Proceedings of The Fisita 2012 World Automotive Congress 2013

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
Volume 194
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Society of Automotive Engineers of China
(SAE-China) International Federation of
•
Automotive Engineering Societies (FISITA)

Editors
Proceedings of the FISITA

2012 World Automotive
Congress
Volume 6: Vehicle Electronics
123
Editors
SAE-China FISITA
Beijing London
People’s Republic of China UK
ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-642-33828-1 ISBN 978-3-642-33829-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-33829-8
Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012948289
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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Contents
Part I Engine/Chassis/Body Electronic Control
Battery Monitoring Technology of Micro-Hybrid

System Based on Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
F2012-D01-002
Feng Gao, Qiang Zhang and Chenshu Yan
Research on Electro Hydraulic Composite Brake System . . . . . . . . . . 13

F2012-D01-003
Qinghe Liu, Lan Zhan and Ti He
Analysis and Design of Automotive Body Control Module . . . . . . . . . 25

F2012-D01-005
Jianhui Ma, Zhixue Wang, Yanqiang Li and Liangjie Yu
Scalable Architecture Approach with Platform Products

to Implement Advanced Car-Body E&E System
in Emerging Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
F2012-D01-006
Dayu Ding
Gasoline Fuel Injector Selection and Its Effects

on Engine Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
F2012-D01-009
Shuxia Miao, Daijun Deng and Hui Zheng
The Research of Starting Control Strategies for Common

Rail Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
F2012-D01-011
Hongrong Wang, Heng Zhang and Yongfu Wang
v
vi Contents
Study on Twin Modes Pilot Control of Turbocharger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

F2012-D01-012
Sicong Lin, Jian Wu, Anwei Zhang, Jujiang Liu and Jin Hu
Braking Stability Control Algorithm for Vehicle Based

on Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
F2012-D01-013
Hongyu Zheng, Yuchao Chen and Changfu Zong
Lane Keeping System Based on Electric Power Steering System . . . . . 83

F2012-D01-014
Hailin Zhang, Yugong Luo, Qingyun Jiang and Keqiang Li
Parking Brake Breaking-In Technology Based on EPB . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

F2012-D01-015
Leon Huang, Ted Huang, Wei Xu, Dongxu Yi, Lingtao Han
and Wutian Lin
Engineering Design of TPMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

F2012-D01-016
Lingtao Han, Ted Huang and Wei Xu
An Integrated Electric Energy Management System

to ImproveFuel Economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
F2012-D01-018
Mingming Wang and Ted Huang
Modeling on Torque Generation for Turbocharged Diesel

EngineBased on Identification Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
F2012-D01-021
Gang Li, Ying Huang, Fujun Zhang and Xiaoyan Dai
Design of a Versatile Rapid Prototyping Engine

Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
F2012-D01-022
Bernd Eichberger, Eduard Unger and Mario Oswald
Study on State Parameters Estimation for Commercial Vehicle . . . . . 143

F2012-D01-026
Li Liu, Chaosheng Huang, Yuanfang Li and Shuming Shi
Contents vii
The Research and Implementation of Engine-Timing-Control

System Based on AUTOSAR Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
F2012-D01-027
Weimin He, Guilin Lv, Tao Chen, Shizhen Liu and Hui Han
Calibration Techniques for Modern Commercial Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . 167

F2012-D01-028
Yong Deng, Zhongzhuang Yuan and Lai Wei
Powertrain Control and System Integration Technology

from OEM’S Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
F2012-D01-029
Jun Li, Fengjun Li, Peng Zhang, Yongjun Li and Weimin He
Part II Electrical and Electronic System
Virtual Development of Engine ECU by Modeling Technology . . . . . . 189

F2012-D02-004
Haifeng Xu, Yukihide Niimi and Takayuki Ono
The Research of a Novel High Energy Density Ultracapacitor

System Applied in the Full Hybrid Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
F2012-D02-008
Jianxin Zhu, Qiu Xiao, Lin Yang and Xiance Ai
Starting System for Stop/Start with Change of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

F2012-D02-010
Koichi Osawa and Hideya Notani
Distributed Diagnostic Monitoring and Fault Tolerant Control

of Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
F2012-D02-012
Shanshan Fan, Diange Yang, Tao Zhang and Xiaomin Lian
Synthesis and Nox Gas Sensing Properties of In1.82 ni0.18o3

Electrospun Nanofibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
F2012-D02-016
Jinxing Wang, Kejin Zhang, Dan Wang, Dechao Xu, Bin Zhang
and Zhongling Zhao
viii Contents
A Novel Concept of High Voltage Auxiliaries and its Feasibility

Study on Blower Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
F2012-D02-018
Satoshi Shiraki, Hiroyasu Kudo, Masakazu Tago, Akira Yamada,
Shigeki Takahashi and Atsuyuki Hiruma
Small Lights Power Distribution System Improvement

of a Heavy-Duty Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
F2012-D02-022
Leigang Ma and Fadong Yan
Development Trend Analysis of Automobile Electronic System . . . . . . 261

F2012-D02-024
Zhirong Fan, Ying Xie, Cheng Yang, Yipeng Zhang and Jian Chen
Automotive ECUs Fault Diagnosis Modeling Based

on the Fault Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
F2012-D02-026
Yanqiang Li, Yang Li, Zhixue Wang, Ruke Zhuang and Jianxin Li
Secure Microprocessor Architectures: Solutions from the

Semi-Conductor Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
F2012-D02-029
Klaus Scheibert and Björn Steurich
Research on CAN BUS-Based Electronic and Electric Platform

of Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
F2012-D02-031
Gouqing Tong, Lei Chen, Anzhi Yang, Fangwu Ma and Fuquan Zhao
On the Application Development of 3G Technology

in Automobiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
F2012-D02-032
Ying Lu, Wenqiang Chen, Xingmin Wei and Fuquan Zhao
A Typical Application of FlexRay Bus in the Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

F2012-D02-033
Yandong Dong and Wanrong Wang
Development of Controller Diagnostic System Based on ODX . . . . . . . 341

F2012-D02-036
Li Li and Shanzheng Tang
Contents ix
Magnetic Circuit Design for Improving Performance

of In-Wheel Type IPMSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
F2012-D02-041
Byeong-Hwa Lee, Jae-Woo Jung, Kyu-Seob Kim and Jung-Pyo Hong
A Study on the Noise Reduction of Electrical Power Steering

in Surface Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
F2012-D02-043
Do-Jin Kim, Hyeon-Jin Park and Jung-Pyo Hong
Power Distribution Design of Passenger Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

F2012-D02-045
Xianming Wang
Part III Software and Hardware Development
Study on the Performance Modeling Approach for Automotive

Embedded Control Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
F2012-D03-004
Xiaofeng Yin, Jingxing Tan, Xiuting Wu and Qichang Yang
Knowledge Based Engineering to Support Automotive Conceptual

Design and Automatic Control Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
F2012-D03-005
Fengnian Tian and Mark Voskuijl
Development of an AUTOSAR Software Component Based

on the V-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
F2012-D03-009
Dieter Nazareth and Robert Siwy
MDG1: The New, Scalable, and Powerful ECU

Platform from Bosch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
F2012-D03-011
Johannes-Joerg Rueger, Alexander Wernet, Hasan-Ferit Kececi
and Thomas Thiel
Context-Aware Middleware for Vehicular Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 427

F2012-D03-012
Jian Wang, Weiwen Deng and Peng Zhou
x Contents
Analysis of the Adaptation of a New Method for Four-Wheel-Hub

Electric Vehicle Online-Mass Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
F2012-D03-014
Jin Zhang, Zhuoping Yu, Lu Xiong and Yuan Feng
Design and Implementation of Bootloader for Vehicle Control

Unit Basedon Can Bus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
F2012-D03-016
Tingqing Tan, Hanhan Tang and Yaling Zhou
Automated Code Generation for Development of Electric

Vehicle Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
F2012-D03-019
Peng Geng, Minggao Ouyang, Jianqiu Li and Liangfei Xu
Research on the Development Process for the ECU Control

Software of Vehicle Powertrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
F2012-D03-020
Xiaoyan Dai, Changlu Zhao, Ying Huang, Huan Li and Gang Li
MCON: Automation Tool for MATLAB Modeling Development

Based on V-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
F2012-D03-021
Mingshi Xie and Wanrong Wang
A Model-Based Design for Electronic Control Unit

of Electric Motorcycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
F2012-D03-022
Sung-Suk Jnug, Jin-Ho Kim and Jea-Wook Jeon
Model Based Nonlinear Controller Design for Fuel Rail System

of GDI Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
F2012-D03-026
Pengyuan Sun, Baiyu Xin, H. Chen and J. Li
Research on OBD Performance of T-GDI Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

F2012-D03-027
Song Yan, Pengyuan Sun and Tonghao Song
Contents xi
Part IV Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
Resonance Mechanism in Power Electronic Products for Automobiles

and its Relationship to EMC Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
F2012-D04-002
Masato Izumichi
Application of the MOS Tube on Power Window Switch . . . . . . . . . . 537

F2012-D04-004
Yihai Wang, Xia Li and Rongxia Zhang
Simulation Analysis of Electromagnetic Compatibility

in Vehicle Ignition Control System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
F2012-D04-008
Ya’nan Li, Wenqiang Chen, Xingmin Wei and Fuquan Zhao
A Method for Improving Radiated Emission of Automotive

Spark-Ignition System with Improved Micro-Genetic Algorithm . . . . . 557
F2012-D04-009
Yanming Qin, Bin Li, Qingsong Liu, Xiangling Xu and JianPeng Zhai
Simulation of Electromagnetic Characters of Vehicle

Whip Antennas Based on Mom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
F2012-D04-011
Liguo Zang, Youqun Zhao, Wei Wang, Jian Wang and Haiyan Sun
Study on Conducted Interference and Radiated Interference

of Buck-Boost Converter in Electric Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
F2012-D04-012
Jian Wang, Youqun Zhao, Liguo Zang and Wei Wang
Study on Electromagnetic Interference Restraining

of Motor Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
F2012-D04-013
Li Zhai, Runze Gao and Qiannan Wang
Part V Vehicle Sensor and Actuator
GPS Based Estimation of Vehicle Sideslip Angle Using Multi-Rate

