . A l i n ea r co mbi n a ti on

o ftw o p l a n e s ,
( )
1 Al a} B ly C1 z DI O,
( )
2 A,x B ,y C,x D , = 0,
s h al l b e d efin e d a s an y p l a n e
( )
3 A1 (A1x Bfl 0 12 D 1) A2 x
A2 < B 23] 0 22 D2) 0,
wh ose e qu a ti on bta in e d by m u l ti pl yin g th e e qu a ti on s of

is o
th e tw o p l an es by c on s ta n t s A, A2 a n d a d d i n g th e r e sul t s
, , , .
Th e c on s ta n t s M A, ca n b e ch os e n a t p l e a su r e p r ovi d ed m e r el y
, ,
tha t th e c oeffici en t s of x y z i n n a m e l y A,A,

, , X,A ,,
AB ,, A, R , MC, X, C, d o n o t a l l v a n i s h
, ,
I n p a rtic u l a r th e .
,
c a s e A, A, O i s thu s e x c l u d e d .
F or ex a m p l e if th e giv en p l a n e s a r e
,
— 2
( )
4
5
x y
( ) 2 x — 3y
an d w e mu l ti p l y th e qu a ti on ofth e fir s t by
e 3 and th e e qu a
ti on of th e se c on d by 2 a n d a d d th e p l an e ,
d efi n ed by th e
r e sul tin g e qu a tion ,
( )
6 x +2 x — 11 = O,
is a l in ea r c ombina ti ongiv en p l an e s of th e .
I fth e p l a n e s (1 ) a n d (2 ) m ee t th e p l a n e (3 ) p a s s es thr ou gh
,
th e ir l i n e of i n t e r se cti on F or if (x, y, z0 ) i s a n a rbitrary

.
, , ,
p oint ofthi s l in e th en ,
ex a m p l e , l e t th e l in e b e th e l i n e i t r cti on
5 5
F or of n e s e of th e
p l a n e s ( )
4 an d
( ) a nd l e t th e p oin t b e ,
1, By
Th . 1 , th e p l an e
( )
8 A, x —
( 2y -
3y
thr ou gh giv en l in e I f it i s c on ta in
5
p a sse s th e . al so to th e
gi v en p oi n t , ,
1, w e mu s t ha v e
A, (
2 A1 — 3 A2 = 0 .
Thi s e qu a ti on d e t e r m in es th e ra ti o Itwil l b e sa ti sfi ed
if i n pa r ti cu l a r w e tak e A, 3 a n d
, ,
’
A, 2 . Th en (8) b e c om es
3 (x — 2y — 3y
Thi s i s th equ a ti on ofth e r e qu ir e d p l an e

e .
I n th e g en e r a l c a s e wh en th e giv en l in e i s th e l in e c om m on
,
to t w o i n t e r s e cti n g p l an e s (1 ) a n d a n d (x , y, z ,
, ) i s th e , ,
giv en p oin t n ot on th e l in e th e p r oc ed u r e i s qu it e th e sa m e
, ,
.
Th e p l a n e (3 ) p a ss e s thr ou gh th e giv en l i n e D e m a n d in g .
,
fu rth e r tha t it c on t a in th e p oin t (x, y, z ,) l ea d s to a n e qu a

, , ,
ti on for th e d e t e r m in ati on of th e ra tio a nd a n y val u e s
for A, a n d A, which h a v e thi s r a ti o yi e l d wh en su b s titu t e d i n ,
th e e qu a ti on ofth e r e qu ir e d p l a n e .
Conv er ses of Th eor ems 1 , 2 . Si n c e ev e ry p l a n e thr ou gh th e

l in e i t r cti on of th e giv en p l an es (1 ) a n d (2 ) ca n b e
of n e s e
thou ght of a s d e t e r mi n ed by thi s l in e a n d a p oin t (x y, z ,) ,, ,
e x t e rn a l t o it w e h a v e r o e d th a t e v e ry p l a n e thr ou gh th e
, p v
l in e ofi n t e r s e cti on of th e giv en p l a n e s i s a l i n ea r c om bin a ti on

o fth e m Thi s i s th e c on v e r se ofTh eor em 1
. .
Th e c on v e r s e of Th eor e m 2 ca n b e p r ov e d i n a s i m il a r
m a nn e r . Th e d et a i l s a r e l e ft t o th e s t u d en t B oth c on v e r se s .
ca n b e s ta t e d i n a s i n g l e th e or e m .
THEOREM 3 Any p la n e th rough th e l i n e of i nter s ecti on of

.
two i n ter secti ng p l a n es , or p a r a l l el to two p a ra llel p l a n es , i s a

l i n ea r co mbi na ti on of th e tw o p l a nes .
AD VAN C E D M E T H O D S 5 01
P roj ecti ng P l a n es of a Li n e . C on s i d e r th e l i n e L
I x — 2 y
I
I 2 x — 3 y
in whi ch th e p l a n e s (4 ) a nd 5
( ) i t r n e se ct ,
a n d a l so th e p l a n e ( )
6
x 2 z 11 O .
Thi s p l a n e p a ss e s thr ou gh L ,
s i n c e it i s a l i n ea r c o m bi n a ti on Of
th e p l a n e s (4 ) an d I n p a rticu l a r , it i s th e p l an e thr ou gh
L which i s p e r p en d ic u l a r t o th e (z , x )
p l a n e ,
fo r qu a ti on (6 ) c on t a i n s n o t e r m
e
in y . I t i s th en th e p l a n e which p r oj ects
, ,
L on th e (z x ) p l a n e ,
Acc or d in g l y it i s
-
.
,
kn o wn as a p r o e cj
ti n g p l a n e ofL .
E q u a ti on r ep r e s en t s i n sp a ce thi s
( )
6 , ,
pr oj e ctin g p l a n e C on s i d ere d m e r el y i n .
th e ( z x) p l a n e it d e fi n e s th e l i n e which
,
-
i s th e a c tu a l p r oj e cti on of L on th e Fm , 1
(
5
z, x
) -
p l a n e .
By c om bin in g e qu a ti on s (4 ) an d ( ) l in ea r l y s o tha t th e r e
s u l ti n g e qu a ti on c on ta i n s n o t e r m i n x e g by mu l ti p l yin g ,
. .
th e fir s t of th e e qu a ti on s by 2 a n d a d d i n g it t o th e s e c on d ,
w e Obt a in th e e qu a ti on of th e p l a n e which p r oj e ct s L on th e
z p l an e n a m el y
( )
y ,
-
, ,
( )
1 0 y + 2 z — 10 = O .
In a s i m il a r m ann e r th e e qu a ti on of th e p l a n e which p r oj e ct s
L on th e (
.
x, y) p l
-
a n e i s foun d to b e
Th e p l a n e s a nd
( )
1 1 ar e th e th r ee p r oj ecti n g p l a n es
of L . An y tw o of th e thr e e p r o j e cti n g p l a n e s of a l i n e wi l l ,
in g en e r a l *
d e t e r m in e th e l in e F or e x a m p l e th e a ir of
,
.
, p
e qu a ti on s
( )
1 2 x +2 x— 1 1 = O, y+ 2 z — 10 = O
9“
E x ce p i ons t occu r wh e n th e l i n e is pr
a al l e l r
t o , or l i e s i n , a co o di n a e t
pl ane ; of. Ex . 13 .
is as pr op e r a n a n a l ytic r e p r e s en ta ti on o f L a s th e pa ir
an d m u ch m o r e s i m p l e .
E qu ati on s an d (1 1
) a r e e qu iv a l e n t to th e c on ti n u e d
e qu a l ity
( )
1 3 x — 11 = y — 10
a nd c on v e r s e l y th e r w ord s th e r ep r e s en t a ti on of a l in e
. In o ,
by m ean s of i ts p r oj e ctin g p l an es i s e s s en tia l l y th e sa m e a s

th e r e p r es en t a ti on of it by m ea n s of a c on tin u e d e qu a l ity of
th e u s u a l f o r m Th e thr ee e qu a ti on s which r e su l t fr om
.
e qu a ti n g th e m e m b e r s o f th e e q u a l ity a r e th e e qu a ti on s o f
th e p r oj e cti n g p l a n e s .
F u rth e r m or e w e n ow h a v e a m e th od of fi n d in g fr om th e
, .
,
r ep r e s en t a ti on of a l in e a s th e in t e r s e cti on of tw o p l an es a ,
r ep r e sen ta ti on of i t by a c on tinu e d e qu al ity Thu s i n th e .

,
ca se of L w e p a s sed fr om th e e qu a ti on s (9 ) to th e c on tin u ed
,
e q u a l ity
EX E R C IS ES
F in d th e e qu a ti on of th e p l a n e d e t e r m i n e d by th e giv en
l in e and th e giv en p oin t .
Li n e
5
2 x — 3y+ 4 z
x + 2y
3 x — 5 y
— 2 z = 8,
3 . 3 x
5
— 1 z —
x + 1 if 3
? 4 ( ,
1
5F i. nd th e qu a ti on of th e p l an e c on ta in in g th e l in e
e of
Ex . 1 an d ha v in g th e in t e rc ep t 2 on th e a x i s of y .
6 . F i n d th e equ a ti on of th e p l a n e p a s i g thr ou gh th e l in e
s n
of Ex 2 . an d ha vin g e qu a l in t e rc e p t s ,
n o t z e r o on th e a x es of
,
x an d y . Ans .
c omp on en t s I, m, ha ve i ts qu a ti on wri tt en i n th e f or m
!
n ca n e
x 3
“
31 1
xz — xi 92
—
91 z 2 — zl
'
= 0
l m
Su gg e s ti on . D e t e r m in e th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s of th e
no rma l s t o th e p l a n e .
2 . Thr ee Pl anes th r ou gh a Li ne . Three Poi nts on a Li nefi “
B y m ean s of th e r es u l s t of th e p r e c e d i n g pa ra gr ap h w e can
p r ov e th e f ol l o win g th e or e m
T H EOREM 1 Th r ee p l a n es .
p a ss th r ou gh a l i ne or a r e p a r a l
l el , wh en a nd on ly w h en a n y on e o f th em is a l i n ea r combi n a
ti on f
oth e oth er two .
I f th e thr ee p l an e s p a s s thr ou gh a l i n e Or a r e p a ra l l el an y , ,
on e of th e m p a sse s thr ou gh th e l i n e o f i n t e r se cti on of th e
o th e r tw o or i s p a r a l l e l t o th e o th e r t w o
,
C on se q u en t l y by .
,
Th 3 1 t h i s p l a n e i s a l in ea r c om bin a ti on of th e oth e r tw o
.
, ,
.
C on v e r sel y if a p a r ti cu l a r on e of th e p l a n es i s a l in ea r com
,
bina ti on of th e oth e r tw o it g oes thr ou gh th e l in e of i n te r s ec,
tion of th e s e tw o if th ey in t e r se ct or i s p a r al l el t o th e m if
, , ,
th ey a r e p a ral l el (Th s 1 I t f ol l o w s th en fu rth e r

.
, ,
m or e by th e fir s t p a rt of th e p r oof tha t a ny on e Of th e thr e e

, ,
p l a n e s i s a l i n ea r c o m b i n a ti on of th e o th e r t w o q e d ,
. . .
F or ex am p l e th e thr e e p l a n e s
, ,
5
3x — 2y+ 2 +
2x + y
— 3z 2 = O,
4x
p a s sthr ou gh a l in e in a s mu ch a s th e e qu a ti on of th e thir d ca n
,
b e obta in e d by mu l ti p l yin g th a t of th e fir s t by 2 th a t of th e ,
se c on d by 1 an d by a dd i n g th e r e su l t s
,
.
Th r ee P oi n ts on a L i n e Th e thr e e p oi n t s P I (x, y, .
, ,
P , (x, y, ,
P 3 (x, y, 2 3) l i e on a l in e if a n d onl y if
, , ,
th e
at
It i s as su m ed , he re an d in § 4, h at t th e gi ve n p l a n es, or
‘
th e gi ve n
p oi n ts , ar e t
d i s i nc t .
AD V AN C E D M E T H O D S 55 0
d ir e cti on c om p on en t s of P ,P , are r
p po o rti on a l to th ose of
5
173 2vi
F( z
w 93 yl P(% yr) , 5
73 zl
F( zz
Th e se e qu a ti on s ca n be r e writt en as
ws = ( 1 p ) wi + w
p 2,
ya p) yi + p ya
—
z, p)
Th ey th en say tha t th e c oord ina t e s of P 3 a r e a l in ea r c ombin a

ti on ofth e c oor d in a t e s ofP , a n d P , with c on s t an t s of c om bin a
t i on 1 — p a n d p w h os e s u m i s u n i ty
, ,
Sin c e a ny on e of th e .
p o i n t s m ight h a v e b ee n ca l l e d P 3 t hi s r es u l t ca n b e s t a t e d ,
m or e g en e r a ll y .
THEOREM 2 Th r ee p oi n ts l i e on a l i ne w h en a nd on ly wh en
.
th e coor d i na tes of a ny on e o f th em ca n be exp r ess ed a s a l i n ea r

com b i n a ti on o f th o s e of th e o th er two, w i th con s ta n ts o f co m bi n a
ti on w h os e su m is u ni ty .
Thi s th e or e m i s of i m p ort an c e b e ca u se of th e an al ogy b e

tw e en it a n d Th e o r e m 1 an d b e cau s e of i ts th eor e tica l va l u e
,
i n l a t e r w or k I t h a s n ot th e p r a ctica l v a l u e of Th e o r e m 1
.
,
s i n c e t e s ti n g thr e e p oi n t s for c ol l i n ea rity ca n b e m o r e ea s i l y
d on e d ir e ct l y .
Thu s if th e thr e e p oin t s a r e (2 — 1

, (4 2 2 — 7
, , , ,
-
, ,
th e d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s of P ,P , a n d P ,P , a r e r e s p e ctiv e l y , ,
2 3 1 an d
, ,
4 6 2 Sin c e th ese tri p l e s a r e p r op o r
, ,
.
ti on a l th e t h r ee p oi n t s li e on a l in e
,
.
EX E R C IS ES
Wha t ca n y ou sa y o f th e thr e e p l a n es i n ea ch of th e fol l ow

i n g e x e rc
‘
7
55
i se s
1 . 2 x —
y
— z = 2, x — y
— 6z= 7 .
2 . x + 3y — z = 1, 3x
3 . 6 x 2 x — 4 x+2 y
Ar e th e t h r ee giv en p o ni t c ol l in ea r
s
4 ( 5 3, ( ,
1 5 ( 1 1 , 0,
5 5
.
, ,
1 3, 1 2 , 6, ( ,
7 3,
5
.
,
o .
( ,
2 3, ( ,( 4, 8, 1 0 ,
7 . D e t e r m in e It so tha t th e thr ee p l a n e s
kx 3x x — 8y — 2 z =3
wi l l thr ou gh a l in e
55
p a s s .
8 . D e t e r m i n e It s o tha t th e thr e e p o n s i t (2 ,
3 , k) , (
, ,
1 9 ) wil l b e c ol l in e a r
,
.
3 . Li ne i n a Pl ane . F r om
Th e or em 1 ofth e p r e c ed in g pa ra
gra p h fol l ow s i m m e d ia t el y th e th eor em :
THEOREM A li ne li es i n a p l a n e i fa nd only ifth e p la ne i s a
.
,
l i n ea r co mbi n a ti on ofa ny two p l a n es w h i ch d eter mi n e th e l i n e .
F or ex a m p l e , th e l in e
i t r cti on of th e fir s t tw o of th e
of n e s e
p l a n e s 2 l i e s i n th e thir d p l a n e s i n c e th e thir d p l a n e ,
w a s s h o wn t o b e a l i n ea r c om bin a ti on ofth e fir s t tw o .
A c m e th od o f t e s tin g wh e th e r or not a giv en l in e l i e s

s e on d
i n a giv e n p l a n e p r e s e n t s it sel f if th e l in e i s r e p r e se n t e d p a r a
m e tric a l l y Th e l in e thr ou gh th e p oin t (2 — 1 3) with th e
.
, ,
d ir e c ti on c om p on e n t s 3 2 4 h a s th e p a ra m e tric r ep r e sen ta
, ,
ti on ( Ch XX 8 .
, ,
x = 3i + 2 , y = 2t — 1, z = — 4t+ 3 .
wi l l p l an e
5
It l i e i n th e
2 x + y + 4 z — 1 1 = O,
if a n d onl y if th e c oor d in a t e s ofe v e ry on e ofi ts p o nit s s a ti s fy

th e e qu a ti on o f th e p l a n e t e if a n d on l y if ,
. .
— 1) + 4(
is a tru e e qu a tion for al l v al u e s of t

. B u t th e e qu a ti on re
d u ce s to
C t + 0 = 0,
o
and s o is sa ti sfi ed by al l val u e s of t
. C on s e qu en t l y , th e l in e
l i e s i n th e p l a n e .
Th e f ou r p oi n t s wi l l be Cop l a n a r if and on l y if P, ( x ,, z
y, ,
, )
l i es i n thi s p l an e ,
i . e . if and onl y if
931 yr 21 1
972 yz z, 1
993 ya 23 1
x4 y4 24 1
I fth e f ou r p oin t s d o l i e on a l in e th ey a r e c e r ta inl y c opl ana r , .
O n th e oth e r h a n d e qu a ti on ( 1 ) i s sa ti sfi e d i n thi s c a se a l so
, .
F or e qu a ti on s
,
2 m u s t h ol d for s om e va l u e of p sin c e
, ,
th e p oin t s P , P P , a r e c ol l in ea r
, ,, Con se qu en tl y if i n th e .
,
d e t e r m i n a n t i n ( 1 ) w e su btra c t fr om th e thir d r ow th e fir s t
r o w m u l ti l i e d by 1 a n d th e s e c on d r ow m u l ti l i e d by
p
p p p ,
th e n e w thir d r ow wi l l c on si s t ex cl u s i v el y ofz e r os fia n d h en c e
“
th e d e t e r m in a n t wi l l v a n i sh .
W e h av e p r ov e d th en th e f ol l owi n g th eor e m
, , .
THEOREM 1 Th e fou r p oi nts (x y.

(x , y,
( , y,
x ,, ,, , , , ,
y,, 24
) lie i n a p la ne if a nd on ly if th e d eter mi na n t i n 1
( )
v a n i s h es .
F ou r P l a n es th r ou gh a P oi n t . Le t th e fou r p l a n es b e
A,x —B
,y +
A3x + B 3y + 0 3Z + D 3 = 0,
F o r m th e d e t e r m i n an t c oeffici en t s i n th ese e qua tion s

of th e ,
n a m el y ,
or m or e s i m p l y [ AB CD ] ,
I i i thi s d e , .
t e r m in an t l e t A A, A3 A, b e th e m in or s of th e el e m en t s B ,
,, , , ,
B , D3
, ,
for e x a m p l e A, | A , B , C3 | I , .
W e fir s t p r ov e th e f ol l o win g Th e or e m
THEOREM 2 The n or m a l s to th e p la n es (2 ) wi ll a ll be p a r a llel
.
to a p l a n e i fa n d on ly if
Th e fou rt h el e m e nt i n th e n ew thi rd r ow i s 1 (1 p) p 0 .
TTh r ou gh ou t th i s p aragraph we d e n ote d etermi na nts b y t

w ri i ng th e
e l em e n s oft th ei r p ri n ci p al d i agon al s b e twe en tw o p arall el b ars .
AD V AN C E D M E T H O D S 09
F or , if
r m al s to th e f ou r p l an es a r e p a ra l l e l to a pl ane
th e no ,
th e n or m a l s of a ny thr e e a r e p a r a l l e l t o thi s p l a n e a n d h en c e ,
th e d e t e r m i n a n t o fth e ir d ir e cti on c om p on en t s v a n i sh e s by C h ,
.
X VI I I 6 B u t thi s d e t e r m i n a n t i s on e of th e f ou r d e te r m i
,
.
n a n t s A i n qu e s ti on H en c e a l l f ou r d e t e r m in a n t s A va n i sh
. .
C on v e r se l y , if a l l fou r d e t e r m i n a n t s A v a n i sh th e n o r m a l s ,
o f e a ch s e t o f thr e e p l a n es a r e p a r a l l e l to a p l a n e a n d thi s ,
p l a n e ca n b e t a k e n a s t h e sa m e p l a n e i n a l l f ou r
H e n c e th e n or m a l s to a l l f ou r p l a n e s a r e p a r a l l el to it .
Su pp os e n ow th a t th e p l a n e s h a v e on e a n d on l y on e p oi n t
, ,
i n c omm on Th en th e f ou r d e t e r m in an t s A a r e n ot a l l z e r o
. .
F or i fth e y w e r e a l l z e r o th e n or m a l s to th e f ou r p l a n e s w ou l d
, ,
a l l b e p a ra l l e l t o a p l an e C on s e q u en t l y e ith e r th e f ou r .
,
p l a n e s w o u l d b e a l l p a r a l l e l or a l l th e l in e s o f in t e r s e cti on
‘
obt a in e d by t a k i n g th e m i n p a ir s w ou l d be p a r a l l el or i d en tic a l
( cf C .h X I X . a n d h e n c e th e p l a n e s w ou l d h a v e e ith e r
,
n o p oi n t i n c o m m on or a wh ol e l i n e of p oin t s i n c om m on
'
B u t thi s c on tr a d ict s th e hy p o th e s i s th a t th e y m e e t i n j u s t on e
i t A l f h d t r m i t A th d
'
p o n t. e a s t o n e o t e e e n a n s e n o e s n o t , ,
van i sh Le t u s a s su m e sa y tha t A,
.
,
i s n ot z e r o , .
Th en th e fir s t thr e e p l a n es m ee t i n a S in g l e p oin t (Ch X I X .

,
wh ose c oor d in a t e s f ou n d by C r a m e r s ru l e a r e ,
’
,
l O3 l
l :
— Z
x , 2
4 A4
01
'
l B Cs I IA C D sl
'
( )
3 x = _ I i z
A4 A, ’
Si n c e thi s p oin t l i es i n th e f ou rth p l a n e ,

w e m u s t ha v e
A4 “
I B 4 A1 0 2 0
“
3 | 0 4 | A1 B 2 D 3 + D 4 A1 3 2 0 3 0
it
Th i s is ob vi ou s if th e fo r p l an e p a a ll el
u I n th e con a y ca se ,
s are r . tr r
w h en t at l e as tw o ofth e p l a n es , say th e fis t w o , a r e n ot p a a ll el , th e s a e
rt r tt
m e nt i s b t t ts u s w
a n i a e d as f r
ol l o s Th e n o m als t o th e firs tw o p l an e s a nd
t .
th e th i rd a e p ara l l e l t o a p l a n e M
r n d t h e n orm a l s t t h e fi rst tw o p l an es
1, a o
a n d th e f o rth a p aral l l t o a p l a n e M
u re B t M an d M e s i n ce th ey 2 . u , 2,
a e b oth p a ra l l el t
r th no m ls f tli e fiors t tw o p l n s e i n ny cas e
e r a o a e ar ,
a ,
p arall el to ea ch oth er a n d h e n ce ca n a l way s b e tak e n a s th e sam e p l a ne .

or , s ni c e th e ex pr e ss i on on th e l e ft i s th e d ev el op m en t of th e
d e t e r m inan t | AB CD | by th e m in or s ofth e l a s t r ow ,
( )
4 | AB CD ] 0 .
if | AB CD
Conv e r sel y , O a n d n ot a l l fou r of th e d e te r m i
n an t s A a r e z e r o th e p l a n e s m t i i g i t
( )
2 ee , n a s n l e p o n F o r .
,
w e ca n a s s u m e th a t A, q b 0 Th en th e fir s t thr ee p l a n e s m ee t
.
i n a s i n gl e p oin t (3 ) a n d thi s p om t l i es i n th e f ou rth p l a n e ,
s in c e by hy p oth e s i s 4 h ol d s
( ) .
Thu s w e ha v e p r ov e d th e th e or e m
T H EOREM 3 Th e fou r p l a nes (2 ) m eet i n a s i ngl e p oi nt i fa n d
.
on ly i fth e d eter mi n a n t o f th ei r coe fi ci en ts v a n i sh es a nd n ot a l l
f ou r mi n or s A,, A,, A3 , A, a r e z ero fi “
I f th e r m al s to th e p l an e s (2 ) a r e a l l pa r al l el to a
no
p l an e th e d e t e r m in an t | A B CD ] obvi ou sl y van i s h e s for th en

, ,
A, A, A, A, 0 a n d th e ex p a n s i on of | AB CD | by th e
m i n or s ofth e f ou rth c ol u mn n a m el y : ,
D I AI I D 2 A2
' "
D3 5I D A 3
' '
4 4
h a s th e r
v al u e z e o .
C on v e r s el y if | AB CD ] v an i sh e s by virtu e of th e v a ni s hin g
,
ofA, A, A3 A, th e n o r m a l s ofth e p l a n es (2 ) a r e by Th e o r e m
, , , , ,
2 al l p a r al l e l t o a p l an e
,
.
C on s e qu en tl y w e ca n c om bi n e Th eor e m s 2 a n d 3 i n th e m o r e
,
e n e r al th ou gh l e ss u se f u l th e o r e m :
g
~
, ,
T H EOREM 4 Th e fou r p la n es (2 ) m eet i n a s i ngle p oi n t or

. .
th ei r norma l s a r e a ll pa r a l l el to a p l a n e, i fa n d on ly ifth e d e ter
mi n a nt ofth ei r coe fi i ci en ts v a n i s h es .
F i na l l y , w e en u m e a e r t
c a s es which can o ccu r wh en th e th e
n or m a l s t o th e f ou r p l a n es a r e p a r a l l e l to a p l an e F ir s t .
,
th e
State d al g eb rai call y thi s th e orem re ads :T h e fo equ a ti on ur s ( )

2
a re comp a ti bl e a nd h a ve, m or e over , a u n i qu e s o l u ti on , if and on l y if
[ AB CD | O a nd A,, A2, A3 , A4 a r e n ot a l l z e r o . Th i s th e orem i n l d es c u
th e th eorem of C h X VI 9 E 8 a nd l i ts .
, ,
x .
,
a so c nvers e
o It i s t b e
. o
n ote d th at i t w as ge om etri c cons i d e rati o ns whi ch l e d u s h e r e t o a p ro f o
wh i ch covered th e converse as wel l s th e th eorem a .

