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Islamic Approach to Critical Thinking

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 1

ISLAMIC APPROACH TO CRITICAL THINKING

Mohammad Manzoor Malik

1. Introduction

Islamic approach to critical thinking is based on the sources of belief and knowledge in Islam
and the scholarly attitude of Muslims throughout history in the major subjects of inquiry in
Islamic studies and the subjects which come under the humanities, social sciences, and pure
sciences. To be a critical thinker especially when informal logical fallacies are addressed a
person should be aware about what could be classified as knowledge and the reliable means of
knowledge. In the following sections of the chapter the sources of knowledge in Islam are
discussed. Furthermore, it has been shown how the Quran treats critical thinking and why
there is a need of having an Islamic perspective on informal logical fallacies.

2. Critical Thinking: Sources of belief and Knowledge in Islam

The Quran gives central place to knowledge in knowing, following, and living by. The Quran
states, “And follow not (O man, i.e., say not, or do not, or witness not) that of which you have
no knowledge. Verily, the hearing, and the sight, and the heart of each of those ones will be
questioned (by Allâh)”. 1Human beings are created as vicegerents on the Earth and Allah
taught the first man the knowledge by himself as it is mentioned in the Quran , “And He
taught Adam the names of all things; ….” 2 Islam encourages everyone to seek knowledge as
the messenger said “Seeking of knowledge is incumbent upon every Muslim...” 3 Those who

1
The Quran, 17:36.

2
The Quran, 2:31.

3
Ibn-Majah. Sunan Ibn Majah. (Beirut: Darul Fikir) and At-Tirmidhi. Sunan at-Tirmidhi.
(Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi).
 2

do not have knowledge are instructed to ask those who know, the Quran states, “Then ask
those who possess the Message (ahl adh-dhikr) if you do not know.” 4 And the best state of
being knowledgeable is to have the firm standing in the knowledge as the Quran mentions,
“He it is who has revealed the book to you; some of its verses are decisive, they are the basis
of the book, and others are allegorical; then as for those in whose hearts there is perversity
they follow the part of it which is allegorical, seeking to mislead and seeking to give it (their
own) interpretation. But none knows its interpretation except Allah, and those who are firmly
rooted in knowledge say: We believe in it, it is all from our lord; and none do mind except
those having understanding.” 5 The higher stages of exaltation are open for the men of
knowledge as the Quran states, “Allah will exalt those of you who believe, and those who are
given knowledge, in high degrees; and Allah is Aware of what you do.” 6 It is because of many
factors and among those factors is that men of knowledge are more fearful of Allah as the
Quran mentions, “…Those truly fear Allah, among His Servants, who have knowledge…” 7

Besides knowing from the revelation (alwahy), the use of senses (hawas), intellect (reason and
heart, (alaql wal qalb), historical experience (siyahah), and meditating on natural and physical
world (kaun) are given high importance. And special guidance (hidayatu subul) are given to
those who struggle (jihad) in the way of Allah and understanding and wisdom (al tafakuh wal
alhikmah) is given to those who God wishes and prophetic dreams (alruya alsadiqah), insight
(firasah), illumination (mukashafah) and inspiration (ilham) are also means of knowledge. A
brief description of each of these means of knowledge is given below accordingly.

2.1. The Revelation (alwahy)

The revelation is the first source of knowledge. It includes metaphysics and positions on many
matters concerning knowledge. The whole revelation is truth and truth is knowledge. The

4
The Quran, 21:7 and 16:43.

5
The Quran, 3:7.

6
The Quran, 58:11.

7
The Quran, 35:28.
 3

Quran states, “But those who believe and work deeds of righteousness, and believe in the
(revelation) sent down to Muhammad s.a.w -for it is the truth from their Lord, - He will
8
remove from them their ills and improve their condition.” After knowing the truth (alhaq),
human beings also need guidance (hidayah), and the revelation is guidance as the Quran
9
states, “… This is the Book, in it is guidance sure, without doubt, to those who fear Allah.”
Revelation includes both the Quran and authentic Sunnah. Muslims are guided in the Quran to
follow these two authorities. The messenger says, “Verily, I have been given the Quran and
something along with it, but the time is coming when a man will recline on his couch and say:
Keep to the Quran, for whatever you find in it lawful is lawful and whatever you find in it
unlawful is unlawful. Certainly, it is not lawful for you to eat a domesticated donkey, beasts
with fangs, or the lost item of a citizen unless he no longer wants it. If people are visited by
guests then they must be entertained, but if they do not do so then the guests have a right to
take what is due from them.” 10