Kalman Filter with Prediction of Course Angle
Measurement Residual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
F2012-D05-001
B. M. Nguyen, Yafei Wang, Sehoon Oh, Hiroshi Fujimoto
and Yoichi Hori
xii Contents
Multi-Gas Sensor by Infrared Spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611

F2012-D05-003
Tetsuya Enomoto, Tomoki Tanemura, Shuichi Yamashita,
Hiroyuki Wado, Yukihiro Takeuchi and Yutaka Hattori
Dynamic Characteristics Analysis and Experimental Study

of Multilayered Piezoelectric Actuator for
Automotive Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
F2012-D05-004
Chuanliang Shen, Xuewei Song, Jingshi Dong and Shuming Chen
Intelligent Sensor Bearing for Torque Ripple Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . 631

F2012-D05-009
Yi Yuan, Mathieu Hubert, Stephane Moisy,
Francois Auger and Luc Loron
Part VI In-Vehicle Network
Study on Diagnostic Methods of Lin Slaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643

F2012-D06-001
Jitai Li, Ted Huang, Lifang Huang and Liguo Wang
The Research of Vehicle Network Control System Model . . . . . . . . . . 651

F2012-D06-002
Kai Li, Juan Wan, Jie Bai, Jianxian Chen, Gan Chen,
Fanwu Zhang and Jianguang Zhou
Research on Reformation Method of Vehicle Intelligent

Electric/Electronic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
F2012-D06-003
Weiwei Kong, Diange Yang, Tao Zhang, Bing Li and Xiaomin Lian
Ethernet-Based Integrated Network for Active Safety Sensors . . . . . . 673

F2012-D06-005
Jin Ho Kim and Jae Wook Jeon
Architecture for Secure Tablet Integration in Automotive Network. . . 683

F2012-D06-015
James Joy, Anurag Raghu and Jestin Joy
Contents xiii
Applying Autosar Network Management in OSEK/VDX

for Compatibility of Autosar and OSEK/VDX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
F2012-D06-017
Yo Han Lee, Jin Ho Kim and Jae Wook Jeon
Performance Analysis of Ethernet Power link Applied

to Ethernet of In-Vehicle Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
F2012-D06-018
Hoe Young Chung, Jin Ho Kim and Jae Wook Jeon
Performance Analysis of Gateway Embedded System

with Function Actively Controlling CAN Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
F2012-D06-019
Hoe Young Chung and Jae Wook Jeon
Network Architecture Design for Reliability Based on ECU

Power Supply and Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
F2012-D06-020
Maoyuan Cui, Dongfeng Zhao, Libo Zhang, Youen Li,
Boxiang Ma and Dongyang Ma
Part VII Multi-Media/Infotainment System
Innovative Software Architecture for Next-Generation

Infotainment System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
F2012-D07-004
Jianming Zhou, Kerun Xu, Minjie Tian, Chendong Wang
and Mingshi Xie
Part VIII Other
The Design of Invariant Wiring Harness Network

in Full Electronic Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
F2012-D08-003
Shicen Zheng, Wenqiang Chen, Xingmin Wei and Fuquan Zhao
Inertia Compensation Based on Torque Signal in an Electric

Power Steering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
F2012-D08-006
Xuewu Ji, Ning Sun, Jingguang Ge and Yahui Liu
Part I
Engine/Chassis/Body Electronic Control
Battery Monitoring Technology
of Micro-Hybrid System Based on Voltage
Feng Gao, Qiang Zhang and Chenshu Yan
Abstract Monitoring battery state correctly is the basis for a micro-hybrid system.
In order to cut down costs, a method of monitoring battery state only by voltage is
designed. It is derived by analyzing the characteristics of the micro-hybrid system
and battery charging/discharging. By using this proposed method, battery sensor,
which is widely used, can be cancelled. The vehicle test results show that the
designed method satisfies requirements of a micro-hybrid system and the system
works correctly. Comparing to the system with a battery sensor, the fuel consumption
is the same in standard condition. But in real traffic the rate of fuel saving is 15 % less.
Keywords Hybrid vehicle Start stop system Micro-hybrid system State of

charge State of health
1 Introduction
Recently, it is very hard to make electric vehicle into mass production in China
because of the following reasons:
1. Some key components, such as battery, are not ready to mass production.
2. Comparing to traditional vehicle, the added costs are much.
F2012-D01-002
F. Gao (&) Q. Zhang C. Yan

Automobile Engineering, Institute of Changan Automobile Ltd. Co,
Changan, People’s Republic of China
e-mail: sunqiemail@163.com
SAE-China and FISITA (eds.), Proceedings of the FISITA 2012 World 3

Automotive Congress, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 194,
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-33829-8_1, Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
4 F. Gao et al.
Fig. 1 Micro-hybrid system
Micro-hybrid vehicle has several advantages comparing to other new energy

technology. Much attention has already been paid in developed countries. A typical
micro-hybrid system is shown in Fig. 1.
The controller analyzes driving conditions and estimates battery state according
to sensor signals. Engine will be stopped when specific conditions are satisfied.
Battery state is one of the most important conditions. The widely used method is
equipped a battery sensor, in which a battery model runs. It provides State of
charge (SOC), State of Healthy (SOH) and State of Function (SOF). Normally
voltage, current and temperature signals are necessary for a battery model [1–9].
The requirements of measurement rage and precision of current signal are strict,
which lead to much more costs.
In China, more than 2.5 million mini cars are produced per year. It is real
important to reduce their fuel consumption and emission. Because of its cheap
price, the consumers of mini car can hardly bear the added costs of micro-hybrid
system. So a method of monitoring battery state by voltage only is designed to
reduce the cost of micro-hybrid system. The decrease rate of voltage, combining
with voltage value, is used to estimate discharge current. SOH is decided by the
voltage drop at crank. By integrating the proposed logic into Engine Control Unit
(ECU), the idle start/stop function can be realized without battery sensor. The
effectiveness of the proposed method has been validated by vehicle tests.
The results show that it has the same fuel consumption saving rate in standard test
condition comparing with the system with battery sensor. But in real traffic the rate
of fuel saving is 15 % less.
2 Monitoring Fundamentals by Voltage
The main objective of monitoring battery state is to evaluate whether the engine
can start successfully. And it is described in detail:
Battery Monitoring Technology 5
Fig. 2 Battery discharging current curve. 1 50 % SOC, 2 15A, 3 25A, 4 50A, 5 75A, 6 100A
1. When the battery is full and other idle stop conditions are satisfied too, the
engine will stop to reduce emission and fuel consumption.
2. When the battery is not full, the stop function will be forbidden. The controller
should keep engine running to charge the battery. This can avoid the faults that
the engine can not start.
3. When the battery is aged, the idle start/stop function will be disabled and the
aged information should be provided to driver.
The battery monitoring method greatly affects the performances of a micro-
hybrid system. In order to achieve the above objects and cancel the battery sensor
at the same time, a battery state monitoring algorithm only by voltage is designed.
This new algorithm is derived by analyzing the battery working conditions of a
micro-hybrid system.
2.1 Engine Stop and Discharging
In real driving conditions, normally driver will not turn on/off big electrical power
load frequently. When engine is stop, the battery working at the condition, which
is similar with that of discharging at a constant current. Figure 2 is the voltage
curves of discharge at different current.
From the above curves, it can be concluded that:
1. Discharge to the same SOC at different currents, the battery voltage is different
because of internal resistance. So SOC can hardly be derived by voltage directly.
2. Discharge to the same SOC at different current, the voltage change rate is
different.
3. The bigger the discharge current is, the absolute value of the voltage change
rate is bigger.
According to the above analysis, when engine stops at idle condition, the
battery works like discharge at a constant current. The discharge current may be
6 F. Gao et al.
14.5
1 2
Voltage (V) 14
3
13.5
4
13
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
SOC (%)
Fig. 3 Battery charging voltage curve
estimated by voltage change rate. And combining with the voltage value, the SOC
of battery may be estimated roughly.
2.2 Engine Running and Charging
When engine is running, the battery is always charging. If the electrical load is
smaller than the output power of the generator, the generator acts as a power
source of constant voltage. Figure 3 is the battery voltage curves at different SOC
and different engine speed.
From Fig. 3, it can be concluded that:
1. When the SOC is almost 100 %, which means the battery is full, the voltage
reaches to an almost constant value. The value is always bigger than 14.3 V.
2. When the battery is not full, its voltage is much lower and varies with SOC
greatly.
Form the above facts, whether the battery is full can be determined by voltage
value and its stability.
2.3 Health Monitoring
The battery internal resistance can be calculated by voltage and current for the
system with a battery sensor. Internal resistance has a close relationship with
battery aging state. But in this paper, only voltage is available, so the above normal
method can not be used directly. Figure 4 is the statistical lowest voltage from lots
of engine start data at different conditions, such as temperature, initial SOC, etc.
From the statistical results shown in Fig. 4, it can be concluded that:
1. The lowest start voltage decreases obviously with the aging cycle when the
aging cycle is bigger than 4.
12
11
Voltage (V) 10
6
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Aging cycles
Fig. 4 Lowest voltage during start
2. When the aging cycle is less, the lowest start voltage does not decrease
obviously and is above 9 V.
From the above facts, the battery aging state can be derived by the lowest
voltage during start. When the lowest voltage is smaller than the threshold, it can
be concluded that the battery is aged and the start/stop function should be disabled.
Otherwise, the battery state is monitored by voltage and the result is input to the
start/stop control logic.
3 Battery Monitoring Algorithm Modeling
Last section describes the fundamentals of the new battery state monitoring
method. To validate its rightness, the battery monitoring algorithm is modelled by
ASCET and is integrated into ECU. Figure 5 is the control logic model.
A first order filter is used to flat battery voltage to avoid incorrect decision
because of fluctuation of voltage. The filter is modelled in Fig. 5 module 5.
Considering the digital data length and the fact that battery voltage varies very
slowly with time during discharge normally, module 3 which is responsible for
voltage change rate calculation, is called every 30 s.
The logic of module 1 is that when all of the following conditions are satisfied,
the battery is charged full:
(1) Battery voltage is not smaller than 14.2 V.
(2) Engine is at the state of running and the battery state flag is set.
(3) Total time, when both condition (1) and (2) are satisfied, is not smaller than 60 s.
The condition (1) and (3) are to ensure that the battery voltage is stable and its
value is high enough. This logic only need to be called when engine is running and
the battery is not full, so condition (2) is added to avoid disturbances from other
conditions.
8 F. Gao et al.
Fig. 5 ASCET model of monitoring algorithm. 1 Full charge decision logic, 2 over discharge
decision logic, 3 calculation of voltage change rate, 4 lowest voltage during start detection logic,
5 voltage signal filter algorithm
The logic of module 2 in Fig. 5 is that when both the following two condition
are satisfied, the battery is over discharged:
(1) Battery voltage is smaller than the threshold.
(2) Battery state flag is reset.
The voltage limit in condition (1) is a function of battery temperature and voltage
change rate. The data is stored in ECU and as shown in Fig. 6.
4 Vehicle Experiments
To verify the validity and correctness of the proposed battery state monitoring
method, the following three kinds of tests have been done: functional test, standard
test and vehicle test in real traffic. The functional test is to verify that the start/stop
function can be realized. The standard test is to verify the fuel saving rate of the
proposed method. The vehicle test is to validate its reliability and real fuel saving rate.
Some functional test results are shown in Fig. 7 and it can be concluded that:
(1) When the idle stop condition is satisfied, the engine is stopped immediately.
(2) When battery voltage is below the threshold at 175 s, the battery state flag is
set and the engine starts automatically.
12.5
Voltage (V) 12
11.5
11
80
60 0
-0.01
40 -0.02
-0.03
-0.04
20 -0.05
Temperature (degree) Voltage rate of change (V/30s)
Fig. 6 Voltage threshold during discharge
(a) 16
Voltage (V)
14 1 2
12
10
0 50 100 150 200
Time (s)
1- Filtered Voltage, 2- Voltage Threshold
(b) 2
Battery state
-1
0 50 100 150 200
Time (s)
(c)
Engine speed (r/m)
3000
2000
1000
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (s)
Fig. 7 Start/stop function test results. a Battery voltage: 1 Filtered voltage, 2 voltage threshold.
b Battery State. c Engine Speed
10 F. Gao et al.
To validate the effects on fuel consumption, a comparing test at standard NEDC