10 . F or wha t val u e ofIt wil l th e f ou r p l a n es ,
g o t h r ou gh a po n i t ?
5T . wo I nter secti ng Li nes . G iv e n th e tw o d i s ti n ct l in es
A,x 0 12 5D 0, A1 21} l
{
Bly Bl y D1 ,
O,
j
5
1
A,x + B ,y I C22
' ‘ ‘
5D 2
= 0 '
’
I Ez y
'
C, ’
z +0 2
,
0 °
Th e tw o l in es
in t e r s e ct i n a p oin t wh en a n d onl y wh en th e
,
fou r p l an es which i n p a ir s d e t e r m in e th e m m ee t i n a s in gl e
p o i n t T
. h e c o n d iti on f or thi s i s giv e n i n Th e o r e m 3 of th e
p r e c e d i n g p a r a gr a p h .
Th e tw o l in e s a r e pa ra l l e l if an d onl y if th e n or m a l s to th e
f ou r p l an e s a r e a l l p a ra l l el to a p l an e Th e or e m 2 of 4 t el l s .
wh en thi s occu r s .
Th e se r esu l t s can b e c ombin e d i n th e g en e ra l the or e m

THEOREM 1 Two l i nes i n ter sect or a r e p a r a l lel wh en a n d
.
on ly w h en th e d eter mi n a n t o f th e coe i c i fi
en ts i n th e e qu a ti on s f
o
th e fou r p l a n es w h i ch i n p a i r s d eter mi n e th e tw o l i n es v a n i sh es .
Th e si m pl e s t w ay to d e ci d e i n a ny ca s e wh e th e r th e tw o
l in e s in t e r se ct or a r e p a ra l l e l i s to c om p u t e th e d ir e cti on com
p on e n t s o f th e l in es a n d c om p a r e th e m .
Th e ab ov e p r oof a ss u m e s ta citl y tha t th e f ou r pl an es i n

'
qu estion a r e d i s tin ct ; oth e rwi s e th e th e or e m s of § 4 c oul d

n ot b e a p p l i e d Th eor e m 1 s til l h ol d s h ow ev e r i n th e ex
.
, ,
ce p ti on a l c a s e wh en on e of th e p l a n e s d e t e r m i n in g on e l i n e
i s i d en tica l with on e of th e pl a n e s d e t e r m in in g th e oth e r l i n e .
F or th e tw o l in e s l i e th en i n a p l a n e a n d h en c e i n t e r se ct or
, , ,
a r e p a r a l l e l ; on th e o th e r h an d th e d e t e r m i n a n t i n qu e s ti on
c on ta in s tw o r o w s whi ch a r e p r op ortion a l a n d h e n c e it v a ni sh es .
Li n es G i v en by Conti nu ed E qu a l i ti es Le t th e fir s t l i n e b e .
d e t e r m i n e d by th e p oi n t P , : ( y
x ,, , ,
z ,) a n d t h e d ir e cti on com
on e n t s l ,, m ,, n , a n d th e s e c on d by th e in t
p p o
y, ,
a nd th e d ir e c ti on c om p on en t s l, , m, , n, .
AD VAN C E D M E T H O D S 513
Th e l in es a r e p a r
a l l e l if a n d on l y if l ,, m,, n, a r e r
p po o rti on al
to l,, m, , n, .
I f th e l i n es a r e n ot p a a r
iqu e p l an e which
ll e l ,
th e r e is a un
c on ta in s th e fir s t l in e a n d i s p a ra l l el to or c on ta in s th e s e c on d .
A n or ma l to thi s p l an e i s p e r p en d icu l a r to b oth l in e s a n d

h en c e h a s th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s m,n, m cf
5 [ l , , .
C h X VI I I §
. Th e e qu a ti on of th e p l a n e i s th en
,
.
, ,
( )
1 l m,n,
l I n1 l2
| (y 310 + I 2
l l m |( z
'
OI
w — wr — z — zi
y yi
I fthi s p l an e c on t a i n s th e p oi n t P , it wi ll c on ta in th e e n tir e
s e c on d l in e , a n d c on v e r se l y C on s e qu en t l y , th e two n on p a r a l l el
.
-
l i n es i n ter s ect if a n d onl y if

wz 971 yz 91 z, 21 5
11
l2 ”2
E qu a ti on o f th e P l a ne D eter m i n ed by Tw o I n ter s ecti ng or
P a ra ll el L i n es . giv en l in e s i n t e r s e c t or a r e p a ra l l el th e
I ftw o ,
p l an e i n which th e y l i e ca n b e d e t e r m i n e d by on e of th e l i n e s
,
say th e fir s t a n d a p oi n t of th e s e c on d which d oe s n ot l i e on
,
th e fir s t . I t s e q u a ti on th en can b e f ou n d by th e m e th od of
, ,
1 . T h i s m e th od t h ou gh a l wa y s a pp l ica b l e i s d e sign ed
, ,
p ri m a ri l y f o r th e c a se wh e n a t l ea s t on e of th e l i n es i s gi v e n
a s th e i n t e r se cti on oftw o p l an e s .
I f b oth l in e s a r e r e pr es en t e d by con tin u e d e qu al iti e s th e ,
p l a n e which th e y d e t e r m i ne h a s
( )
2 a s i t s e q u a ti on i n c a se th e ,
l i n e s in t e r s e ct I f th e l in es a r e p a r a l l el a s i m i l a r e q u a ti on
5
.
,
for t h e ir p l an e can b e f ou n d ; of 1 E x 1 .
,
. .
EX E R C IS ES
Sh ow th a t th egiv en l in e s in t e r se c t or ar e pa ra l l el I n . ea ch
c ase fin d th e e qua ti on ofth e p l a n e which th e y d e t e r m i n e
.
.
2 = 0,
{
x 2 x — y
— z
3 x — y
— 2 z = 0
5
°
An s . Th e p l a n e i s x — 4y — 2 x +l
x — y
— z z O, 3x + 3y
z — l x — 1 z _ 6
3 + 2 —
, y
2 3 4 2
4 3 11;
3 g = 1 3x + l = 4 — y = 2z — 3
— z
, .
— 2
{
+ 1
5
4x — x y z
1
2 x + 3y + z — 3 O; 2 3
6 . Di stance of a Poi nt fr om a Li ne . Di sta nce b etween Two

Li nes . Le t it be r e qu ir e d fin d th e d i s ta nc e D of th e
to p o in t
y , z ,) fr o m th
,
e l in e L which p a ss e s
thr ou gh th e p oin t y, z ,) a n d h a s th e ,
d ir e cti on c o s i n e s c o s a co s 8 cos y , , ,
.
I t i s c l e a r fr om th e fig u r e th a t
D P 1 P 2 S 111 0
FI G 2 wh e r e 6 i s th e an gl e which th e l i n e P ,P , m a k es
with L .
By E x 1 6 . at th e e n d ofC h . X VI I I ,
( )
1 Si n
I I I Mll e I,
2 2
9 [£ i
2
VI ) \2 '
I
'
2
wh e r e A,, y ,, v , a n d A,, y , , v, a r e th e d ir e cti on c osin e s of
an d L .
N ow
—
yz ll i
A, CO S a ,
H en c e
yz Z 2 Z r
1 92 y Z 2 zl
= l
| | P 11 3
H1 V2 P 1P 2 2
P ,P , cos 8 co s
7
cos 8
,
c os
y
,
S i m il ar va l u e s ar e fou n d for i v, A, I an d
EX E R C IS ES
F in d th e d i s ta n c e th e gi v en p o n i t fr om th e giv en l i ne .
P oi n t L i ne
4 — x
y l — a
1 .
( , ,
2 3 An s sui c
.
2 6 3
x — 3 y+ 2 z
5
2
2 ( Q Q OL 2 — 4
s . 3 x + 1 = 4 —
y = 2 z
4 .
I3 x — y
— 2 z = 0 .
F i n d th e d i s ta n c e b e tw e en th e t w o giv e n l i n e s .
6 . Th e l in e s o fE x s . 1, 2 . 7 . Th e l in es o fE x s . 2, 3 .
Ans .
8 Th e l i n e s ofE x s 1, 3 Th e l in e s o fE x s 2, 4
5
. . . . .
10 . Th e l in es o fE x s . 3, 4 . 11 . Th e l in es o fE x s . 4, .
12 . A cu b e h a s ed g e s of l en gth at
. F i n d th e d i s t a n c e b e
t w e en a d i a g on a l a n d a n e d g e s k e w to it . An s . a .
7 . Ar ea of a Tr i angl e Vol ume . of a Tetr ahedr on . W e
fir st p r ov e th e fol l owi n g th e or e m .
THEOREM 1 . Ifa r egi o n o f a r ea A i n a p la n e M i s p r oj ected

on a s econ d p l a n e M th e a r ea of th e p r oj ected r egi on equ a l s
A cos 0, wh er e 9 i s th e a cu te a ngl e betwe en M a nd M fi

’ “
I n th e ca se r e ct an gl e wh ose s i d e s a r e r e s p e c tiv el y
of a
p a r a l l e l a n d e
p p r e n d ic u l a r t o th e l i n e of in t e r s e cti on of M
an d M th e p r oof i s i m m e d i a t e F or wh en th e r e cta n gl e i s
.
,
pr oj e c ted on M on e d i m en s i on r e ma in s th e s a m e an d th e
o th e r i s m u l ti l i e d by c o s 0
p .
it
Th e th eor m i s tri vi al if M i s p aral l el o p erp e n d i l r t o M w e
e r cu a
e cl u d e th e se cases
x .
AD VAN C E D M E T HO D S 5 17
Th e r
a ea A Of
rbitra ry r egi on i n M i s th e l i m it a p
an a
roa ch e d by th e s u m B o f th e a r ea s of r e ctan g l es of th e ty e
p p ,
j u st d e s crib ed which a r e in s crib ed

,
i n th e r e gi on
I f A i s th e
’
a ea r of th e p r oj e ct ed
r e gion a n d B i s th e su m of th e ’
a r e a s o f th e pr oj e ct e d r e ct a n g l e s ,
e v i d en t l y
A '
li m B
’
.
FI G 4
S i n c e th e r ch r j ct d
.
a ea of e a o e e
p
r e c ta n g l e is cos 6 ti m e s th e a r ea of th e o rigin al r e ctan g l e ,
’
B . B cos 6 .
A = lic
’
os 6= c os 6 li m B
A’
A co s 6, q . e . d .
Le t th e r
a e a s of th e p r oj e cti on s of th e giv en r e gi on on th e
c oor d ina t e p l a n es b e d e n ot ed by A A and l e t th e
n or ma l s to M ha v e th e d ir e cti on an gl e s a, 8, 7
,
. By Th .
A A =
| A cos
fl .
H en c e
( )
1 2
Thu s w e ha v e p r ov e d th e the or e m
T H EOREM 2 Th e s u m of th e s qu a r es of th e
. a r ea s o f th e p r o
j ecti ons of a r egi on on th e th r ee coor d i n a te p l a n es equ a l s th e
s qu a r e of th e a r ea of th e r egi on .
Ar ea o f a Tr i a ngl e . It i s n ow ea s y to writ e d own a

f or mu l a for th e a r ea A of th e tria n gl e wh os e v e rtic e s a r e a t
th e p oin t s P 3 (33 9 1 Z 1 ) P 2 1 (972 9 2
I 1, P 3 3 (5
, 93 Z 3 )
83 $ ,
F or , , , , ,
th e a r ea s of th e pr oj e cti on s of th e tri a n g l e on th e c oor d in a t e
p l a n es a r e by E x
,
1 8 a t t h e e n d o f
. C h X V I .
A =i _
-
I |
y 2
i z 1 ,
A = t t | wi z2 1 | A
Th e ab s ol u te val u e s i gn s ar e n ece ss a ry S n ce i a, B, y a r e n ot n e ce s
sari l y a cu te a n gl e s ,
wh e r e for ex a m p l e , i s th e d e t e r m in a n t wh ose thr ee
c ol u mn s a r e y,, y, , z ,, z ,, 2 3 ; 1, 1 , 1 . H en c e by ,
( )
2
Vol u me of a Tetr a h ed ron . Le t th e bov e triangl e b e

a th e
ba se of th e t e trah ed r on an d l e t th e fou rth v e rt ex b e a t th e
p i t
o n P, : zo ) . Th e v ol u m e V
of th et e tr ah e d r on i s kn own fr om
Sol i d G eom e try to b e e q u a l t o on e
third th e a r ea A of th e ba se times th e
l en gth D ofth e a l titu d e
( )
3 1
_
3
AD .
Th e e qu a ti on of th e p l a n e of th e
FI G . 5 ba se ,
th e l
p ea n of P ,, P ,, P ,, i s giv en
i n d e t e r m in a n t for m i n Ch . XIX, 6 .
Thi s e qu a ti on wh en th e d e t e r m in an t
,
i s d e v e l op e d by th e
m in or s ofth e fir s t r ow b e c om es ,
—O
I
Z/ z
l z
l
l x —
Iwi |
zz l
ly + v 1y 2 1 Z .
,
Th e d i s ta n c e of th e p o in t P 0 (x, y, 2 0 ) fr om thi s , , p l a n e, i . e .
th e l en gth D o f th e a l titu d e of th e t e tr a h e d r on ,
i s, by Ch .
X I X, 9,
Su b s ti t u ti n g i n (3 ) th e va l u e s of A a n d D a s giv en by (2 )
an d a n d a t th e s a m e ti m e writin g th e n u m e r a t o r i n (4 ) i n
d e t e r m in an t f o r m w e Obta in a s th e v a l u e of V
, , ,
wh e r e to b e ta k en a p o s itive r e su l t .
6 . Do E x . 17 at th e with ou t fi n d in g th e
end of Ch . XX
c oor d i na t e s ofth e p o in t ofi n t e r s e cti on Ofth e giv e n l i n e a n d th e
giv en p l a n e .
7 F in d th e e q u a ti on s of th e l in e which c on ta in s
. th e p oi n t
1 a n d i n t e r s e ct s ea ch ofth e l i n e s
(2 O )
5
, ,
2 x I x +y+2 z — = O,
<
3 +y — 2 z= 2 3 +4y
x
l x
°
8 . qu a ti on s ofthe l in e whi ch in t e r se ct s e a c h ofth e

F in d th e e
l i n e s giv e n i n E x 7 a n d i s p a r a l l e l t o th e l i n e 4
. 6x y 9
9 A p l an e in t e r s e ct s th e (x y) p l an e i n th e l in e wh ose e qu a
.
,
-
ti on i n th e (x y) p l an e i s 2 x 3 y 1 2 I fth e p l an e c u t s f rom
,
-
.
th e fir s t o cta n t a t e tr a h e d r on wh os e v ol u m e i s 1 2 fi n d i ts ,
e qu a ti on . An s 2 x 3g 4z 12 O . .
10 Th e r e a r e tw o p l a n es which c on ta in th e l in e
.
2x + y— z — 7 =O
an d mak e an gl e s o f 30
°
with th e p l a n e x z 2 O . F in d
th e ir e q ti ua on s . A ns . x —
y 2z 8 = 0, 2 x +y — z — 7 =O .
11 . F i nd th e e qu a ti on s Of th e p l an e s which c on tai n th e l in e
giv e n in Ex . 10 an d ar e 2 u n it s d i s tan t fr om th e p oin t
2 2
( , ,
12 . Th e pl an es thr ou gh th e e d g es ofa tr i h ed ra l an gl e p er p en
d i cu l a r t o th e opp o s it e fa c es p a ss thr ou gh a l in e . P r ov e thi s
th eor e m i n th e c ase tha t th e fa c es l i e i n th e p l an e s
2 x 4 x 3x — 2y— z =0 .
13 . P r ov e th e th eor em ofE x . 1 2 i n th e g e n e r a l ca se .
TH E E Q U A TI ON S Au ju v O, uv O
14 . THEOREM . If u 0, v O a re th e equ a ti on s o f two su r
Au + uv = 0 , Au ¢ 0 ,
L
fa ces, th e e qua ti on r ep r esen ts i n gen er a l ] a
3 Cf Ch . . Ix, 3, 4 .
I In pa rti c ul a r ,
i t m ay re p r e se n t a c u rve or a p oi n t cf . fo otn otes , pp .
AD V AN C E D M E T H O D S 5 21
su r a cef w h i ch con ta i ns th e tota l i n ter s ecti on o f th e tw o f

su r a ces ,
i h
f y
t e i n te rs ect,
a n d h a s n o oth er p o i n t in co mmo n w i th e i th er o f
th em If th e gi ven s u rf
. a ces d o not i n ters ect, th e equ a ti on r ep r e
sents i n en er a l g
a s u rfa ce n ot meeti ng ei th er ofth e m or i t h a s no
l ocu s . P r ov e thi s th e or e m .
1 5F i
. nd th e
'
e qu a ti on of th e sp h e r e which c on ta in s th e
circl e '
x
2
+ y +
2
2 2 z — 5 = O
a nd p asse s thr ou gh th e p oi n t ( 3 ,
O,
An s .
P r ov e tha t cu r v e of in t e r s e cti on of th e cyl in d e r s

5
16 . th e
x
2
y
2 4, y 2 2
2
l i e s on th e s u rfa c e x 2
z
2
1 0 an d i s
th e t ota l in t e r se cti on ofthi s s u rfa c e with ea ch cy l i n d e r .
17 . T HEOREM . Ifu 0, v 0, w O a re th e equ a ti on s of
th ree p l a n es w h i ch m eet in a s i n gl e p o i n t, th e equ a ti on
Au + uv w 0
p l a n e th r ou gh th i s p o i n t
r ep r es en ts Con a .
ver s e ly, ev er y p l a n e w h i ch con ta i n s th i s p o i n t i s a l i n e a r comb i n a
ti on ofth e th r ee gi v en p l a nes P r ov e thi s th e or e m . .
18 . F in d th e equ a ti on of th ep l an e which i s d e t e r m in e d by
th e p o i n t s (0 ,
O, O) ( 1 2 0 ) a n d th e p o in t ofin t e r se cti on ofth e
, , ,
thr ee p l a n e s
x +y 2x — 2y+ 5 z — 3 = O .
An s . 2 x — y
— 6 z = 0 .
19 . T H EOREM . Th e equ a ti on uv 0 r ep r es en ts th os e p oi n ts
a n d on l y th os e p oi n ts wh i ch l i e on th e f
s u r a ces u O and v O .
P r ov e thi s th eor e m .
20 . Wha t d o th e fol l owin g e qu a t i on s r e p r e sen t
( )
a x —
2
y = 0;
2
( ) c x 2 —
xy
( )
b x4 —
y = 0; 4
( )
d xy — xx
9"
In pa rti cu l ar i t m ay rep resent a rve p oi n t cf fo o tn t
5
, cu or a . o es , pp .
44 , 168 .
B I S E C TOR S OF TH E AN G L E S B E TW EEN Tw o P L ANE S
21 . Wha t i s th e l o cu s o f th e i n e qu a l ity
2x —
y + 2 z — 4 > O ?
22 . Th e r e a re fou r r e gi on s l yin g b e twe en th e p l a n es
2 x — y + 2 z — 4 = O, 8x + 4y + z — 8 =O -
F in d th e p a ir s i m u l tan eou s in e qu a l iti e s r ep r e s en tin g th e s e

of s
r e gi on s ,
s p e cifyi n g th e r e gi on which e a ch p a ir r e p r ese n t s .
23 . F in d th e e qu a ti on s o ft h e p l a n es bi se ctin g th e a n gl es b e
tw e en th e tw o p l an e s ofE x . 22 .
An s . 2 x + 7y 14 x + y+ 7 z
24 . Th e sa m e for th e fol l owin g p a ir s o fp l a n e s
2 = O, 4 = O,
5
x — y+ z — 3 x — 6y + 2 z —
( ) a ( )
b
6 2 — 9 z — = O
x +y x + y .
2 5F i
. nd th e e qu a tion
bi se ct or of th e a n g l e b e tween
of th a t
th e tw o p l a n e s ofE x 2 4 (b) which p a s s e s thr ou gh th e r e gi on b e
.
twe en th e tw o p l an es which c on ta in s th e origin .
26 . Th e p l a n e s which bi s e ct th e d ih ed ral a n gl e s of an y
trih ed r al a n gl e m ee t i n a l i n e P r ov e thi s th e o r e m wh en th e
.
fa c e s l i e i n th e p l an e s
x +y+ z — 1 = O, x —
y + z — 1 = O, 2x + y
27 . P r ov e th e th eor e m ofE x :2 6 i n th e g en e r a l c a s e .
Su gg e s ti on . Cf E x s. . 2 8, 2 9 at th e en d of Ch . XIII and
E x 28
. at th e e n d of Ch . XI X .
28 . Sh ow
tha t by a p r op e r ch oic e of ax es tw o a rbitr a ril y
chos en sk e w l in es L, an d L, ca n h a v e th eir e qu a ti on s writ ten a s
, ,
x = c 2 my ;,
x = — c z — my ; cm ¢ 0 ,
.
29 . P r ov e tha t if ,
th e l in e L , o fE x . 28 i s ta k e n as th e z ax s ,
-
i
th e x an d y
-
ax e s ca n be so ch osen th a t L, h a s th e e qu a ti on s ,
x = c, z = my, wh e r e c ¢ 0 .
al
t . Ch . X III , 6, 7, 8 .
7 . C en te r at
g ,
r a d iu s ,
8 . C en t e r at ( O ,
O, a
) r a d iu s a ,
.
9 . C en t e r at ( a ,
O, a) ra d i u s a \/2 , .
10 . C en t e r at ( a ,
a, a
) r a d i u s d x/3 ,
.
2 . Gener a l For m ofth e Equ ati on . Th e e q u a ti on ofa s ph e r e

ca n a l w a y s b e writt en i n th e f o r m
( )
1
as is s e en i g e qu a ti on
'
by e x p an d n 1 .
Let u s i n v e s tiga t e wh e th e r c on v e r s el y , ,
e v e ry e qu a ti on of
th e f o r m (1 ) r e p r es en t s a s p h e r e .
C on si d e r fir s t th e p a rticu l a r e qu a ti on
, ,
— 2
( )
2 + 6y + 4z
2 2 2
x +y + z x
I fw e c Om p l e te th e s qu a r e o fth e t e r m s i n x an d ,
d o th e sa m e
for th e t er m s in y an d in 2, th e e qu a ti on b e c om e s
( )
3 (x
Thi s e qu a ti on f or m is1 wh e r e a : 1 B = — 3
of th e , , ,
y
— 2
p = 7 a n
,
d h en c e r e p r e se n t s a s p h e r e wh os e c e n t e r
,
i s a t th e p oi n t ( 1 2 ) a n d wh os e r a d i u s i s 7
5
3 , , .
I f th e c on st a n t t e r m — 3 i n (2 ) i s r e p l a c e d by 1 4 th e
, , ,
right h a n d m e m b e r of (3 ) b e c om e s 1 4 1 9 4 0 I n
-
thi s case then w e ha v e , ,
i x
Th e p oin t ( 1 ,
3, ti s fyin g thi s e qu a
— 2 ) h as c oor d in a t e s sa
ti on F or th e c oord ina t e s (x y z) of a n y oth e r p oin t a t l ea s t

.
, ,
on e ofth e p a r en th e s e s i s n ot z e r o a n d th e l e ft h a n d s i d e o fth e -
e q u a ti on i s p os itiv e C on se qu en tl y th e e q u a ti on r ep r e s en t s
.
,
th e s i n g l e p o i n t ( 1 3 2 ) or if w e d efi n e a n u l l sp h er e (a
, , ,
S p h e r e of z e r o r a d i u s a s a p oin t it r e p r e se n t s a n u l l s p h e r e
)
5 5
.
,
I f th e c on s tan t t e r m — 3 i n (2 ) i s r e p l a c ed by 1 ,
th e , ,
e qu a ti on b e c om e s
— 1
( w .
S P HE R E S AN D O T HE R SU R F AC E S 2 5
Si n c e th e l e ft h a n d m e m b e r of thi s e qu a ti on ca n n e v e r b e
-
n e g a tiv e n o m a tt e r wh a t v a l u e s a r e a s s ig n e d to x y z th e
, , , ,
e qu a ti on r e p r e s e n t s n o p oi n t wh a t e v e r i n s p a c e .
Th e s e thr e e e x a m pl es i n d ica te wha t t o ex p e ct ofth e g en e ra l

e q u a ti on O n c om p l e ti n g th e s qu a r e s for th e p a ir s of t e r m s
i n x y a n d 2 r e s p e ctiv el y i n
, , ,
th e e q u a ti on ta k es on th e
,
f or m 1 wh e r e ,
a I8 7
2
A + B + 0
2 2 2 —
4D
‘
,
p
4
H en c e , w e
ha v e th e f ol l owin g
THEOREM E qu a ti on (1 ) rep r es en ts
. a sp h ere, a s i ngl e p oi n t,
or n o p o i n t wh a tev er , a ccor di ng as th e qu a n ti ty
A +B + C
2 2 2 — 4D
i s p os i ti v e, zer o, or n ega ti v e . In ca s e it r ep r e sen ts a sp h er e, th e

coor d i n a tes o f th e ce nter a n d th e s qu a r e o f th e ra di u s are g i ven
by for m u l a s
C on si d e r , m or e g en e r a l l y th e qu a ti on
5
,
e
( )
If a 0 , b u t b, c, a n d d a r e n ot a l l z e o , r th e e qu a ti on r ep r e
t
s en s a p l a n e .
If a 0 , th e e qu a ti on ca n b e d ivi d e d thr ou gh by a , an d it
th en b e c om es
(L 0. Ct a
Thi s e qu ati on i s of th e f orm ( 1 ) a nd h en ce th e f o r e g oi n g c on
s i d e r a ti on s a pp l y t o it .
EX E R CIS ES
D e t erm in e wh a t
f ol l owin g e qu a ti on s r ep r es en t
th e . Ap p l y
i n ea ch c a s e th e m eth od o f c om p l e ti n g th e s q u a r e . DO n ot
m e r el y su b s titu t e n u m e rica l v a l u e s i n f or m u l a s
1 . x
2
+y +
2
2
2
+4 x 6y
An s . A s ph e r e , r a d iu s 3, with c en t e r at 2, 3,
AN ALYT I C G E O M E TRY
2 2 2
2 . w +y + z
An s . Th e p o i t (3
n ,
x 2
+y +
2
z
2
Ans .
2 2 2
x +y + z
+ 6w
2 2 2
x +y + z
w2
+ y +
2
z
2
+ 3 z — 4 = O .
x 2
+y +
2
z
2 — 2 a y — 2 bz = 0 .
2 2 2 — 4 m
x +y + z
+ 3y + 3z — 2w
2
3 x
2 2
— 6y — 2z — 7 = O .
3w + 3y + 3z
2 2 2
5 5 55
.
. x
2
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2
z — m+ 6 y — 8z
3 . Spher e thr ou gh F our Poi nts Thr ou gh fou r p oi n t s which .
d o n ot l i e i n a p l an e th e r e p a s se s a s i n gl e s ph e r e I f th e .
p o i n t s a re
( 5
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, ,
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'
1
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w z} 904
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To p r o v e thi s d e v e l op th e d e t e r m i n a n t b
, y t h e m i n o r s o f
th e e l e m en t s of th e fir s t r o w Th e e qu a ti on ta k e s on th e .
fo r m 2 Th e c oeffici en t ofa} y
.
?
z i s t h e d e t e rm in a n t
2
a n d i s d iffe r en t fr om z e r o s in c e th e f ou r p o in t s d o
| x 1 y2 z3 ,
n ot l i e i n a p l an e (C h XX I C on se qu en tl y th e e qu a
.
, ,
ti on r e p r esen t s a Sp h e r e a p oi n t or n o p oin t wha t e v e r

, , .
B u t th e c oor d in a t e s o f th e f ou r gi v e n p oin t s s a ti s fy th e
e qu a ti on S i n c e t h e su b s tit u ti on f
,
or x y z of th e c o or d i na t e s , ,
Sin c e th e p oi n t ( ai l , yl , zl ) l ie s o nth e sp h e r e
5
01 2
gl
z 71
4
2
P
2
,
an d h en c e th e e qu a tion ofth e ta n g e n t p l a n e ,
i n fi na l f or m ,
is
2
( ) col a : my zl z
p
2
.
In a si mil a r m ann e r th e e qu a ti on of th e tang ent p l a n e t o
th e sph e r e
( )
3 (w —
r)
2 = r2
at th e p oin t (901 ) Of th e ph e r e be h ow n to b e
!
, y l , zl s ca n s
( )
4 ( 501 a
)( a? BX? r) ( z —
r)
2
p
Th e u s e of (4 ) t o fin d th e qu a ti on of th e tan g en t
e
p l a n e t o
s ph e r e wh o s e e q u a ti on is i n th e f or m
5
a
( )
i n v ol v e s th e r edu cti on Of th e e qu a ti on of th e sp here t o th e
f or m Thu s if th e s ph e r e i s
,
( )
6 — 2 w+ 6 y + 4z
2 2 2
w +y + z
th e e qu a ti on mu s t first be re wr itt en as
( ;
w (y (
z 49 .
Th e e qu a ti on ofth e t an g en t p l a n e at th e p o i n t (3 ,
6, for
e x a m p l e i s th e n a cc o r d i n g t o
, ,
— 1 w
<
3 >(
or
( )
7 2 a3 — 3 y + 6 z — 48 = O .
Th e c oor d i na t e s c en t e r (a 8 y) a n d th e squ a r e of
5
of th e , , ,
ra d i u s p2 of a s p h e r e wh ose e qu a ti on i s i n th e f orm ( )
, ,
gi v en by for mu l a s 2 I f th ese v a l u e s fo r a 8 y p
.
2
, , , ,
s u b s ti tu t e d i n a n d th e e qu a ti on obt a in e d i s s i mp l ifi e d
( )
4
r e su l t i s
401: w1 ) +
g
13
8
( ) £0 1 90 my zl z +
3
-
z
(y y1 ) + a z1
) + D=O .
Thi s i s th e e qu a ti on o f th e t an g en t p l an e a t th e p o i n t
m s ph e r e wh os e e q u a ti on i s i n th e f or m
( l , yl , zl
) to a By
SP HE R E S AN D O T HE R SU R FAC E S 5 29
m ean s of i t th e e qu a ti on of tan g en t p l a n e to ( 6 ) a t th e
th e
p oi t (3
n ,
6 , 4) ca n be writt en d own d ir e ctl y W e h av e .
,
na m el y
5
,
— 6 — 3
6y+ 4z ) -
j o,
an d thi s r e d u c es to th e e qu a t i o n ( 7 o bta in ed by th e in d ir e ct
m e th od .
EX E R C IS ES
F i n d th e e qu a ti on ofth e t an g en t p l a n e t o ea ch ofth e foll ow

i ng sp h e re s a t th e gi v e n p oi n t .
= 9 —
( ,
2 2,
2 2 2
1 . x + y + z at
2 . x
2
+y +
2
z 2 = 49 at 3
( , 6,
3 .
( : a
(y (z 81 at 2
( , ,
6
4 90
2
+ (y (
z 9 at ( ,
1 3,
5
.
. x
2
+g +
2
z — 22
w — 4y + 4 z = O at th e o rigin .
6 . x
2
+ y +
2
z
2 — 6 w + 4 y + 1 Oz at 1
( ,
7 . F i n d th e v ol u m e of th e t e tr a h e d r on ou t fr om th e fir s t
o cta n t by th e t a n g en t p l a n e at
( , , )
1 2 3 t o th e Sp h e r e
2 2 2 2 2 w — 3
2 2 — 4z
x + y + z + y
8 .Th e c oo r d in a t e s ofon e ofth e p oint s ofi n te r s e c ti on ofth e

p l a n e 2 w y 2 O with th e S p h e r e of E x 1 a r e
(2 2 .
, ,
F in d th e a n g l e b e tw e e n th e p l a n e a n d th e s p h e r e .
Ans . 72
°
39 ’
F i n d th e gl e which th e l in e :g :m with th e
5
9 . an a 2 ake s
sp he re ofE x . . An s . 11
°
6 '
5T . h e Ci r cl e . A p l an e
i n ter se ct s a Sp h e r e i n a circl e i s ,
tan g en t to it or fa i l s to m e e t it acc ord in g a s th e d i stan c e D

, ,
ofth e c en t e r o fth e s p h e r e fr om th e p l a n e i s l e s s th a n e qu a l ,
to or gr ea t e r th a n th e r a d i u s p ofth e s p h e r e
, ,
.
I n oth e r w or d s th e e qu a ti on s o f a S p h e r e a n d a p l an e con
, ,
s i d e r e d s i m u l t a n eou s l y r e p r e s e n t a circ l e a p oi n t o r n o p o in t
, , ,
wha t eve r a cc ord in g a s D p D p or D > p

'
.
, , ,
C on si d e r , for ex ampl e , th e Sp h e re a nd th e p l a n e
1
w2
+y +
2
z
2 — 2w 6
+ y+ 4 z — 3 5
= O,
x — 2y
Th e c en t e r ofth e s p he r e is at th e p o in t ( 1 ,
3, 2) an d i ts
r a d iu s i s p 7 cf . 2 . Th e d i s ta n c e o f th e c en t e r fr om th e
p l a n e i s
Con se qu e n tl y , th e p l a n e m e e t s th e s p h e r e i n a circ l e , a n d e qu a
ti on s c on s i d e r ed s i mu l ta n e ou sl y , a r e th e e qu a ti on s of th e
circl e .
It i sr ea d il y s een tha t p D i e 7 6 2
1 3 i s th e s qu a r e
2
,
. .
2 2
,
ofth e r a d iu s of th e circ l e H en c e th e r a d iu s of th e circl e i s

.
Th e c en t e r of th e circl e i s th e p oint of in t e r s e cti on of

th e p l an e a n d th e l i n e thr ou gh th e c en t e r ofth e s p h e r e p e r p e n
di cu l a r to th e p l an e I ts c oor d in a t e s a r e thu s f ou n d to b e
.
1, 1,
R a d i ca l P l a n e of Two Sp h er es . G i v en th e t w o Sp he re s
2
w + y + 2
z
2
+ 2 x — 2 z — 7 = O
,
2
— 1 Oz — 9 =O .
Su btra ct th e q ti o
e n ua of th e s e on dc fr om tha t of th e fir s t .
Th e r esu l tin g e qu a ti on ,
( )
3 m
r ep r e sen ts a p l a Thi s pl a n e i s kn own a s th e r ad i ca l p la ne

n e .
o fth e t w o s p h e r e s Sin c e i ts e qu a ti on i s a l in ea r c om bin a ti on

.
of t h e t w o s p h e r e s w e c on c l u d e by E x 1 4 a t th e en d of
, ,
.
Ch XX I th e f ol l ow i n g
.
,
I f th e s p h e r e s in t e r se ct th e r a d ica l p l a n e i s th e p l a n e of
,
th e ir c om m on circl e ; if th e Sp h e r e s a r e tan g en t it i s the ir ,
tan g en t p l a ne a t th e p oin t of tan g en cy ; a n d if th e sph e r e s

fa i l to m eet fith e ra d ica l p l a n e i n t e r se ct s n eithe r of them
“
.
a?
Tw o c on ce n t ri c s ph e es r ha ve no ra d i cal pl ane th i s i s th e onl y ex
cepti ona l case .
8 . Th e circl e of E x . 1 an d th e o rigin .
9 Th e circl e o fE x 2 and th e i n t ( 1 1,
5
. .
p o ,
0 . Th e circl e o fE x . an d th e p oi n t ( ,
1 2,
Cyli nders . G i v en
cu rv e n ot a s tr a igh t l in e a n d
a p l a n e , ,
g h e a ch p o i n t o f t h e c u r v e d r a w a n i n d e fi n it e s tra ight
l i n e p e r p e n d icu l a r to th e p l a n e Th e s u rfa ce g en e r a t e d by .
th e s e l in e s i s c a l l ed a cyl i nd er Th e l in e s a r e i ts r u l i ngs or .
,
e n e r a t or s a n d th e giv e n cu rv e i ts d i r ectr i x
g ,
.
W e s h a l l c on s i d e r h e r e on l y cyl i n d e r s wh ose r u l in g s a r e
p a r a l l e l t o a c o or d in a t e a x i s .
I fth e r u l in g s of a cyl i n d e r a r e p a ra l l el for e x a m p l e t o th e , ,
a x i s of z th e e qu a ti on of th e cy l in d e r d oe s n ot c on ta in z
, .
F or th e d ir e ctri x ca n b e th ou ght of a s l yi n g i n th e (at y)

, ,
l a n e a n d i t s e qu a ti on i n thi s p l a n e wil l r e p r e s en t i n sp a ce
p ,
th e cy l i n d e r i n a s mu ch a s th e p oin t s whos e c oor d in a t es

,
s a ti s fy th e e qu a ti on a r e th o s e p oi n t s a n d onl y th ose p o in t s
which l i e on th e d ir e ctrix or d ir e ctl y a b ov e or b el ow it i e , , . .
which l i e on th e cy l in d e r B u t thi s e qu a ti on d oe s n ot con .
ta i n 2 q e d ,
. . .
C on v e r s el y a cu rv e d s u rfa c e r e p r e sen t ed by a n e qu a ti on i n
,
which z d oe s n ot a p p ea r i s a cy l in d e r wh ose ru l in g s a r e
p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s of z F o r t h e e q u a ti o n. d e fin es i n th e
,
(w , y ) p
-
l a n e a c u rv e a n d i n sp a ce,
it r e p r e se n t s th o s e p o i n t s
a n d onl y th os e p oi n t s which l i e on or d ir e ct l y a b ov e or ,
b el ow thi s cu rv e i e which l i e on th e cy l in d e r e r e cte d on

, ,
. .
th e cu rv e .
W e h a v e th e n th e f ol l owin g th eor e m :
, , A cu rv ed s u rfa ce i s
a cyl i n d er w i th r u li ngs p a r a ll el to a coor d i n a te a wi s wh en a n d
o nly w h en i ts equ a ti on d oes n ot con ta i n th e v a r i a bl e corr esp ond
i ng to th a t a xi s .
Qu a d r i c Cyl i nd er s . A
cyl in d e r wh os e d ir e ctri x i s a c on ic i s
kn own a s a qu a d r i c cyli n d er I n p a rticu l a r it i s ca l l e d ell ip ti c.
,
( o r ci r cu l a r
) yp
h er bol i c or
, p a r a b ol i c a cc o r d i n g a,s th e d ir e ctrix ,
i s a n e l l i p se ( or circl e) a hyp e rb ol a or a p a ra b ol a , , .
S P HE R E S AN D O T HE R SU R FAC E S 5
33
F igu r e 1 S h ow s th e qu a d ric cy l in d e r s of th e thr e e typ es ,
wh ose e qu a ti on s a re
2 2 2 2
x x
1
( ) i i ,
x2 = 2 my .
2
a
Th e tw o hy p e rb ol ic cy l in d e r s r e p r e s en t e d by th e s e c on d
e q ua ti on a r e k n o w n a s co nj u ga te hy p e rb ol ic cy l in d e r s a n d th e ,
p l a n e s
2 2
3; g
.
( )
2 “
0,
S h ow n a l so i n Fi g 1 , as . the ir c omm on a symp toti c p la nes .
Th e e l l i p tic cy l i n d e r , o r e ith e r hy p e rb ol ic cy l i n d e r o fF i g 1 , .
is s y mm e tric in e a ch p oin t of th e a x i s ofz Tha t i s e ve ry .