2.2. The Senses (hawas)

The Quran gives due consideration to senses as a means of knowledge. The Quran states, “It is
He Who brought you forth from the wombs of your mothers when ye knew nothing; and He
gave you hearing and sight and intelligence and affection: that ye may give thanks (to Allah).”
11
The Quran encourages people to use their senses in understanding, for example, the Quran
states, “Do they not look at the camels, how they are made? And at the sky, how it is raised
high? And the mountains, how they are fixed firm? And at the Earth, how is spread out? ”12
“When the Qur'an is read, listen to it with attention, and hold your peace: that ye may receive

8
The Quran, 47: 2.
9
The Quran, 2: 1-2.

10
Abu Dawud. Sunan Abi Daawud (Beirut: Darul Fikir)

11
The Quran, 16: 78.

12
The Quran, 88: 17- 20.
 4

Mercy.” 13 “Allah hath set a seal on their hearts and on their hearing, and on their eyes is a veil;
great is the penalty they (incur)” 14

2.3. The Intellect (Reason and Heart, alaql wal qalb )

The Quran puts the intellect at very high stage in understanding and as a means of knowledge.
The intellect is the combination of mind and heart. The Quran uses sometimes reasoning and
sometimes heart for understanding. It seems there is a connection between the heart and
reasoning and the co-functioning of them could be named as intellect. The Quran encourages
people to reason as it states, “And He it is who grants life and deals death; and to Him is due
the alternation of night and day. Will you not, then, use your reason?” 15 And “And
[remember:] whatever you are given [now] is but for the [passing] enjoyment of life in this
world, and for its embellishment - whereas that which is with God is [so much] better and
more enduring. Will you not, then, use your reason? ” 16On the other hand the Quran
encourages people to use their hearts to understand as it states, “Will they not, then, ponder
over this Qur’an? - or are there locks upon their hearts?” 17 , “God; has sealed their hearts and
their hearing, and over their eyes is a veil; and awesome suffering awaits them.” 18, and “In
their hearts is disease, and so God lets their disease increase; and grievous suffering awaits
them because of their persistent lying.” 19On the other hand believers are encouraged to pray
for the steadfastness of their hearts as the Quran states, “O our Sustainer! Let not our hearts
swerve from the truth after Thou hast guided us; and bestow upon us the gift of Thy grace:
verily, Thou art the [true] Giver of Gifts.” 20

2.4. Historical Experience (siyahah)

13
The Quran, 7:204.
14
The Quran, 2:7.
15
The Quran, 23:80.
16
The Quran, 28:60.
17
The Quran, 47:24.
18
The Quran, 2:7.
19
The Quran, 2:10.
20
The Quran, 3:8.
 5

The Quran encourages people to learn from the history and one of the visible sign of the past
history is the signs left by them which could be seen even today as archeological structures
and remains. These signs are leading milestones for a pondering person to think deep about the
human history. Though many stories of the past nations and the events of history are even
mentioned in the Quran, however, the Quran encourages looking at the physical signs of the
past civilizations for understanding and lessons. The Quran states, Say: “Go ye through the
earth and see what has been the end of those guilty (of sin).” 21 “Many were the Ways of Life
that have passed away before you: travel through the earth, and see what was the end of those
who rejected Truth.” 22” Say: "Travel through the earth and see what was the end of those who
rejected Truth." 23

2.5. Natural and Physical World (kaun)

The Quran encourages people to look at the natural and physical signs to understand. The most
of the understanding from these signs is about the higher knowledge of metaphysics and
monotheism. The following verses of the Quran refer show how physical world is itself a
means and source of knowledge and manifestation of the higher knowledge. The Quran states,
“Behold! in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of Night and Day,
there are indeed Signs for men of understanding.” 24 “On the earth are signs for those of
assured Faith. As also in your own selves, will yet not then see? And in heaven is your
sustenance, as (also) that which ye are promised.” 25 “He Who created the seven heavens one
above another: no want of proportion wilt thou see in the Creation of (Allah) Most Gracious.
26
So turn thy vision again: seest thou any flaw?” “He created the heavens without any pillars
that ye can see; He set on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and