condition has been done between the micro-hybrid system with battery sensor and
that using the proposed battery monitoring technology. The test results are the
same and the fuel saving rate are 4.3 %.
Furthermore, to verify the reliability of the designed system, vehicle tests in real
traffic have been done too. Nine vehicles are used, among which three uses the
micro-hybrid system with a battery sensor, three are fixed with the new micro-
hybrid system, other three vehicles without micro-hybrid system. Driving routine
is the same as the 609 bus of Chongqing City, which includes city road and
highway. Driving condition is almost the same as most vehicles of families. The
test lasts one month and the driving distance is more than ten thousand kilometers.
During the whole test, the functionality of the micro-hybrid system is correct and
there is no starting failure because of battery over discharge. According to the
statistical data of fuel consumption, the fuel saving rate of the micro-hybrid system
using the proposed battery monitoring technology is 7.5 %. It is less than the fuel
saving rate of the system with battery sensor, which is 8.6 %. The reason is that the
proposed method monitors battery state only by voltage and can not estimate SOC
precisely. This will lead to starting engine earlier. And in some condition that the
engine may be stopped, the controller does not do it.
5 Conclusions
To reduce the cost of micro-hybrid system and make it acceptable by the market
especially for mini cars, a battery state monitoring algorithm by voltage is
designed in this paper. The algorithm is modeled by ASCET and integrated in
ECU. The proposed algorithm is validated by function test, NEDC test and real
traffic test. The test results show that:
1. The proposed battery monitoring algorithm by voltage can satisfy the require-
ments of micro-hybrid system and the start/stop function works properly.
2. By applying the proposed algorithm, the battery sensor can be canceled and the
cost of the micro-hybrid system can be reduced by about 10*15 %.
3. The fuel consumption saving rate of the proposed algorithm, which is 4.3 %
less comparing with the vehicle without start/stop system, is the same as the
micro-hybrid system with a battery sensor at the NEDC running condition.
4. In real traffic condition, the fuel consumption saving rate of the proposed
algorithm is 15 % less than the system with a battery sensor.
References
1. Kallfelz A (2006) Battery monitoring considerations for hybrid vehicles and other battery
systems with dynamic duty loads. Battery Power Prod Technol 10(3):1–3
2. Pop V, Bergveld HJ, Regtien PPL et al (2007) Battery aging and its influence on the
electromotive force. J Electrochem Soc 154(8):744–750
3. Picciano N (2007) Battery aging and characterization of nickel metal hydride and lead acid
batteries. The Ohio State University, Mechanical Engineering
4. Ross Michael MD (2001) A simple but comprehensive lead acid battery model for hybrid
system simulation. In: Proceedings of PV horizon: workshop on photovoltaic hybrid systems,
Montreal
5. Jackey RA (2007) A simple effective lead acid battery modeling process for electrical system
component selection. In: SAE world congress and exhibition, Detroit
6. Medora NK, Kusko A (2007) Analysis of battery cable faults using dynamic battery model. In:
International battery conference, Tampa
7. Suozzo C (2008) Lead acid battery aging and state of health diagnosis. The Ohio State
University, Electrical Engineering
8. Li G-H (2005) Study on the hybrid drive system and the power battery control strategy.
Department of Automation, TianJin University
9. Jiang X-H (2007) Study on the management system of lithium ion battery. Graduate University
of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Research on Electro Hydraulic Composite
Brake System
Qinghe Liu, Lan Zhan and Ti He
Abstract This paper describes a proposal of electro hydraulic composite brake

system, which is based on the high-speed switching valve, and sets up a algorithm
of the composite braking resistance distribution, according to the law of ECE and
motor’s external characteristic. By using the simulator ADVISOR, the algorithm is
analyzed. The result shows that this algorithm can realize the braking safety
primly, at the same time, recuperates energy of 220 kJ, leading to a 0.75 %
increase of battery status.

Keywords Composite brake system Brake resistance distribution Braking

energy regeneration Braking safety ECE law
1 Technical Paper: Introduction
Since the 21st century, faced with the much more serious problems of energy
exhaustion and environmental pollution, many car-producing countries have been
controlling the polluting emissions and fuel economy of their vehicles by setting
F2012-D01-003
Q. Liu L. Zhan (&)

Harbin Institute of Technology, Weihai, China
e-mail: zhanlanjzl@163.com
Q. Liu
e-mail: qingheliu@sina.com
T. He
Weihai Xili Electronics LTD, Weihai, China
e-mail: 18963188729@163.com

14 Q. Liu et al.
more strict standards. Therefore, it brings the new energy vehicle, which can
regenerate energy while braking, to public focus.
Regenerative braking system reserves part of the braking energy for driving the
vehicles, which can increase vehicle economy effectively. But the effect of
regenerating energy is decided by the certain algorithm of the composite braking
force distribution. Because the traditional braking system cannot realize inde-
pendent and variable control of the hydraulic braking force, many complex
algorithms, which have strict requirements for the control of the hydraulic braking
force, can not be applied to real cars. This traditional system limits the regener-
ative efficiency of braking energy and the improvement of braking safety.
However, the electro hydraulic composite brake system provides a practical way to
solve this problem.
In this study, we aim to research on the electro hydraulic composite brake
system. Based on the high-speed switching valve, a proposal of this system, which
provides a foundation for the following study, is raised. According to the law of
ECE and motor’s external characteristic, we set up an algorithm of the composite
braking force distribution. Finally, by using the simulator ADVISOR, this algo-
rithm is analyzed, from the perspectives of energy regeneration and braking safety.
The ultimate result shows that this algorithm of the composite braking force
distribution is superior in both of the aspects.
2 Structural Concept of the Composite Electro Hydraulic

Brake System
During the composite braking process, in order to realize active control of the
hydraulic braking force, the electro hydraulic brake system should contain the
following basic functions.
1. The electro hydraulic composite brake system should have similar pedal feeling
with the traditional ones.
2. According to the master controller’s requirements of the composite brake
system, this system should have the active ability to increase and decrease the
pressure of the hydraulic brake system. Hydraulic brake should be separated
with pedal operation.
After the functional analyses of the composite brake system and the electro
hydraulic brake system, we raise a proposal of the electro hydraulic composite
brake system (Fig. 1), which is based on the high-speed switching valve. The most
obvious attribute of this proposal is that it can satisfy the requirements of varies
algorithms of the composite braking force distribution toward exact control of the
hydraulic braking force [1].
Attributes of the proposal:
Research on Electro Hydraulic Composite Brake System 15
Fig. 1 The structure of the electro hydraulic composite brake system. 1 braking pedal, 2 braking
pedal position sensor; 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d high-speed switching valve for oil circulation; 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d
high-speed switching valve for feeding, 5 braking oilcan, 6 wheel pump, 7a, 7b, 7c, 7d pressure
sensor, 8a, 8b, 8c, 8d wheel braking cylinder; 9a, 9b, 9c, 9d wheel speed sensor; 10 accumulator;
11 motor; 12a, 12b spare high-speed switching valve for brake; 13a, 13b equilibrium valve; 14
brake master cylinder
1. Electro hydraulic brake system can independently control the hydraulic braking
force of every wheel, providing the foundation for those much more complex
and efficient algorithms of the composite braking force distribution.
2. In this proposal, the electro hydraulic system cut down the mechanical
connection between braking pedal and braking pipe. To ensure the driver’s
pedal feeling while braking, this system adds a pedal feeling simulator, which is
used to simulate the braking force reaction to the pedal.
3. In the braking process, once the electro hydraulic brake system suddenly broke
down or the braking control system failed, the spare braking system would
begin to work [2].
Figure 2 shows the control logic of the electro hydraulic composite brake
system. According to the signals sent by the position sensor of braking pedal, the
electro hydraulic braking control unit gets the driver’s braking intention and sends
the intention to the electro hydraulic composite braking control unit via a bus.
At the same time, via the bus network, the composite braking control unit receives
the signals of car speed and battery’s state of charge from VMS (Vehicle Manage
16 Q. Liu et al.
Fig. 2 Control logic of the electro hydraulic composite brake system
System). In accordance with the algorithm of composite braking control, it