,
qu a d ric cyl in d e r wh ose d ir e ctrix i s a c en tra l c on ic i s s y mm e tric

i n ea ch p o in t ofth e l i n e d ra wn thr ou gh th e c e n t e r o fth e c on ic
‘
p a r a l l e l t o th e r ul in g s Thi s l in e i s c a l l e d th e a x i s Of th e
.
cyl in d e r .
S ecti on s of Qu a d r i c Cyli n d er s Th e cu r v e i n whi ch a qu a d ric .
cyl in d e r i s m e t by a p l an e , M , whi ch i s n ot p a ra l l el to th e r u l
'
i n g s, w e s hal l c al l a (p l a n e
) s ecti on o fth e cy l in d e r .
TH EOREM 1 . A secti on o f a qu a d r i c cyl i n d e r is a com e o fth e
s a me typ e a s th e d i rectr i x .
W e giv e th e pr oof i n th e ca s e in wh i ch th e d ir e c tr i x , D , i s a
c tr c ic
en al on . Let Mi t r ct
n e se th e p a e X o D i n th e l i n e L
l n f *
.
As c oor d i na te a x es in K ta k e 0 x pa ra l l el to L an d Oy p e rp en
d i cu l a r t o L , h own Th e as s .
e qu a ti on o fD r e f e rr e d t o th e se ,
a x e s i s o f th e f o r m C X
, ( h I I .
,
3)
( )
3 Ax
2
B xy Cy 2
F : 0 ”
.
D ra w i n r e ctan gul a r M th e
a x e s O x 0 y w h os e
,
'
p r oj
'
,
e cti on s
' '
,
on K a r e r e s p e ctiv e l y 0 x Oy ,
.
Le t P ( y)
x
’
b e a n a rbitr a
'
ry,
'
oin t ofM a n d l e t P :x y b e
p ( ) ,
i t s p r oj e cti on on X Th en .
'
( )
4 y y co s 0,
whe r e 0 i s th e a cu t e a n gl e b e tw e en M a n d K .
Si n c e D i s th e cu rv e i n K i n t o which th e s e cti on S of th e , ,
cyl in d e r by M p r oj e ct s th e e qu a ti on of S i s obta in e d fr om
,
e q u a ti on o fD by s u b s tit u ti n g f th i v
( )
3 o r x an d
y i n ( )
3 e r a l u e s
a s giv e n by Thu s th e e qu a ti on ofS i s

5
( ) Ax '2
Bx y c os 0 Cy '2 2
co s / 0 F ’
O .
Thi s e qu a ti on r ep r e sen t s a c on ic a n d fu rth e r m or e a c on ic of , ,
th e s a m e ty p e a s D s in c e th e d i s cri m i n a n t of th e qu a d ra tic
,
te r m s
fi
B co s e — 4 AO — 4 A O)
( 9
2 2
z
co s
2
0 B co s
is of th e sa m e S ign as th e d i s cri m in an t ,
B 2
4 A O, of th e
qu a d ra tic t e r m s i n q e d
5
. . .
I t i s c l ea r th a t ( ) i s in d e p en d e n t ofth e h e ight 00 ’
at which
M cu t s th e a x i s ofth e cy l in d e r I n o th e r w or d s .
,
th e s ecti on s by
tw o p a r a ll el p l a n es a r e congr u en t con i cs .
Su p p o se , n ow , tha t B 2
tha t to F i s giv en i n
4 AO O and
’
tu rn th e va l u e s 1 1 0,
Th en (3) r e p r e sen t s i n t u rn a hy p e r
,
.
I fM i s p ar l l e l t o K th s ti on b y M i c n gr n t t o th d i re ctri
a ,
e ec s o ue e x
i n th i e th e n n o f
s c as , u,
rth r p r o fi r q i r
e d o s e u e .
EX E R C IS ES
1 . Do E x s 9 , 1 0, 1 1 . o fC h . XIX, § 1 .
2 . D o E x s 2 0, 2 1 , 2 2. ofCh . XIX , 1 .
Wh a t d oes ea ch o fth e f ol l owin g e qu a ti on s r ep r e s en t

4 2 — 8x
3 . x + y 2
+4y
4 3x + 6
2
x
5y + 2
.
. x x -
6 . P r ov e
Th eor e m 1 wh en D i s a p a rab ol a .
7 . P r ov e Th e o r e m 3 wh e n D i s a p a ra b ol a .
8 . S ta t e Th e or e m s 2 an d 3 a n d th e ir c on v e r s e s i n t e r m s of
p r o j e cti on s .
9 . Sh o w th a t if a c en tra l c on ic S i n a p l a n e M p r oj e ct s in t o
th e c e n tra l c on ic D i h th e p l a n e K th en th e c en t e r 0 ofS
—
,
'
o th e c e n t e r 0 ofD .
Le t a p l a n e cu rv e
tra ight l in e an d a ,
n ot a s ,
i n th e p l a n e of th e cu rv e b e giv en D ra w an , .
in d efin it e s tr a ight l in e thr ou gh 0 a n d each p oin t of th e c u rv e .
Th e su rfa c e fo r m ed by th ese l in e s i s kn own a s a c on e Th e .
l i n e s a r e i t s r u l i ngs or ge ner a tor s a n d th e p oi n t 0 i s i t s ver tex

, , .
I f th e giv en cu rv e i s a circ l e a n d 0 l i es on th e l in e L
thr ou gh i ts c en t e r p e r p en d icu l a r to i t s p l an e th e c on e ca n b e ,
g en e r a t ed by th e r ot a ti on a b ou t L ofa n y ru l in g Acc or d in gl y .
,
it i s kn own a s a con e ofr evolu ti on or a ci r cu la r con e Th e l in e

'
L i s i t s a x i s a n d th e c on s t a n t a n gl e b e tw e en L a n d a rul in g
i s th e gen er a ti ng a ngl e .
P r obl em . To fin d th e qu a ti on ofa c on e ofr e v ol u ti on wh ose

e
v e rt ex i s a t th e origin ,
wh ose a x i s i s th e a x i s of z a n d wh os e ,
g en era tin g an gl e i s
Le t P : ( y )
x z b e a n y p
,
o in,
t o f t h e c on e o th e r th a n 0 Th e .
ru l in g R on whi ch P l i e s d e t e r m in e s with th e a x i s of z a
p l a n e M which c u t s t h e ( y) p
x l a n e i n a l i n e L ,
D ir e ct th
-
e .
l i n e L a s s h own i n th e figu r e a n d d en ot e th e p r oj e cti on of O P

SP HE R E S AN D O T HE R S U R FAC E S 5
37
on thu s d ir e ct e d by r Th en th e d ir e ct e d l i n e L a nd th e
L, ,
.
a x i s of z f o r m i n th e p l a n e M a sy s t e m o f c oor d i n a t e a x e s
'
with r e sp e ct to which th e p oin t P h a s

th e c ob r d i n a te s
(
r, z
) .
Th e e qu a ti on o f th e ru l i n g R, as a l in e
ofJ”, is
z tan ( p .
S in c e P l ie s on R , i ts c oo r d i n a t e s ( r z ) ,
sa ti s fy thi s e qu a ti on . B u t c l ea r l y
, ,
r =
wh e r e p l u s S ign or th e m inu s S ign i s

th e
to b e ta k en a cc o r d in g a s P l i e s on th e
,
F G I . 3
u p p e r na pp e of th e c on e (a s s h o wn ) or
o n th e l o w e r na p p e C on se qu en tl y th e c oor d i n a t e s
'
.
,
o f P s a ti s fy th e e qu a ti on
*
or
( )
1 x
2
y
2
z
2 2
ta n q) ! 0 .
C on v e r s el y , ry p oin t wh ose c oor d i na t es sa ti s fy thi s e qu a

'
ev e
ti on l i e s on th e c on e for th e s t e p s ca n b e r e tra ce d H en c e
,
.
thi s i s th e e qu a ti on ofth e c on e .
E qu a ti on (1 ) i s
h om og e n eou s i n x y z Thi s i s cha ra ct e ri s tic , ,
.
ofth e e qu a ti on ofa c on e with i t s v e rt e x a t th e o rigin I n fa ct .

,
w e ca n s ta t e th e th e o r e m :A cu r ved s u rf a ce i s a con e w i th i ts
vertex a t th e or i gi n , w h en a nd o nl y w h en i ts equ a ti on i s h omogen eou s

in x, y ,
2 .
B e f or e givin g th e p r oo f we c o nsid e r a ,
pa rticul a r h om o
gen e ou s e qu a ti on
( )
2 4x 2
I fx l , y1 , z1 is a s ol u ti on of thi s e qu a ti on ,
te . . if
( )
3 4 5
131
2
3 y1 2
12 O,
t's
Th e coo rdi n ates ofth e ori gi n or igi nall y ru l ed ou t , ,
cl ea rl y sati sfy th e
e qu a ti on .
lt x l , kyl , kzl , wh e r e k i s a ny c on s ta n t ,
is al so a s ol u ti on . F or ,
th e e q u a ti on
4 (lex 1 ) 2
3 (ky1 ) 2
1 2 (kz1 ) 2
0 or lc (4 x 1
2 2
3 y1 2
12 z1
2
) 0
is tru e in a s m u ch a s th e pa r en th e s i s h a s by
,
th e v a l u e z e r o , .
I t f ol l o w s th a t if P : ( y
x z
, l ) i s a n a rbitr a ry p o i
1,n t n o t1, ,
th e origin on th e su rfa c e r e p r e se n t e d by
,
a n y p oi n t with
co Or d i na te s o f th e fo r m ( h x kyl kz l ) i s a l so on th e su rfa c e ,, , .
B u t th e p oi n t s (lcx Icy] kzl ) wh e r e k i s a n a rbitra ry c on s ta n t

l, , , ,
a r e a l l th e p o in t s of th e l in e OP p a s s i n g thr ou gh th e o rigin
a n d P (E x 6 a t th e e n d o f C h X VI I I
.
) Th a t i s th e l i n e O P . .
,
thr ou gh th e origin l i e s wh ol l y on th e su rfa c e B u t P w a s a n .
a rbitr a ry p o in t on th e s u rfa c e o th e r th a n 0 a n d th e r e f o r e th e
, ,
s u rfa c e i s f o r m e d by l in e s thr ou gh th e o rigi n t e it i s a c on e ,

. .
with i ts v e rt ex a t th e o rigin .
Th e c on e can b e c on s tru ct e d by d ra win g th e cu rv e i n which

it in t e r se ct s a pl an e n ot p a ssin g thr ou gh O a n d by j oin in g O
with th e p oin t s of thi s cu rv e by
s tr a ight l in e s If y 1 i s th e .
p l an e t a k en th e cu rv e of i n ter s e c ,
ti on i s th e el l i p s e
4x + l2 2
x 2 = 3,
FIG . 4 an d thu s th e c on e is as s h own in

Fi g 4 . .
Thi s gg e st s th e f ol l owin g p r oof for th e th eor e m

e x a m p l e su .
An e qu a ti on i n x y z i s h om og en e ou s if a n d o nl y if wh e n
, , ,
ot a l l z e r o i a s ol u ti on h x l k Ioz l wh e r e k i s a n
x 1 y1 z 1
, ,(n ) s yl , , , ,
a rbitr a ry n u m b e r i s a l so a s ol u ti on
,
O n th e o th e r h a n d a .
,
cu rv ed s u rfa c e i s a c on e with i t s v e rt ex a t th e origin if a n d

on l y if wh e n P : ( i i t f h u rfa c e o th e r th an
,
x 1 y1 z l
) s a p o n ,
o t e s,
0 a n a rbitra ry p oin t (h x , Icy] kz l ) of OP i s a l s o a p oi n t ofth e

, , , , ,
s u rfa c e Thu s th e a l g ebra ic c on d iti on tha t a n e qua ti on b e

.
h om og en e ou s i s e qu iva l en t t o th e g e om e trica l c on d iti on tha t a

Th e l ocus of ( )
2 i s t
a c u a ll y a s u rfa ce ( a nd n ot a cu v e or a r p oi n t) ,
si n ce all p ai rs ofval u es ( x, z ) l ead t o p oi n ts on i t .

F i n d th e
qu a ti on s ofth e f ol l o win g c on es
e .
7 Th e c on e o f r e v ol u ti on wh os e v e rt ex i s a t th e o rigin
.
,
wh ose a x i s i s th e ax i s of y a n d wh ose g en era tin g an gl e ,
i s 30
°
8 . Th e c on e of r e v ol u ti on wh o se v e rt ex i s a t (0 ,
O, a ) ,
wh ose i
ax s i s th e a x i s o fz a n d wh ose g e n e r a tin g a n g l e
,
is
Ans . x 2
y
2 —
( z a ) 2
0 .
9 . Th e qu a d ric c on e which rt ex a t th e origin a n d

h a s i ts ve
in t e r se ct s th e p l an e z 1 i n th e el l ip s e wh ose c en t e r i s on th e
z a x i s wh o se tr a n s v e r se a x i s i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s of y a n d
-
, ,
wh os e m a j or a n d m in o r a xes a r e 6 a n d 4 .
10 . Th e qu a d ric c on e which h a s i ts v e rt ex a t (0 1 0) a n d , ,
in t e r s e ct s th e (z x) pl an e i n th e hy p e rb ol a 2 x z = 4
,
-
2 2
.
11 . Th e c on e of r e v ol u ti on which h a s th e l i n e bi se ctin g th e
a n g l e b e tw e e n th e p o s itiv e y a n d z— a x e s a s a x i s a n d which
c on ta in s th e y a n d z ax es -
. An s x 2 2 yz . .
12 . Th e c on e of r e v ol u ti on which h a s th e l in e x y z a s
a x i s a n d p a s se s thr ou gh th e c o or d i n a t e a x e s .
An s . xy yz xx 0 .
Su rfa ces ofR ev ol u ti on cu rv e a n d a l in e L i n

. Le t a p l an e
l an e ofth e c u r v e b e giv en Th e su rfa c e g en e r a t ed by th e

.
cu rv e w h en th e p l a n e i s r ot a t ed a b ou t L thr ou gh 3 6 0 i s kn own °
a s a s urf a ce ofr evol u ti on Th e l in e L i s i ts a x i s

. .
I t i s cl ea r th a t S p h e r e s a r e s u rfa c e s ofr e vol u ti on So al s o a r e .
circu l a r cyl in d e r s an d circu l a r c on e s i n th e on e c a se th e g en e r

a tin g cu r v e i s a l i n e p a r a l l el t o L a n d i n th e oth e r it i s a l in e
, ,
which in t e r se ct s L .
Qu a d r i c S u rfa ces o f R e vol rfa c es obta in ed by

u ti on . Th e su
r ota tin g th e c on ic s ab ou t th e ir a xes t og e th e r with th e s ph e r es ,
a n d th e circ u l a r cy l i n d e r s a n d c on e s a r e kn own a s qu a dr i c ,
f
s u r a ces o f r ev olu ti on .
P r obl em . To fin d th e e qu a ti on of th e el l i p s oi d f
o r evol u ti on
ge n e a er t
d wh en th e el l ip se i n th e (y ) ,
z -
p l a n e ,
wh os e e qu a ti on
SP HE R E S AN D O T HE R SU R F AC E S 5 41
in tha t p l a n e i s
2
z2
i s
is r ota t e d ab ou t c onj u ga t e a x i s th e ax i s ofz

i ts ,
.
Let M b e th e r ota ti n g p l a n e i n a n a rbitr a ry p os iti on , and l et

P : ( y )
x , ,
z b e a n a rbitr a ry p o i n t o n
th e e l l i p s e i n M E s t a b l i s h i n M th e
sa m e s y s t e m of a x e s a s w a s s e t u p i n
th e p l a n e M o f F i g 3 i n fi n d i n g th e .
e qu a ti on ofa c on e of r e v ol u ti on Th e .
e qu a ti on o f th e e l l i p s e i n III r e f e rr e d ,
t o th e s e a x e s i s ,
7
2
.
z
_
2
2
FI G . 5
2
b
S in c e P l i e s on i p se i ts coOr di n a te s (r ; z)
th e el l ,
sa ti s fy t h i s
e qu a ti on . C on s e qu en t l y i n a s m u ch a s ,
2 2
{B y ,
th e c oor d i na t es (x , y, z
) of P sa ti s fy th e e qu a ti on
5
2 2 2
$ y Z
( )
1 1;
a
“
? ; 2
a
an d thi s qu a ti on ofth e e l l ip soi d ofr ev ol u ti on

i s th e e .
I n a s i m i l a r m a nn e r th e e qu a ti on ofth e e l l i p soi d o f r ev ol u
,
ti on obta in ed by r ota tin g th e el l ip s e a b ou t i ts tra n sv e r s e ax i s ,
th e a x i s ofy i s f ou n d t o b e
,
2 ? 2
$ y z
( )
2
b 2
+
d
z
+
b 2
a > b .
Th e fir s t of th e tw o e ll i p s oi d s
r e v ol u ti on (F i g 6 ) i s oft en of .
c a l l ed an obl a te sp h er oi d a n d th e se c on d (F i g 7 a p r ol a te .
sp h er oi d . B o th a p p r oa ch a s th e ir l i m it s th e S p h e r e wh o se ,
c en t e r i s a t th e orig i n a n d wh os e ra d iu s i s a wh e n b i s m a d e ,
to a ppr oa ch a a s i ts l i m it .
Th e h yp er boloi d s ofr evolu ti on g en e ra t e d wh en th e hy p e rb ol a s
5
2 z 2
2 y z
a
2
b 2 5 b ?
s it u a t e d i n th e (y z ) p l a n e a r e r ot a t e d a b ou t th e a x i s ofz
,
-
, , th e
c onj u ga t e a x i s of th e fir s t hy p e rbol a a n d th e tr an s v e r se
, ax s i
o f h
t e se c on d,
— h av e r e sp e ctiv el y th e e qu a ti on s :
FIG . 6 FIG . 7
Th e tw o hy p e rb ol oi d s of e r v ol u ti on a re s h own i n F ig s 8 . an d
9 . Th e fir s t i s kn own as a h yp er bol oi d of o ne s h eet or an
u np a r ted h yp er bol o i d th e c
s e on d , a s a h yp er bol oi d f o
otw s h eets ,
bip a r ted h yp er bol oi d

5
or a .
T a k en t og e th e r th e hy p e rb ol oi d s (4) a n d ( ) a r e kn own a s
,
conj u ga te hy p e rb ol o i d s of r e v ol u ti o n Th ey a r e g en e ra t e d by
.
FI G . 8 FI G . 9
th e c on j u ga t e hype rb ol a s (3 ) r e v ol vin g a b ou t th e sa m e a x i s th e ,
a x i s o fz . Th e c on e which r e su l t s fr om th e r o ta ti on a b ou t thi s
3x — 4 2 — 4 z2 = 12
‘
2
4 8 y
5
. . .
. 9 . 3x 2
6 . 10 .
2
x +y = 8z 2
.
7 . x 2
+y
z — 2 z
2
= 2 . 11 .
2
y + z
2 — 4x
12 . Th e p a
a r bol a of th e t ex t is r ota t ed a b ou t th e ax si
of y . F i n d th e e qu a ti on of th e s u rfa c e g e n e ra t e d an d c on
stru ct it .
13 Th e s u rfa c e g en e ra t e d by th e r ota ti on of a circl e of

.
ra d iu s a a b ou t a l in e L i n th e p l an e of th e circl e a t th e d i s
tan c e b > a fr om i ts c en t e r i s ca l l ed a n a nch or r i n g or toru s , .
F i n d i ts e qu a ti on if L i s th e a x i s o f z a n d th e circl e i s i n th e
,
z p l an e with i t s c en t e r on th e a x i s ofy
( )
y ,
-
.
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R X X II
q
F in d th e
ti h r h vi g i g m t
5
1 . on o f t h e S p ee e ua
a n th e l n e se e n -
j oin in g th e tw o p oin t s (3 2 ( 4 3 ) a s a d iam e t e r , , , , .
F in d th e e qu a ti on of th e s p h e r e wh i ch h a s i t s c en t e r a t
5
2 .
th e p oin t ( 2 3 ) a n d i s t a n g en t t o th e p l a n e
, ,
3 A s p h e r e h a s i t s c en t e r i n th e p l an e x
.
y 3 2: 2 0
a n d p a ss e s thr ou gh th e thr ee p o in t s (2 3 ( 2 1 , , , ,
2 3
,
F in d i t s e qu a ti on
,
.
4 F i n d th e e qu a ti on ofth e s p h e r e which h a s i ts c en t e r on
.
th e l in e 4 x 8 3y 7 4 z a n d p a s se s thr ou gh th e p oin t s
(4 3 (3 2
5A
, , , ,
. sp he re is t a n g en t t o th e p l a n e x 2y 2 z 7 i n th e
p o ni t (3 ,
1, 1) and g oe s thr ou gh in t (1 1 th e p o , ,
F in d i ts qu a ti on
e . An s x .
y
é 2
z 10y 10 z 31 2
0 .
Th e r e a r e S p h e r e s p a ss i n g thr ou gh th e p oin t s
5 5
6 . tw o
( 4 ,
0 , ( ( ,
4, ,
1, 3 ) a n d h a vi n g th e ra d iu s 3 F i n d th e ir .
e qu a ti on s .
I x
2
+ y +
2
z 2
6x — 4y — 2 z +
A713 — s — z z j— =o
.
y i g -
.
SP HE R E S AN D O T HE R SU R FAC E S 55 4
7 . F i n d th e qu a ti on s of th e
e Sp h e r es which a r e t an g en t to
th e p l a n e x 2y 2z 12 0 a n d p a s s thr ou gh th e thr e e
p o i n t s (3 ,
2, 2
( , 3, 1
( , ,
3
F in d th e qu a ti on s h e r es which ta n g en t
5
8 . e of th e sp a re
t o th e p l a n e s 2 x 6 x + 3y — 2 z + = 0 an d
h a v e th e ir c e n te r s on th e l in e 1 — x
9 F in d th e e qu a ti on of th e S p h e r e in s crib e d i n th e t e tr a
.
h e d r on f o r m e d by th e p l a n e 2 x 2y z 4 0 a n d th e
c oor d in a t e p l a n e s .
10 A sp h e r e g oes thr ou g
. h th e p oin t (4 6 3 ) a n d m e e t s th e , ,
( circ wh c t r t )
5
x y
, ) p l a n e i n
-
a l e o s e e n e i s a t th e p oi n
( 1 2 0 , ,
a n d wh ose r a d i u s i s F i n d i t s e qu a ti on . .
An s . x 2
+y +
2
z
2 — 2 x 4y — 3z
11 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on s ofth e ta n g en t l in e t o th e circ l e
x 2
+y + 2
z
2
3x
at th e p o i n t 1
( , — 2
,
12. D o e s th e l in e 2 x — z i n te r se ct th e S p h e r e
x2 2 2 — 6x + 8y
+y + z
13 . Sh o w tha t th e ra d ica l p l an es of thr ee sp he re s ,

ta k en i n
p a i r s fip “
ass thr ou gh a l i n e or a r e p a ra l l el .
O R THO G ON A L I TY T
14 . P r ov e tha t th e p l a n e x y z 1 0 i n t e r s e ct s th e
sp her e o fE x 1 2 orth og on a l l y
5Wh
. .
1 . en d o e s th e p l a n e ax by cz d O in t e r se ct th e
sp h er e
o rth og on a l l y
An s . Wh en a n d onl y wh en d A bB cO 2 d .
It i s as s u m e d th t n o tw o of th e th re e s p h e es r tri c ; cf
5
at c on ce n
a ar e .
foo tnote , p . 30 .
1 C f E xs 1 8 —2 6
. . at th e e n d ofO h . IV .
16 . Sh o w
tha t th e l in e 3 x 8 6y 7 2 7. 13 in t e r
se ct s th e S p h e r e of E x 1 2 o rth og on a l l y . .
17 F i n d th e c on d iti on th a t th e l in e
.
in t e r s e ct th e s p h e r e ofE x 1 o rth og on a l l y 5
5
. .
18 . F i n d th e a n gl e of i n t e r s e cti on of th e Sp h e r e s (2 ) of .
19 . P r ov e th a t th e tw o S p h e r e s
2 2 2 2 2 2
x + y + z x +y + z
i n t e r s e ct orth og on al l y
5
.
20 . When d oe s th e S p h e r e o fE x . 1 i t r n e se ct th e Sp her e
orth og on a l l y
An s Wh e n a n d on l y wh en AA
. BB CC 2 D +2 D ' ' ' ’
.
21 F in d th e e qu a ti on ofth e s p h e r e c on ta i n i n g th e circ l e of
.
E x 1 1 a n d i n t e r se cti n g orth og on a l l y th e fir s t of th e sp h e r es
.
ofE x . 19 .
LO C I
22 . Do E x 1 . of C h . V, 1, wh en P is n ot r e s trict ed to l i e
in a p l a n e .
23 . Th e sa m e for E x 4 . o fC h . V, 1 .
24 . A p oi n t P m ov e s
tha t th e ra ti o of i ts d i s t an c e s fr om
so
tw o fi x e d p o in t s i s c on s t an t F i n d i t s l o cu s
2 5A p o in t P m ov e s s o th a t i t s d i s ta n c e fr om a giv e n p l a n e
. .
M i s p r op o rti on a l to th e s qu a r e ofi ts d i s tanc e to a giv en p oin t

P 0 n ot i n M
,
I fP r e m a in s a l wa y s on th e sa m e s i d e of M a s
P0 fi ,
n d i t s l o cu s .
26 .I f i n th e p r e c e d in g ex e rci se P 0 l i e s i n M a n d P m a y b e
, ,
on e ith e r S i d e ofM wh a t i s th e l o c u s ofP ?
27 Wha t i s th e l o cu s of a p oi n t which m ov es s o tha t i ts

.
"
d i s ta n c e fr o m a gi v e n l i n e i s p r op o rti ona l to i ts d i s ta n c e fr om
a gi v e n p l a n e p e r p e n d icu l a r t o th e l in e
C HAP TE R XX I I I
QUADR I C SUR F ACE S
Th e Elli psoi d . A qu a d r i c f
s u r a ce is a ny su r a ce f d efi ned
equ a ti on o fth e secon d d egr ee i n x, y, z . Th e sp her e an d
th e qu ad ric cyl in d e r s c on es an d su rfa c e s ofr ev ol u ti on s tu d i ed

,
i n th e p r e vi ou s ch ap t e r a r e s p e ci a l ty p es of qu a d ric su rfa c e s .
W e p r oc e e d to c on s i d er m or e g e n e r a l ty p es .
Th e su rfa c e d efin ed by th e e qu a ti on
( )
1
2;
W
2
i s kn own a s an el l ip s oi d . I f tw o of thr ee nu mb er s a b c
th e , ,
a r e e qu a l it i s i n p a rtic ul a r an el l i p
,
soi d of r e v ol u ti on C h XX
( I I .
,
To c on s tru ct th e su rfa c e i n th e g en e ra l
ca se wh en n o tw o of th e thr ee nu m b e r s
a, b c a r e e qu a l p l ot fir s t th e secti on s
, ,
by th e c oor d ina t e p l a n e s th a t i s th e , ,
cu rv e s of in t e r s e cti on with th e p l a n e s
Fm . 1
x = 0 , y : 0 z ,
0 Th ese
. a r e r es p ec ,
ti v e l y th e e l l i p ses
,
2 2 2
(132
?
z z x y _ 1
2 2
b O 2
a
2
c a
2
b2
Th e p a rt s of th ese e l l i p se s which l i e i n th e qu a rt e r pl an e s -
b ou n d in g th e fir s t o cta n t c onn e ct th e p oin t s (a 0 ( 0 b , , , ,
( 0
,
0,
c) ,
a s s h ow n .
Th e se cti on of (1 ) by a p l a n e z = k p a ra l l e l to th e (x y) ,
p l a n e h a s t h e e q u a ti on s
Q U AD R I C SU R FAC E S 5 49
2 2
x y
2
a b
I f It ?
th ese e qu a ti on s r e p r e sen t i n th e pl a n e 2:
0 2
, ,
e l l i p se wh o s e c e n t e r i s on th e a x i s o f z a n d wh ose a x e s
th e (z x ) a n d (y z) p l a n e s a n d h a v e th e l en gth s
, ,
-
As It in cr ea s e s fr om 0 t owa r d 0 a s i ts l i m it thi s e l l i p s e ri sin g , ,
fr om th e se cti on by th e (x y) p l an e gr ow s c on t i nu ou sl y ,
-
s m a l l e r a n d s hrin k s fi n a l l y to a i t — th e i t 0 0
p o n p o n ( , , ,
Si m il a rl y if It d e cr ea se s fr om 0 t owa r d
, c a s i t s l i m it .
Th e su rfa c e g e n e ra t e d by th e
chan gin g el l ip se i s th e el l i p s oi d .
Fi g . 2 ( or Fi g . 6 of Ch . XX I I
sh ow s it i n i ts en tir e ty Th e su r .
fa c e i s e vi d en tl y s y m m e tric i n th e
o rigi n 0 a n d i n th e coOr d i n a t e
, ,
ax e s an d co Or di na t e p l a n e s . O is
ca l l e d th e cen ter o f th e el l i p s oi d
th e Coo d r in a t e a x e s th e a x es ofth e ,
e l l i p soi d a n d th e c oor d in a t e p l a n e s th e p r i n cip a l p l a n es o fth e ,
e l l i p s oi d Th e se cti on s by th e p rin ci p a l p l a n e s are kn own a s

.
th e p r i n cip a l s ecti on s .
Th e d i m en s i on s of th e i p s oi d
el l ,
m ea su r e d g th e a x e s
a l on ,
Th es e n u m b er s i n or d e r of th e ir m a g ni
'
ar e 2 a , 2 b, 2 c .
, th e
tud e, are k n o wn as th e m aj or a x i s, mea n a xi s , a n d mi n or a xi s
ofth e e l l i p s oi d .
H e re , thr ou gh ou t th e chap t e r w e Sp ea k of a (pl an e)

an d ,
s ecti on ofa su rfa c e on l y wh e n th e p l a n e i n q u e s ti on m e e t s th e
su rfa c e i n a cu r v ed l in e Se cti on s by p a r a l l e l p l a n e s w e s h a l l
.
ca l l p a r a l l el s ecti on s .
F i gs 6 —1 0 f C h X X II d rawn ori gi n a ll y t o r p r s e nt q a d ri s ur
. o .
,
e e u c
face oi revol ti n p i ct re q u a ll y wel l th e corres p n d i ng ge n e ra l q ad

s u o ,
u e o u
i s rfa ces st d i ed i n th i s ch apte r

r c u u O n e h as m erel y t o i m agi n e th at a .
di ffere nt r ati o off oresh ort e ni ng a l on g th e a i s ofx h as b e e n ch os e n x .