21
The Quran, 27: 69.
22
The Quran, 3:137.
23
The Quran, 6:11.
24
The Quran, 3: 190.
25
The Quran, 51: 20 –22.
26
The Quran, 67:3.
 6

He scattered through it beasts of all kinds. We send down rain from the sky, and produce on
27
the earth every kind of noble creature, in pairs.” “ And the Sun runs unto a resting place, for
him : that is the decree of (Him), the Exalted in might, the All-Knowing. And the Moon, We
have measured for her station (to traverse) till she returns like the old (and withered) lower
part of date-stalk. It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the moon, nor can the night outstrip
28
the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).” “Say: "Travel
through the earth and see how Allah did originate creation; so will Allah produce a later
creation: for Allah has power over all things.” 29 And “Do they not travel through the land, so
that their hearts (and minds) may thus learn wisdom and their ears may thus learn to hear?
Truly it is not the eyes that are blind, but the hearts which are in their breasts.” 30

2.6. Special Guidance (hidayatu subul)

The Quran states that those who strive and struggler in the ways of Allah they are guided. The
Quran states, “And those who strive in Our (cause), - We will certainly guide them to our
Paths: For verily Allah is with those who do right” 31 And striving in the ways of God is in
many ways and one of those ways is to make effort in learning and understanding his religion.
The messenger says, “‘whoever comes to this mosque of mine, and only comes for a good
purpose, such as to learn or to teach, his status is like that of one who fights in Jihad in the
cause of Allah. Whoever comes for any other purpose, his status is that of a man who is
32
keeping an eye on other people’s property.’”

2.7. Understanding And Wisdom (al tafakuh wal alhikmah)

27
The Quran, 31: 10.
28
The Quran, 36 : 38-40.
29
The Quran, 29: 20.
30
The Quran, 22:46.

31
The Quran, 29: 69.

32
Ibn-Majah. Sunan Ibn Majah. (Beirut: Darul Fikir)
 7

The higher intelligence (al tafakuh) which can come as God given and diligence and wisdom
(alhikmah) are also means of knowledge as they refer to the faculty of thinking which is at the
higher degree of criticality and creativity. According to Islamic perspective there is a
difference between being a knowledgeable person and an understanding or wise person. To
this distinction refers the sayings of the messenger as he says, “It is incumbent upon those who
are absent because those who are absent might comprehend better than the present audience.”
Furthermore, “May Allah cause his face to shine, the man who hears what I say and conveys it
(to others). Many of those who have knowledge but no understanding, and many who convey
knowledge to those who have more understanding of it than they do” 33 And he furthermore
says, “If Allah wants to do good to a person, he makes him comprehend the religion and of
course knowledge is attained by learning.” 34 The higher stage of knowing is understanding
which is God given and product of human diligence. The messenger says, “Allah wills good
35
for a person, He causes him to understand the religion.” And according to the Quran the
men of understanding are “Those who listen to the Word, and follow the best of it: those are
the ones who Allah has guided, and those are the ones endowed with understanding.”36
The wisdom is also God given as the Quran states, “He grants wisdom to whom He pleases;
and he to whom wisdom is granted receives indeed a benefit overflowing; but none will grasp
the Message but men of understanding.” 37

2.8. Prophetic Dreams (alruya alsadiqah)

Good and true dreams are also a source of knowledge; they can be glad tidings from Allah.
The messenger said, "A good dream (that comes true) of a righteous man is one of forty-six

33
Ibn-Majah. Sunan Ibn Majah. (Beirut: Darul Fikir)

34
Al-Bukhari. Sahih al-Bukhari. (Beirut: Dar Ibn Kathir).

35
Ibn-Majah. Sunan Ibn Majah. (Beirut: Darul Fikir)

36
The Quran, 39:18.

37
The Quran, 2: 269.
 8

parts of prophetism." 38In another narration the messenger is quoted to say, "The (good)
dreams of a faithful believer is a part of the forty-six parts of prophetism:' 39 Allah's Apostle
said, "When the Day of Resurrection approaches, the dreams of a believer will hardly fail to
come true, and a dream of a believer is one of forty-six parts of prophetism, and whatever
belongs to prothetism can never be false." Muhammad bin Sirin said, "But I say this." He said,
"It used to be said, 'There are three types of dreams: The reflection of one's thoughts and
experiences one has during wakefulness, what is suggested by Satan to frighten the dreamer,
or glad tidings from Allah. So, if someone has a dream which he dislikes, he should not tell it
to others, but get up and offer a prayer." …." 40