calculates the regenerative braking force, which should be provided by the
regeneration brake system, and the hydraulic braking force supplied by the electro
hydraulic brake system. Based on the results, signals are sent to the hydraulic
control unit, by controlling the hydraulic actuator, the pressure of every wheel
cylinder is controlled, thus the hydraulic braking forces are controlled. Simulta-
neously, signals are sent to the motor controller, controlling the braking force
generated by it to satisfy the total requirement of the severity of braking [3].
3 Performance Test of Electro Hydraulic Brake System
As the electronic control of the hydraulic brake system is the premise of realizing
electro hydraulic brake, performance test of the new proposal’s electro hydraulic is
conducted.
The performance test is divided to two work conditions: the step-input and
sinusoidal-input.
1. The wheel baking cylinder’s pressure response under step pressure
Set the objective pressure of increasing pressure to 2.5, 5, 7, 8.5 MPa respec-
tively in the controller, the control effect is showed in Fig. 3. The Initial pressure is
9 MPa, set the objective pressure of decreasing pressure to 6, 4, 2, 1 MPa
respectively, the control effect is showed in Fig. 4. As the figures show, the control
Fig. 3 Step increasing of

wheel
Fig. 4 Step decreasing of

wheel
system can effectively follow the step-input pressure, the steady-state error is
minor, the time of reaction is within 100 ms, and can satisfy the brake system’s
requirement towards the pressure reaction speed.
2. The wheel baking cylinder’s pressure response under sinusoidal pressure
The (a) in Fig. 5 shows the performance curve of the wheel baking cylinder’s
pressure response under sinusoidal pressure of 3 sinð3tÞ þ 4, when the switching
valve is in the zone of linearity. (b) shows the performance curve of the wheel
baking cylinder’s pressure response under sinusoidal pressure of 3 sinð3tÞ þ 4,
when permitted to work in the nonlinear region. (c) shows the performance curve
of the wheel baking cylinder’s pressure response under sinusoidal pressure of
3 sinð4tÞ þ 4. (d) shows the performance curve of the wheel baking cylinder’s
pressure response under sinusoidal pressure of 3 sinð4tÞ þ 4, when permitted to
work in the nonlinear region.
18 Q. Liu et al.
Fig. 5 The performance curve of the wheel baking cylinder’s pressure
The experiment result shows that under inputting sinusoidal required pressure,
the real pressure can effectively follow the objective pressure. When keeping the
switching valves working in the zone of linearity, the pressure fluctuates markedly.
This is largely due to the high dutyfactor (minimum value is 0.05) of the PWM
signal inputted by the controller. Therefore, markedly fluctuation of pressure
would happen once the switching valves are regulated. When the switching valves
are allowed to work in the nonlinear region, the pressure of the wheel cylinder can
follow the objective pressure much more exactly. This is because when the dif-
ference between the required pressure and objective pressure is small, the pressure
can be fine-tuned by using the space of dutyfactor between 0.03 and 0.05.
4 The Composite Braking Control Algorithm, Based

on the Law of ECE and Motor’s External Characteristic
According to the law of ECE and motor’s external characteristic, we set up a

composite braking control algorithm. On the premise of satisfying braking safety
and braking severity, we set our primary goal as recovering the maximum energy.
Fig. 6 Composite braking

force distribution curve
Therefore, the recovered energy should be used as more as possible while braking,
to increase the efficiency of recovering. When braking severity is low, only the
motor provides regenerated braking force for the front wheels. When the braking
severity is medium or high, the hydraulic system and regenerated braking system
provide the force corporately. Before reaching the ideal distributive severity of
braking force, the braking force of front wheels is only provided by the motor. The
electro hydraulic brake system does not provide any braking force. The braking
force of the rear wheels is provided by the hydraulic system. When the ideal
distributive severity is reached, every wheel’s braking force is distributed
according to the ideal braking force distribution curve. The motor provides its
maximum regenerative braking force for the front wheels, if it is not enough,
hydraulic braking system would be added, while the rear’s is solely provided by
the hydraulic brake system [4].
Before braking force is distributed, the electro hydraulic composite control unit,
according to the received signal from the braking pedal, calculates the car’s
objective braking severity z and total required braking force Fr , at the same time,
according to the motor’s rev and the transmission agent’s transmission ratio,
calculates the largest regenerative braking force Fmax that can be provided by the
motor.
First, calculating the front wheel’s braking force on the curve of ECE law,
while the braking force of the rear wheel is zero.
8
< F ¼ z þ 0:07 ðb þ zh ÞG=L
xb1 g
0:85 ð1Þ
:
0 ¼ Gz Fxb1
Fxb1 ¼ Fxb1d ð2Þ

In the equation, Fxb1d —abscissa of the point that ECE curve cross with the
horizontal axe
Judging from the magnitude comparison between Fxb1d and the maximum
braking force Fmax provided by the motor, there are two kinds of braking force
distribution methods:
20 Q. Liu et al.
Fig. 7 Composite braking

force distribution curve
When Fmax [ Fxb1d , the braking force distribution is the ODEAB curve
(Fig. 6, [5])
(1) z zD , total regenerative braking section.
Fm ¼ Fr ; Fhf ¼ 0; Fhr ¼ 0
In the equation,
Fm motor’s regenerative braking force (N);
Fhf front wheels’ hydraulic braking force (N);
Fhr rear wheels’ hydraulic braking force (N).
(2) zD \z zE , braking force distribution changes along the curve of ECE law
z þ 0:07
Fm ¼ ðb þ zhg ÞG=L; Fhf ¼ 0; Fhr ¼ Fr Fm
0:85
(3) zE \z zA , motor provides the maximum braking force
Fm ¼ Fmax ; Fhf ¼ 0; Fhr ¼ Fr Fmax
(4) z [ zA , braking force distribution changes along curve I
b þ hg Fr =G a hg Fr =G
Fm ¼ Fmax ; Fhf ¼ Fr Fm ; Fhr ¼ Fr
L L
When Fmax Fxb1d , the braking force distribution changes along curve OCAB
(Fig. 7).
Fig. 8 The model of braking force distribution strategy
(1) z zC , total regenerative braking section, braking force only provided by the
motor.
Fm ¼ Fr ; Fhf ¼ 0; Fhr ¼ 0
(2) zC \z zA , motor provides the maximum braking force
Fm ¼ Fmax ; Fhf ¼ o; Fhr ¼ Fr Fmax
(3) z [ zA , braking force distribution changes along curve I
b þ hg Fr =G a hg Fr =G
Fm ¼ Fmax ; Fhf ¼ Fr Fm ; Fhr ¼ Fr
L L
5 Simulation of the Electro Hydraulic Composite Braking

Strategy
5.1 Building of the Simulative Model
By using the ADVISOR simulator, we conduct simulative analysis toward the

algorithm of the composite braking force distribution. Primarily, we inset the law
of ECE and motor’s external characteristic into the policy module of ADVISOR
(Fig. 8), the module’s input signal is the car’s total required braking force, and the
output signals are the front wheels’ total required braking force and their frictional
braking force [6].
22 Q. Liu et al.
Fig. 9 Braking force

distribution curve
Using the models of every assembled vehicle element in ADVISOR, some

assembled m documents are modified necessarily. For example, it happens when
selecting transmission ratio of driving chain, we try to make the motor work in the
zone of high efficiency and high torquemoment, however, we also have to make
sure that transmission is fixed in the certain gear when braking.
5.2 Analysis of the Simulation Result
In a process of slow braking, to test the rationality and validity of the braking force
distribution algorithm, we simulate the distribution of the car’s braking force, the
situation of the wheel’s motion and energy regeneration, to test the rationality and
validity of the braking force distribution algorithm.
From the analysis of Figs. 9 and 10, we can know that in the beginning period
of braking, the car is in the total regenerative braking situation, in which the
hydraulic braking system doesn’t provide braking force. As the total braking force
reaches 3000 N, the hydraulic braking system begins to provide braking force for
the rear wheel. At this time, the braking force provided by the motor hasn’t
reached the maximum, to satisfy the braking severity requirement, and avoid the
front wheels, using the attachment coefficient, breakthrough the limitation of ECE
law, hydraulic braking force is added to the rear wheels, sharing some of the
braking force. After the braking force reaches 5000 N, hydraulic braking force is
also provided to the front wheels, and the motor works in the zone of constant-
torsion, which is under the basic speed, providing the largest braking force under
this rev. At this time, all the wheels’ braking force is distributed according to the
ideal braking force distribution. The slip ratios of front and rear wheels are equal,
and equal to the braking severity [7].
As the Figs. 11 and 12 shows, in the beginning period of braking, the battery
situation increases slightly, which is due to the reasons that the regenerative
braking force is comparatively small, the recovered braking energy is less and
some of the equipments in the car consumes certain amount of electricity.
Fig. 10 Car speed and slip

ratio curve
Fig. 11 Motor’s
regenerative power and
charging electric current
Fig. 12 The battery’s

regenerative energy and SOC
However, as the braking severity increases, the regenerative braking force

increases and the motor’s generated output increases and reaches the maximum.
Subsequently, the car’s speed decreases, the motor’s rev decreases, the motor
begins to work in the zone of constant-torsion, and the motor’s regenerative power
decreases to 0.
In the whole process of braking, the motor’s maximum regenerative power is
42 kW, the maximum charging electric current is 110 A, the battery situation
increases 0.75 %, from 70 to 70.75 %, total regenerative energy is 220 kJ. From
all these data, we can know that the algorithm of braking force distribution
mentioned in this paper can realize the braking safety and regenerate compara-
tively large amount of braking energy.
24 Q. Liu et al.
6 Conclusion
1. We raise a proposal of electro hydraulic composite brake system, which is

based on the high-speed switching valve, and verify the feasibility of the electro
hydraulic braking system through tests.
2. An algorithm of the composite braking force distribution is set up, according to
the law of ECE and motor’s external characteristic.
3. Based on the ADVISOR simulator, the electro hydraulic composite brake
system’s braking strategy is simulated, and according to the simulation result,
the braking safety and the amount of regenerative braking energy are analyzed.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Weihai Science and Technology Devel-
opment Plan 2010-3-96 and Harbin Institute of Technology Innovation Fund HIT.NSRIF.201017,
for financial support.
References
1. Bo Y, Wanda Q, Yaohua H (2007) Automobile electro-hydraulic brake system. Bus Technol