5
EX E R C IS ES
C on s tru ct th e f ol l owin g
ip s oid s d ra win g a ccu ra t el y th e
el l ,
p ri n ci p a l s e cti on s a n d th e s e cti on s p a r a l l e l to on e p ri n ci p a l
p l a n e . Wh a t a r e th e l en gth s ofth e a x e s
2 2 2
z
—
+ 2 .
3 . D i s c u s s th e g en e ra ti on of th e el l i p soi d (1 ) by se ction s
p a r a l l e l t o t h e
( )p
z x ,
l a n -
e .
4 . P r ov e th a t th e se cti on s of th e el l i p soi d which a r e

t o a p ri n ci p a l p l an e ,
e .
g t h e .
( x, y) p l
-
a n e ,
a r e s i m il a r
i l a r l y p l a c e d el l i p ses of .
p 2 6
. 0 .
Th e Hyperb ol oi d s Th e Hyp er bol oi d of On e S h eet

. . Th e
a ce r e pr esen t e d by th e e qu a ti on
2 2 2
x y z
_
+
M D §
ca l l ed a h yp er bol oi d on e s h eet o r a n u np a r ted h yp er bol oi d .
I fa b, it i s i n p a rticu l a r a hy p e r ‘
b ol oi d of r e v ol u ti on of on e sh e e t
( C h X X I.I ,
g en e ra l ca se a ¢ b th e
I n th e , ,
s u rfa c e ca n b e c on s tr u ct e d by th e
m e th od of 1 Th e se cti on s by .
th e v e rtica l c oord in a te p l an e s ,
and y = 0 a r e th e hy p e r ,
b ol a s
z 2 2 2
2 (13 z
2 y
FI G . 3 ( ) “
2
0 2
Th e cti on s by th e p l an e s z : k a r e el l ip se s Th e s m a l l est
se .
on e i s th e s e cti on by z = O th e p l a n e ; it i s kn o w n a s -
th e m i n i m um el l ip s e Th e g en e ra l on e in cr ea se s i n s i z e a s i t s
.
d i s ta n c e fr om th e (x y) p l a n e i n cr ea s e s
,
-
Th e su rfa c e can b e .
th ou ght ofa s g en e r a t ed by it ; of F i g 8 Ch XX I I . .
,
. .
5
whose e qu a ti on s a r e ob ta in ed by e l i m in a t i n g y fr om (4 ) a n d
a n d fr om (4 ) a n d B u t th e s e cy l in d e r s a r e c on j u ga t e
hyp e rb ol ic cy l ind e r s wh os e c om m on a sy m pt otic p l an e s a r e
2 2
2 2
b 0
C on se qu e n tl y , by Ch XX I I . 6 Th 2 th e ir s e cti on s by th e
, ,
.
,
c on j u ga t e hy p e rb ol a s wh ose c om m on a sy m p t ot e s
( )
5
p l a n e 4 are ,
d efi n e d by e qu a ti on s (4 ) a n d ) p a s s thr ou gh
th e o rigin q e d ,
. . .
Th e e qu a ti on of th e l ocu s of th es e a sy m
p t ot e s a s th e
, p l a n e ( )
4 r o t a t e s a b ou t t h e a x i s
of z i s obt a i n e d by e l i m in a tin g m
, ( n ow a n
au x il i a ry v a ri a b l e e x p r e s s in g th e m oti on of .
th e p l an e) fr om e qu a ti on s (4 ) a n d Th e
r e su l t is
£1 5+ 2 2 2
%
z
( )
6
a
z z
0
2
Th e
F G 5
l ocu s th e r e f or e a
of th e as y m p t ot e s i s, ,
I .
c on e wh ose v e rt ex i s a t th e o rigin Thi s .
c on e i s ca l l ed th e a symp toti c con e of ea ch of th e hy p e rb ol oid s

vi e n tl y (1 l i e s wh ol l y with ou t th e c on e th a t
( )
1 a n d E d ) ,
i s on th e c on v ex s i d e of it whil e (3) l i e s wh ol l y withi n it

, ,
.
EX E R C IS ES
C on s tru ct th e fol l owin g hy p e rb ol oi d s d ra win g a cc u ra t el y ,
th e p ri n ci p a l s e cti on s which e x i s t a n d th e s e cti on s p a r a l l el t o
on e p r n i ci pal p l an e .
5 5
z
‘
z ?
$2 z
f
i y z y z
2 2
3 . 9 x
2
4 .
— 9 z
2 = 36 .
5Wh . t i s th e e qu a ti on ofth e hyp e rb ol oid c on j u ga t e to th e

a
hy p e rb ol oi d ofE x 3 of E x 4 G iv e a l s o i n e a ch ca se th e
. .
e qu a ti on ofth e c om mon a sy m p t otic c on e .

QU AD R I C S U R FA C E S 5
5 3
6 . Sh o w tha t
cti on s of th e hy p e rb ol oid of tw o sh e e t s
th e se
which a r e p a ra l l el to a v e rtical p rin ci pa l p l an e a r e s i mil a r ,
an d S i m il a r l y l a c e d hy rb l
p p e o a s .
7 Th e se cti on s ofth e hy p e rb ol oi d of on e Sh e e t ( 1 ) by tw o
.
p l a n e s p a r a l l e l t o a v e rtic a l p ri n ci a l l n i m i l r and
p p a e a r e s a
s i m i l a rl y l a c e d hy e rb l e hy p e rb ol a s e a ch of which
p p o a s o r a r ,
i s s i m i l a r a n d s i m il a r l y p l a c e d t o th e c on j u g a t e of th e o th e r .
P r ov e thi s th eor em a n d d e t e r m in e wh en e a ch of th e tw o c a s es
o cc u r s .
h e P ar ab ol oi ds . The E l l ip t i c P a r a bol oi d . Th e su rfa c e

ed by th e e qu a ti on
is ca l l ed an ellip ti c p a r a bol oi d I fa . b, it i s in p a rtic ul a r a
p a r a b o l o i d of r e v ol u ti on
( C h XX I I .
,
I n th e g en e ra l c a se a i b th e , ,
s e cti on s o f th e s u rfa c e by th e v e r ti
ca l c oor d in a t e p l an e s y O an d ,
x O a r e th e p a r ab ol a s
,
x 2 2 a z,
z
y
2
2b 2
z,
b oth which op en u p wa r d s Th e
of .
( y)
x ,
p l a
-
n e i n t e r se ct s th e s u rfa c e
onl y i n th e o rig i n A p l an e p a r a l l el
.
to th e (x y) p l a n e a n d b e l ow it d oes
,
-
n ot m ee t th e su rfa c e whi l e a p l a n e ,
p a r a l l e l t o t h e ( y) p
x l a n e a
,
n d -
FI G . 6
a b ov e it in t e r se ct s th e su rfa c e i n
a n e l l i p se which in cr ea ses i n S iz e a s
,
th e h e ight of th e p l an e
in cr ea se s ; cf F i g 1 0 Ch XX I I . .
,
. .
Th e Hyp er bol i c P ara boloi d . Thi s i s th e su rfa c e d efi n e d by

th e e qu a ti on
( )
2
5
It is ne ver a su rfa c e of r e v ol u ti on ,
no m a tt e r wha t va l u es ar e
a ss ign ed to a an d b .
Th e se cti on s ofth e su rfa c e by th e v e rtica l c oor d in a t e p l a n e s
a re th e p a r a b ol a s
‘
x
2
2 a z,
2
y
2
2b 2
z,
which fir s t o p en s u
p w a r d s a n d th e se c on d d o wn w a r ds , .
Th e s e c ti on by th e (x y} p l a n e ,
c on si st s ofth e t w o l in es ,
90
0A 1
4 2 -
0,
a b
a b
A se cti on
b ov e p a a l r
l el to an d a
th e (x y) p l a n e i s a hy p e rb ol a ,
-
F G 7 I .
wh os e v e rtic e s a r e on th e p a r a b ol a
O p en in g u p wa r d s wh e r ea s a se c
,
,
ti on p a ral l el to an d b el ow th e (x y) p l an e i s a hy p e rb ol a ,
-
wh ose v e rtic e s a r e on th e p a r ab ol a O p en in g d ow n wa r d s I t i s .
s ee n th e n th a t th e su rfa c e i s sa ddl e s h a p e d ; it ri s e s a l on g th e
, ,
-
p a r a b ol a which o p e n s u p w a r d s a n d f a l l s a l on g th e
p a r
, a b o l a
which O p en s d own wa r d s Th e (z x) p l an e c on ta in s th e p om m el
.
,
-
and th e (y ,
z
) -
p l a n e ,
th e
stirru p s .
Th e su rfa c e can b est

b e p l ott ed by d r a wi n g
th e se cti on s p a r a l l e l to a
v e rtica l c oor d in a t e p l an e ,
for ex a m pl e , th e (y ,
z
)
p l a n e . Th e s e s e ction s
are al l
p a r a b o l a s o p e n in g F 8 IG
d own wa r d s a n d h av in g
.
th e ir v e rtic e s on th e p a rab ol a i n th e (z x) p l an e F igu r e ,

-
. 8
s h ow s a rt of t h e s u rfa c e c on s tr u ct e d by m ea n s of th e m
p .
Ver tex , Axi s, P r i n cip a l P l a nes . E a ch p a ra b ol oi d i s s y m

m e tric i n on l y on e l i n e , th e i
ax s of z , a n d i n on l y tw o p l an e s,
5
th en th e c
se ond fa ct or on th e right e qu a l to n ti m e s th e se c
on d fa ct o r on th e l e ft .
Th e se e q u a ti on s r e p r e s en t a on e pa ra m e t e r fa mil y of l in e s -
ea ch l in e b e i n g giv e n by a p a rtic u l a r v a l u e o fth e p a r a m e t e r u .
Al l th e l in e s l i e on th e su rfa c e F or if P i s a n a rbitra ry ,
p o i n t Of th e l i n e u n o t h e c o or d in a t e,
s
( y )
x z o f P sa ti s fy , ,
e qu a ti on s UI f or n no ; h e n c e th e y a l so sa ti s fy e qu a ti on
s i n c e if n
, no i s e l i m i n a t e d fr o m e q u a ti on s UI by m u l ti p l yi n g
th e m t og e th e r S id e for s i d e th e r e sul t i s p r e ci sel y e qu a ti on

, ,
Th e r e wil l b e j u s t on e l in e UI thr ou gh a n a rbitra ry p oin t

x0 yo zo) o fth e su rfa c e ( 1 if h e e qu a ti on s
( , , ) t
yo zo 930
(a
ha v e a u n iqu e s i m u l t an e ou s sol u ti on for a Let u s s ee wh en . -
thi s i s th e c a se .
I f 1 + x o/ a ¢ 0 th e fir s t e qu a ti on d e t e r m in es u u n iqu e l y
, ,
a n d th e v a l u e Obt a i n e d i s s ee n t o sa ti s fy th e s e c on d s in c e , ,
wh en it i s s u b s titu t e d i n th e se c on d thi s e qu a ti on t ak es on ,
th e f orm (2 ) for (x y z ) ( y
x0 o ,
z o) ,
I n thi s ca s e, th e
,
n .
, ,
th e r e i s j u st on e l i n e U thr ou gh (x0 yo zo) I , ,

.
I f1 /
xo a 0 b ut
yo / b x
, o/c 0 it f ol l o w s fr o m ( )
2 th a t,
yo/ b z o/ e 0 Th e n t h
. e fir s t e q u a ti on o f ( )
3 i s s a ti s fi e d n o ,
m a tt e r wh a t v a l u e i t h a s Th e s e c on d e qu a ti on d e t e r m i n e s
.
u u n iq u e l y a n d S O i n thi s c a s e t oo th e r e i s j u s t on e l i n e UI
, , ,
thr ou gh (930 y zol , o, °
F in a l l y if 1
, /
xo a O a n d yo b
/ /
zo c O a t l ea s t on e of ,
th e e qu a ti on s ( 3 ) i s c on tra di ct o ry a n d th e r e i s n o l in e U I
thr ou gh (x0 yo zo) I t i s h ow e v e r n a tu ra l to su p p l e m en t th e

, ,
.
, ,
l in e s U by th e l i n e
I
3] 2
b c
for , if w e d ivi d e ea ch of th e e q u a ti on s UI by n a n d th en all ow

i t t o b e c om e in fin it e t h e l in e Ul a
pp r oa
,
ch e s U a s i t s l i m it 0 .
W e ha v e p r ov e d th e n th a t th e l in e s U c on s i s tin g of th e
, ,
fa m i l y of l in e s UI an d th e l in e U0 fil l ou t th e su rfa c e j u st
QUAD R I C S U R F A C E S 5
5 7
on ce Th e y for m wha t i s ca l l ed a
. s et o f r e ct i l i n ea r gen er a to r s
or r u l i ngs Of th e su rfa c e .
Th e r e i s a se c ond s et of r u l in g s , V, c on s i stin g o f th e fa m i l y
ofl i n es
Vi i
l
“
— 3 v 1 +
b c
5
an d th e l i n e
y
+ g = o, £ 1
b c a
It i s r ea d il y
tha t thi s s e t h a s th e sa m e p r op e rti es
s e en as th e
se t U H e n c e w e h a v e th e th e o r e m
.
THEOREM 1 A h yp er boloi d Of on e s h eet con ta i n s tw o

. s ets o f
r u l i n gs . Thr ough ea ch p oi n t o f th e f
s u r a ce p a ss es on e r u l i ng of
e a ch s et .
It i sc on c e iv ab l e tha t th e rul in g U a n d th e rul in g t ich

thr gh h m i t c i ci Thi c
5
g o o u t e s a e p o n o n d e s i s n o t t h e a s e .
,
h ow e v e r a s wi l l a p p ea r l a t e r
,
cf Th e or e m . .
Th e l i n e s thr ou gh th e origi n pa ra ll el to th e l in e s U h a v e th e
e qu a ti on s
— = u
Th ei r l ocu s , obt a in e d by el i m in a tin g u, i s th e as y m p t otic c on e

2 2 ?
it y— z
+
a 2
b2
0
2
M or e ov e r , th e l in e s fil l
c on e j u s t on c e a s ca n b e Sh ow n
ou t th e ,
by th e m e th od u s e d i n p r ovin g Th e o r e m 1 .
S i m i l a r l y th e l i n e s thr ou gh th e o rigi n p a ra l l e l t o th e l in e s
,
V i e th e l i n e s
,
. .
it
It i s n ot ficu l
di f tt o gi ve a d i r e ct p roof ofth e fa c t at th i s p oi nt .
5
l fill ou t th e a s y m p t otic c on e j u s t on c e C on s e qu en t l y w e
a so .
,
ha v e pr ov e d th e th e or e m
THEOREM 2 Th e l i nes wh i ch p a ss th r o ugh th e cen ter of a
.
h yp er bol o i d o f one sh eet a nd a r e p a r a ll el to th e r u l i ngs U ( or V)

a re p r eci s ely th e el e men ts ofth e a symp toti c con e . In oth er w or d s ,
th er e i s o n e a nd on l y on e r u li ng o f ea ch s et wh i ch i s p a r a l l el to a
gi v en e le men t ofth e con e, a nd conv ersely .
F r om thi s th e or em w e ca n d ra w th e fol l owin g c on cl u s i on s .
THEOREM 3 N o th r ee r u l i ngs ofone s et a r e p a r a l lel to a p l a n e

. .
F o r o th e rwi se th e r e w oul d b e thr ee e l e me n t s of th e c on e
l yi n g i n a p l an e an d thi s i s i m p os s ibl e
,
.
THEOREM 4 Two r u li ngs of one s et n ei th er i nter s ect n or a r e

.
p a ra ll el ; th a t i s , th ey a r e n e ver cop l a n a r .
F or , th ey a r e n ot rp a a l l e l , s n i c e n o tw o el e m en t s ofth e c on e
a re p a arl l e l ; and the y d o n ot i n t e r s e ct s i n c e o th e rwi s e th e r e
,
wou l d b e a p oin t on th e s u rf a c e thr ou gh which p a ss t w o r u l

,
in g s ofth e sam e set

5
.
THEOREM Two r ul i ngs of d i fi

. eren t s ets e i th er i n ter s ect or
a r e p a ra l l el ; th a t i s , th ey a r e a l wa ys cop l a n a r .
F or , fir s t th e ru l in g s of th e tw o s e t s a r e p a r all el i n p a ir s
, ,
S in c e th e r e i s j u s t On e r u l i n g o f e a ch s e t which i s r l l l
5
p a a e t o
'
a gi v en e l e m e n t of th e c on e F r om e qu a ti on s (4 ) a n d ( ) it .
a p p e a r s tha t u ( t r m i ir Of
u 0 q& O a n d v
) v 0 ( ¢ 0 ) d e e n e a p a
p a r a l l e l r u l i n g s if a n d onl y if 1 u v
o o O a n d th a t th e r u l i n g ,
u 0 i s p a ra l l e l to VO a n d th e r ul in g v O to U
, 0 .
S e c on d l y t w o n on p a ra l l e l r u l i n g s ofd iff
,
-
e r e n t s e t s i n t e r se ct
i n j u s t on e p o i n t F or i t i s ea s i l y s h ow n tha t th e f ou r e q u a
.
,
ti on s U an d V which d efi n e i n p a ir s tw o ru l in g s which a r e
I
”6
,
n ot p a r a l l e l i e f ,
o r which 1
. . u v at:0 ha v e on e a n d j u st on e ,
'
s i mu l t a n eou s s ol u ti on f or x y z n a m e l y , , , ,
1 + —
'
uv u v u v
=
-
x a ’ ’
C ’
1 + uv ¢O .
1 + uv 1 + uv I I - -
uv
fi
le Th e r
p oof i n th e s p e c i al c as es , in wh i ch U0 or V0 or t
bo h are in
v
vol e d , i s l eft t o t h e s t u d en t .
5
Th er e is j u s t on e r u l i n g o f ea ch set th r ou gh e a ch p oi n t o f th e
s u r a ce, f for th e p l a n e s p a r a l l e l to ( in c l u d in g
an d
) a d ir e ctrix
p l a n e e x h a u s t a l l p oi n t s of S p a c e j u s t on c e a n d h en c e th e ir
,
l in e s i t r cti on with th e
of n e s e su rfa c e e x h a u s t a l l p oi n t s of th e
su rfa c e j u s t on c e .
I t i s ea s i l y S h own th a t th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s Of a
ru l ing U a re a b u a n d tha t th os e Of a r u l i n g V a r e a
, , , ,
b v ,
S i n c e th e tw o tri p l e s a r e n e v e r p r op orti on a l tw o ru l in g s
.
,
of d i f fe r en t s e t s a r e n e v e r p a ra l l e l or c oin ci d en t I n p a r ti cu .
l a r th e tw o r u l in g s which p a s s thr ou gh on e an d th e s a m e p oi n t
,
Of th e su rfa c e a r e d i s tin ct .
Th e f ol l owin g th e or e m s a r e n ow e a s il y p r ov e d .
THEOREM 6 . Th r ee r u l i n gs o f on e s et a r e a lw a ys p a r a l lel to
a .
p la n e .
F or , al l th e ru l in g s ofa s e t a r e p a r
a l l e l to a d ir e ctri x p l a n e .
THEOREM 7 Two r u l i ngs ofon e s et a r e n ever cop l a n a r

. .
F or th e y d o n ot m ee t s in c e th e y l i e i n p a ra l l e l p l a n e s a n d
, ,
th e y a r e n ot p a r a ll el a s in sp e cti on ofth e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s

,
j u st foun d sh ow s .
THEOREM 8 Tw o r u l i ngs ofd ifieren t s ets a lwa ys i nter sect

. .
F or th e ir p r oj e cti on s on th e (x y) p l a n e b e i n g l in e s i n th e
, ,
-
d ir e cti on of 0 A a n d OB r e s p e ctiv e l y in t e r s e ct i n a p o in t M ,
N ow th e r e i s b u t on e p oi n t P on th e su rfa c e which p r oj e ct s
.
, ,
in t o Ill s in c e a l i n e p e r p en d icu l a r to th e (x y) p l an e m ee t s th e
, ,
-
su rfa c e j u s t on c e C on s e qu en tl y th e t w o r u l in g s i n qu e s ti on
.
,
i n t e r se ct a t thi s p oin t P .
Th e c oord in a t e s of P fou n d b y s ol vin g th e fou r e qu a ti on s

' '
U a n d V s i mu l t a n e ou sl y for x y z a r e , , ,
x = a
Th ese e qu a ti on s c on s titu t e a p a r a me tr i c r ep r es enta ti on '
of th e
su rfa c e i n t e r m s o fth e p a r a m e t e r s u a n d v ; th e r e
(7 are no
e x c e p ti on a l p oi n t s .
Q U AD R I C SU R F A C E S 5 61
EX E R C IS ES
qu a ti on s ofth e r u l in g s whi ch p a s s thr ou gh

F i n d th e
5
1 . e th e
p o i n t ( 3 2 , ) o ft h e hy p e rb ol o i d of on e S h e e t o fE x 1
,
2 .
, .
2 Th e sa m e for th e hy p e rb ol ic p a ra b ol oi d ofE x 2
. 3 .
, ,
th e
p o i n t o n t h e su rfa c e b e in g
( 9 2
5
, ,
E xer c ses 3
i — c on s i d e r a ti on s ofsy mmetry i n th e p r oof s
. U se .
3 Th e tw o ru l in g s thr ou gh a p oin t P on a p rin ci p a l s e cti on

.
o fa hy p e rb ol o i d o f on e S h ee t a r e e q u a l l y i n c l i n e d t o th e p l a n e
o f th e s e cti on a n d l i e i n a p l a n e M which i s p e r p e n d icu l a r t o
th e p l a n e ofth e se cti on .
4 Th e sa m e for a hy p e rb ol ic p a ra b ol oi d
5I f P an d P ar e p oi n t s of a hyp erbol oid of on e shee t
. .
’
.
which a r e s y m m e tric i n th e c en t e r th e r u l in g s thr ou gh P a r e ,
p a r a l l e l t o th o s e thr ou gh P
’
.
Assu m in g
Th 1 7 p r ov e tha t th e p l a n e M of E x 3
°
6 . .
, , .
p a s s es thr ou gh th e t an g en t l i n e a t P to th e
p rin ci p a l s e c ti on .
H en c e s h ow th a t th e p r oj e cti on s of th e r u l in g s of e ith e r s e t
on a p r n ci p a l p l a n e a r e th e t an g e n t s t o th e p rin ci p a l s e cti on
i
i n th a t p l a n e .
7 Th e sa m e for a hy p e rb ol ic p a rab ol o i d a ppl yin g th e r e

.
,
s ul ts o fE x . 4 .
8 . P r ov e
th a t th e p l an e d e t e r m in e d by tw o p a ra l l el r u l in g s
ofa hy p e rb ol oi d of on e s h ee t i s t a n g e n t t o th e a s y m p t otic c on e
a l on g th e e l e m e n t which i s p a r a l l e l t o th e t w o r u l i n g s .
P r ov e th a t th e r e a r e n o s tra ight l i n e s on (a ) a n e l l i p s oi d ;
a hy p e rb ol o i d o ft w o S h e e t s c a n e l l i p tic p a r a b ol o i d
()
( )
b .
5 . Par all el Secti ons . E qu a ti on s and Of a
hyp e rb ol oi d ofon e Sh e e t H 1 of th e c on j u ga t e hy p e rb ol oi d
, ,
of
tw o sh ee t s H 2 a n d Of th e c omm on a sy m p t otic c on e 0 ca n
, , , ,
be
writt en a s th e on e e qu a ti on
wh e r e A i s given th e va l u e s 1 1 a n d O i n t u rn Th e thr e e
, , .
s u rfa c e s ca n th u s b e c on s i d e r e d s i m u l ta n e ou sl y .
W e p r op os e t o d e t e r m i n e th e s e cti on s of th e su rfa c e s (1 ) by
a n a rbitr a ry p l a n e ,
( )
2
At l ea s t on e o fc oeffici en t s A B C i s n ot z e r o As su m e
th e , , .
tha t 0 0 Then th e se cti on s i n qu e s tion a r e a l s o th e cu rv e s

.
i n which th e p l a n e (2 ) m ee t s th e cyl in d e r s wh os e e q u a ti on s
r e sul t fr om th e el i m in a ti on of z fr om e qu a ti on s (1 ) a nd
n a m e l y th e cy li n d e r s
,
( )
3
C on s i d e ri n g th e cti on s fr om thi s
se p o n i t of vie w ,
we c on cl u d e
th e f ol l owi n g th e or e m s .
THEOREM 1 . Th e s ecti on ofa h yp er bol oi d or a con e is a con i c .
F or , th e cyl in d e r s (3 ) a r e qua d ric cyl in d e r s , an d a se cti on

ofa qu a d ric cy l in d e r i s a c oni c ; cf Ch X X I I . .
,
6, Th . 1 .
THEOREM 2 . Two p a r a l l el s ecti on s o f a h yp er boloi d or a con e
a r e co n i cs o th
f e sa me typ e . Th ey a r e, m or eover , si m i la r a nd
si mi l a r ly p la ced , or , i n th e ca s e o f tw o h yp er bol a s , ea ch is si mi l a r
a n d s i mi la r ly p l a ced ei th er to th e oth er or to th e conj u ga te o f th e
oth er .
To p r ov e thi s th e or e m fix , tt en tion on on e of th e
we ou r a
s u rfa c e s sa y th e hy p e rb ol oi d
H 1 a n d giv e t o 70 t w o a rbi ,
t r a r i l y ch os en v a l u es kl a n d 702 thu s ob ta i n i n g tw o a rbi tra ry