2.9. Insight (firasah)

The believers are also given a special insight into matters as the messenger says, “ Fear the
Insight of the Believer, for verily he sees with the Light of God". 41

2.10. Illumination (mukashafah)

Illumination or vision is another special way of knowing, Imam Gazali has written on this as
ilm-ul-mukashifiah as considers it as the best knowledge. It could be also named as presential
knowledge. The examples from the Quran could be taken from the story of Moses and the
knowledgeable person. A very good example could be taken from the biography of Umar ibn
ul Khattab (RA).

Ibn Umar (RA) narrates that Umar ibn ul Khattab (RA) once deputed an army and made a
person Ameer upon them who was called Sariyah (RA). After this one day when Umar (RA)

38
Al-Bukhari. Sahih al-Bukhari. (Beirut: Dar Ibn Kathir).

39
Al-Bukhari. Sahih al-Bukhari. (Beirut: Dar Ibn Kathir).

40
Al-Bukhari. Sahih al-Bukhari. (Beirut: Dar Ibn Kathir).

41
Al-Tabrani , Al-Mu'jam Al-Awsat, (Al-Qahira :Dar al Haramain)
 9

was giving Khutba, he called out (loudly): Ya Sariyah, the mountain, and he proclaimed this
thrice. When the messenger of that army came and asked Umar (RA), by saying: O Ameer ul
Mo'mineen! We confronted the enemy and we were getting defeated, but "suddenly a voice
was heard" i.e. O Sariyah, the mountain, and this was heard thrice. We turned our backs
towards the mountain and due to this Allah defeated the enemy. He asked Umar (RA) were
you proclaiming that? Imam al-Hindi gives references via Imam Ibn Hajr al-Asqalani (rah)'s
al-Isaba and quotes Ibn Hajr saying: al-Hafidh Ibn Hajr said in al-Isaba: The Isnaad is
42
"hasan" Imam Ibn Kathir (Rahimahullah) after narrating it with chain having Muhammad
bin Ajlan said: This Sanad is "strong and good". 43

2.11. Inspiration (ilham)

Inspiration is another source of knowledge. Inspiration is connected with heart. And heart of a
person is in the control of Allah. As the messenger says, “Verily, the hearts of all the sons of
Adam are between the two fingers out of the fingers of the Compassionate Lord as one heart.
He turns that to any (direction) He likes. Then Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him)
said: 0 Allah, the Turner of the hearts, turn our hearts to Thine obedience.” 44 The messenger
says, “If Allah intends good for a person, Allah gives that person knowledge of religion
45
and guides (inspires) him to the truth.”

2.3. Public and Private Knowledge

42
Ali al-Muttaqi, Kanz ul Amaal, (Lebanon : Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmyah, , 1998)

43
Ibn Kathir, Al Bidayah wan-Nihayah, (Cairo :Dar Abi Hayyan)

44
Muslim, Ibn Hajjaj. Sahih Muslim. (Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi).

45
Ibn Hanbal, Kitab al-Zuhud. (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi, 1988)
 10

Some of the types of knowledge as mentioned above could be categorized as private or