Res 1:25–28
2. Sakai A (2008) Toyota braking system for hybrid vehicle with regenerative. In: 14th
international electric vehicle symposium (EVS14), 41–748
3. Reuter DF, Lloyd EW, Zehnder JW, Elliott JA (2003) Hydraulic design considerations for
EHB systems. SAE Trans 112(6):304–314
4. Masayasu Ohkubo KN (2005) Apparatus for increasing brake cylinder pressure by controlling
pump motor and reducing the pressure by controlling electric energy applied to control valve.
USPTO, Toyota, pp 1–20
5. Qinghe L, Zechang S, Pengwei W, Xidong L (2008) Research on Electro-hydraulic Parallel
Brake System for Electric Vehicle. Chin J Automot Eng 30(6):528–530
6. Kun X (2009) A study on the braking force distribution algorithm of composite brake system.
Beijing Automot Engg 6:42–45
7. Zhuoping Y, Lu X, Lijun Z (2009) A Study on the matching of electro-hydraulic brake system.
Automot Eng 27(4):456–462
Analysis and Design of Automotive Body
Control Module
Jianhui Ma, Zhixue Wang, Yanqiang Li and Liangjie Yu
Abstract In the BCM’s industrialization process, we need design appropriate

BCM for different car models. In order to reduce the complexity of the design
while avoiding duplication of design work, This paper summarize the experience
in the recent years design of the BCM, analyze the system structure, working
mechanism, and basic design principles based on one particular BCM section,
analyze its external interfaces attributes and complex control logic. Design
generic, common embedded software structures for body control and basic mod-
ules that can be configured and assembled, These software components is flexible
and configurable, based on the software structure and basic module library, we can
quickly start the development of appropriate body controller software for BCM of
different car models.
Keywords BCM Software architecture Portability
1 Introduction
Along with the development of automotive electronics and networking technology

widely used in automobiles, Body Control Module (BCM) integrated body net-
work gateway with lighting control, wiper control, window control, RKE key
access control and door lock control function, is becoming a mainstream.
F2012-D01-005
J. Ma (&) Z. Wang Y. Li L. Yu
Shan Dong Key Laboratory of Automotive Electronics,
Automatic Institute of Shan Dong Academy, Jinan 250014, Shan Dong, China
e-mail: majialong@yahoo.com.cn

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-33829-8_3, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
26 J. Ma et al.
Although the BCM have many input and output interfaces, and complex control
logic, but the BCM of different car models is basically same in its works and
system structure, only have certain differences in module combination or some
specific module’s design, so it is necessary to analyze the system structure and
basic design principles of BCM based on one particular section, design generic,
common embedded software structures for body control and basic modules that
can be configured and assembled. Based on the software structure and basic
module library, we can quickly start the development of appropriate body
controller software for BCM of different car models, reduces development com-
plexity and improves the development efficiency. This software must have fol-
lowing features.
1. Using scalable reactive software architecture, adding new features without
breaking existing software structure, and won’t influence the behavior of
existing systems;
2. Establish an effective relationship between reuse and assembly, in the devel-
opment of new BCM module, avoid duplication of development of basic
software modules, and avoid increased costs and extended development cycle;
3. The software interface standards of the universal basic module have uniform
agreement, ensuring the independence of modules and portability at the level of
applications;
Combined with the development of BCM for a car model, the author analyzed
the design principle of BCM and the specific implementation from BCM system
structure, software architecture and the realization of part of the module.
2 System Structure
BCM is a typical body central controller combined centralized control and dis-
tributed control, its input interface includes a series of switch signals and driving
pulse signal, output interface is a series of control objects that includes locks,
lights, wipers, windows and alarm. At the same time, BCM communicates with
remote control keys by RF signal, and exchange information of control command
and status with sensor nodes and windows node via LIN bus. its external interface
shown in Fig. 1.
BCM is a typical control system, through the detection of the switching signal
and pulse signal and a series of combinational logic, achieve the load drive control,
also achieved RKE Keyless entry and anti-theft alarm function. At the same time,
as a Body Control LIN network master node, BCM scheduling the entire LIN
network communication and network management. Its system structure show in
Fig. 2, the output control is the core module of BCM, other function module also
include input signal detection, LIN communication, the RKE communication,
anti-theft alarm state management.
Analysis and Design of Automotive Body Control Module 27
Car speed sensor

Switch signal
traffic signal
Right front
window ECU
LIN Central lock

BCM
rain/sun sensor
Body controller
Remote
keyless
Left rear entry
window ECU High speed
motor
Wiper/wash
light
Right rear er
window ECU Low speed
motor
External Internal
light light
License Position
Turn light Keyhole light Indoor light
plate light light
Fig. 1 BCM external interface diagram
3 Software Design
According to BCM design features and design resource requirements, while taking
into account the cost factor, the author chose the Freescale 16-bit automotive-
grade MCU to achieve its software design. As a basic software and design
solutions of a series of BCM, this paper analyzes the BCM software architecture
design and the programming of some modules, explain how to ensure software
scalability and module reusability from the system level and the micro level. In the
following, first analyzed BCM software architecture design, and then describe
timer management and switch signal detection these basic module’s realization.
3.1 Software Structure
In order to save the limited resources of MCU, the BCM software design does not
use the operating system, and because different car model BCM’s input detection,
output control, communication and control logic is or less the same, it is necessary
and feasible to design a common body control module software architecture.
Based on the software architecture solutions, develop appropriate body controller
28 J. Ma et al.
Lock control
Anti-theft alarm state
management
Light control
Input signal
Output control Wiper control
detection
Alarm control
communication
Window
contrl=ol
LIN bus RKE
Fig. 2 BCM system structure
software for different models, improve ECU software reliability and development
efficiency, reduce development complexity.
The software structure is in the form of interrupt ? the main loop body. The
system enters main loop after power-on initialization, the body of the loop
including the following module: timer management, input signal detection and
statistic, signal reception and the extraction of LIN application layer, RKE com-
munication, anti-theft alarm status management, output control (including the
window control, wiper control, door lock control, alarm control, light control), fill
LIN send signals, clear event. The order of these modules in the loop is very
important, reflecting the working principle of the BCM, the main body of the loop
as follows:
for(;;)
{
TimerTick();
InputDetect();
l_SignalDetect();
Rke_Decrypte();
AlarmStateManage();
WindowControl();
WiperControl();
LockControl();
AlarmControl();
LightControl();
l_app();
l_Com();
ClearEvent();
}
First, timing information is the input signal of all other modules, so put the
timer management on the top of the loop body, and then, because switch control is
BCM’s main control logic, so followed by is the switch signal detection in the
main loop. Input signal of other control logic is pulse, LIN signal and RKE signal.
LIN data link layer is achieved in the UART receive interrupt service routine, and
application layer signal receiving part in l_SignalDetect. Rke_Decrypte achieve
remote control key’s learning, the RKE key signal detection and statistics. The
input signal of Alarm state management is switch signal and RKE signals, and also
it is the input signal of the output control logic, so placed Alarm State Manage
after Input Detect and Rke_Decrypte, followed by the output control and the the
filling of the LIN send signal.
All the control modules are event-driven, if an event occurs, then perform the
appropriate control logic. Since many events are shared, in order to ensure the
event to digest more than one module, put clear event operation—Clear Event on
the end of the main loop. Due to certain events is set in the interrupt, then it is need
to introduced the concept of synchronization in logic circuit design to software
architecture design, treat each entry of the main loop as a synchronous clock, the
event set in the interrupt is synchronized in the main loop, thus avoiding instability
that the event is cleared before been digested (Fig. 3).
3.2 Basic Module Design
3.2.1 Timer Management
BCM timing applications include statistics of input signal time characteristics, the
output logic timing and timeout handling, LIN master node schedules the rotation
of the time slice and IDLE time detection, which is characterized by the timing
accuracy is not required, but the timing number is more, based on these features,
designed timer management module.
Due to limited hardware timer and range of timing application, can’t assign
hardware timer for each timing applications, so use software timer simulate hardware
timer. According to the timing characteristics and classification of the application,
design software timer data structure in the form of structure, organized these software
timer in the form of a structure array, the array member is software timer node. As all
software timer reference clock source, the hardware timer is set to 1 ms cycle timing,
manage the hardware timer in the interrupt service routine-cumulative global clock
tick Jiffs, set clock synchronization flag TimerTicked to 1. In the main loop, function
30 J. Ma et al.
Fig. 3 BCM main loop

software flow chart Timer
management
Input signal
detection
LIN signal
extraction
RKE
Anti-theft alarm
state
management
Load control
window,wiper,lock,alarm,li
ght
LIN signal
filling
Clear event
TimerTick performed all the software timer management according to TimerTicked

and Jiffs. So achieved simulate multiple software timer by a single hardware timer.
Software timer data structure is designed as follows:
typedef struct {
TimerState timer_state;
ulong timeout;
ulong duration;
unsigned cycle:1;
unsigned cnt_times:8;
unsigned overflow_flag:1;
TimerId timer_id;
}Timer;
‘‘Timer_state’’ means if a software timer is in running condition, ‘‘timeout’’ is