, ,
a r a ll e l s e cti on s of H 1 T h e c o e ffici e n t s of th e qu a d r a tic

p .
t e r m s i n th e tw o e qu a ti on s (3 ) whi ch r esu l t a r e r e sp e ctiv el y

e qu a l s in c e th e se c oe ffici e n t s i n th e g e n e r a l e q u a ti on (3 ) d o
,
n ot c on ta in k H en c e by p 2 6 0 E x 4 0 th e d ir e ctric e s ofth e
.
,
.
,
.
,
cyl in d er s d e fin ed by th e tw o e qu a ti on s a r e s i m il a r an d s im i
l a r l y p l a c e d c on ic s or i n th e ca s e o f tw o hy p e rb ol a s ea ch i s
, , ,
s i m il a r or S i m i l a r l y p l a c e d e ith e r t o th e o the r or t o th e conj u
ga te O f th e oth e r C on se qu en tl y by Ch X X I I § 6 Th 2
.
,
.
, , .
,
p a r
a l l e l p l a n e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e ax s i are equ a l an d s i m il a rl y
p l a c ed p a r a b o l a s .
3 . P r ov e
tha t a hy p e rb ol ic p a ra b ol oid h a s n o e ll ip tic se c
tion s tha t s e cti on s by tw o p a r a l l el p l an e s c u ttin g th e a x es
,
a r e hy p e rb ol a s on e o f which i s S i m i l a r a n d S i m i l a r l y l a c e d
, p
e ith e r to th e oth e r or t o th e c on j u ga t e o f th e o th e r a n d th a t ,
s e cti on s by p a r a l l e l p l a n e s p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s b u t n ot t o a ,
d ir e ctri x p l a n e a r e eq u a l a n d S i m i l a r l y p l a c e d p a ra b ol a s
,
.
6 . Ci r cu l a r Secti ons . C on s i d e r a se cti on o f th e e ll i p s oi d

x
2 2
y z
( )
1 a > b > c)
by a p l a n e M p a s s in g thr ou gh th e i
a x s o fy . Th e se cti on is an
el l i p se ,
on e of whose wa y s th e m ean a x i s 2 b of th e
ax e s is al , ,
e l l i p soi d n o m a tt e r h o w M i s s it u ,
a t ed Wh en M s ta rtin g fr om th e .
( x y ) p l a n e r o t a t es,
i n e ith
-
e r d ir ce ,
ti on in t o c oin ci d en c e with th e (y z) ,
p l a n e t h e s e c o n d a x i s of th e e l l i se
, p ,
s t a rtin g fr om t h e m a j or a x i s 2 a of , ,
th e e l l i p s oi d d e cr ea s e s c on tin u ou sl y ,
t o th e m i n or a x i s 2 0 C on se qu en tl y ,
.
,
F 9 IG
th
.
e r e m u s t b e a s i n g l e p os iti on of Ill ,
i n e a ch d ir e cti on of r ot a ti on for
‘
which th e s e c on d a x i s of th e el l ip s e ta k e s on th e va l u e 2 b
e qu a l t o th e fir s t B u t th en th e e l l i p s e i s a circ l e
. .
Th e se tw o p os iti on s K OB an d L OB Of th e p l an e M can
, ,
b e c on s tr u ct e d by d e s cribin g i n th e u pp e r h a l f Of th e (z x ) ,
p l a n e a s e m icirc l e wh os e c e n t e r i s a t O a n d wh o s e r a d i u s i s b .
Th e s e m icircl e wil l m e e t th e e l l i p soi d i n th e d es ir e d p oin t s If

an d L .
Sin c e th e Se ction s of
( )
1 by
th e p l a n e s KOB a n d L OB are
oa l so s e cti on s by p l a n e s p a r a l l e l t o K OB
5
C l I Cl e S , s th e and
’
ar e
L OB , by Ex 1 Th e e l l ip s oi d h a s th en th e se tw o s e t s of
,
. .
, ,
cir cul a r s e cti on s a n d a s can b e s h o wn (E x

,
onl y th ese tw o . .
Q U AD R I C S U R F AC E S 55
6
It ca n b e p r ov e d i n t h e sa m e w ay tha t th e hy p e rbol oi d of
on e s heet
2 2 2
x y z
a
2
+ 5
b c 2
a > b,
c on ta in s j u s t tw o s e ts o f circ u l a r s e cti on s H en c e it fol l ow s

5
.
,
by Th 3 tha t thi s i s tr u e a l s o of th e c on e a n d th e hyp e r

,
.
,
b ol oi d of tw o s h ee t s I t i s to b e n ot e d h ow e v e r th a t th e r e
.
, ,
a r e n o circ ul a r s e cti on s of th e c on e by p l an e s thr ou gh th e
v e rt ex a n d n on e of th e hy p e rb ol oi d Of t w o s h e e t s by p l an e s
thr ou gh th e c en t e r .
Th e r e su l t s Obta i n e d w e n o w c on s ol i d a t e i n t o a th e o r e m .
THEOREM . An e ll ip s o i d , a h yp er bol o i d , or a co n e, wh i ch i s
n ot a f
su r a ce f
o r ev o l u ti on , co n ta i n s j u st two sets f
o ci r cu l a r
secti on s .
I f, i n F i g 9 , b a p p r oa ch e s a a s i t s l i m it , th e p l a n e s K OB
.
a n d L OB b o th a p p r oa ch a s th e ir l i m it s th e x , y) p l a n e
( C on -
.
s e qu e n t l y , a n e l l i p s o i d o f r e v ol u ti on h a s b u t on e s e t of ci r cu
l ar se cti on s Thi s i s tru e a l so of th e hyp e rb ol oid s an d c on e s

.
o f r e v ol u ti on .
Th e circl e s i n which th e p l an e s KOB L OB i n t e r se ct th e ,
e l l i p soi d e vi d e n t l y l i e on th e s h e r e wh os e c e n t e r i s a t O a n d
p
wh os e ra d iu s i s b
6)
Th e y th e r e f or e l i e on th e su rfa c e wh os e e qu a ti on r e su l t s fr om
s u btr a ctin g fr om
( )
1 ( )
3
M 1 1
u) ? ?
b ?
a
2
( 2
b ) ( b )
2
0
?
2 2 2 ?
0 a x a c z .
Bu t thi s su rfa c e c on s i s t s o f th e tw o p l an es
( )
4 cx a / z — b i ax /b 2 — c2 z =0 .
C on s e qu e n t l y , th ese a re th e e qu a ti on s of th e p l an es K OB ,
L OB .
EXE R C IS ES
1 To s how t ha t th e e l l ip soi d ( 1 ) h a s b u t tw o sets of ci r cu

.
l a r s e cti on s pr ov e fir s t u s in g th e fa ct th a t th e c en t e r s of th e
, ,
circl e s Of any se t l i e on a l in e 8 P r ob l e m tha t e v e ry ,
circu l a r se cti on mu s t b e sy mm e tric i n a p rin cipa l p l a n e ; th en

s h o w th a t a s e cti on o f ( 1 ) by a p l a n e p as s i n g thr ou gh th e x ,
a x i s or th e z a x i s i s n e v e r a circ l e
-
.
2 P r ov e g e om e tric al l y tha t th e hy p e rb ol oi d (2 ) h a s t w o
.
s e t s Of circu l a r s e cti on s G i v e a c on s tr u cti on for th e p l a n e s

.
thr ou gh th e origin which yi el d circul a r s e cti on s .
3 F in d th e e qu a ti on s ofth e p l a n e s j u s t m en ti on e d
. .
4 Sh o w th a t th e e l l i p tic p a r ab ol oi d (i )
. wh er e a b , ,
h a s tw o se t s of circul a r se cti on s by p r o v in g fir s t tha t thi s i s ,
tru e ofth e el l ip tic cyl in d e r
5A . hy p e rb ol ic pa a r b ol oid h as no circul a r se cti on s .
Why ?
7 . Tangent Li nes a nd Pl anes . Le t th e l in e L throu gh th e
p oin t P0 :
(x0 , yo, )
zo with th e d ir e cti on c os in e s c os a A,
cos ,8 cos v m e e t th e e l l i p s o i d
'
t,
p y
§
2
y
+ +
i n tw o d i s tin ct p oin ts , P I a n d P 2 To . find th e c oor d ina tes ,
y)
l 2 1 ) a n d ( y , ),
1132 , g Z 2 Of P I a n d P 2 .
Th e p a a m r
e tric r
r ep esen a t ti on ofL is
( )
2 x = wo + M 3 y = y0 + r
n , z = zo + V73
wh e r e r g ebra ic d i s ta n c e fr om P to P :
i s th e al (x y z ; cf
) 0 , , .
C h XX. 8 ,
Th e p oin t P of L l i e s on th e e l l ip soi d if an d
.
,
on l y if i t s c oo r d i n a t e s giv by i f
.
( y )
x z a s e n sa t s, y , ,
tha t i s if an d onl y if r sa ti sfi e s th e e qua ti on

,
v a l u es , which h ow e v e r a l wa y s sa ti sfy
, ,
To obta in th e
l o cu s ofa l l th e t a n g e n t l in e s L w e h a v e on l y t o e l i m in a t e th e
,
a u x i l i a ry v a r i a bl es A p v r fr om e qu a ti on s (2 ) an d
5
Su b
'
, t, ,
s ti tu ti n g th e v a l u e s of A , v a s giv e n by 2 ) i n t o
, ( ( )
t, an d su p
p r ess i n g th e f a ct o r i /r w e g e t th,
e e q u a ti on
which r e du c es by vir tue of,

to
57
93090 yoy z0z _
_
<)
6 + 1
a
“
°
2 2
B ut thi s i s th e e qu a ti on of a p l a n e . H en c e w e ha v e th e
th e or e m °
THEOREM 1 . Th e ta ngen t l i n es at a p oi n t P 0 ofan el l ip s o i d
a ll li e i n a p la n e .
Th e p l a n e of th e tan g en t l in e s a t P 0 w e d efi n e a s th e ta n
gen t p l a n e to th e el l i p s oi d a t P 0 I t s e qu a ti on i s giv e n by
.
EX E R C IS ES
F in d for ch of th e fol l owin g su rfa c e s th e c on d iti on tha t

ea
a l i n e L th r ou gh a p oi n t P 0 of th e s u rf a c e b e t a n g e n t to th e
su rfa c e . P r ov e th e a n a l ogu e of Th e or e m 1 a n d d e d u c e th e
e qu a ti on ofth e t a n g e n t p l a n e a t P 0 .
1 .Th e un p a rt e d hy p e rb ol oi d 2 Th e bi pa rt e d hyp e rb ol oi d . . .
3 T h e e ll i p tic p a r a b ol oi d 4 T h ehy p e rb ol ic p a ra b ol oi d
5Th e con e P 0 n ot being a t th e v ert ex

. . . .
. .
,
6 . th a t th e t an g en t pl an e t o a hy p e rb ol oi d of on e
P r ov e
s h e e t a t a p o i n t P 0 i s th e l a n e d e t e r m i n e d by th e r u l i n g s
p
which p a s s thr ou gh P 0 H en c e Sh ow tha t th e tw o s e t s of
.
ru l in g s fou n d i n § 4 ex h au s t a l l th e s tra ight l in es on th e

s u rfa c e .
7 . Th e sa m e for a hy p e rb ol ic p a rab ol oi d .
8 . Le t Q b e a qu a d ric su rfa c e n ot a c on e or a cy l in d e r , .
P r ov e th a t a p l an e i s ta n g en t t o Q if a n d on l y if it i n t e r s e ct s
Q U AD R I C SUR FAC E S 5
69
Q in p o in at (a d e g en e r a t e el l i p se) or i n tw o in t e r se ctin g l in es
a d e g en e r a t e hy e rb ol a
( p ) .
8 . Di a meter s . Di a metral Pl a nes . P r obl em 1 . F in d th e

l o cu s of th e c en t e r s of p a r
a l l e l se cti on s of th e el l ip s oi d
2 2
(D 2
( )
1
U
+
d
Le t th e c om m on n or m a l s to th e p l an e s of th e s e cti on s h a v e
th e d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s A B 0 L et P : ( X Y Z ) b e th e , ,
.
, ,
c en t e r of on e of th e se cti on s a n d l e t L with th e d ir e cti on ,
c osm e s A n v b e a n a rbitra ry l i n e thr ou gh P which l i e s i n

, , , ,
th e p l a n e Of thi s s e cti on Th e p a r a m e tric e qu a ti on s ofL a r e

.
,
th en ,
2
( ) x = X + Ar , z =Z + vr ,
w h ere r i s th e al g ebra ic d i s tan c e fr om P t o (x y z) , ,

.
Sin c e th e p oi n t s of i n t e r se cti on of L with th e e ll i p s oi d a re

e q u a l l y d i s t a n t fr o m P th e ir a l g e bra ic d i s t an c e s r 1 a n d r
, , ,,
fr om P a r e n e ga tiv es of ea ch oth e r :r 1 =0 B u t r 1 r2 a r e .
,
th e r oot s of th e q u a d r a tic e q u a ti on
5
2
“
1 M Y VZ
I 2
2 '
+ I
'
7
'
“ “ “ “
7
;
b 2
g
2 2
Y Z
1 = 0’
5
2 2
b 0
and c on s e qu en tl y by , Ch X I I I ,.
X
5
5a
Y Z
( )
4 A i “
“ ”
i
Thi s e qu a ti on say s tha t th e d ir e cti on wh os e c om p on en t s a r e
X/ Y/ b Z / z i
s a l w a y s p e r p e n d ic u l a r t o L B u t L i s an
‘
2 l
a ,
e ,
.
a rbitr a ry l i n e i n on e of th e p l a n es ofth e s e cti on s a n d th e on l y
d ir e cti on which i s a l wa y s p e r p e n d icu l a r t o it i s th a t of th e

nO r m a l s t o th e se p l a n e s th a t i s th e d ir e cti on wh o s e c o mp o
, ,
n en t s a r e A B O C o n s e q u en t l y X /
’
Y/ b Z /
‘
2 3 2
, ,
. a c a r e pr o , , ,
p o rti on a l t o A B O o r
5
, , ,
X Y Z
( ) A
z 2 2
a bB 0 0
Th e c en t e r s ction s l i e th en on a l in e thr ou gh th e
of th e se , ,
cen t e r of th e e l l ip s oid Su ch a l in e i s kn own a s a d i a meter . .
Acc o r d in gl y w e ca n s ta t e ou r r esu l t a s f ol l ow s
, .
THEOREM 1 . Th e l ocu s of th e cen ter s f

o p a ra l l el s ecti ons f
o
s th a t p or t i on of a d i a mete r w h i ch l i es w i th i n
th e el l ip so i d ( )
1 i
th e el l ip so i d If th e d i r ecti on comp on ents of th e n or ma l s to th e
.
p l a nes o fth e secti on s a re A, B , 0 , th ose ofth e d i a meter a re a A,

2
b B,
2
0 2
0 .
E x er ci s e . Th e tan g e n t p l a n e s at th e ex tr e m iti es of a
d ia m e t er ar e p a a l lre l t o th e se cti on s wh os e c en t er s th e d ia m e
te r c on ta in s .
P r obl em 2 . F i n d th e l o cu s of th e m i d -
p oin t s of a se t of
p a a l l r
e l ch o r d s ip s oid of th e e l l
Le t A n v b e th e giv e n d ir e cti on c os in e s ofon e Of th e ch o r d s

‘
, ,
a n d l et P : X ) b e th e m i d p o i n t of th e ch or d Th
( Y Z , , e n -
.
e qu a ti on s (2 ) r e p r e sen t th e ch o r d p a r a m e tric a l l y .
Sin c e P i s th e m i d p o in t of th e ch or d th e a l g e br a ic d i s
-
tan c e s r l an d r 2 fr om it to th e en d p o in t s of th e ch or d a r e
, ,
n e g a tiv e s O f e a ch o th e r : r, r 0 H e n c e a s i n P r ob l e m 1 2 .
, ,
w e obt a in th e e qu a ti on B u t wh e r ea s i n tha t p r obl e m ,
A u
, , , v
w e r e a ux il ia ry va riabl e s he r e th e y a r e given c on stan t s , ,
a n d h e n c e 4 i s th e e q u a ti on sa ti sfi e d by th e p o in t P of th e
( )
l oc u s B u t (4 ) r ep r e s e n t s a p l a n e thr ou gh th e c en t e r of th e
.
e l l i p soi d Su ch a p l an e i s kn own a s a d i a metr a l p la ne

. Thu s .
ou r r e su l t i s
THEOREM 2 . Th e l ocu s o f th e m i d p oi nts

-
f
o a s et o f
s th a t p or ti on of a d i a
p a r a l l el ch or d s o f th e ell ip s oi d ( )
1 i
metr a l p la ne lyi ng w i th i n th e ell ip soi d If th e d i r ecti on com
.
'
p on en ts o f th e ch or d s a re l , m, n, th e equ a ti on o f th e d i a metr a l
p l a n e i s
F or , Si n e c D1 i s c on j u ga t e to D 2 i n E bi se ct s th e ch or d s
,
D,
ofE p a r a l l el to B u t th e d i a m e tra l p l a n e M 2 c on j u g a t e to
D 2 a l so bi se ct s th es e ch or d s H en c e .
D 1 m u s t b e th e l in e i n which M 2 m e e t s
'
th e p l a n e Of E a n d so D 1 l i es i n M 2 , .
Si m i l a r l y D 2 l i e s i n th e d i a m e tra l p l an e
, ,
M c on j u ga t e t o D 1
,
.
THEOREM 6 If one d i a meter l i es i n

.
FI G 12
th e d i a metr a l p l a n e
.
j
con u ga te to a secon d ,
th e n th e s econ d d i a mete r l i es i n th e d i a metr a l p l a n e j

con u ga te to
th e fi rst .
Su p p os eth a t D 1 l i e s i n th e d i a m e tra l p l a n e M 2 c on j u ga t e t o
D2 I t wi l l f ol l o w , th en , by Th
.
’
,
tha t D 2 l i es i n t h e di . 5
a m e tr a l p l a n e M c on j u g a t e to D 1 , if we ca n S h ow th a t D1 an d
D2 c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s i n th e el l ip s e E (F i g
are . Thi s i s
th e ca s e for s in c e JlI z bi se ct s a l l ch or d s p a r a l l el
, ,
to D 2 th en
,
D 1 bi s e ct s a ll ch or d s ofE p a r a l l e l to D 2 .
Conj u ga te D i a meter s Conj u ga te D i a metr a l P l a n es

. G iv en .
thr e e d ia m e t e r s D 1 , D 2 , D 3 a n d thr ee d iam e tra l p l an e s M 1 , M 2 ,

31 3 such tha t D 1 D 2 D 3 a r e th e l in es Of
, ,
i n t e r se cti on of M 211 2 M 3 or M 1 M M ; , , , 2,
a r e th e p l an es d e t e r m i n e d by D 1 D 2 D 3 , ,
( g
F i . C on s i d e r th e f o l l owi n g r e
l ati on sh i p s
R1 :D 1, D 2 , D3 and 31 1 , M , M ar e re
c on j u ga t e ;
s p e c ti v e l y
R2 : E a ch d i a m e t e r c on ta i n s th e c e n t e r s ofse cti on s p a ra l l el to
th e p l a n e of th e oth e r t w o
R3 : E a ch d ia m e tr a l p l a n e bi se ct s th e ch o r d s p a r a ll e l to th e
l in e Of i n t e r s e cti on ofth e oth e r tw o .
Acc or d in g to th e d efi n iti on of c on j u ga cy of a d i a m et e r a n d a
d i a m e tr al p l a n e th e s e r e l a ti on shi p s a r e e q u iva l en t :
,
THEO REM 7 Any on e of th e r el a ti on sh ip s R i s equ i v a l ent to

.
ea ch o fth e oth er two ; th a t i s , i fa n y on e h ol d s, so d oes ea ch of

th e oth er tw o .
Q U AD R I C SU R F AC E S 5
73
Thr e e d ia m e t e r s i n th e r el a ti on shi p R 2 a r e ca l l ed conj u ga te

d i a meter s a n d thr ee d ia m e tra l p l a n e s i n th e r el a ti on shi p R 3
,
a r e c a l l e d conj u ga te d i a metr a l p l a n es .
Th e r e a r e infin it el y m an y s e t s of thr e e d ia m et e r s an d thr e e

d i a m e tra l p l a n e s i n th e r el a ti on shi p R I F or l e t E b e a n .
,
a rbitr a ry s e cti on o f th e e l l i p s oi d by a p l an e thr ou g h 0 a n d ,
l e t D 1 a n d 0 2 b e a n y tw o d ia m e t e r s c on j u ga t e i n E Th en .
th e d i a m e tra l p l a n e s M 1 a n d M c on j u g a t e t o D 1 a nd D 2 wil l
5
,
by Th .
p
,
a ss thr ough D 2 a n d D 1 r e s p e ctiv e l y F i n a l l y th e .
,
d i a m e tra l p l a n e Ill s c on j u ga t e t o th e d i a m e t e r D 3 i n which

.
, , , ,
M 1 a n d M in t e r s e c t wi l l by Th 6 c on t a i n ,
a n d D 2 an d .
,
h en c e mu st b e th e p l an e ofD 1 an d D 2 .
Th e f ol l owin g th e o r e m s f ol l ow d ir e ct l y by a p p l ica ti on of
Th e or em s 2 an d 1 r es p e ctiv el y ,
.
T H EOREM 8 . Th e d i a m eter s wi th th e d i r ecti on co mp on en ts

l l , m1 , nl , Z2 , m2 , n z, l3 , m3, n 3 a r e con u ga te j ifa n d on l y if
l g ml nl z ’
77 1 71 2
O,
/ 1 1
2
2
b 2
'
a 0
I2 13 mzms ” en s
0’
?
Q
2
b ?
c
l sl i m3 ml " 37 h
0 ‘
2 ?
a b 0
2
T H EOREM 9 . Th e d i a metr a l p l a nes

A1 93 + B i y ' '
0 , A297 I E zy
t Ol z “ "
0 22 0 , A3 30 I B ay
' ‘
a r e con j u a te i fa n d on ly i f
g
Al Az b B 1B 2 C1 C2 0,
‘
z 2 2
5
a 0
a
2
A2 A3 2
8 23 3 c
2
0 03. 0,
a
2
A3A1 b B 3B 1
2
0
2
C3 C1 O .
EX E R C IS ES
St a t e a nd
p r o v e for th e f ol l o wi n g su rfa c e s th e th e or e m s
a n a l og ou s t o Th eor e m s 1 2 , .
1 . Th e u npa rt e d hy p e rb ol oi d .
2 Th e bi pa rt ed hy p e rb ol oi d
. .
3 Th e e l l i p tic p a rab ol oi d Sh ow
. .
,
i n p a rticu l a r , tha t th e
d i a m e t e r s a n d d i a m e tr a l p l a n e s a r e a l l p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s
.
4 . Th e hy p e rb ol ic pr b ol o i d
a a . D e s crib e th e p o s iti on s of
th e d i a m e t e r s an d d i a m e tra l p l an e s .
G iv e r ea s on s for th e fol l owi n g ex c e p ti on s to th e th eor e m s

j u s t p r ov ed .
5Hyp. er bol oi d s . The r e is no anal o gu e

Theor em 1 for
to
p a r
a l l e l s e ction s p a ral l e l to a n e l e m e n t o f th e a s y m p to tic c on e ,
a n d n o a n a l og u e t o Th eo r e m 2 for l i n e s p a r a l l e l to a n e l em e n t
ofth e a s y m p t otic c on e .
6 . P a r a bol oi ds The r e i s n o a n a l ogu e to Th e or em 1 for

.
p a r a l l e l s e cti on s p a r a l l e l t o th e a x 1 s a n d n o a n a l o gu e to Th e o
, I
r em 2 f or l in e s p a r a l l e l t o th e a x i s I n th e ca s e of a hy p e r
.
b ol i c p a r ab ol oi d th e r e i s a l s o n o a n a l o gu e to Th e o r e m 2 for a
s e t o fp a r a l l e l l in e s p a r a ll e l t o a d ir e ctri x p l a n e .
S ta t e and
p r ov e fo r th e f ol l o wi n g su rfa c es th e th eor e m s
a n a l og ou s t o Th eor e m s 3 4 ,
.
7 Th e u n p a rte d hyp e rb ol oi d
. .
8 Th e bi p a rte d hyp e rb ol oi d
. .
9 Th e r e a r e n o c on j u ga t e d ia m e t e r s a n d d ia m e tral p l an es
.
for a p a ra b ol o i d Why .
10 F in d for th e el l i p soi d (1 ) th e e qu a ti on o f th e d i a m e tra l

.
p l a n e c on j u g a t e t o th e d i a m e t e r thr ou gh th e
p oin t (x y o zo) 0, ,
o f th e su rfa c e .
11 P r ov e th a t th e p a ir s o f c on j u ga t e d i a m e t e r s a n d d i a
. ,
m e tra l p l an e s a r e th e sa m e for t w o c on j u ga t e hy p e rb ol oi d s .
12 D i s cu s s th e c on j u ga cy of thr ee d i a m e t e r s or thr e e d i a
.
m e tr a l p l a n e s for e ith e r hy p e rb ol o i d .
13 P r ov e Th eor e m s 8 9
.
,
.
14 S t a t e a n d p r ov e th e a na l ogu es of Th e or e m s 8 9 for
.
,
e ith e r hy p e rb ol oi d .
THEOREM 5f a . I a n u m ber f
o
’
p o i n ts li e on a li n e L , th ei r
p ol a r p l a n e s p a ss th r o u
gh a li ne L or a r e p a r a ll el
5f
.
THEOREM b . I a n u mber of p l a n es p a ss
’
th r ou gh a li n e L ( or are p a r a l l e l ) ,
th ei r p ol es
li e on a l i ne L
55
.
Th eor e m s c i r t o th e g eom e try

5
a, b are e ul a
p
ofs p a c e W . e giv e a p r oo f Of Th e o r e m a .
Le t P 1 :
(x 1, yl ) yz, 22
) b e tw o
Fm , 14 d i s tin ct p oin t s . Th e ir p ol a r p l a n es are
_ w
el
f i é
r
t
i y z/
f = 0,
a
g bj
i
fi f
r
w
— / i
Le t P 3 :
( x 3, be an a rbitra ry p oi t Of
n th e l i ne P 1P 2 .
Th en ,
b y Ch XX I ,
‘
. 2,
333 w
p i P) 932 , 313 Pyl Pl yzi Z 3 0 2
1 1 P) 22
C on s e qu en tl y , th e p ol a r p l an e ofP 3 , n a m e l y
w
9
f g§ y l z z
i
+ + i = 0,
ca n ha v e i ts e qu a ti on writt en i n th e fo r m
p u +<
1
and hen ce thr ou gh th e l in e of i n t e r s e cti on of th e p ol a r

p a ss e s
l a n e s ofP I a n d P 2 if th e y in t e r se ct o r i s p a r a l l e l t o th e m if
p , , ,
th ey a r e p a ra l l el q e d ,
. . .
Tw o l in e s L a n d L i n th e r el a ti on shi p d e s crib e d i n Th e
5 5
’
,
o rem a or b a r e ea ch s a i d t o b e p ol a r or conj u ga te to th e
,
o th e r . Th e f ol l owi n g th eor e m s c on c e rn in g p ol a r l in e s a r e
r ea d i l y p r ov e d ; cf Th s 8 a 8 b ofCh X I V § 1 1
. .
,
.
,
I
.
THEOREM 6a . Th e p ol a r of a l i n e i n ters ecti ng th e qu a d r i c i n

two d i s ti n ct p oi n ts i s th e l i n e of i n ter s ect i on of th e ta n gent p l a n es .
at th ese p o i nts .
THEOREM 6b . Th e p ola r ofa l i ne n ot meeti ng th e qu a d r i c i s

th e li ne j o i n i ng th e p oi n ts o fcon ta ct ofth e tw o p l a nes th r ou gh th e
l i ne ta nge nt to th e qua d r i c .
QU AD R IC SU R F AC E S 5 77
THEOREM 6c Th e
p ol a r of a ta ngen t to a qu a d ri c, n ot a
.
r u l i n g, is a s econ d ta ngen t l i n e wi th th e s a me p oi n t of conta ct .
A r u li n
g f
o a qu a d r i c is sel lp ol a r
j .
EX E R C IS ES
E s ta bl i s hf or m u l a (2 ) an d th e an al og ou s for mu l a s for th e
o th e r q u a d ric s P r ov e th e th e or e m s s ta t e d with ou t p r oof i n
.
th e t e x t .
D i s cu s s p ol es a n d p ol a r s with r e s p e ct t o a s p h e r e ( of Ch . .
XIV ,
9 Exs 9 S h ow i n g
,
i n p a rtic u l a r th a t tw o p ol a r
.
, ,
l in e s a r e a l wa y s p e r p en d icu l a r .
10 One Di mensi onal Stra i ns, wi th Appl i cati ons

.
-
.
*
Th e on e
d i men s i on a l s tr a i n which s tr e tch e s a l l sp a c e d ir e ctl y wa y fr om a
th e (y z ) p l an e ( or c om p r e s s e s a l l s p a c e d ir e ct l y t owa r d s th e
,
-
( y ,
z
)p l an -
e
) so th a t e a ch p o
,
in t i s c a rri e d a l on g a p a r a l l e l t o ,
th e a x i s of x to a ti m es i ts origi n a l d i s t an c e fr om th e (y 2 )
, ,
p l a n e w h e r,
e a i s a p o s itiv e c o n s t a n t n o t u n ity h a s t h e e q u a ,
ti on s
i) ax y y z z ,
’
,
’
.
Si m il a r l y , th e e qu a ti on s
11 x
’
y
’
by,
(Ix — w, y —
y’ z _ cz )
wh e r e b a n d c a r e p ositiv e c on s t an t s d iffe r en t fr om u n ity ,
r ep r e sen t on e d i m en si on a l s tra in s i n th e d ir e cti on s of th e a x e s

-
ofy a n d 2: r esp e ctiv el y

O n e d i m en si on a l s tra i n s h a v e th e f ol l owin g p r op e rti es
-
A
P l an es go
. in t o p l an es ,
an d h en c e s tra ight l in es g o in t o
s tr a ight l i n e s ;
BP a r a l l el p l an e s go in t o p a ra ll el p l a n es a n d
. h en c e p a r a l
l e l s tr a ight l i n es go i n t o p a ra l l el s tra ight l i n es ;
C T a n g en t su rfa c e s g o in t o ta n g en t su rfa c e s ,
. and ta n g en t
cu r v es in t o ta ng en t cu rv es .
at Cf C h
. . x 1v ,p rti a cu l a rl y g 5 .
O n e d i m en s i on a l tra i n s d o n ot i n gen e ra l p r e ser v e an gl e s '
-
s
or a r e as Th ey n e v e r p r e se r v e v ol u m e s ; for ex a mp l e i ) ca r
.
,
ri e s a p ortion of sp a c e of v ol u m e V in t o a p ortion of spa c e Of

v ol u m e d V .
Th e p r od u ct of th e thr ee on e d i m en si onal s tra in s i) ii) iii) -
, ,
i s th e tra n s f o r ma ti on
T y =
r
by’
It i scl e a r fr om th e for e g oin g tha t Tca rri e s a p ortion s pa e c

o fv ol u m e V i n t o a p o rti on of s p a c e ofv ol u m e a c
App li ca ti ons . .
Th e Sp h er e
( )
1 2
w + y + 2
z 2 =1
is ca rri ed by th e tra n sfor ma ti on Tin t o th e el l ip soid
Z E ?
“
2
( ) N
Th e v ol u m e th e Sp here is e a . Th at of th e el l i p s oi d i s,
then gwa bc
,
.
TH EOREM 1 . Th e v olu me oft h e ell ip soi d 2