subjective knowledge. There is a distinction between the public and private knowledge. Public
knowledge is limited to the types of knowledge which are verifiable by using proper means. In
short, this knowledge includes the knowledge of the revelation, and all those types of
knowledge which could be verified or falsified by rational and empirical means. The Shariah
as a governing system or a legal and judicial system is based on this type of knowledge.
Muslims are generally required to follow Islam and it’s understanding that could be evaluated
by these publically verifiable means of knowledge. The types of knowledge which are not
verifiable by public is choice of its beholders to make decisions upon them regarding their
own private affairs or affairs of those who may be their disciples and willingly follow their
knowledge; however, there is a limit that such knowledge should not be against the obvious
and clear meaning of the revealed knowledge. Furthermore, no consequences from such
knowledge should follow that may adversely affect any personal or public interest besides not
being of the nature of be heretical or against the clear and obvious nature and understanding of
Islamic Shariah. In other words, there is no obedience of what may amount to the
disobedience to God and the messenger. As it is mentioned in the Hadith, “There is no
obedience to any human being if it involves disobedience of Allah.” 46 And as it is mentioned
in the Quran , “if anyone contends with the Messenger even after guidance has been plainly
conveyed to him, and follows a path other than that becoming to men of Faith, We shall leave
him in the path he has chosen, and land him in Hell,- what an evil refuge!” 47

The above distinction of private and public knowledge touches the definition of knowledge.
According to Imam Gazali knowledge is to know things as they are in reality. This definition
is inclusive of both private and public knowledge. However, when knowledge is not just a
private matter but is about sharing with others, convincing others, and arguing for and against
positions, and verifying and falsifying facts. Then in these senses knowledge becomes public
enterprise and a special definition of knowledge would be required such as knowledge is a
justified true belief. Because people would not be only asking for a true belief in matters of
contention, but for justification as well. Therefore, if revelation with reason and empirical

46
ibn Hanbal, Al-Musnad. (Cairo: Dar al-Hadith, 1995)

47
The Quran, 4: 115.
 11

means make a basis for public knowledge, then there seems no problem in adopting this
definition of knowledge in Islamic studies.

2.4.Quranic Encouragement of Critical Thinking

What is not knowledge is what is either different from reality or is acquired by methods that
are not reliable. For example, falsehood is apparently against the reality and mere guessing or
doubt is not reliable sources of knowledge though sometimes a guess can be true and a doubt
may be right. A guess and doubt may be an initial stage of inquiry but should not be the final
stage or a means of knowledge.

The Quran discourages belief in superstitions, wishful thinking, doubt, conjecture, unfounded
guessing, etc. The “reflection” and using “reason” are the words that are used many times in
the Quran. These words themselves by their nature refer to understanding, analyzing,
conceptualizing, and being critical. The process of thinking and reflecting includes all these
functions. And once the Quran is being revealed it calls for reflection over it, as it states:
“Those who, when they are admonished with the Signs of their Lord, droop not down at them
as if they were deaf or blind”. 48

Contemplation (tafakur), reflection (tadabbur), understanding (tafaqquh), and reasoning

(taakul) are concepts which include being critical observer, reader, or listener. These concepts
are mentioned in the Quran in various morphological forms.

2.4.1. Contemplation (tafakur)

The Quran encourages people to reflect. It encourages reflecting upon the heavens and the
creation of God. The Quran states, “Men who celebrate the praises of Allah, standing, sitting,
and lying down on their sides, and contemplate the (wonders of) creation in the heavens and
the earth, (With the thought): "Our Lord! not for naught Hast Thou created (all) this! Glory to
Thee! Give us salvation from the penalty of the Fire.” 49 To reflect on parables and stories as
the Quran states, “If it had been Our will, We should have elevated him with Our signs; but he
inclined to the earth, and followed his own vain desires. His similitude is that of a dog: if you

48
The Quran, 25: 73.
49
The Quran, 3:191.
 12

attack him, he lolls out his tongue, or if you leave him alone, he (still) lolls out his tongue.
That is the similitude of those who reject Our signs; So relate the story; perchance they may
reflect.” 50And, “The likeness of the life of the present is as the rain which We send down from
the skies: by its mingling arises the produce of the earth- which provides food for men and
animals: (It grows) till the earth is clad with its golden ornaments and is decked out (in
beauty): the people to whom it belongs think they have all powers of disposal over it: There
reaches it Our command by night or by day, and We make it like a harvest clean-mown, as if it
had not flourished only the day before! thus do We explain the Signs in detail for those who
reflect.” 51 The Quran also encourages to reflect as groups to understand as it states , “Say: "I
do admonish you on one point: that ye do stand up before Allah,- (It may be) in pairs, or (it
may be) singly,- and reflect (within yourselves): your Companion is not possessed: he is no
less than a warner to you, in face of a terrible Penalty." 52