overtime application’s timeout threshold, ‘‘duration’’ is the timing of the software
timer since its launch, ‘‘cycle’’ indicates whether the periodic timing, ‘‘cnt_times’’
indicates times of multiple timing when not a periodic timing, ‘‘overflow_flag’’
indicate whether application timeout occurs, ‘‘timer_id’’ is used to identify a
software timer in the software timer array. Thus, the member variable describes all
the ‘‘timing features’’ and provides a good read-write interface.
In function TimerTick of main loop, manage multiple software timers in order.
The software timer only runs when tick occurs under the circumstances of their
own status as RUNNING, its ‘‘duration’’ accumulate with the tick, when ‘‘dura-
tion’’ matches its timeout value, set overflow_flag, and then determine whether it is
a cycle timer. If it is a cycle timer, restart the timer and clear the ‘‘duration’’, if not,
determine whether multiple timing, to determine whether to restart the timer or
stop the timer.
3.2.2 Switch Signal Detection
The switching signal detection is relatively simple in the hardware design, just
current limiting ? filter ? voltage divider, then detect with MCU IO pin. In pro-
gram design, need to determine switch current state and its changes. Because BCM
needs to collect so much switch signal, that in order to program simple with clear
logic, define a structure to unify each switch signal, structure is defined as follows:
typedef struct{
unsigned switch_state:1;
unsigned swon_event:1;
unsigned swoff_event:1;
unsigned cursw:1;
uchar detect_cnt:3;
e_SwId switch_id;
}s_Switch;
In the above structure, ‘‘switch_state’’ defined the current state of the switching
signal, ‘‘swon_event’’ said switch changes from disconnected to connected, and
‘‘swoff_event’’ said switch changes from connected to disconnected, ‘‘cursw’’ and
‘‘detect_cnt’’ used in switch signal software debounce function.
In specific application, define a s_Switch structure array Sw[MAX_SWITCH],
each switch corresponding to a structure variable, addressing with the member
variable ‘‘switch_id’’ in above structure, the ‘‘switch_id’’ is defined as follows with
enumerate type:
typedef enum{
32 J. Ma et al.
IGNITIONKEY_SWITCH,
IGNITION_SWITCH,
COLLISION_IO_SWITCH,
SPEED_IO_SWITCH,
FRONTDOORKEY_LOCK_SWITCH,
FRONTDOORKEY_UNLOCK_SWITCH,
LEFTFRONT_DOOR_SWITCH,
RIGHTFRONT_DOOR_SWITCH,
….
….
}e_SwId;
So that if the status of the left front door switch is used, directly use Sw[LEFT-
FRONT_DOOR_SWITCH].switch_state, and if you want change of its status,
directly use Sw[LEFTFRONT_DOOR_SWITCH].swon_event and Sw[LEFT-
FRONT_DOOR_SWITCH]. swoff_event. Specific procedures are not discussed
here.
4 Conclusion
According to characteristics and working principle of BCM, analyzed the external

interface and system architecture, designed a common software structure and basic
module that has been applied successfully in the software design of a BCM for one
car model, It has steady performance in the real vehicle test, with practical value
and significance.
Scalable Architecture Approach
with Platform Products to Implement
Advanced Car-Body E&E System
in Emerging Markets
Dayu Ding
Abstract With the dramatic development of the passenger vehicle industry in

emerging countries—(‘‘BRIC’’ as it is also known) indicating the fast developing
passenger vehicle market in Brazil, Russia, India and China, simple vehicle E&E
system architectures are no longer sufficient to fulfill the demands from the market
for fancy vehicle features such as Passive Start and Entry System (PASE). That in
effect requires support from advanced car body E&E systems. However, traditional
implementation of advanced car body E&E systems in developed markets, e.g. EU
countries, requires high R&D efforts due to the complexity of the system and
diversity of the architectures and requirements. Furthermore, take rates of advanced
car body features in the low cost car segment (Affordable CAR) are also an unde-
termined factor, which makes the situation more complicated for advanced car body
E&E architecture designs for this market. Thus the conflict of high system imple-
mentation, cost for advanced car body features as well as the low system cost demand
from low cost car segments, and the uncertain take rates of advanced car body
features in low cost car segments are becoming the major topics to be resolved by
every E&E system supplier and vehicle manufacturer in BRIC markets. This paper
describes a system implementation concept to resolve the above issue using a scal-
able architecture approach with platform products from the Affordable CAR seg-
ment. By using a scalable architecture approach, the advanced car body E&E system
implementation cost could be invested in a step-wise way, which reduces the risk of
uncertainty of take rate of advanced car body feature deployment in the low cost car
F2012-D01-006
D. Ding (&)
Body and Security, Continental Automotive Changchun Co., Ltd.,
Shanghai Branch, 523Dalian Road, Shanghai, China
e-mail: dayu.ding@continental-corporation.com
URL: www.continental-corporation.com

34 D. Ding
segment. By using a platform products the total system development costs can be
controlled in an acceptable level, which can make advanced car body feature
deployment in the low cost car segment become reality. An example of a scalable
system approach to implement different levels of car body E&E system by using
products from Continental low cost platform family is also illustrated in this paper. A
scalable stepwise system approach is described for Remote Keyless Entry and
Immobilizer system as 1st step, Engine Start Stop and Push Button Start system as
2nd step and finally complete PASE system as the last step is illustrated here. The
concept of system function/feature integration, its scalability, and key factors to be
considered for optimum level of functional integration are described. The evolution
of platform products, benefits for passenger vehicle manufactures and its scalability
for implementations of E&E system for Affordable CAR vehicle segments are
explained.
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
As per strategy analytics, in the emerging market, the growth of Ultra Low Cost
Car (ULCC) and Low Cost Car (LCC) is phenomenal. The analytics expect the
growth of ULCC production to reach above 6 million units by 2015 [1].
A very interesting discovery in the low cost car (LCC) segment in emerging
markets is that ‘‘low cost’’ does not really mean low content of the car body
features, instead, integrating more advanced car body features have been regarded
Scalable Architecture Approach with Platform Products 35
as unique selling point by local OEM to increase quality-to-price ratio for their
vehicle in front of the competition brought by similar models produced by global
car makers in the same region.
2 PASE System and its Challenge in Emerging Markets
PASE is an abbreviation term for Passive Start and Entry System and it is a part of
Continental’s wireless product portfolio. Modern PASE systems work on world-
wide released ISM bands (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical Band) for radio
communication and use LF and RF transmission technology.
Continental was the first electronics supplier company launching PASE systems
to the market in 1999 by introducing the first PASE system for S-Class car series
of Mercedes-Benz as a major automotive innovation.
In 2002, Continental and RENAULT rolled out the PASE system cross plat-
form for the Megane2 as a scalable PASE system innovation.
In 2007, Continental (plus former Siemens VDO) had the market share of 58 %
in Europe and 50 % in US.
Benefits of a PASE system had been soon accepted by end users and especially
in Asian regions. This system feature has been regarded as one of the most fancy
car body features that attract users by following items:
• Easy transmitter handling for locking and unlocking
• Convenient and quick access to the vehicle
• Easy engine start and stop by one touch button
• Highest comfort level for the driver without inconvenient search of the key/ID
by entry.
However, since the development of modern PASE systems needs to consider

LF and RF wireless communication, terminal control for KL15 and KL50, and
ESCL control (which ranks in functional safety level ASIL D in ISO-26262
standard), the system development cost is very high. This makes it extremely
36 D. Ding
difficult to amortize or justify the development cost of such a system on a car

model with a rather low or unknown sales volume. In most cases precise infor-
mation about the production volume or feature take rates is not available or not
possible. The dilemma for the local car makers is that they need advanced and
fancy car body features in order to attract their customers on one hand, but on the
other hand see a bottle neck in financing the development of those features or
systems. These 2 factors make the deployment of PASE systems on low cost cars
impossible for most of the local car makers.
As conclusion, below 3 major challenges are faced in emerging markets for
implementing advanced car body systems in low cost car segments:
Special Market Characteristic:

Non-stable, Immature, Fragmented
Extreme Cost Targets:
Fierce competition with global and local suppliers even for low volume projects
Demanding Scalability:
Easy adaptation for different customers, markets and functions
3 Platform Products
In mature markets, automotive engineers define product specifications focusing on

technical innovations and ask electronic suppliers to implement the product for
global markets. High development cost is amortized on a big global production
volume.
The same development model is not going to work for local car makers of
emerging markets because those OEMs cannot afford the high development cost with
their uncertain volumes in the local markets. Furthermore, their engineers cannot
offer many technical innovations due to lack of experience and know-how.
However, local car makers still aim to have good quality products with good
feature content to grow in low cost vehicle segments.
Fig. 1 Continental platform BCM family
Fig. 2 Continental easy

PASE platform
Platform products are the perfect solution for them, where they need electronic
products with a stable and high quality at acceptable costs.
Platform products are developed not like those electronics developed in mature
markets. Instead it is the electronics system supplier who defines the technical
architecture using mature technology to define a scalable product that can be
38 D. Ding
flexibly configured on a system level to implement the same features as those in

mature market vehicles but in a slightly different way. The development cost has
been effectively controlled by the platform approach:
• Sharing same PCB and master electrical design
• Sharing same housing/cover/connector and tooling
• Sharing same software platform and application functional modules
Benefits of platform approach to car makers are:
• Short time to market thanks to development only on top of existing platform
products with necessary adaptations
• Acceptable development costs thanks to sharing R&D costs so that only
application efforts will be accounted instead of a whole new product
development.
• Reduce the risk of uncertain take-rates thanks to product tooling and manu-
facturing costs will only apply proportionally via actual volume.
Example of platform products can be illustrated by Continental ‘‘platform
BCM’’ family and ‘‘Easy PASE’’ system (Figs. 1 and 2).
4 Scalable Approach Using Platform Products

as Total Solution
To resolve the challenges of local car makers in emerging markets, helping them to
setup advanced car body features in low cost vehicle architectures, using a scalable
approach with platform product is the most perfect engineering solution.
Here we will take an example of how to build up a PASE system in a car body
architecture in the low cost vehicle segment [2].
A scalable PASE system composes dynamically 3 steps of approach offered to
car makers. Each step is not overlapping with the other one and all development
efforts and costs spent on a previous step can be reused in the next step as a
baseline.
The step-wise scalable system approach for PASE system development makes
development costs feasible and dramatically reduces the development risk for local
car makers for advanced car body electronic system implementation in low cost
vehicles.
Step-1: Base Development starts with RKE (Remote Keyless Entry ) platform
BCM with integrated RF receiver ? transmitter) and an Immobilizer (either
stand-alone or as integrated function in the platform BCM). The immobilizer and
RKE when integrated into a platform BCM enhance the vehicle security and
comfort to the user.
Step-2: Upgrade to ISS System and Passive Start with SSB