( ) i s
V: g fl a bc
‘ '
.
Let th e tri p l e s
( )
3 A1 ; M1 , V1 , A2 , M2 ; V2 , As, H3 , V3
b e th e d ir e cti on c osin e s of thr e e mu tual l y p e rp en d icu l a r (an d

h en c e c onj u ga t e) d ia m e t e r s D 1 D 2 D 3 of th e sp h e r e , , , ,
Th ey a r e th en a l so th e coOr d i n a tes ofthr ee p oin t s P I P 2 P ,

, , , , , ,
on th e S p h e r e which a r e r e s p e cti v e l y e x tr e m iti es ofD 1 D 2 D3

, , ,
.
N ow Tca rri e s D D 2 D 3 i n t o thr ee d i a m e t e r s D 1, D , ,

’
l ,
’
g ,
o f th e e l l i p soi d a n d c a rri e s P I P 2 P 3 in t o thr e e p oi n t s , , ,
P 2 P 3 on th e el l i p soi d which a r e r esp e ctiv el y ex tr e m i

’ ’ ’
Pl , , , ,
ti e s ofD l D 2 D 3 E v id en tl y th e t r ip l es
’
,
’
,
’
.
,
( )
4 “ A1 7 bi l l , “ K2 ; bi l e : “ A3, b/
u3 , 0 1’s
are b oth th e co Or di n a t es ofP l

’
,
P2 ’
,
P3 '
an d th e d ir e cti on com
p on e n t s ofD l
’
, D ’
z , D3 '
.
3 . P r ov e tha t i ) carri es a r egi on of v ol u m e V in t o a r e gi on
of v ol u m e a V .
4 Sh ow th a t Tc a rri e s a l in e wi th th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s
.
I m n i n t o a l i n e with th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s d l b m on
5Th e pl an e M goe s in to th e p l an e M u nd er T I f th e
, , , , .
’ ‘
. .
d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s of th e n or m a l s to M a r e A B C wh a t , , ,
a r e th os e Of th e n or m a l s to M
6 As su m i n g th e e qu a ti on ofth e t an g en t p l an e to th e s p h e r e
.
a t th e p oi n t x0 yo zo) d e d u c e by m ea n s of th e tr a n s f or m a
( )
1 ( , , ,
ti on Tth e e qu a ti on of th e tan g en t p l an e to th e e l l i p soi d (2 )

a t th e p oin t (xo yo
’ ’
, ,
7 Sh ow th a t a h y p e rb ol oi d of g e n e r a l ty p e ca n a l wa y s b e
.
c a rri ed in t o a hy p e rb ol oi d of r ev ol u ti on by m ean s of a tran s

for ma ti on ofth e f or m T .
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R XX III
1 . F in d th e e qu a ti on Of
qu ad ric su rfa c e g en e ra t e d by
th e
th e l in es x Az O Ay z
0 wh e r e A i s a p a r a m e t e r
, ,
De .
te r m i n e th e e qu a ti on s of th e se c on d se t of r u l in g s a n d s et u p
a p a r a m e tric r e p r ese n t a ti on ofth e su rfa c e .
2 T
. h e s a m e fo r h
t e l i n es y — A 1 = O Ax
—
,
3 F in d th e e qu a ti on s ofth e p l an e s which p a s s thr ou gh th e

.
l in e y 2 x ,
2 z O a n d a r e t a n g e n t t o th e e l l i p s o i d
4 . P r ov e
tha t th e s e cti on s Of th e hyp erb ol ic p ar b ol oid
a and
hyp e rb ol ic cyl in d e r :
2 2
x y 2 Z ,
2
a
2
b2
a
2
b
by th e sa m e p lby p a ra l l el p l a n e s obl iqu e to th e z ax i s

a n e or ,
-
a r e hy p e rb ol a s ea ch Of which i s s i m i l a r a n d S i m i l a r l y p l a c e d
,
to th e o th e r or t o th e c on j u g a t e Of th e oth e r
5Th e u mbi li cs ofa qu ad ric su rfa ce which h a s circu l a r sec

.
ti on s a r e th e e x tr e m iti e s of th e d ia m e t e r s which c on ta in th e
QU AD R I C SU R F AC E S 5 81
c en t e r s of th e s e se cti on s . F in d the ir c oor d in a t e s i n th e ca se

ofth e e l l i p soi d 1 .
SI M I L A R Q U A D R I C S
D efin i ti on . Tw o c e n tr a l q u a d ric s are sa id to b e si mi l a r if

th e p ri n ci p a l s e cti on s Of on e a r e s im il a r r e s p e ctiv el y , ,
t o th e
p ri n ci p a l s e cti on s Of th e o th e r .
6 P r ov e th a t th e e l l i p s oi d s d efi n e d by th e e qu a ti on
.
? ?
93
1 l
f .
‘
i
? Z
a b C
2
wh e r e Ai s r a p a ame e t r ,
are s i m il a r .
7 . Sh ow th a t ,
of th e hy p e rb ol oi d s r e p r e s e n t e d by th e
e qu a ti on
2 l
z
! !
x y
2 __
?
b
“ f
a c
th os e for which A i s p os itiv e a r e a l l S i m i l a r a n d tha t thi s i s ,
tr u e a l so of th o s e for which A i s n e ga tiv e P r ov e th a t a l l th e .
hy p e rb ol oi d s ha v e th e sa m e a sy m p t otic c one .
8 P r ov e th a t a l l th e e l l i p s oi d s ( 1 ) h a v e th e sa m e p a ir s
.
of c on j u g a t e d i a m e t e r s a n d d i a m e tr a l p l a n e s .
9 Th e sa m e for th e hyp e rb ol oi d s
.
D efin i ti o n Tw o p a r a b ol oi d s Of th e sa m e ty p e a r e si mi l a r
.
,
5
i f th e p rin ci p a l s e cti on s of on e a r e p r op o rti on a l i n s c a l e
V o th e p ri n ci p a l s e cti on s o f t h e o th e r
( C h . I ,
1 ) t .
10 P r o v e i n e a ch c a s e th a t th e p a ra b ol oi d s d efi n ed by th e
.
giv en e qu a ti on a r e a l l S i m il a r
2 2
( )
a m a c; ( )
b A ek o .
R U L E D S URF A C E S
11 . Sh ow
th a t th e p en ci l ofp l an e s thr ou gh th e r u l in g V0 of
th e hy p e rb ol o i d 4 cu t s th e s u rfa c e i n th e s e t of r u l in g s
,
U a n d th a t th e p en ci l Of p l an e s thr ou gh U0 c u t s it i n th e
r ul in g s V .
12 . Le t P b e a p o n t i
i n i mu m e l l ip se of th e h y
on th e m
p e r b ol oi d 4 a n d l e t 1
< ,
b e th e c o m m on a
; n g l e which th e
t w o r u l i n g s thr ou gh P m a k e with th e z a x i s P r ov e th at -
.
ta n 1; = b1 /
< c wh e r e bl i s th e h a l f l e n gth o f th e d i a m e t e r of th e
,
-
m in i mu m e l l i p se which i s c on j u ga t e to th e d i a m e t e r thr ou gh P .
13 . U s in g th e r e sul t of E x 1 2 s h ow th a t a hy p e rb ol oi d of
.
,
r e v ol u ti on of on e s h e e t can b e g en e ra ted by th e r ota ti on Of a

ru l in g of e ith e r s et a bou t th e a x i s which d oe s n ot m e et th e
su rfa c e .
14 . P r ov e tha t th e r u l in g s Of on e se t on a hy p e rb ol ic p a ra
b ol oi d i n t e rc e p t p r op o rti on a l s e g m en t s on tw o ru l in g s of th e
o th e r s e t .
1 5F i
. nd th e l o c u s
i t which m ove s s o tha t i ts d i s
of a p o n
ta n c e fr om a fi x e d p oi n t b ea r s to i t s di s t an c e fr om a fix e d
p l a n e ,
n o t thr o u gh th e
p o in t a c on s t a n t r a ti o k , ,
.
Ans A qu a d ric of r e v ol u ti on which i s a n e l l i p soi d a n

.
.
,
e l l i p tic p a r a b ol oi d or a hy p e rb ol oi d of t w o s h ee t s a cc o r d i n g
, ,
a s k i s l e s s th a n e qu a l t o or gr ea t e r th a n u n ity
, , .
16. A p oin t m ove s s o tha t i ts d i s ta n c e to a fi x ed p oin t b ea r s

to i ts d i s ta n c e to a fix e d l in e n ot thr ou gh th e p oi n t a c on s t an t
, ,
ra ti o . F i n d i ts l o cu s .
c onn e cti on with th e se e x e rci s e s E x s

5
E xer ci ses 1 7 — 1 9 . In ,
.
28 29 p
, ,
2 2 wi l l b e f ou nd u s e ful
. .
17 . F i n d th e l o cu s of a p o in t whi ch m ov es s o tha t i ts d i s ,
ta n c e s t o t w o s k e w l i n e s a r e a l wa y s i n th e s a m e r a ti o It ,
.
18 . P r ov e th a t a l i n e whi ch i s r ota t ed a b ou t a n a x i s s k e w
t o it g en e r a t e s a hyp er b ol oi d o f r ev ol u ti on of on e S h e e t ; cf .
Ex 1 3
. .
19 . Le t L fi x e d sk e w l in es a n d l et M an d M
an d L b e tw o
’ ’
b e tw o p l a n e s which p a s s thr ou gh L a n d L r e sp e ctiv e l y a n d

,
’
SO m o v e th a t th e y a r e a l w a y s m u t u a l l y e r e n d ic u l a r F i nd
p p .
th e l o cu s o fth e ir l i n e of in t e r s e cti on .
C HAP TE R X X IV
S P HE R I CAL AND CYL I NDR I CAL cooR DI NAr E s TR ANS

’
F OR M ATI ON O F COOR DINATES
1Sph eri cal Coor d inates

. G iv en a p o in t 0 , a r a y OA i s su
.
i n g fr om O , a n d a h a l f p l a n e m b ou n d ed by th e l i n e of th e r a y
-
OA Le t P b e a n y p o i n t o f s p a c e
. J o in P .
to O an d c on stru ct
ha l f p l a n e v d e t e r
th e -
, ,
m i n e d by OA a n d O P D en o t e th e d i sta n c e .
OP by r th e a n g l e A O P by 3 a n d th e a n gl e
, ,
fr om th e h a l f p l a n e m to th e h al f p l an e p by 0
- -
Th en (r 9 ) a r e th e sp h er i ca l coor di n a tes Of
,
' ‘
th e p o in t P .
F or a giv en v a l u e r o of th e r a d i u s v ector r, , ,
th e p oin t P l i e s on a s ph e r e wh ose c e n t e r i s
a t O a n d wh ose r a d i u s i s r : ro Th e a n gl e .
6 i s th e l ong i tu d e of P m ea su r e d fr om t h e
Em 1 ,
m
.
p r i m e m e r i d i a n a n d t h e a n g
,
l e t
a i s t h e
col a ti tu d e
( c om p l e m en t o f th e l a tit u d e
) a t l ea s t f or a p o in t P,
on th e u p p e r h a l f of th e s p h e r e .
Th e r a d iu s v e ct or r i s by d efi n iti on p os itiv e or z e r o Th e
, , .
c ol a titu d e 4; sha l l b e r e s trict e d to va l u e s b e tween 0 a n d i n 77
cl u s i v e : T
'
O 1<) T 7 .h e l o n g i tu d e 0 s h a l l b e u n r e s trict e d ; it
s h a l l b e t a k e n a s p o s itiv e if m e a su r e d i n th e d ir e cti on s h own ,
a n d a s n e g a tiv e if m ea s u r e d i n th e opp os it e d i r e cti on fi

“
,
I t i s p o ss i b l e t o d e fi r
n e sp h e i cal coo d i n a es so r t th t o qb o b oth
a r r r
ar e r tr t
a l s o u n es i c ed
. t
Sy s e m s of h ese ex e n d e d t t typ es a e n ot oft n r e
n cess a ry a n d wh e n
e ,
ex ce pti on al n ee d for th em occ rs th ey ca n e asi l y
u ,
b e i ntrod u ce d .
SP HE R I C AL AN D C YL IN D R I C AL C O O R D IN AT E S 55 8
It i s c l ea r tha t th e r c oo r d in a t e s of a giv en p oin t P

an d t
ea
-
a r e u n iqu e whi l e th e 9 c o or d i n a t e h a s i n fi n it e l y m a n y v a l u e s
'
, ,
e a ch t w o d iff e rin g by a n i n t e gr a l m l ti p e of2

l C on v e r s el y
u *
7r .
,
if r ,
9 a r e giv e n s u ch th a t r ,
O an d 0 qS a u n i q u e 7r ,
p o i n t P i s d e t e r m in e d .
L e t r o qSO 90 b e p a rtic u l a r v a l u e s o fr qS 9 su ch th a t r O
, ,
O , , ,
and O lo T h q ti r r t h r
5
<> e e
7r .u a o n r r O e p e s e n s a s p e e ,
wh os e c en t e r i s a t O a n d wh ose r a d iu s i s r o ; q qbo d efi n e s
on e n a p p e of a circ u l a r c on e wh o s e v e rt e x i s a t O a n d wh o s e
a x i s l i e s a l on g O A ; fi n a l l y 9 90 r e p r es e n t s a m e ri d i an hal f
p l a n e i s su i n g fr o m t h e l i n e o f O A .
Tr a nsfor ma ti on to a nd f m R ect
roa n gu l a r Co or d i n a tes . Le t
P be i t
a ny p o n c e wh os e c oor d in a t es r e f e rr e d to a sy s t e m
of S p a ,
of r e ct a n g u l a r L e t P h a v e th e s h eric a l
ax es ar e
( x y z
, ) , p
,
.
c oor d in a t e s (r ,qt 9) with r e s p e ct t o O

, ,
OA, and m, a s ch o s en i n th e fig u r e It i s .
cl ea r tha t
x = ON cos 9, y = ON s i n 9 ,
an d ON = r s i n c) f, z = r cos
H e n c e th e v a l u es of x , y, z in t e rm s of r ,
qb, 9 a re
x r si n ¢ cos 9, y = r si n ¢ si n 9,
1
( ) z r cos FI G 2
Si n c e r i s th e d i s t an c e fr om O to P :
( x , y ,
we hav e a l so tha t
2
( ) r
? 2
96 y
?
Z
2
EX E R C IS ES
1 . P l ot th e
p oin t s (2 (4 , ( a a)
8 , , t , t .
2 . F i n d th e r e ct a n g u l a r c oOr di n a te s of th e p oi n t s ofE x 1 . .
3 . F in d th e s p h e ric a l c oor d in a t e s of th e p oi n t s (0 2 O) , , ,
( 3,
4 , (2 2 , ch e c k i n,
g ea ch r e s u l t by a fig u r e .
it
I t i s t o b e n ot e d h oweve r th at fo every p oi nt P on th e li n e of 0 A
, , r
o i s n d eterm i n d a n d th t fo O i n p rti c l a r
u e a i s a l so
r n d et e rmi ne d a u u .
Cf Ch
. . x, 1 .
586 AN ALYT I C GE OM E TR Y
4 . What d o th e fol l owin g e qu a ti on s r e pr e sent
( ) = 7 ; ( )
b = 3 0
°
() 9 =
a r qb ; c
g
A
7r ;
( )
d t an 9 = 1 ; ( )
e ta n ¢= 1 ;
5F i. nd th e e qu ati on s in sp h e rical c oord ina tes ofth e foll ow

i ng su rfa c es :
( ) a Th e s ph e r e ofr a d iu s c en t e r a t O ; 5,
( )
b Th e m e ri d i an hal f p l an e ofl on gitu d e -
()
0 Th e c om p l et e p l an e d e t e r m in e d by thi s h al f p l an e ; -
( )
d Th e u pp e r n a p p e of th e circu l a r c on e wh o se v e rt ex is
at 0, wh ose ax s i is a l on g OA, an d wh os e g en e ra tin g an gl e is
() T
eh e l o w e r n a pp e ofth e c on e of
( )
d
(f) Th e c o n e Of ( )
d .
6 . Wha t d o th e fol l owin g p a ir s o fe qu a ti on s re pr esen t

( ) ( )
5
a d
( ) 9= § 7r 5 () e — 1r
;
()
c
( f) ta n 9 — 1, co s
2
¢
7 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on s in sp he rica l c oor d i na t es of th e fol
l owin g cu rv e s :
( ) a Th e s mal l circl e on th e ea r th of c ol a titu d e
( )
b Th e s e m icircl e on th e ea rth ofl on gitu d e
()
c Th e c om pl e t e circl e d e t e r m in e d by th e se m icirc l e of
( )
b
( )
d Th e r ay fr om O ofc ol a titu d e 6 0 a nd l on git u d e °
8 . D e t e r m i n e th e l o c u s of ea ch of th e f ol l owin g e qua ti on s
( ) a r =4 cos ¢; ( )
b r = 6 sec 4 > ;
F in d th e e qu a ti on s i n sp h e rical co Or d i na te s of th e fol l owi n g

su rfa c e s . I d e n tify e a ch su rfa c e .
9 . 9 . 13 . 3x + 2y = 0 .
10 2 z
14 3 — 4 = O
+ y
5
x e
52
. . .
l l . x
2
+y +
2
z
2 =4y 1 . x + = 0 .
12 . 4 013 2
y
z
) 9 2
2
36 . 16 . x
?
2 yz .
F in d th ecyl ind rica l c oor d i na t es of th e p oi nt s (3 4 ,
5
3 .
,
( ,
1 2 , (O O ch e c k i n g e a ch r e s u l t by a figu r e
, ,
.
4 Wha t d o th e fol l owin g e qu a ti on s r e p r e se n t

5
.
( )
a r = ; ( )
b ()
c ta n 9 = 1 .
5F i. nd th e e qua ti on s in cy l in d rica l c oor d in a t e s o f th e fol

l owi n g rfa c e s
su
( )
a Th e circ u l a r cy l in d e r Of r a d i u s 7 wh os e ax s i i s th e ax s i
ofz ;
( )
b Th e h a l f p l a n e b ou n d e d by
-
th e i
a x s of z , th e an gl e fr om
OA t oit b e in g
()
0 Th e c om p l e t e p l a n e d e t e r m i n e d by thi s h a l f p l a n e -
.
6 Wh a t d o th e f ol l owin g p a ir s ofe qu a ti on s r ep r ese n t

5
.
= 3, 9 =
( )
5
a r — 1r
; ( )
c 2 z ,
( )
b r = ,
z — 6 ; ( )
d 3 z
7 . F i n d th e e qu a ti on s in cyl in d rical c oor d in a t e s of th e

f ol l owin g cu rv e s
( )
a A n a rbitr a ry l i n e p a ra l l e l t o th e z a x i s ; -
T circ o f r a d i u s 3 wh o s e c e n t e r i s on th e z a x i s a n d
( )
5
b h e l e ,
-
wh os e p l a n e i s pa r al l el t o K a n d u n it s b el ow it ;
()0 A n a rbitr a ry ra
yp p e r e n d ic u l a r t o th e a x i s o fz a n d i s s u i n g
fr om a p oin t on it ;
( )
d T h e l i n e of thi s r a y .
8 D e t e r m in e th e l o cu s ofea ch ofth e f ol l o wi n g e qu a ti on s
5
.
( ) a r
2
+ z
2 = 9 ; ( )
b r = 4 si n 9 ; ()
c r si n 9= .
F i n d th e e qu a ti on s i n cyl in d rica l c oor d in a t e s of th e fol l ow

i ng su rfa c e s . I d e n tify e a ch su rfa c e .
9 Ex 9, 1 10 E x 1 0, 1 11 Ex 11, 1
5
. . . . . . . . .
12 Ex 1 3, 1 13 E x 1 4, 1 14 Ex 1 1
53 (
. . . . . .
,
. . .
)
2 2
1 . x + y 16 .
17 . P r ov eth a t a p l a n e thr ou gh OA ( F i g 1 ) . or Oz F i
( g )3 .
i s r e p r e se n t e d by th e s a m e e qu a t i on i n b oth Sp h e rical and
cy l in d rica l c oor d ina t e s .

SP HE R I C AL AN D C YL IN D R I C AL C O O R D IN AT E S 5
89
3 . Tr ipl y Or th ogonal Systems of Sur f aces C on s id e r th e .
thr e e s e t s or fa mi l i es Of p l an e s which ar e p a r a l l e l to th e co
, ,
o r d in a t e p l a n e s o f a Ca rt e s i a n s y s t e m Th e s e fa m il i e s of .
i e n t l y h a v e th e f ol l o wi n g p r op e rti es :a Thr u gh
p l a n e s ev d ( ) o
ea ch p o in t Of s p a c e th e r e p a s s e s j u s t on e p l a n e of ea ch fa m i l y ;
( )
b T w o p l a n e s o f d iffe r e n t fa m i l i es int e r s e ct a t right a n g l e s .
W e sa y th en tha t th e thr e e fa m il i e s o f p l a n e s f o r m a tr i p l y
, ,
o r th ogon a l sys tem o fp l a n es .
Th e e qu a ti on s of th e fa m il i es a r e r e s p e ctiv e l y
, ,
(n a = a y = L
wh e r e to, l , m rbitra ry c on s t an t s or p a ra meter s ea ch ta k
are a , ,
i n g on a n y v a l u e p o s itiv e z e r o or n e gativ e
, , ,
.
Sin c e th r ou g h a p o in t P : (x 0 yo zo
) th e r e p a s s j u s t thr e e
, ,
p l a n es on e,
fr o m e a ch f a m i l y n a m e l y th e p l a n e s x
,
x y : yo 0, ,
z zO a n d s in c e f u rth e r P i s t h e on l y p o in t which th e thr ee

, , ,
p l a n e s h a v e i n c o m m o n th e p os iti,
on o f P ca n b e th ou ght ofa s
d e t e r m in e d by th e thr e e p l a n es F r o m thi s p oi n t of vi e w
.
,
th en th e ba s i s of th e r e cta n gu l a r c oor d in a t e s y st e m i s se en to
,
b e th e tri p l y orth og on a l s y s t e m ofp l a n es
I n th e ca s e of a sy st e m of cy l in d rica l c oor d in a t e s c on s i d e r ,
th e thr e e fa m il i e s ofsu rfa c es

( )
2 T = k, z = m,
wh e r e Of ,
ra m e t e r s k l m It ca n n ot b e n e ga ti v e (or z e r o)
th e p a , , , ,
I m a y b e r e s trict e d to th e r a n g e o f v a l u e s : 0 l 2 and m 7r ,
i s u n r es trict e d .
Th e fir s t fa m i l y Of su rfa c es c on s i s t s of th e
circu l a r cyl in d e r s with th e a x i s of z a s a x i s
th e s e c on d f a m i l y i s m a d e u p ofth e h a l f p l a n e s -
i s su in g fr om th e a x i s of z ; a n d th e thir d of ,
th e p l an e s p e r p en d ic u l a r t o th e a x i s of z It .
i s e a s il y s een th a t thr ou gh ea ch p oi n t of s p a c e ,
w ith th e e x c e p ti on ofth os e on th e z a x i s th e r e -
p a s se s j u s t on e s u rf a c e o f e a ch f a m i l y a n d ,
th a t tw o su rfa c e s ofd i fie r en t fa m i l i es in t e r se ct F G 4 I .
o rthog ona l l y . W e sa y , th en tha t ,
th e thr e e fa m il i e s fo rm a
tr ip ly or th ogona l sys t em ofsu rfa ces .
A p oi n t P :
( ro, 90 , zo
) ,
n ot on th e z ax i s ,
-
*
i s th e si n
gl e i
p nt
o
i t r cti on ofth e thr ee su rfa c es r r0 9 90 z z0 which

of n e se , , ,
p a ss thr ou gh it Th u s th e b a s i s of cy l i n d ric a l c o or d i n a t es i s
.
th e tri p l y orth og on a l s y s t e m of s u rfa c e s
EX E R C IS E
Writ e th e e qu ati on s ofth e thr e e fa m i l i es ofsu rfa c e s p e cu l i a r

t o a s p h e rica l c o or d i n a t e s y s t e m D e s crib e e a ch fa m il y an d .
d r a w a figu r e s h owin g thr e e su rfa c es on e fr om e a ch fa m i l y , ,
the ir cu rv e s of in t e r se cti on a n d th e ir c omm on p oin t P r ov e .
tha t th e thr e e fam il i es c on s titu t e a tri pl y orth og on al sy s t e m

Of su rfa c e s a n d sh o w tha t thi s s y s t e m can b e c on si d e r ed a s th e
ba si s ofSp h e rical c oor d in a t e s .
4 . Confocal Q u adri cs . C on s i d e r th e q u ad ric s

2 2
x z
1 + +
a
2 —
k b 2 — k c
2 —
lc
2
x
( )
2
2 + c < l < b ’
a
2 — l b2 —
l l — 0
2
( )
3 b < m<
‘ ’
3
a ,
— m m — N
’
m — d
wh e r e a, b, itiv e c on s tan t s su ch tha t a b c an d

c ar e p o s
k l m a r e p a r a m e t e r s s u bj e ct t o th e giv en r e s tricti on s
, , .
Th e su rfa c es (1 ) a r e a l l e l l i p s oi d s ; th e su rfa c e s al l
hype rb ol oid s ofon e sh ee t op en in g ou t a l on g th e a x i s ofz ; an d

t h e s u rfa c e s a l l hy p e rb ol o i d s of tw o sh ee t s cu ttin g th e
a x i s ofx .
Th e c oord in a t e p l an e s a r e th e p rin ci pa l p l a n e s Of a l l th e
To re m ve th i s ce pti n a dd t o th e fam i l y of cy l i nd ers
it
o ex o , k 0 ,
r ,
t h e axi s fz o 0 Th r gh a p oi n t P of th i s a i p ss es th en on e
,
r . ou x s a , ,
s rf
u a ce e a ch f rom th fir t and th i rd fam i li es a nd every s rfa ce of th e
e s ,
u
s e co nd H oweve r al l th e e s rfa es h ave b t th on e p oi nt P i n c om

.
,
s u c u e
m on a n d h e n ce ca n b e cons i d ere d as d ete rm i n i ng th e p osi ti on ofP .