2.4.2. Reflection (tadabbur)

The Quran encourages reflecting on the Quran itself as a divine text as it states, “Do they not
consider the Qur'an (with care)? Had it been from other Than Allah, they would surely have
found therein Much discrepancy.” 53; “Do they not ponder over the Word (of Allah), or has
anything (new) come to them that did not come to their fathers of old?” 54; “(Here is) a Book
which We have sent down unto thee, full of blessings, that they may mediate on its Signs, and

50
The Quran, 7:176.
51
The Quran, 10:24.
52
The Quran, 34:46.
53
The Quran, 4:82.

54
The Quran, 23:68.
 13

that men of understanding may receive admonition” 55and “Do they not then earnestly seek to
understand the Qur'an, or are their hearts locked up by them?” 56

2.4.3. Understanding (tafaqquh)

Understanding is the higher stage in knowing. The Quran encourages Muslims to understand
their religion, there should be certain people to dedicate themselves to this task as the Quran
states, “Nor should the Believers all go forth together: if a contingent from every expedition
remained behind, they could devote themselves to studies in religion, and admonish the people
when they return to them,- that thus they (may learn) to guard themselves (against
evil).” 57Unde3rstanding is more than just listening as the Quran states, “Of them there are
some who (pretend to) listen to thee; but We have thrown veils on their hearts, So they
understand it not, and deafness in their ears; if they saw every one of the signs, not they will
believe in them; in so much that when they come to thee, they (but) dispute with thee; the
Unbelievers say: "These are nothing but tales of the ancients." 58 Those who turn away from
the word of God actually do not try to understand as the Quran states, “Whenever there
cometh down a Sura, they look at each other, (saying), "Doth anyone see you?" Then they turn
aside: Allah hath turned their hearts (from the light); for they are a people that understand
not” 59 and “And who doth more wrong than one who is reminded of the Signs of his Lord, but
turns away from them, forgetting the (deeds) which his hands have sent forth? Verily We have
set veils over their hearts lest they should understand this, and over their ears, deafness, if thou
callest them to guidance, even then will they never accept guidance.” 60

2.4.4. Reasoning (taakul)

55
The Quran, 38:29.

56
The Quran, 47:24.
57
The Quran, 9:122.
58
The Quran, 6:25.
59
The Quran, 9:127.
60
The Quran, 18:57.
 14

Reasoning has been mentioned more than any above terminologies in the Quran that refer to
being critical. The Quran encourages people to use their reasoning in understanding the natural
phenomenon and cosmology. The Quran states, “Behold! in the creation of the heavens and
the earth; in the alternation of the night and the day; in the sailing of the ships through the
ocean for the profit of mankind; in the rain which Allah Sends down from the skies, and the
life which He gives therewith to an earth that is dead; in the beasts of all kinds that He scatters
through the earth; in the change of the winds, and the clouds which they Trail like their slaves
between the sky and the earth;- (Here) indeed are Signs for a people that are wise.” 61 God
reveals his words and signs so people may reason as the Quran states, “Thus doth Allah Make
clear His Signs to you: In order that ye may understand.” 62 The worst before God are those
who do not use their reason as the Quran states, “For the worst of beasts in the sight of Allah
are the deaf and the dumb,- those who understand not” 63 and “Among them are some who
(pretend to) listen to thee: But canst thou make the deaf to hear,- even though they are without
understanding?” 64 The Quran is revealed in Arabic so the people may reason with it as the
Quran states, “We have sent it down as an Arabic Qur'an, in order that ye may learn
wisdom” 65 and “We have revealed for you (O men!) a book in which is a Message for you:
will ye not then understand?” 66 And those who will end in hell will regret and say, “They will
further say: "Had we but listened or used our intelligence, we should not (now) be among the
Companions of the Blazing Fire!" 67

2.5. Islamic Approach to Knowledge

In Islamic epistemology the sources and means of knowledge are various including the
revelation whereas the dominant Western epistemology has been a combination of empiricism
and rationalism. In Islam the revelation is the first source and means of knowledge. The
revelation touches many domains of knowledge and provides its foundations. Some of these