The base variant can be upgraded with Idle Stop Start (ISS) function associated
with an intelligent battery sensor. The ISS function when integrated into a platform
BCM leads to improving fuel economy and reduction of carbon footprint. Usually
the ISS function is associated with the Engine Management System (EMS). The
integration of the ISS function into a platform BCM is feasible when a vehicle
comes with a standard EMS that cannot provide this function without major
modifications.
40 D. Ding
Adding a Start Stop Button (SSB) enhances the comfort level to the end user.
The immobilizer antenna associated with a key fob slot and the SSB enable the
engine start/stop with a simple push button operation.
Step-3: Upgrade to Full PASE System with Passive Entry

With the PASE ECU and the new generation of remote control keys on top of
an ISS/SSB system makes it possible for the driver to open the door without
holding the key in the hand. In step-3 the PASE module together with up to six
antennas mounted at specific locations in the vehicle interior and an easy-to-
operate start-stop button in the dashboard allows passive entry and passive go.
Furthermore, advanced features for the high end cars like the anti-pinch for the
window lifter systems and Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS) can be
integrated and/or supported by the platform BCM module.
5 Scalable Approach: Success Story
Using the platform products in a scalable system approach for advanced car body
systems has gained high momentum in the emerging markets and are running
successfully. The following OEMs adapted the platform products for their carlines.
Example Proton, the Malaysian car maker, had successfully launched the sedan
‘‘Prevé’’ in March 2012. A Passive Start system using Continental platform
products and a scalable system architecture illustrated as STEP-2 approach based
on a traditional RKE system is offered here.
This sedan design based on a Continental platform BCM solution (the

Advanced Function Controller) using a conventional RKE system is upgraded with
42 D. Ding
a terminal control function, a Start Stop Button (SSB) and a Gear Shift Lock
controller (GSL), which results in a Passive Start System with low engineering
costs and risk.
Most important is that the upgrade to a full PASE system is now just an add on
with a PASE controller and LF antennas.
This is a good example for how a local car maker can integrate advanced car
body features at low cost
6 Conclusion
The platform products are standard, available off the shelf. The product custom-
ization and system integration can be realized with low R&D costs. Furthermore,
the ‘Time to Market’ is greatly optimized with the scalable architecture approach.
The uncompromisingly cost-optimized total architecture was of top priority,
wherein flexibility, scalability, functionality, reliability and safety are not disre-
garded. With this strategy, it offers the best electronic concept at the best price and
of the best quality in the emerging markets
Acknowledgments I sincerely thank my management for their constant encouragement and

support extended. The technical support rendered by Markus Gentzsch on scalable PASE system
approach is immense, without that this paper is not possible. Finally I thank my review team, for
their extended support in refining this document.
References
1. Scalable System Architecture Using Continental BFC, by Harikrishna Khandavalli

2. Scalable PASE 09, 2011, by Mr. Markus Gentzsch
Gasoline Fuel Injector Selection and Its
Effects on Engine Performance
Shuxia Miao, Daijun Deng and Hui Zheng
Abstract Fuel injector is very important for engine performance. Normally it is

supplied by system suppliers as a package and OEMs do not have much choice in
China. This study offered an experimental method offuel injector selection. Based on
CAE simulation, two types of fuel injectors were selected and their key parameters
and the engine dynamometer performances are tested in lab. An optimized fuel
injector is selected based on the comprehensive test results.
Keywords Engine Fuel injector Calibration CAE
1 Introduction
Gasoline fuel injector selection is very important for engine performance including
fuel economic and emission performance [1, 2], properly selected fuel injector
could improve engine dynamical performance; reduce the fuel consumption and
emission as well. Very often the fuel injector is supplied by Engine Management
System (EMS) suppliers as a package with fuel rail, engine control unit and even
oxygen sensors together, China Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) do not
have much choice.
This study offered a way of fuel injector selection by analyzing the key injector
characteristics together with the dynamical performance on engine dynamometer.
F2012-D01-009
S. Miao (&) D. Deng H. Zheng

Changan Auto Global R&D Center, Changan Automobile Co LTD,
Chongqing, People’s Republic of China
e-mail: miaosx@changan.com.cn

44 S. Miao et al.
Two different types of fuel injectors for a manifold-injected spark ignition engine
were selected based on supplier’s recommendation and Computer Aided
Engineering (CAE) simulation, then the fuel injectors are tested in laboratory on
the critical characteristics; such characteristic parameters measured in lab include
injection cone angle, stroke penetration distance, fuel mist particulate distribution,
etc. under different combined conditions of fuel pressure, back pressure and inject
fuel mass. Fuel injector model is also set-up and verified with the testing results.
The injectors are further dynamically calibrated within the system on engine
dynamometer. Engine performance map of power, torque and emission are mea-
sured with each injector. Based on the comprehensive performance of component
test and engine/vehicle results, an optimized fuel injector is selected finally.
2 Test Method of Fuel Injector Selection
The test method of fuel injector selection includes CAE analysis of oil beam,
component test and engine dynamometer test as discussed later on. Considering
the available resources and future commercial application, injector selection is
limited in a reservoir of regular 4-hole injectors with a hole diameter of 0.2 mm.
2.1 CAE Analysis of Oil Beam
The injector spray model is built up based on the injector 3D data. The charac-
teristic effects of wet wall, spray distribution, atomizing and mixing are simulated.
Based on the simulation results, the basic parameters of stroke penetration dis-
tance, installation angle, injection cone angle are determined.
Errors may result from equipment precision, experiences of operator, etc.
therefore, CAE method is also necessary to validate the correctness of experiment
results.
2.2 Component Test
In China, injectors are always selected by supplier according to their experiences

and CAE. Since the supplier does not have the detail information about engine,
this method results in numerous wastes of time and resources, yet without opti-
mized performance. In this paper, a series of test conditions are designed and
customized according to Society of Automotive Engineering (SAE) standard
[3, 4], and experiences. The detailed test conditions are listed in Table 1.
Gasoline Fuel Injector Selection 45
Table 1 Component test conditions (room temperature: 25 °C)

Index Injection pressure (bar) Injection amount (mg/stroke) Ambient pressure (bar)
1 3.5 5 0.3
2 3.5 15 0.7
3 3.5 35 1.0
4 3.8 5 0.3
5 3.8 15 0.7
6 3.8 25 0.7
7 3.8 35 1.0
8 4.0 5 0.3
9 4.0 15 0.7
10 4.0 35 1.0
2.2.1 Injector Flow Rate Test
Averaging method is used in flow rate test. The injection pulse width is selected
between 1.5 and 20 ms based on normal engine performance. Under each condition,
the total amount of fuel in 100 strokes is summarized and the tests were repeated 3
times. Average value is the final flow rate.
2.2.2 Stroke Penetration Distance and Injection Cone Angle Test
A synchronized high speed camera was used to test and then the data was analyzed
automatically in order to obtain data of stroke penetration, injection corn angles,
etc. The experimental setting is similar to that in Ref. [5] which was used to study
gasoline direct injectors (GDI). 95 % statistical probability is setup as measuring
limitation, the stroke penetration distance is the projection of the line, which
connects the farthest point and the injector orifice centre, along the injector axis.
The max angle relative to the injector axis at the section, which is 30 mm below
the injector orifice, is injection cone angle.
2.2.3 Fuel Mass Distribution and Fuel Mist

Particulate Distribution Test
The fuel mist particulate distribution is derived according to the spray distribution
at the cross section, which is 30 mm below the injector orifice. The fuel mist
particle distribution tests are done based on standard SAE J2715 [6].
2.3 Engine Dynamometer Test
Engine dynamometer tests with the 2 different injectors were run to further confirm
the component differences and applicable performance. The test was run on AVL
46 S. Miao et al.
Table 2 Test engine parameters

Parameter Unit Value
Displacement L 1.5
Rated power kW 80
Speed at rated power r/m 5,500*6,500
Max torque Nm 140
Speed at max torque r/m 3,300*4,300
Lowest fuel consumption rate g/KWh 250
Idle speed r/m 720 ± 50
DynoRoad 202/12SL 220KW dynamometer with AVL 735S fuel meter and
Horiba 7,200 emission analyzer. The main parameters of the test engine are shown
in Table 2. To make better comparison between the 2 injectors, engine was
equipped with same hardware except injectors, and is controlled by the same EMS
system with specific calibration catering to different injectors.
The universal characteristic is tested using different injectors. The injector is
selected considering both the component and dynamometer test results.
3 Test Results and Analysis
Two injectors are selected. One is labelled injector #1 and the other is injector #2.
3.1 CAE Analysis of Oil Beam
The objective is to determine the primary parameters. Based on the manifold