EX E R C IS E
Sh ow tha t th e e qu a ti on
2
”
+ 2 z A
x — A m — A
wh r e e A is . a p a r a m ete r n ot
a ta k in g
an d b on th e val u es 2 2
,
r ep r esen t s thr ee fa mi l i e s of pa ra b ol oi d s d efi n e d by th e i n
e q a iti es A
l A a a A D e s crib e ea ch fa m i l y
2 2 2 2
u b b , ,
.
a n d s h o w th a t th e se c ti on s o f a l l th e s u rfa c e s by th e c om m on
ri ci — a r e c on f oca l
p n p a l p l a n es — th e
(y )
z a n d ( z x )p l a n e s , ,
-
p a r a b ol a s with t h e a x i s of z a s a x i s T h e s u rfa c es a r e k n ow n .
a s conf oca l p a r a bol oi d s Th ey for m a tri pl y orth og ona l sy s te m

. .
TRA N S F ORM A TI ON OF C o oR D I N A TE S
5T . r ansfmati on to Par al l el Ax es TO tr a n SfO I m fr om a

or .
.
-
s y s t e m o f r e cta n gu l a r ax es t o a n e w s y s t e m ofa x es h a v in g th e
sa m e d ir e cti on s as th e ol d , bu t with a di f
fe r en t rigin c on s id e r a
o , p o n i t P wh ose
c oor d in a t e s with r e sp e ct to th e tw o s y s t e m s
ar e r e sp e ctiv el y (x y z)
, , , ,
and (x
’
, y
’
,
Th en
( )
1
0)
FI G 6 x
’
”
f 9
'
y yo:
.
( )
2
Z Oa
wh e r e (a o yo zo) a r e th e c oor d in a t e s Of
, ,
th e n ew o rigi n , O ’
,
r e fe rr ed to th e ol d a x e s ; of Ch X I 1 . .
,
.
E xa mp l e . Wha t su rfa c e is r ep r e sen t ed by th e e qu a ti on

( )
3 2 3 — 4 — 4
+ 6y+4 — 8 = O?
‘
2 3 ?
x + y z x z
C om p l e tin g su cc e s s iv el y th e s qu a r e s of th e t er m s in x, y,
and z, we ha v e
2 (
x 3 (y 4 (
z 12 .
On se ttin g
93 — 1 , z
’
= z
T R AN SFO R M AT I O N O F C ooR D I N ATE s 593
tha t i s, tran s f or m i n g to pa ra l l el ax e s with

on th e new o rigin
at th e p oi n t ( 1 1 th,
e e q u a ti on b e c om e s
,
2 x
’2
+ 3y
’2 — 4 z
’2
= 12 .
E qu a ti on th u s s e en to r e p r e sen t a hy p e rb ol oid of on e
( )
3 i s
s h e e t wh o s e c e n t e r i s a t 1 1 ) a n d wh ose a x es a r e r
( t p a a l l e l , ,
to th e c oor d in a t e a x e s Th e hy p e rb ol oi d op en s ou t i n th e .
d ir e cti on Of th e a x i s of z a n d th e s e m i a x es of th e m in i mu m -
e l l ip se h av e th e l e n gth s V6 a n d 2 .
EX E R C IS ES
D e t e r m in e an d d ra w
r ou gh l y th e su rfa c e r e p r e s en t ed
ea ch Of th e f ol l owi n g e qu a ti on s
1 . z
2 — 4 x
2 . 9y 2 — 4 z
2
+ 36 y + 8 z — 4 = O .
—
+ 2y + 3 4 + 8y
?
3 . 2 x
2 2 z x
x
2 — —
3y I z 2 2 -
3y + 4z + 4
2 2
x
2 x 2
+ 4y
2 — 3 z
2 —
8 x — 24 y — 30 z
2 x
2 — 16 z
+ 2 y + 6z — 2
2 2 2
x x
2 x
2 — 47 —O .
10 — 2
2
xz — 2 x
.
y
6 . R otati on ofth e Ax es . Thr ou gh th e rigin O ofth e u su al

o
ri
( g h t h a n d-
e d ) s y s t e m of x y z ) a x e s
( , ,
-
,
ch oose a rbitra ril y t h r ee
mu t u a ll y p e rp en d icu l a r d ir e ct e d l in e s t o
s e r v e a s th e a x e s Of a n e w ( right h a n d e d ) -
s y s t e m Of c oor d i n a t es (x L h ’ ’
y e t t e , ,
d ir e cti on a n gl e s ofth e a x i s ofx r e f e rr e d

’
to th e ol d s y s t e m b e a l 8 1 7 1 l e t th ose , , , , ,
of th e a x i s o f y b e m y 8 2 7 2 a n d th o se
’
, , , ,
ofth e a x i s Of z
’
a 3 83
73 , , , ,
.
Le t a n a rbitra ry p o in t P of sp a c e
'
FI G . 7
hav e c oor d i na t e s (x y z) a n d (
th e , ,
’
x , y,
’
z
’
) with r e s p e ct t o th e
tw o sy s t e m s J o in O to P by th e
. tw o br ok en l in es OM N P
OM N P wh e r e
’ ’
an d ,
OM = x, MN z
y, N P = z ;
Th en
( )
1 P r oj . OM + P roj M N + P r O j N P . .
P r oj OM + P r oj M N
’
+ P r oj N P ,
’ ’
. . .
no m a tt e r on wha t d ir e ct ed l in e th e p r oj e cti on s a r e ta k en .
C h oosin g th e p o s itiv e a x es ofx

y a n d z i n t u r n a s thi s d ir e ct
, e d,
l in e , w e ha v e
x = x
’
co s a , +y
’
co s a 2 +
’
z cos (la,
’ ’ ’
y x co s 8
, 1 y c os 8
, 2
z co s 8 3,
,
’ ’
z x co s y co s z co s
7 1 W 73 .
H e re cos I — th e c oeffici en t s Of —
’
c os x l , cos 8
, 1, Y x are th e
d ir e cti on c os in e s o fth e a x s ofx i those of
’
; cos co s 82 ,
,
cos x
7 2,
a x i s Of y ; an d th ose Of th e i
’
th e cos a3, co s B 3, cos
7 3, ax s
of z
’
. Le t us d en ot e th e se
c osin e s for th e sa k e d ir e cti on ,
Of
b r e v I ty b y AI I‘l V1 9 2 [ 2 V2 A3 “ 3 V3 r e s p e ct i v el y
.
) 7 l ) ) 1 ) ) ) ; )
.
Sin c e th e s e tr i p l e s o f n u m b e r s a r e d ir e cti on c os i n e s a n d ,
m o r e ov e r d ir e cti on c os in e s of thr ee m u t u a l l y p e r p en d ic u l a r
,
l in e s w e ha v e
,
912
“ 1
2
VI
2
1, AI X2 I " “
P I F2
' ' V1 V2 O:
( )
3 A2 2
”9
2
V2
2
A2 )\
3 I " ’
“ 29 0
3
“
I ”
V2 V3
A3 2
M3
2
v3
?
A3A1 N a, y 3 v1 0 ,
Si n c e th ethr ee d ir e ct e d l i n es for m a right h an d ed sy ste m i t -
fol l ow s by E x 1 9 a t th e en d of Ch X VI I I tha t th e d ete r mi

. .
n an t Of th e ir d ir e cti on c os in es h a s th e v a l u e p l u s on e
( )
4
E qu a ti on s 3r
( ) c om pl e t el y th e fa ct tha t th e
and ( )
4 ex p ess
thr ee giv en l i ne s thr ou gh O which se rve a s th e n e w ax e s ar e

d ir e ct e d m u tu al l y p e r p en d icu l a r l in es f or m in g a righ t h an d ed
,
-
sy s t e m .
Su b stitu tin g t h ese v al u e s for x, y, z in ( 7 an d s i m p l ifyin g th e

r e su l t ,
we obta in
Thi s e qu a ti on r ep r e sen t s an el l i p s oid of r ev ol u ti on ab ou t

th e z a x i s a s a x i s H en c e (7 r e p r ese n t s a n e l l i p soi d Of r e v o
’
-
.
l u ti on wh os e a x i s i s th e l i n e thr ou gh 0 with th e d ir e cti on

c om p on en t s 2 2 1 , ,
.
E xa mp l e 2 . Wha t su rfa c e is r ep r e s en t e d by th e e q u a ti on
2 2 2 —
( )
8 13 x 4 13 y + 10 z + 8 xy 4 yz — 4 xz
— 10 x + 26 y
W e m a k e th e tra n s for m a ti on to p a ra l l e l a x es
( )
9
a i m i n g to ch oose th e n ew origin (x yo zO) s o th a t i n th e e qu a 0, ,
ti on r e su l tin g fr om ( 8) th e l in ea r t e r m s i n x y z d o n ot ’
,
'
,
’
a p p ea r Su b s titu tin g th e v a l u e s ofx y z giv en by (9 ) in t o

.
, ,
c ol l e ctin g t e r m s an d th en s e ttin g th e c oeffici en t s of x y

,
'
,
’
,
a n d z e q u a l t o z e r o w e ob tai n th e e q u a ti on s
’
5
,
13 x
0 + 4 y0
— 2 z0 = O,
4 wo + l g yo
x0 + y0
Th e s e e qu a ti on s h a v e a un iqu e sol u ti on ,
n a mel y ,
x0 1,
1) Z 0 2 °
I f ( 8) i s tr an s for m ed t o p a ra l l el a x e s with th e n e w origin at
th e p o i n t ( 1 1 2 ),
th u s d e t e r m i n e
,
d it b e c o m e s ,
36 : 0
’ ’
13 x ’2
13 y ’2
+ 1 Oz
’2
8x y ’ ’
4y z — 4 x z
’ ’
.
Bu t thi s i s th e sam e e qu a ti on i n x y z a s (7 ) i s i n x y z ’
,
’
,
'
, ,
.
H en c e ( 8) r e p r e se n t s a n e l l i p s oi d of r ev ol u ti on wh ose c en t e r i s
a t th e p oi n t (1 1 2 ) a n d wh ose a x i s Of r ev ol u ti on h a s th e
, ,
d ir e cti on c om p on en t s 2 2 1 , ,
.
T R AN SF O R M AT I O N O F C ooR D IN ATE S 5
97
E xa mp l e 3 . C on s i d e r an e qu a ti on in which on l y on e Of th e
ter m s in xy, yz , zx i s p r e s e n t , for ex a m p l e , th e e qu a ti on
1 — — z2
‘
( )0 2 3
x y
— 2 yz
Th e t e r m thi s e q u a ti on can b e r e m ov e d by r ota t i n g

i n yz i n
th e y a n d z a x e s a b ou t th e a x i s o f x thr ou gh a su it a b l e a c u t e
-
an gl e 9 ; th a t i s by a pp l ica ti on ofth e tra n s f or m a ti on

,
( )
1 1 x = x
’
y = y
’
cos 9 — z’ si n 9, cos 9
5
, .
Acc or d in g to C h X I I , .
,
th e d e s ir e d a ng l e 9 is Tra n s
for m in g ( 1 0 ) by th e r otati on of a x e s wh e r e 9 we
obta i n
x
'2
— '2
1 O
y .
T h i s e qu a ti on ca n be writt en i n th e f or m
( x
’ —
(y
’
V2 ) 2
an d h en c e be c om es
y
I /2
= fi z
"
,
w hen r e fe rr e d to a x es thr ou gh th e p oin t ( ,

1 V2 V2 ) ,
r
p a a l l el
a x e s ofx
’ ’ ’
t o th e , y ,
z .
f ol l ow s then th a t (1 0) r e p r e sen t s a h yp erb ol i c p a ra b ol oid

It , ,
w h ose v e rtex r e fe rr ed to th e (x y z ) a x e s i s a t th e p oin t

,
’
,
’
,
’
-
( 1 V,
2 2 )
,
a n d wh o s e a x i s i s p a r a l l e l t o th e ax i s ofz
’
.
R ema r k Th e g en e r al m e th od of pr oc e du r e t o d e t e r m i n e
.
th e su rfa c e r e p r e s e n t e d by a n e qu a ti on Of th e s e c on d d e gr ee i n
x y z i s th a t ofE x a mp l es 1 a n d 2 ; th e e qu a ti on i s fir s t tr a n s
, ,
f or m ed by a ch an g e of origin t o r e m ov e th e l in ea r t e r m s i n
x y z a n d i s th en su bj e ct e d t o a r o t a ti on of th e a x e s t o g e t
, ,
r i d Of th e t e r m s i n xy yz zx Thi s m e th od c a nn ot b e a p p l i ed
, ,
.
,
h ow e v e r to e qu a ti on ( 1 0) ofE x a m p l e 3 for i t i s i m p ossibl e to

, ,
tran s f or m ( 1 0) s o tha t th e l in ea r t e r m s d i sa p p ea r Si n c e if thi s , ,
w e r e p os s ibl e th e su rfa c e w ou l d b e sy mm e tric i n th e n ew

,
o rigin (E x 1 1 a t th e e n d of th e ch a p t e r ) wh e r ea s w e kn o w
.
,
tha t a p a r a b ol oi d h a s n o p oi n t Of sy m m e try Acc o rd in g l y .

,
i n E x a m p l e 3 a n d i n s i m i l a r cas e s th e a x e s a r e fir s t r ota t ed to ,
r em ov e th e t e r m s i n xy yz zx a nd th en a p r op e r chang e , , of
o rigin a s su gg e s t e d by th e n e w e qu a ti on i s m a d e
, ,
.
EX E R C IS ES
1 . F in d th e
qu a ti on s of th e r ota ti on of th e a x e s whi ch
e
i n tr odu c e s th e tw o d ir e ct ed l in e s thr ou gh O with th e d ir e cti on

c os in e s t} 9, a n d é} a s th e a x es ofx a n d y r e s p e ctiv e l y
’ ’
, g , .
F in d th e e qu a ti on s of a r ot a ti on Of th e a x e s w h i ch
'
2 .
tr od u ce s th e p l a n es ,
2 x 2 x +y — 2 z = O,
as th e ( x
’
, y)
'
(y
'
, z
’
) an d (
z, x
’
) p l a n e s ,
r e sp e ctiv el y .
3 . F in d th e e qu a tion s of a r ota ti on of th e a x e s which in

tr od u ce s th e p l an es
12 x +3y -
4 z = 0
' ’
th e ( (y l
'
an d
’
as x , y ) ,
z
) p a n e s .
4 . Tra n sf or m th e e qu a ti on Of th e hy p e rb ol ic pa a r b ol oid
£13 2
y
2
2 mz
by a r ota ti on of th e x an d y
-
ax e s thr ou gh an a n gl e of 4 5 °
a b ou t th e a x i s ofz . An s . x
'
y
'
mz '
D e t e r m i n e th e su rfa c e r ep r e se n t ed by ea ch of th e f oll owin g

qu a ti on s
55 5
e .
+ 4 2
+ 2 2 — 6
5
y. x z xy
6 3 2 — 2 2 — z
2
. x y
7 . x
2 — 2 2
y + z
2 — 2 xz — x + 3z — 3 = O .
8 Tran s fo r m th e e qu a ti on ofth e s u rfa c e

5
.
x —
2
2 y + 11 2
z
2
+ 12 xy + l 2 yz 14 = O
by th e r ota ti on of th e a x es of Ex 1 . . Thu s id en tify th e su r
fa c e .
9 Th e e qu a ti on
.
1 0 x + 1 3 y + 1 3 z — 4 xy
2 2 2 — 1 O yz — 4 xz — 36 y + 36 z = 0
W es ta t e with ou t p r o of th e fol l owin g the or em s

, ,
THEOREM 1 If equ a ti on (1 ) r ep r esents a s u rfa ce

.
,
a nd if
D :
e 0,
f th e f
s u r a ce mm e tis
r i c i n j
sy u s t on e p oi n t If D : 0 ,
.
th er e i s i n gen er a l n o p o i n t of y s m m et r y ,
a n d w h e n th ere i s on e,
th er e are i nfi ni tely m a ny .
THEOREM 2 If equ a ti on (1 ) r ep r esen ts a su rf

. a ce a nd i f
D O, th e s u rfa ce i s symmetr i c i n th r ee m u tu a l ly p erp end i cu l a r
p l a n es , a nd th es e a r e, i n ge ner a l , a ll th e p l a nes f
o mm e tsy
r y . If
D = O, i t i s . sy mmetr i c i n tw o p erp en d i cu l a r p l a n es a nd th es e
ar e, i n genera l , a ll th e p l a n es ofsym metry .
It i s cl ea r fr om th e se th eor e m s tha t i n d i s cu s s in g e qu a ti on ,
tw o e s se n tia l l y d i f
fe r en t cases a ri se a cc or d in g a s q O ,
or D 0 .
Ca se 1 D 4:0 A su rfa c e d efi n e d by a n
. . qu a ti on of th e e
f or m ( 1 ) for which D 0 i s s y m m e tri c i n a u n iq u e p oi n t O

’
,
by Th 1 Th e c oor d in a t e s of 0 can b e f ou n d by th e m e th od
. .
'
of E x a m p l e 2 6 A tra n s f or m a ti on to p a ral l el a x e s with

, .
th e n e w o rig i n a t O r e m ov es th e l i nea r t e r m s i n
'
l ea v e s th e
qu ad ra tic t e r m s u n cha n g ed an d a s can b e sh own m a k es th e , , ,
c on stan t t e r m in t o A D Thu s (1 ) b e c om es .
( )
2 Ax ’2
By '2
Cz
'2
+2 A y z
' ’ ’
2B ’
x z
' '
2 Cxy ’ ' ’
A/D=O .
Sin c e D rfa c e i s by Th 2 sy m m e tric i n thr ee

0 , th e su ,
.
,
mu tu a l l y p e r p e n d icu l a r p l a n e s wh os e c om m on p oi n t S in c e i t ,
i s a p oi n t of sy m m e try m u s t b e O To d e t e r m i n e fr om e qu a
,
'
.
ti on s (1 ) or (2 ) th e p r e ci se p os iti on s of th e se p l an e s thr ou gh
O i s a p r ob l e m Of i n tri n s ic d iffi
’
cu l ty which w e Shal l n ot
a tt e m p t t o d i s cu s s Wh en on c e th e p os iti on s a r e kn own h ow
'
,
.
ev e r a r o t a ti on ofth e a x e s which bri n g s th e c o or d i n a t e p l an e s

,
i n t o c oin cid en c e with th e m s e r v e s e ith e r i mm ed ia t el y or ,
e v en tu a l l y t o r e m o v e th e t e r m s i n y z
’ ’ ’ '
an d x y i n
’ '
,
z x , ,
of E x
. 1 2 a t th e e n d Of th e ch a p t e r
. W e Obta in th en th e .
, ,
fi na l e qu a ti on
”2 " 2 ”z
I
( ) ax by ez A/D 0 .
T R AN SF O R M AT IO N O F C ooR D IN ATE S 601
F or thi s e qu a ti on D ,
a bc a n d h en c e si n c e , D 0, no On e of
th e c oeffici e n t s a b 0 , ,
ca n be ze o r .
IfA 0 , (I ) a nd h en ce ( )
1 r ep r es en ts a qu a d r i c (a n
cen tr a l
e l l ip so i d or h yp er bol oi d ) or , in ca s e a , b, c, A/D a r e a ll of th e
sa me s i gn , i t h a s no l ocu s fi “
IfA O, (I ) a nd h en ce ( 1 ) r ep res en ts a con e, or , in ca se a , b, c
a r e a ll o fth e sa me si gn, a p oi n t .
Ca se 2 D 0 A . .
q ti on of th e
su rfa c e d efi n e d by an e ua
f or m (1 ) for which D 0 h a s i n g en e r a l n o p oin t Of s y mm e try
( Th a.n d h e n c e it i s i n g e n e r a l i m p os s ib l e t o tr a n s f o r m t o
p a r a l l el a x e s s o tha t th e l in e a r t e r m s i n (1 ) d i sa p p ea r Th e r e .
a r e h ow e v e r
, a t l eas t tw o m u tu a l l y p e r p e n d icu l a r p l a n es of
,
s y mm e try by Th 2 ,I fth e p os iti on s of tw o su ch p l an es a r e

. .
k n o wn a r ota ti on of th e a x e s wh e r eby tw o of th e c oor d i n a t e

,
p l an e s b e c om e r esp e ctiv e l y pa ra l l el to th e m s e rv e s e ith e r i m ,
m ed i a t el y or e v e n tu a l l y t o r e m ov e th e t e r m s i n yz zx a n d xy , , ,
i n ( 1 ) of E x 1 3 a t th e e n d ofth e ch a p t e r
. . Thu s (1 ) b e c om e s
. .
F :O
’2 ’2 ”
( )
" ' "
3 ax by cz
’2
2 a x
'
2b y 2 c z
’
.
F or thi s e qu a ti on i c e D 0 a bc 0 N ow
,
D a bc, a n d , s n ,
.
a b c a r e n ot a l l z e r o
, , s i n c e o th e rwi s e a n d h en ce ,
w ou l d n ot b e a qu ad r a tic e qu a ti on Tw o c a s e s th en a ri se .
,
a cc o r d in g a s on e or tw o ofth e c o e f fici en t s a b c van i sh , ,

.
A O n e of th e coefi
. i ci ents a b c v a ni sh es Sin c e (3 ) b ea r s , ,
.
e q u a l l y on x y z it i s i mm a t e ri a l which on e o fth e c oeffi ci en t s

’ ' ’
, ,
a b c w e a s su m e t o b e z e r o
, , Su p p os e th a t c O .
ax
’2
by
’2
2 a
”
x
’
2 b y ” ’
2 c z
” ’
F : O, a b qt :0 .
By c han g e of origin
a to th e p oin t a
f a, — b /,
b thi s
e qu a ti on b e c om e s
( I l a
) ax
”2
by
”2
2 c z
” ’
=
+ f O, ab 0 .
it red u ci ng ( 1 ) to th e form ( I ) i t w as ass med th at ( 1 ) represents

In ,
u
a su rf a ce th e m eth od ofr e d u cti on i s q i te t h e sa m e h oweve r i f ( 1 ) h as u ,
n o l ocus Si m i l a rl y th e m e th od ofre d cti n i n cas e 2 i s a lway s a p pli ca

.
, u o
b l e b oth wh e n ( 1 ) rep rese nts a su rfac e as ass u med a nd w h en i t d oes n ot

, , , .
F or ( ),
I I a A a bc
”2
and h en c e A 0 or A 0 a cc or d in g ,
as c
”
0 or c
”
0 . I fc ”
0 a ch an g e of origi n to th e p oi n t
,
( 0 ,
O, f/2 redu ce s (1 1 a ) to
”2 ” ”
ax by
”2
2 c z 0, ab 0 .
I fe ”
0 , (H a ) b e c om e s
= #=0
”2 ”2
ax + by + f O, ab .
H en c e we c on c l u d e th e f ol l ow i n g
IfA 0 , (1 1 a ) a nd h en ce ( 1 ) r ep r esen ts a p a ra boloi d ( ell ip ti c
or h yp er boli c) .
If A = O, ( I l a
) a nd h en ce ( )
1 r ep r esents , i n th e ca s e f 0,
a n ell ip ti c or h yp er bol i c cyl i n d er , or i t has no l ocu s ; i ff 0, i t
r ep r es en ts two i n ter s ecti ng p l a nes or a li n e .
Two of th e fi
‘
B . coe i ci ents a, b, c va n i s h . H ere a ga in it is
i mm a t e ria l which tw o Of th e thr ee c oeffici en t s w e a s su m e to
b e z ero .Su p p os e tha t b c O
a #=0 .
By achan g e of origin to th e p oin t a

”
/ a, O, O) by a
an d
p r op e r r o ta ti on Of th e a x es a b ou t th e i
a x s of x
’
thi s e qu a tion
b e c om e s
( )
I I b ax
”2
2 dz ”
f: 0 , a 0 .
H e r e A i s a l wa y s ze o r . E qu a ti on (I I b) , a nd h en ce r ep re
se nts a p a ra bol i c cyl i n d er , if d 0; i fd 0, i t r ep r es en ts tw o
p a ra l l el p l a n e s ,
a s i ngl e p l a ne, or h as no l ocu s .
S u mma ry Th e n e w ty p e s of l o ci ofe qu a ti on s of th e for m

.
which h av e r e su l t e d fr om thi s in v e s tig a ti on a r e :

( )
1 ,
i) A p oin t — which i s a l i m itin g for m ofa n el l i p soi d a n d i s

,
fr e qu en tl y sp ok en of i n thi s c on n e cti on a s a nu l l ell ip soi d I t

, ,
.
i s to b e n ot e d fr om th e d i s cu s s i on Of (I ) th a t th e c orr e sp on d
, ,
i n g l i m itin g f or m ofa hy p e rb ol oi d i s a c one .
ii) Tw o in t e r s e ctin g p l an es a l in e t w o pa ral l el p l ane s or a

, ,
s in g l e p l a n e a l l o fwhich a r e l i m itin g f o r m s of cy l in d e r s
, W e .
s h a l l ca ll th e m d ege ner a te cy l i n d er s ; tw o in t e r s e cti n g p l a n e s ,
a d e g en e r a te hyp e rb ol ic cy l in d e r ; a l i n e a d e g en e r a t e or nul l
( ) ,
5 .
26 w— 14 y — 18 2 — IS = O .
6 .
— 8 yz + 8 xz — 2 xy
— 42 x + 1 8 y
— 1 2 z =0 .
7 . Th e rfa c e (3 ) i s s y m m e tric i n thr ee p l an e s wh ose

su
n or m a l s h a v e th e d ir e cti on c om p on en t s 6 — 3 2 2 6 3 , , , , , ,
-
3 — 2 6
, ,
D e t e r m i n e th e p r e ci se n a tu r e a n d p os iti on of
.
th e su rfa c e .
8 . Th e su rfa c e (4 ) i s s y mm e tric i n thr e e l i n e s wh ose d i r ec

ti on c om p on en t s a r e 2 — 1 — 1 O 1
, , ,
1,
1 1 1
,
-
De , , ,
.
t e r m i n e i ts p r e ci s e n a tu r e a n d p os iti on
5
.
9 . Th e s u rfa c e ( ) i s s y mm e tric i n tw o p l a n es wh o se
n o r ma l s ha v e th e d ir e cti on c om p on e n t s 1 1 2 3 1 1
, , , , ,
.
D e t e r m in e i ts p r e ci s e n a tu r e a n d p os iti on .
10 . Tw o p rin ci p a l p l a n e s Of th e su rfa c e (6 ) a r e p a ra l l e l
r e sp e ctiv el y to th e p l an e s
x — y+ z = Q x + y = Q
D e t e r m in e th e p r e ci se na u t re and p os iti on o f th e s u rfa c e .
EX E R C IS ES O N C HAPTE R X X I V
1 . P r ov e th a t a cu rv e d su rfa c e wh o s e e q u a ti on i n s p h e rica l
c oor d i n a t es d oe s n ot c on ta i n r i s a c on e with th e p ol e a s v e rt ex .
2 . Sh ow tha t a c u r v e d su rfa c e wh ose e qu a ti on i n s p h e rica l

c oor d in a t e s d oe s n ot c on ta in 9 i s a su rfa c e of r ev ol u ti on .
Wha t i s i ts a x i s ?
3 . P r ov e tha t a cu r v e d s u rfa c e wh ose e qu a ti on i n cy l i n d r i
ca l c oor d i n a t e s d o es n o t c on ta i n z i s a cy l i n d e r .
4 . Sh o w th a t a cu rv e d su rfa c e wh os e e q u a ti on i n cy l i n d r i
ca l c oo r d i na t e s d oe s n ot c on ta i n 9 i s a su r fa c e ofr e v ol u ti on .
TR A N S F ORM A TI ON OF AX E S
5P r. o v e tha t th e tra n s for ma ti on to n e w a x e s thr ou gh 0

wh ose d i r e ct i on c os 1 n e s a r e a e , 5e a g 5
1 2
: 2 2
,
1
1 8 7
, , ,
7
T R AN SFO R M AT I O N O F C o oR D i N ATE S 60 5
id en tic al with a r ota ti on Of th e o rigina l a x e s a b ou t th e l in e
x y z thr ou gh
Su gg e s ti on Sh ow th a t th e e q u a ti on s Of tr a n s f or m a ti on a r e
.
e qu iv a l e n t to th o se c onn e cti n g th e c oor di na t e s Of t w o o in t s

p
s y m m e tric i n th e l i n e .
6 F in d th e e q u a ti on s of th e tra n sfor m a ti on which i n tr o

.
d u c e s a s a x e s th e thr e e m u tu a l l y p e r p en d icu l a r l i n e s thr ou gh

th e p oi n t (x0 yo zo) with th e d ir e cti on a n g l e s a l
, , B, y, , , ,
“ 27 B 2) 7 2) “ 3 :18 3 ; 7 3 '
7 . Se t up th e e qu a ti on s of a r ota ti on of th e a x es which
in tr od u c e s th e p l an e x y z O a s th e (x y) p l a n e ,
-
.
8 D e t e r m i n e th e p r e ci se n a t u r e of th e cu rv e of i n te r sec
.
ti on ofth e p l an e x y z O with th e su rfa c e

x 2 — x
y + yz — zx -
x -
y
-
z = 0 .
Su gg e s ti on . r e su l t ofE x 7
U s e th e . .
9 . A l in e of s y m m e try Of th e s u rfa c e
xy + yz + xz = 2
i s th e l in e x =y= z . D e t e r m i n e th e p r e ci s e na u t re of th e
su rfa c e .
10 . A p l an e o fs y mm e try o fth e s u rfa c e

— xz — x +y — z = 0
i s th e p l a n e x y 2 z 0 . Wha t i s th e ex a ct t r
n a u e o f th e
su rfa c e
Sh ow tha t if a qu a d ric su rfa c e i s sy m m e tric i n th e or i ‘
11 .
,
i n i t s e q u a ti on c on t a i n s n o l in ea r t e r m i n x y z a n d con
g , , , ,
v er s el y .
12 . A qu a d ric su rfa c e i s sy mm etric i n e a ch ofth e c oor d ina t e

p l a nes . P r ov e th a t e ith e r th e e qu a ti on of th e su rfa c e i s
Of th e for m
d x 2
+ by 2
ez
z
d,
or tha t th e su rfa c e c on si s t s of tw o c oor d i n a t e p l an e s . Sh ow

th a t i n th e l a tt e r ca se th e e qu a ti on ca n b e r ed u c ed to th e
d e s ir e d for m by r ota tin g tw o of th e ax e s ab ou t th e third
thr ou gh a n a n g l e of4 5
°
13 . A qu a d ric su rfa c e i s sy mm e tric i n t w o p l an es which

a r e p a r a ll e l to or i d e n tic a l with t w o c o or d i na t e p l a n e s
. Sh ow
tha t e ith e r th e t e r m s i n yz zx xy d o n ot a pp ea r i n th e e qu a ti on
, ,
o fth e s u rfa c e o r th e su rfa c e it se l f c on s i s t s of tw o p l a n e s of
th e ty p e d e s crib e d . P r ov e th a t i n th e l a tt e r ca s e th e t e r m s
i n yz zx xy ca n b e r e m ov e d fr om th e e qu a ti on by r ota tin g tw o
, ,
ofth e a x e s a b ou t th e thir d thr ou gh a n a n g l e of
14 . Sh o w tha t if a qu a d ric s u rfa c e i s s y m m e tric i n a coOr d i