61
The Quran, 2:164.
62
The Quran, 2:242.
63
The Quran, 8:22.
64
The Quran, 10:42.
65
The Quran, 12:2.
66
The Quran, 21:10.
67
The Quran, 67:10.
 15

foundations are very important because they make bedrock of many disciplines. For example,
regarding the human origin, the revelation gives the understanding of the origin of the human
being, his mission on the earth and purpose, and meaning of his being. There are matters
which are pre-historic, but the Quran gives the unique divine version of those matters, for
example, the disappearance of the old civilizations and human communities. Against
materialism, the Quran talks about unseen world and beings. From these a few instances, it is
clear that the foundations of knowledge in Islam are different because of its special
conception of the reality. On the other hand, these all matters are not yet possible for Modern
science to verify or falsify. Some of these matters are outside the domain of the empirical and
rational methods. Regarding matters for which revelation has been silent and are under the
domain of being understood by any human being with suitable intellectual capacity, Islam
gives all the freedom to human beings to venture into knowledge and spend efforts for
creativity and innovation for beneficence. This objective of beneficence is called “al-ilim al-
nafiah”. The beneficial knowledge (al-ilim al-nafiah) is highly valued in Islam. Muslims are
encouraged to supplicate by praying: “O Allaah, indeed I ask You for beneficial knowledge
(al-ilim al-nafiah) …” 68 From Islamic perspective beneficial and useful creativity and
innovation in all kinds of knowledge is rewarding and merit making both in this world and
hereafter (ahkirah), and as long as people benefit from such knowledge, the reward will go
to the person who created such a knowledge, the Prophetic tradition states, “When a man dies,
his deeds come to an end except for three things: sadaqah jariyah (ceaseless charity); a
knowledge which is beneficial, or a virtuous descendant who prays for him (for the
deceased)” . 69 Knowledge could be used properly and abused in many ways; Islam therefore
makes a knowledgeable person responsible before Allah, the Prophetic Tradition states, “A
servant of God will remain standing on the Day of Judgment until he is questioned about …
his knowledge and how he utilized it ....”. 70 Hence, any progress, creativity, and innovation in

68
Ibn-Majah. Sunan Ibn Majah. (Beirut: Darul Fikir)

69
Muslim, Ibn Hajjaj. Sahih Muslim. (Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi).

70
At-Tirmidhi. Sunan at-Tirmidhi. (Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi).
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knowledge should be beneficial and not harmful. And a believer to continuously make
effort in increasing his knowledge and understanding. As the messenger says, “A believer is
never satiated with gainful knowledge; he goes acquiring it till his death and entry into
Paradise.” And among supplications mentioned in the Quran is, “…"My Lord, increase me in
knowledge." 72

Islamic epistemology is not an extremist one but synthetic and complementary one. Islam
gives very high importance to senses and reason in knowing and at the same time puts
revelation at a higher importance. All of these means are God given but they have their own
purposes and objectives. Therefore, knowledge which comes from anywhere regardless of
who created it, if corresponds to Islam and does not contradict it, then there seems to be no
problem in incorporating that knowledge in Islamic syllabuses and curricula. The faculty of
reason which human beings are gifted with is given to all human beings and human reason is
able to find wisdom, create, and innovate.

The abovementioned approach to knowledge is closely related to this work. The subject of
logical fallacies is connected with logic. Logic is connected with reason. It is a grammar for
reasoning or of reasoning. Beside many problems with reason is the problem to know how
reason works. Are there any rules for it? This subject was taken by Aristotle in Organon. The
whole legacy from Aristotle came to be known as Greek logic. Once this logic ended in
Muslims lands it created a debate. The most dominating subject among Muslims was actually
about reason and revelation. All Muslim scholars accepted reason as a source of knowledge.
However the controversial discussion included debate on the primacy of reason and revelation,
whether reason or revelation is primary. On this subject, Muslim philosophers and theologians
remained divided. Logic remained contested between opponents and proponents. Ibn Tymiah
wrote a refutation of Greek logic, showing inherent problems in it. He demonstrated the limits
of logic and its unsuitability to metaphysics. On the other hand “rejecting all forms of
philosophical knowledge as utterly un-Islamic, the Muslim theologian al-Ghazali Islamicized
Greek logic and extended its usage to Islamic law and theology, thus making logic an integral

71
At-Tirmidhi. Sunan at-Tirmidhi. (Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi).

72
The Quran, 20:114.
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part of Islamic reasoning.” 73 Furthermore, “Although he criticized the philosophers, al-Ghazali

nonetheless appreciated the exactness of logic and its efficacy in reconstructing the religious
sciences on firmer ground. He also utilized logic in his refutation of some Sufi practices and
beliefs as heretical and unauthorized (e.g., self mortification) while using the same logic to
lend his approval to other practices, including the interiority of faith (zuhd), which helped to
enhance faith by facilitating a more intense and disciplined religious experience” 74

However, whether there are rules for reason or not, it is itself a big subject. If there are no
rules then it would be difficult to differentiate rationality from irrationality. Of course, smart
from stupid. And if there are rules, then what are those rules? A deep look into the Quran and
Sunnah will help a scholar to come up with a framework for reasoning. Certain fundamental
rules are also possible. The scope of deciphering such rules and foundations in the Quran and
Sunnah which could provide bedrock for Islamic logic is of high scope. Yet, the logic which is
developed in the Western philosophy has many positive things which could be adopted, that is
why Al-Gazali appreciated the benefits of logic and so did many traditional ulama who
adopted it in their madrasah curriculum such as in Ottoman Turkey, Safavid Iran, and Mughal
India.

2.6.Why Islamic Perspective on Informal Logical Fallacies?

Why there is a need of having an Islamic perspective on informal logical fallacies when these
fallacies are actually discussed in various works and texts is a question that needs an answer
before going into the details of the subject. The informal logical fallacies as espoused in works
and texts are grounded in a temporal human finitude which is taken granted as the final and
unquestionable yardstick and the criteria for knowledge and evaluation. These logical fallacies
are grounded in a special kind of worldview which is materialistic and secular. Accepting
these informal logical fallacies per se can be misleading.

73
Sarnira Haj, Reconfiguring Islamic Tradition: Reform, Rationality, and Modernity
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 88.

74
Sarnira Haj, Reconfiguring Islamic Tradition: Reform, Rationality, and Modernity
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 89.
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In addition to aforesaid concern, there are further two main issues which are in need to be
addressed adequately. The first issue is that some psychological studies show that as the more
critical thinking students learn the less faithful they become. Related to this is other claim that
religious students are found less critical than non-religious students. The other issue is that
Islam and Muslims are blamed that they cannot pass the test of critical thinking.

The first claim that critical thinking makes students less faithful and students from religious
background are less critical is problematic and faulty. If critical thinking is construed as a free
thinking system with its own epistemological biases and therefore taught to students as creed
without a critical reflection on its own basis and foundations then such a critical thinking
would surely make students less faithful if they learn and swallow it uncritically. Secondly,
claiming that students with religious background are less critical is in the same way faulty
because their criticality is being measured by wrong standards. However their failure of being
uncritical within their own tradition is because they have not been made able to be critical in
their unique way because of their special upbringing and sometimes just being faithful about
everything and a kind of instruction and schooling that is fundamentally based on dictation,
indoctrination, and memorizing without reflection. This lack in religious studies calls for a
review and reformation of religious education and it should be taken seriously. This work is
for the same reason. Students of religion should be able to be critical within their own
tradition. The second claim that Islam and Muslims cannot pass the test of critical thinking is
also a biased opinion. Those who subject Islam and Muslims to such an accusation are actually
talking about their own critical thinking which is not taken as criteria by Muslims. The fact is
that Muslims have their own worldview which is different from materialism and scientism.
Their epistemological understanding is grounded in the special conception of ontology and
their physics is incomplete without their metaphysics. And, their epistemological methods are
revelational besides being rational and empirical. Therefore, blaming Muslims for not being
critical enough by the standards of secular and materialistic methods of critical thinking is a
biased stand. However, to meet such a challenge and at the same time showing that Muslims
are critical enough and their studies including religious studies are not short of critical
component is a responsibility of Muslim scholars to develop Islamic critical thinking and
make it the implicit curriculum in the texts and it is an area in which a lot of efforts are still
needed.
Malik, Mohammad M. 2017. “ISLAMIC APPROACH TO CRITICAL THINKING”. Open
Science Framework. March 27. osf.io/zc6yu.