,
n a t e p l n e or i n a p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o a c oor d in a t e p l an e i t s
a ,
e qu a ti on c on t a in s i n gen er a l a t m o s t on e Of th e thr ee t e r m s
, ,
i n yz zx xy When d oe s th e ex c e p ti on o ccu r
15
,
.
,
. P r ov e tha t th e c on c l u s i on of th e p r e vi ou s e x e rci s e fol

l ow s i f th e su rfa c e i s s y mm e tric i n a c oor d in a t e a x i s or i n a
l in e p a ra l l e l to a c oor d in a t e a x i s
. When d oe s th e ex c e p tion
o ccu r i n thi s c a se
6 08 IN D E X
r p i t li 5 r t p
5
fou o n s e o n a ci r cl e ,
39 , 39 8 ; a d i a m e te a n d a di a m e r a l l a n e
p i t li b e c o nj u g a e t
5
si x o n s e o n a c o ni c 3 9 8 ; , 71 ; ,
pr t r
5
t w o li n e s b e a all el , 3 6 , 4 , 4 6 , h ree di a m e te s be c o n j u g a te ,
4 02 ; 73
p p r r tr p
5 5
t w o li n e s be er e n di c u l a , 37 , th e e d i a m e al l a n e s b e c on j u
4 , 46 ; g a te 73 ; ,
t r r t
5
t w o li n e s b e i d e n ti c al , 4 6 , 4 0 2 ; h e e n u m b e r é b e di e c i o n co si n e s ,
r t
5
t h e e li n e s b e c o n cu rr e n , 3 , 1 8 9 , 422 ;
39 3 ; pr
obl em s , 4 — 6 0 , 6 2 , 1 89 , a di r e c te d t ri h e d r a l be ri gh t
5
394 ; h a n d e d 44 3 , .
rt r
5
h o g o n a l t o a c i cl e C on e s
'
a li ne be o 1 36
, .
5
76 ; C o nfo c a l co ni c s , 1 4 148 , .
r r p
5
t w o c i cl e s b e o t h o g o n a l 7 7 , C o n fo c a l a r a b o l a s 9 1 46 , , .
t t pr
5
a li n e b e a n g en t o a c o ni c , 1 8 3 C o nfo c a l a a b o l o i d s 92 , .
1 9 2 403 ;
, q
C o n fo c a l u a dr i c s , 9 0 .
r
t w o d i a m e te s b e c on j u g a e , 2 9 1 t , C o ni c s a s s e c i o n s , o f a t ci r c ul a r
5 54
29 6 ; c on e , 1 44 ;
t q ri r
5
a c on i c b e d e g e n e r a e 2 7 403 ; , , o fa u ad c c y li n d e , 3
r
a t a n sf r t
o m a i o n b e i s o g o n al 34 8 ,
. o fa q u a dri c s ur fac e , 62 .
p t C o ni c s d e fi t
5
C o n di ti o n , i n s a ce t h a , ni i on
, of, 1 44 ;
a p o i n t li e o n a sur f a ce 4 4 ; ,
q
e u a ti o n s o f in plr o a co o r di
a p
oi n t
li e o n a c ur v e 4 7 1 ; , n a te s , 2 0 2 , 2 1 0, 2 1 1 ;
p t q
25
tw o oi n ts h e c olli n e a r w i h th e as f th
l o ci o f e u a t i o n s o e
r d d gr
55
o i gi n 44 1 ; s e co n 7 ;
e ee ,
t r p t r q ti f th r g h fi p i t
5 39 5
h e e oi n s b e c oll i n e a 0 ; , e ua on O ou ve o n s,
p p
r 5
fou r o i n t s b e c o l a n a r 08 ; , 39 8 ;
,
p p
fiv e o i n t s l i e o n a s h e e 2 7 ; , S x i p i t o n s on a 39 8 39 9 , .
p rp r t d fii ti
5 25
tw o l i n e s b e e e n d i cu l a r 426 , C on i cs , d g e en e f
a e, e n on o ,
25
43 ; 7
tw o li n e s b e pr
a a ll e l 42 0, 42 7 , , e q ti
ua f
on s 19 1 o 2 44 3 , , ,
t 5 2 37 2 4 6 2 5 4 25
4 30 4 3 2 4 3 6 ;
, ,
tw o l i n e s i n e r se c t 12 ; , ex a m pl f es o 9 ; , , ,
p p gh fi p i t 39 6 3 9 7 ;
25
t h re e l i n e s b e a r a ll e l t o a l ane , th r ou ve o n s, ,
44 0 ; c on di t i f on 7 4 02 ;
or ,
rm pl i t ti w i th q
5 25 6 25 7 5 63 5
th e no al s to fou r an e s be as n e r se c d i on s ua r c
p a r a ll e l to a p l an e , 08 ; su rf a ce s , 69 , , , .
th r i mi l r d i mi l rl y p l
5
l i n e s b e m u t u a ll y p e r p e n d i c
ee C on i cs , S a an d s a a ce ,
5
u l ar 94 ;
, 260 ;
p ti q dri
535 5 63 5
a l i n e li e i n a l ane 06 ; , as f tw
se c ons o o ua c
t q rf
5
a li ne b e tan gen to a u a d ri c , su a ces , 80 ; , ,
p r ll l ti f q
rf 5 5 0 5 5 3 5 555
67 as a a e d se c on s O a ua
p p rp
5
5 5 64 5
tw o l anes b e e e n di c ul a r p ar , i
r c su a ce , 62 , , ,
a l l el i d e n i c a l 4
,
t ; , 80
, .
t r p p j g t di m t r
5 5 71 5 74 5
h ee l anes a s s th r o u gh a li ne C on u a e d di m t l
a e e s an a e ra
04 ; pl an e s , 79 —
, .
p p r p di m t r
5
fou r l a n es a ss th o u g h a oi n t C on j g t
u a e f a i e e s o a con c ,
10 ; s ee C t t C h X IV
on e n s , . .
pl rth ph r j g t di m t r q di
5 72 5 74 5
a ane be o og o n a l to a s e e, C on u a e fa e e s o a ua r c
5
—
f
su r a ce , 79 , .
ph r j g t di m tr l p l
5 5 74 5
a li n e b e o r t h o g o n a l t o a s e e, C on u a e a 72 e a a nes ,
5
46 ; 79
, .
p
tw o S h e r e s b e o t h o g o n a l r , 46 ; C on j g t h yp b l
u a e 14 1 29 6
er o as, , .
IN D E X 6 09
p rb l i y li d r 5 pp li ti pl
t p rb l i d 5 5
C o n j u g a te h y e 33
o c c f tn e s, . a ca ons o o a ne a na
l y ti m t y
5
C onj u g a e h y e 1 o o g s, 39 1 39 9 401 c eo e r ,
—
,
fr v l ti
5
o e o u42 ; on , 4 03 ;
se c ti f
ons o 63 pp l i ti
.
f t li d a ca ons o o so ana
t ti m t y 4 38 44 0 443
45
C on s r u c g m t i l
on, f eo p l y ti
e r ca g , o a a c eo e r , , , ,
r b l 88 ;
5 5 07 5 5 1 2 —5 1 55
a o a, 3 46 3 467 477 4 89 49 6 , , , , ,
lli p
,
5 18 5 26 5 94 5
f
o an e 1 04 1 1 4 1 1 9 ; se , 04 , 11 , 17 ,
-
f hyp b l
, ,
o a 1 2 4 1 38 14 3 ;
er o a, 99
, , , , , .
tr f d t mi t 363
324 32 5
f o ce n e f i t , g t Di g
a x es , l oc , an en s a on a s o a e er na n , .
f o i
a co n c , ; Di m t
, f i C t t a e ers o a co n c , s ee on e n s ,
fp l d p l r
325
o o es 3 19 32 0
an C h X IV o a s, , . .
Di m t r q di rf
5 69 5 74 5
. f a e e s o a ua r c su a ce ,
C on s tr ti uc m h
on s , i l f ec a n ca 79 , O a —
, .
p r b l 147 ; D i m t l pl q dri
5 70 5 74 5
a a o a, f a e ra ane s o a ua c su r
f
o ll i p
an e 1 0 1 1 47 ; se , f , 79 a ce , —
, .
f h y p rb l
o a 147 e o a, Di l i i d f 2 14 . o c e s , c s so o , .
C on ti d q li ty f E q l i ty
nu e e ua D i r t d li
, c .
gm tua f Li . ec e ne se -
en s, c . ne
C ord i
o t plna e 410 anes , gm t. se en s .
C ordi t r r t r
409 4 1 1 5
n a es, t l 7
re c an 1 4 i D i d t
u a i h d l 4 3 —
0 4 32 n
o g ; , , ec e r e a s,
p s a ce , 89 ; , i gh t h , d d d l ft h d d r -
an e an e -
an e
p l r 193 ;
ph ri l 5 84 5
o a 4 43 .
d i r t d li
5 87 5
S e ca 9 0 6 04 ; Di, ti gl , f re c on an es o a ec e ne ,
y li d i
5
c n l r ca 8 9 6 04 ; 420 , , .
l li p i d l
e so 91
a D i r ti . mp t C t t ec on co onen s , s ee on e n s ,
Cr m r l 3 8 1 4 64 C h X VI I I
f 8 5D i r ti
’
a er s u e, , . . .
q ti gr p h t t Ch
33 1 3 5 3 35
C bi
u c e ua on s , a i C
s o , ec on co s n e s , s ee on e n s, .
, 4 , . X VI I I ;
5
C bi
u twi t d 4 9 2 4 9 4
c, s e , , f th m t ll y p p di
. o re e u ua er en c
C ru v es , i th npl d fi i ti
e f
ane , l li 94 e n on o u ar n es , .
ti
pl tti g f 1 9 86 3 3 1 3 5 5
19 ; Di f i 88 1 1 6 1 37 r e c r ce s O con cs , , ,
o n o 3 Dir t i , f y li h d , 32 ,
°
ec r x o a c er , .
i p l r rd i t 1 9 8 ; D i ri m i q d ti q
17 5
n o a c oo n a es, t f sc nan , o a ua ra c e ua
y m m try
s e f 84 8 7 ; i
o p l ti i — 402 ; n o ar on n x, ,
ord i
co t 2 01
na es, fg
. r l q ti f d O ene a e ua on o s e c on
C ru v es, i p n s d fi i ti a ce , f 47 1 ; e d gr n i y on o4 03 , e ee n x, ,
.
p r m tri r pr t ti
a a e c ef Di t
e se n b tw a tw p t 10
on o s a n ce , e e en o a n s,
490 ; i p l r ord i t 2 1 0 i n o a co n a es , ,
n
C y li dn q ti
ers, e f p i l 4 44
ua on s o p 4 14 ; s ec a , , s a ce ,
f p i t f r m li 4 1 ; i
p 5
‘
44 6 ; -
O a o n o a ne , n
d fi i ti q ti
5 5
e n don an fg e ua 14 ; ons o en s a ce ,
rl b tw p r ll l li
t 5 87 5
e a 32 . tw 1 ; e een o a a e n es ,
C y l i dri l
n o di
ca co r 89 6 04n a e s, f p i t f r m pl ,
46 0 ; , . o a o n o a ane ,
p r ll l p l
l ti b d y 3 5
b tw tw e ee n o a a e anes ,
D f rm t i
e o a f on o 7
an e a s 466 ; c o , .
rt b tw
5 15
D ge ene i fC
a e co n cs , c i . tw on c s li i p . e ee n o n es n s a ce ,
D e s ca rt 1 es, . .
D t rm i t f tr f rm ti t 17 4 16
35 3 09 3 5 9 5 75
e e n an o Di i i
a f li an s o gm a on v s on O a n e se
-
en , ,
8 . h rm i a on c , , .
D t rm i
e e t nan s, C t t Ch s ee on e n s , .
X VI ; E tri gl f lli p 120 c ce n c an e, o an e se , ,
a ppl i ti ca f on s t li o r q 306 ; o nea e ua
ti 38 1 3 9 1 4 0 1 4 03 ;
on s ,
—
,
f h y p rb l ,
143 o a e o a, .
610 IN D E X
t
E c c e n t ri ci y o f a coni c , 1 0 2 1 16 , , Of pa rti cu l a r tr a n sf
or m a i on s t ,
55
1 2 8 , 1 37 , 1 4 0 . 349 ;
t
E l e m e n o fa d e e mi n a n , 3 6 3 tr t . r
e x e c i se s i n 34 2 , 3 1 , 3 7 .
p
E l li s e s ee C o n e n s C h VI I ;
, t t , . F i g ur e s i n p
l a n e e r e s e n i n g s p a cerp t
q t r r t
5
e u a i on s of not i n n o m al el a i o n s , 4 1 1 .
for m 1 14 1 40 ; , , r
F o c a l ch o d s 9 , 9 8 2 1 2 , , .
q t
e u a i on s o f in ol a c o o r di p r F o c al pr p r
o e ty o f co ni cs 9 6 , 1 08 , ,
t
n a es 2 03 2 1 1 , , 1 3 4 3 24, .
a s l o cu s o f e u a ti o n o f s e co n d q r
F o c a l a di i 88 , 1 0 6 1 2 8 , 2 1 2
, .
r
55
d e g e e 2 3 9 2 4 1 24 6 24 9 ;
, , , , F o c u s 88 1 0 1 , 1 24 ,
n ul l o r d e g e n e a e 24 2 6 ; rt , o ri gi n o fn a m e
r tr
5
a e a of 34 1 . co n s u c ti o n o f
p
5 5
5 5
E l l i so i d 48 ,
5é2 2 5
se ct of 48 0 63
3 gj
, ’ ’ ’
G en e a rtr o cf R li n g
u
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r
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e d u ct i o n o f t o n or m a l for m 4 8 0 , H eli x 4 9 1
, .
q t p tt
5
e u i v al en to r e r e s e n a i o n H o m og en e i t y , 3 4 8 3 7 , 3 8 , .
b y p r oj e cti n g l a n e s 02 p , . Ho m o g e n e o u s l i n e a e u a i on s 3 8 7 , r q t ,
q
E u a ti o n g e n er al, o f th e s e co n d , 40 1 .
r
d e g ee i n x y s ee C o n e n t s , , t , pr
Hy e b ol a s ee C o n e n s C h , I II t t , . V
Ch X II . . q t
e u a i on s of n ot i n n o m al r
q r
5
E u a ti on g e n er al u o f t h e se co n d d e
, fo m 1 4 0 ; ,
r
g ee i n x y z 99 ; , , , q
e u a ti o n s o f in ol a c o o r di p r
t p t
5 555
r e d u c i on of i n s e ci a l c a se s , n a es 2 03 2 1 1 ;, ,
q
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92 9 , 97 ; -
a s l o cu s o f e u a t i o n s o f t h e
r t
5 5 5
e d u c i on Of i n g en e r a l c as e , s e con d d e g re e , 2 39 , 2 4 1 , 24 ,
9 7 , 6 00—6 0 3 , 6 0 . 24 8 2 0 ,
q r t
5
E u a ti o n o fa c u v e , 2 0 .
f wi h f o ci on t h e a xi s O f y ,
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E u a i on o fa su rfa ce , 4 4 . 14 1 , 22 1 .
q r q pr p
5
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ti on s . sh e e t s , 1 ;
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55
ti
ua on s f
. s u aneou s , o a s a ce s e c i on s O f 1, 3 , 6 1— 63 ,
r 47 2
5 5
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p 5
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v , , 9
p pr
5
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i n s 20 a ce , . Hy e r b ol oi d u n a te d o r o f o n e
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5 5 5
= 0 173 19 0 ; i
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5 555
21 . s e c ti o n s of 0 61 ,
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g l
555
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hyp b l pt
55 55 5
55
t g l
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5
i —
u an t u a ran s o a on s , ru l n g s o f 9 68 81 , ,
I g so l t f rm ti
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p pr
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5
a r a m e t ri c e s e n t a ti o n of
’
re
tr f rm t i
5
5
F t i
a c or z a ti f on o a ans o a on , 9 ;
34 3 , 3 ; si mi l a r
6 12 IN D E X
p
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tofour p l an e s ar a l l e l to a o fa h e li x 4 9 1 ; ,
p l an e 08 , . t
o fa tw i s e d c u b i c 4 9 2 ; ,
p rt pr
5
5
of a n un a ed h y e b ol oi d ,
t
O c a n ts , 4 1 1 . 9 ;
t pr p rty f mi h y p rb li prb
5
O p i ca l o e o co cs , c f . F o ca l of a e o c a a o l oi d ,
pr p rt y
5
o e . 60 .
O rb i t s f pl o t d a ne s an co m ets , 120 P a s c a l , li m a co n o f, 2 1 .
211 .
I P e n c i l ofl i n e s 1 6 9 1 7 2 , 1 8 8
, , ,
O ri g i n f r t g l r
o ec an u a c oo rdi t na e s, o fc u r v e s 1 7 0 , 1 7 2 , .
7 41 0 ;
, , t t
Pl a ne s ee C o n e n s , C h s X IX , X X , .
fp l r
o di
o a t c oo r na es, 19 3 . XXI .
O rth g o li ty
on a f li , o a n e a n d a ci rcl e , q t
P l a n e e u a i o n o f,
,
pr p p
5
76 ; a a l l el or er e n di cu l a r to a
ir l p
5
ftw
o 76 ; o c c es, gi v e n l a n e , 4 6 4 6 6 4 6 7 , ,
of tw o co n foc a l c o ni c s , 9 , p rp
e r
e n di c ul a to a g i v e n li n e ,
55
146 ; 4 83 ;
ph r p pr
5
o fa s e e and a l ane , 4 ; a a l l e l t o t w o li n e s , 4 84 , 4 9 6 ;
p t
5 5
o f ph
a s li n e ere an d a , 46 ; t h r o u g h a li n e a n d a oi n 49 9 , ,
ph
‘
5
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q r pr
5 5
o fc o nfo c a l u a d ri cs , 91 . t h o u g h a li n e a a ll e l to a se c o n d
O v a l s O fC a s si n i 2 1 , . li n e 13 ;
,
k
5
d e te r mi n e d b y t w o n o n s e w li n e s , -
Pa rba ol a , s ee C on t V en ts , Ch . I ; 13 .
e q u a ti on s of not in no rm al , r
P l a n e s t h re e th ou g h a li n e , e t c , of . .
f r
o m 92 97 , 1 4 0 2 30 ; , , , t
C o n d i i on , i n s a c e , th a p t .
q t
e u a i on s o f in ol a c oo r d i p r Plu c e kr r a b i d g e d n o t a i on o f
, , 17 1 t .
t r
.
n a te s 2 0 3 2 1 0 2 1 1 ;
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q t
e u a i on s Of th ou gh fou r r C o n d i ti o n , i n t h e l a n e t h a p , t .
p oi n t s 3 9 7 3 9 9 ; , ,
P ol a r c o or di n a e s , s ee t C on t e n s , t
tr
e c ce n i ci t y o f 140 ; Ch X ; .
a s li m i t
o fe ll i s e s 1 1 8 ; p , t
r o t a i on o f pr
i m e di r e c ti on o f
a s li mi t o fh yp e r b o l a s 1 3 9 ; , 2 12 ;
q t p r p
5
a s l o c u s o f e u a i o n o ft h e s e c ol e of i n a n a r b i tra y oi n t ,
5
on d d egr e e , 2 3 9 ; 2 4 ; 2 13 .
t r p t q
pt 55 5
c o nf o c al 9 1 46 , . P ol a r l i n e s w i h es ec to a u ad
r
5
555 55 5
P a a b ol o i d , e ll i i c 3; , r i c su r f a ce 76 , .
p
r 5
s e c ti o n s o f 3, 63, 66 ; , P ol e o f ol a r co or di n a t e s 1 9 3 , .
p p t
55
si m i l a 81 . P ol e s a n d o l ar s wi t h r e s e c t o a
,
r p t t
55
5 5 55 5
P a a b o l o i d h y e r b oli c , 3; , c o ni c , s ee C o n e n s , C h X IV ; .
t t p t r
555 5 5
se c i o n s O f 4 64 80 ; , , , wi h res e c t o a d e g e n e a te
r
5
i
ul n g s O f 9 — 61, 68 82 , c o ni c 4 0 2 ;
, ,
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5 55
83 ; w i th res ec to a u ad i c
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d i e c ri x l a n e s o f 9 su f r
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.
p r r pr t r
5 5
a ram et i c e e se n a ti o n of P i m e di r e c ti o n 1 9 3 , .
r 5
60 ; P r i m e m e ri d i a n 84 , .
p p q
555 55 55
55
s i mi l a 81 P ri n c i a l l a n e s of a u a d ri c s u r
5
.
r r
P a a b o l o i d O f ev o l u t i o n , 4 3 3 , . fa c e , 4 9 1 , , .
r p t q r
55 55
55
P a r a b ol a se m i cu b i c al 2 3 1 , 2 8
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-
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r
P a a m e ri c t e e se n a i on r pr
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p
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p
5
O fa h y e r b o l a 1 4 3 30 8 ; , , 33 8 ;
o fa l i n e i n s a c e , 4 9 0 ; p r
e x e ci se s i n 34 1 , 34 2 , 3 8 .
IN D E X 6 13
r ti pl 5 tt
5
P o ecj ng anes of a l i ne , 01 R o a i o n s o ft h e p l a n e , 3 3 2 .
tr t
5
03 . R ow s a n d c o l u m n s o fa d e e mi n a n ,
rj t p t
4 5
P o e c i on , of a oi n on a li n e , , 36 3 ;
5
0 ; i n te rc h a n g e s o f 3 7 6 3 80 , .
dr t t r
55 5
ofa i e c e d li n e s e g m e n o n a -
R u l i n g s O fa c y li n d e , 3 2 ;
,
5
li n e 4 0 , 4 08 4 4 1 ;
, , ,
o fa c o n e , 36 ;
k p t pr
5 5 55 5 5
55
o f a b ro e n l i n e o n a l i n e , , of a n i m ar ed h y e b ol oi d ,
4 06 ; — 9 68 8 1 — 83 ;
, ,
r t t p pr
o f a d i e c e d l i n e s e g m en
5 55 5 5 5
on -
Of a h y e r bo l i c a a b o l oi d ,
th e a x e s 9 , 4 1 3 ; ,
9— 6 1 68 , 82 , 83 , .
p t p
5 t r 5
o fa oi n on a l ane 4 0 6 ; ,
p q
5 5
O f a l i n e on a lane 4 06 , 0 1 S e c i o n s o f u a d ri c c y li n d e s
, 33 , ,
r
5 5 5 55
03 ; of q u ad i c co es 1 44 39 , n , ,
r p
5
of a n a e a on a lane , 16 6 1 — 63 6 ; , ,
q r fi
5
17 ; of a u a d ri c s u f a ce d e n ed , ,
p rv p
5 55
of a l a ne cu e on a l an e 49 ; ,
pr
5
34 . a a ll e l 49 61 ; ,
ci c u l a r 64 ; r
r p
r mp 5
Q u a d an ts 8 , . of a l s o E l l i s o i d e t c .
, .
rt q r t
Q u a d a i c e u a t i o n d i sc i m i n a n o f Sh e a s si
555
,
le 3 1 ; , , ,
fa c o ri z a i o n O f 3 3 9 t t , .
t p
5
su m o fro o s o f Sh ri n ki n g s o ft h e l a n e 3 3 4 33 7 , , .
r r r p
5 55
Q u a d i c co n e s 3 9 ; ,
Si mi l a a n d s i m i l a l y l a c e d co ni c s ,
t
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s e c i on s o f 144 39 6 1— 6 3 c f C o ni cs
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5
6 . , ,
r p
5
Q u a d ri c c y l i n d e s 3 2 , o ftw o e ll i s e s 1 03 1 2 1 ; , ,
p
5
s e c ti o n s o f 33 ; o ft w o h y e r b o l a s 1 2 8 1 4 9 ; , ,
d eg e n e a e rt 6 02 o ftw o
. u a d i c su r f a ce s 81 q r , .
r r r t
5
Q u a d r i c su fa c e s s ee C o n te n t s, C h S i m i li t u d e , t a n s fo m a i on s o f 3 34 , .
, ,
55
XX I I I ; 3 8 .
p
5
c o nf o cal 90 92 , Sl o e a n g l e 1 3 , .
r t d efi p r t
5 5
o f e v ol u i o n 40 ; , Sl o e o f a cu v e n i i on of , ,
s i mi l a r 81 . 1 4
gen e a l m e h o d offi r t
p r 5 5
n di n g
p
5 5
h —
R a d i c a l l a n e o ftw o s e e s 30 1 8 1 60 163 , .
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q t
R a y e u a i o n of i n
,
p r ol a c oo rd i , Sl o e , o fa li n e 1 2 ; p ,
t
na es 1 9 6 , . ofa c i cl e 7 2 ; r ,
t r p
R e c a n g u l a h y er b o l a 1 3 2 o fa a a b ol a 9 4
, 161 pr , ,
pr r p
5
o b l e m s c o n c e ni n g o fa n e lli s e 1 62 ; ,
1 7 ; o fa h y e b o l a 1 6 3 pr ,
q t
e u a i on of p r ti n ol a r co o d i n a e s , o fa g e n e a l c o ni c 1 8 8 r , .
p r t t
5
2 07 S he e s ee C on en s Ch XXII , , , .
q t r =
5
e ua i o n o f i n f o m 2 x y a 2
, 1 —
22 1 ; nu l l 24
r r q t rt r pr r
55 55
m o e g e n e al e u a i on s o f fu h e ob l e m s co n c e ni n g
—
2 39 2 8 , 2 9 , . 4 4 46 ;
t r r
55
R e fle c i o n i n t h e o r i gi n 3 4 2 t a n sf ,o m ed by .o ne d i m e n -
t tr
5 t 55
R ef l e c i o n s i n t h e a x e s 3 36 si o n a l s
, a i ns 78 . 79 . , .
t p
R i g i d m o i on o ft h e l a n e 3 8 S h e r i c a l co o d i n a e s , 84 9 0 6 04
. p r , , , .
t pr r
5
R ot a i on of a x e s 2 19 2 39 241 , S i a l o fA ch i m e d e s 2 0 2
. , , ,
i n S p a ce 93 , . h y e bo l i c 2 0 2 pr , .
6 14 IN DE X
q r d t mi t 36 1 r t fin d i n g p
55
S ua e y f
a rr a o a e er n an , , g ene al m e h od of sl o e
364 . of 1 4 — 1 8 1 6 0 —1 6 3 ; ,
Sq r r t ig 1 1 q
fin di n g e u a i o n s of t
5 5
ua e oo S n, . e x e r ci se s i n
St i C
r a n s , s ee t t Ch XV on e n s , . . 1 8 1 60 1 6 , , .
St i Te r m o fa d e e rm i n a n 3 6 6 ; t t
5 5
ra ns, di m i
one l 3 0 4 3 07
-
e n s on a , , , ,
p
35
3 09 337 ; i
, 77 n s a ce , . d e t e r mi n a ti o n O f S i g n O f 36 ,
35
St ira ns, h m g o 7
o en e ou s , . 36 6 37 8 , .
S tr i i m pl
a ns, s 7 e, . r
Te tr a h e d o n , c e n te r o f g r a v i y o f, t
S tr t h i g
e c ft h p l
n s o 3 34 3 3 7 e an e , , . 4 19 ;
S ppl m
5
u e t l h d 32 7
en a c or s, . v ol u m e o f
S f
u r a ce , d fi i ti ef 4 44 ;n on o ,
To ru s 4 4 , .
y mm t y Tr a n sfor m a ti o n o f c o or di n a e s ol a t p r
5
s f e r 468 o .
,
S rf fr ol ti r
55
u a ce s o 40ev u on , . to e c t a n g u l a r , 2 0 6 2 1 4 ; ,
Sy m m t y i p r r t r
r 5
e r li 83 ;
, n a ne , s h e i c a l to e c an g u l a 8 ,
i p i t 84 ;
n a o n , r
c y li n d i c a l t o r e c t a n g u l a 87 , .
f o r 84 8 7 ; i
cu pl r
v es ,
— n o a co r
T a n s fo r m a ti o n O f e c t a n gu l a co r r
t 201 r t t
5
di
or na es , o din a es s ee C on en ts , Ch s , .
a l g e b r ai c 2 67 Xi XXI , 6 V , , .
r r
T a n sfo m a ti o n t o p
5 5 p 5
ofSu r fa ce s , 4 6 8 ; a r al l el axes ,
of q u a d ri c s u rfa ce s , 6 00 , 6 0 2 1 6 2 3 ; i n s a ce
, 92 , .
6 06 . r r
T a n sfo m a ti o n s O f s i m i li u d e 3 3 4 t , .
t
Tr a n s for m a i o n s o f t h e l a n e s ee p ,
Ta n g e n t at a gi v en p oi n t , to a t
C on e n t s C h X V , . .
ci r cl e , 69 ; r
T a n sl a ti on s , 3 3 0 .
prbl r
Tr i a n g l e a e a o f 4 3 ; i n d e te rm i
5
to a a a 9 3 , 1 64 ;
o a, , ,
lli p t r p
55
to an e se 1 1 1 , 1 63 ; ,
nan fo m 4 0 1 ; i n s a c e 17 ;
, ,
hyp b
5
to a e r ol a 1 33 , 1 64 , , 1 80 ; m e di a n s O f 4 6 419 ; , ,
to a g e n e r a l c o ni c , 1 8 8 ; t
a l i tu d e s o f 8;
c o n s tr u c ti o n o f 324 . p rp
e e n d i cu l a r
b i s e c or s o f si d e s t
Ta n g e n t q di
5
li n e to a ua r c su r fa ce , of 60 ;
r r
5
67 . c i cl e c i c u m s c ri b i n g
Ta n g e n t pl ph r r r
55
an e , to a s e e, 27 ; c i cl e i n s c i b e d i n
to a q u ad ri c su r fa ce , 68 80, . n i ne -
p
oi n ci r c l e o f t
Ta n g e n t to a co n i c , w i th a gi v en b i se c t or s o fa n g l e s o f 2 83 2 87 , .
p 174 1 7 9 ; p
Tri l y o rth o g o n a l sy ste m s o f su r
5 55
Sl o e, ,
rm t lp i t
5
f o a n e x e rn a o n , 18 ; fa c e s , 89 — 9 2 .
tr ti ft h l t t r
5
con s uc on O e a e , 32
co n d i t i o n th a t a li n e b e U m b i li c s , 80 .
5 V t 5
5
55
c o mm o n 18 ,
19 1 . e r e x o fa co n e , 36 .
Ta n g e n t t o r tr r r V rt p
5 5
an a bi a y cu v e, e ex Ofa a r a b o l oi d , .
d efi n i ti o n of, 1 4, 176 ; V rti

e c e s o fa c o n i c 88 1 02 , 1 2 , , .

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THE M AC M I LLAN C O M PAN Y

TH E obj e ct ofa n el e m e nta ry c o l le ge co u rs i n Ana ly t i c: e G m eo

e try i s tw ofol d : it i s t o a cq u a i n t t h e t u d nt with n w nd

br oa des t se nse ofth e t er m in cl u di ng e n gi ne ri ng

b y i ts r e l a ti o n to p hy sic s .This p ri ncip le h a b n b s rv d s ee o e e

t hr ou gh ou t th e b ook Thu s i n tre a ti ng th e e lli pse t h m th ds

with i ndic a tion s a s to th e thr ee d i m e ns io na l c a s e (pu r str i n

g eo m e tcr i a n d o f a n a l y tic c h a r a,ct e r h a v e l e d t h e s t u d e n t t o

t h e m o r e d ifﬁc u l t a p p l ic a ti o n s of t h e m e t h od s a n d c oll e cti ons

t o t h e t e s t t h e i ni ti a tiv e a n d o rigi n a l ity o ft h e b e s t s t u d e n t s .

d e v o t e s a b o u t thirty p e ri o d s t o a n a l y tic g eo m e try a n d t h e m a

o fth e q u a d ric sur f a c e s a n d a l s o d e v o ti n g m o r e ti m e t o t h e l e s s

tr e a t m e nt ofth e r u dim e nt s of Sol id An al y tic G e o m e try i s i n

Th e s u b j e ct ofl o ci i s brou gh t i n e a rl y th r ou gh a bri ef intro

a n d Sp h e ric a l c o Or di n a t e s a n d q u a d ric s u rfa c e s a r e i ll u m i n e d b y

t h e c o n c e p t o ftripl y o rt h og on a l sy s t e m s ofs u rfa c e s . Th e r e

illu str a t e d b y nu m e ric a l e x a m pl e s .

t h a t a b ook which a voidi ng th e c o nci se nes s o f s o me o f t h

rigo rou s will m e e t a r e a l ne e d .

This b ook i s d e sig ne d t o b e a t o nc e a n i ntro d u cti n t t h o o e

m a th e m a tic a l p h y sicis t a nd th e e ngi nee r

E q u a ti o n ofL i ne thro u gh Two Poi nts

Th e Perp e ndi cu l ar Bi se ctors ofth e Si d s ofa

Three Poi nts on a Li ne

Ge ometri cal C onstru cti on

N ew Ge om e tri ca l C onstru cti on f o th E l li p r e se . Pa r

E xerci ses on Chap ter V II

P ara m e tri c R ep re se nta ti on

R ota ti on ofth e Axes

THE G EN ER AL E Q UATI O N OF THE S E C O N D D E G REE

1 . Ex tensi on ofth e M e thod fo th e D t rm i na ti n ofL i

O ther Prob l e m I nvol v i n g Tw o o M re A i l i ry V ri a b l

8 B i s e ct ors ofth e An gl e s b e twee n Tw o Li ne s

E xer ci se s on Cha p ter XIII

C on tru cti o n Probl e m s

E xerci ses on C ha p ter X IV

T RAN SF O R M A T I ON S OF THE P LAN E ST RAIN

1 . Tran sl ati ons

Si mp l e E l ongati ons a nd C omp re ssi ons

D E TE R M INAN T S AN D T HEIR APP L I CAT I O N S

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