model analysis, the best injector installation angle is 135°, with the spray cone
angle is 30*45° and the stroke penetration distance is 110 mm which can avoid
severe wet-wall phenomena.
3.2 Component Characteristics Test
The injector flow rate test results are shown in the Fig. 1. Averagely, injector #1
has an 11 % higher flow rate than that of injector #2. There is no significant
difference of the stroke penetration distances between the two injectors in most
cases as shown in Fig. 2a. However, it is noted that such penetration distance is
affected by many factors including spray pressure; stroke fuel amount (i.e.
injection pulse width) and back pressure, when the spray pressure or stoke fuel
Fig. 1 Injector flow rate test results
Fig. 2 The injector penetration distance under condition of injection pressure/fuel mass/back
pressure as: a 3.5 bar/15 mg/70 kPa, and b 4.0 bar/35 mg/100 kPa
mass increase, the differences of the 2 injectors become visible as injector #2 leads
as much as 9 mm longer penetration distance as shown in Fig. 2b.
Under different testing conditions, the injection cone angle of injector #1 is
always larger than that of injector #2. The test results are shown in the Fig. 3. As it
can be seen, the higher spray pressure, the larger the differences are. When spray
pressure reaches 4.0 bar, the differences of cone angle of these two injectors can
reach as much as 30 %. Larger injection cone angle may results better mixture, but
it could also lead to worse wet-wall in SPI engine as well.
One of the typical result photos of fuel mass distribution tests are shown in the
following Fig. 4. Injector #1 shows better distribution pattern than injector #2 in
same testing conditions.
48 S. Miao et al.
Fig. 3 Comparison of injection cone angles
Fig. 4 Typical injection fuel mass distribution a 3.5 bar, 30 kPa, 5 mg, and b 3.5 bar, 100 kPa,
35 mg
3.2.1 Fuel Mist Particulate Distribution Test
The test results of statistics are shown in the Fig. 5. Injector #1 is much better than
injector #2. The fuel particulates Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) of injector #1 with a
peak distribution concentrated around 20 um is about 20–30 % smaller that that of
injector #2, theoretically, it should help better fuel–air mixture and better complete
combustion in the chamber.
Fig. 5 SMD distribution of fuel particulates of 2 injectors. a Injector #1. b Injector #2
Fig. 6 CAE simulation and verification of component testing results. a Penetration distance.
b SMD distribution
50 S. Miao et al.
Fig. 7 Engine dynamometer test results with 2 different injectors. a Engine dynamic
performance. b Emission results
3.2.2 CAE Analysis
Simulations have been done under different conditions by using AVL-FIRE

software. The deviation is smaller than 3 %. Some typical comparison results are
shown in the Fig. 6. It validates that the experimental results are generally accurate
in spite of complicated testing conditions, and the CAE results are also verified
through experiments in contrast.
In sum, the component test results show that there are some differences between
the 2 selected injectors. Injector #1 has larger fuel rate and larger cone angles, but
relatively minor penetration distance, much smaller fuel particulate SMD and
better mass distribution. The test results and CAE analysis verified the correctness
of each other.
3.3 Engine Dynamometer Test
The engine dynamometer test results are shown in the Fig. 7.

When the engine is running in wide open throttle (WOT) condition, the fuel
economy performance of injector #1 is worse than injector #2 under 3,000 rpm,
and then the differences become meaningless. The dynamic performances of the
two injectors are almost the same means both injectors have sufficient flow rate
without surprise. It also reminds that injectors can not be selected simply based on
engine characteristic power and torque performances.
Yet, the emission results show complicated patterns. It seems that the com-
bustion with injector #2 is less completed with less CO2 but more CO/THC in
tailpipe especially when engine rpm goes beyond 3,000 rpm. It is still under
investigation whether such phenomenal is related to the worse fuel distribution and
relatively longer stroke pulse width of inject #2 to supply same amount fuel under
WOT condition. Each engine cycle time will be less than 40 ms, e.g. less than
10 ms for the combustion phase when rpm goes beyond 3,000 rpm, so that longer
stroke pulse width may leads to insufficient mixture and combustion time in
cylinder chamber when cam timing is fixed. While under 3,000 engine rpm,
fueling injection time is relatively short so that injector #2 can still warrant enough
mixture and combustion time in chamber. In the case of combustion with injector
#1, it may result in lower temperature or lower explosion pressure due to much
better fuel distribution and much small fuel particulates SMD, as a result of that,
the NOx concentration in tailpipe is lower.
It has to be pointed out that the original EMS system used in dynamometer test
is specially designed and calibrated based on only one of these injectors, the
air–fuel (AF) ratio in the tests still exists minor differences even though deliberated
calibration and adjustment have been carried out. As it is well known, minor air–
fuel ratio differences could still cause noticeable changes in THC/CO/NOx
emissions.
Considering the critical impact of AF ratio, even though injector #1 consumes
more fuel in low engine rpm regime, it is still picked for the engine development
based on its comprehensive performance as shown above.
52 S. Miao et al.
4 Conclusions
An experimental method is setup from component characteristics identification to

engine dynamometer test and CAE verification, in order to optimize and select a
best performance injector. Through the tests, it can be concluded that component
test results of injector #1 are better in combustion atomizing and emission output,
while injector #2 are worse in the SMD of mist particles which is bad for mixing of
fuel and air.
Injector #1 is chosen for the 1.5 L engine.
Acknowledgments Many thanks go to Professor Yuying Zhang and Mr. Hui Lin in the Institute
of Automotive Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University for their great support during the
components test and CAE analysis.
References
1. J Ni (1996) Automobile internal combustion engine principle. Publishing of Tongji University,

Shanghai
2. Ding N, Gao W, Ping Y (2010) CFD and visualization research on spray characteristics of
direct injection engine. Tongji University
3. Chen H, Xu M, Zeng W (2009) An improved monisize droplet generator for SMD calibration.
Shaihai Jiaotong University
4. SAE J1832 (2000) Low pressure gasoline fuel injectors. SAE International, Warrendal
5. Das S, Chang S-I, Kirwan J (2009) Pattern recognition for multi-hole gasoline direct injectors
using CFD modeling. SAE 2009-01-1488
6. SAE J2715 (2007) Gasoline fuel injector spray measurements and characterizations. SAE
International, Warrendale
The Research of Starting Control
Strategies for Common Rail Diesel Engine
Hongrong Wang, Heng Zhang and Yongfu Wang
Abstract The excellent torque and performance behavior combined with low fuel
consumption and exhaust emissions of modern diesel engines which equipped with
high pressure common rail system has increased their market day by day. But the
combustion instability and white smoke emissions are serious problems during cold
starting and the transient emissions during the engine start-up process were still high
for ultra low emission control. In this investigation, start control strategies and
experiments were designed to improve the start performance. The research was
carried out on a 4-cylinder 2.5 L turbocharged diesel engine equipped with BOSCH
common rail system, which the Electronic Control Unit was self-developed based on
the high performance microcontroller SPC563M64, so the control strategies and
parameters could be verified expediently. The initiation of diesel fuel combustion is
dependent on the compression temperature, compression pressure, fuel properties
and fuel injection characteristic, so the start-up process was divided into four mod-
ules, and the main and pilot injection quality, injection phase, rail pressure control
style and the target pressure control value were optimized respectively according to
the characteristics of the four stages, so the controlling could be more accurate. The
injection quality and phase is corrected according to the engine temperature and
intake air temperature. It was found that the injection parameters of the injection
phase and quality of the start accelerate module have large effects on the start-up time
and smoke emission, with proper pilot injection quality and main injection phase, the
F2012-D01-011
H. Wang (&) H. Zhang Y. Wang

China Automotive Engineering Research Institute Co., Ltd,
Chong Qing 400039, China
e-mail: wanghongrong@163.com
Y. Wang
e-mail: wangyongfu@caeri.com.cn

54 H. Wang et al.
starting time and smoke were reduced, and the starting performance was improved
dramatically on the test engine.
Keywords Diesel engine Common rail Starting control Four module

Optimized parameters
1 Introduction
The excellent torque and performance behavior combined with low fuel con-
sumption and exhaust emissions of modern diesel engines witch equipped with
high pressure common rail system have get the favor of more and more users.
Electronic control technology has been a prerequisite mean for diesel engine to
meet future emission legislation combined with high power density and low fuel
consumption. However, there are some challenging problems to be solved such as
the high transient emissions during the engine start-up process for the ultra low
emission control.
The initiation of diesel fuel combustion is dependent on the compression
temperature, compression pressure, fuel properties and fuel injection characteris-
tic. During cranking, air temperature in cylinder is lower than those of during any
other modes of engine operation. The low compression temperatures and pressures
are caused partly by the low ambient temperature, and more importantly by the
excessive heat losses and blow-by losses at low cranking speeds. Consequently,
low compression temperatures and pressures result in poor start ability of diesel
engine [1].
The effect of cranking speed on compression pressure and temperature is very
important especially at low cranking speeds (below 200 rpm). An increase from
100 to 200 rpm cause an increase of about 70 °C in the compression temperature
which confirms the importance of maintaining high cranking speeds under cold
starting conditions as it is the most effective means of obtaining high compression
temperatures [2]. According to Phatak and Nakamura [3], at higher cranking
speeds, the loss of time for auto ignition reactions far overweighs any marginal
gain in peak pressure and temperature because of reduced blow-by and heat
transfer. Higher compression temperatures and pressures lead to shorter ignition
delay and remarkable reduction in fuel adhering to the walls [4].
In this paper, in order to improve the starting performance of the common rail
diesel engine, an electrical control unit was developed based on the high perfor-
mance microcontroller SPC563M64 and the starting control strategies were
designed, the start-up process was divided into four stages by cranking speeds and
rail pressure, and the control parameters were optimized respectively according to
the characteristics of the four stages.
The Research of Starting Control Strategies 55
VSS Power 12V Boost-Supply

VDD ± 5V UBat
Power on Management 3.3V 75~110 V
Lvel Level Level
ADC ADC ADC

Pressure Injector
Analog Valve
Temperature SPC563M54
circuit Driver MIL
Position Microcontroller
Relays
Key 1 Display
Digital K-Line
circuit Communication CAN-Line
Key n
FlexRay
Fig. 1 The layout of the schematic of the ECU
2 Control Unit Design
2.1 Overall Development Scheme of the ECU
In order to improve the starting performance of the engine, an Electronic Control

Unit (ECU) was developed based on the high performance microcontroller unit
(MCU) SPC563M64. This automotive MCU is a family of system-on-chip (SoC)
device that is built on Power ArchitectureÒ technology, and contain many new
features coupled with high performance 90 nm CMOS technology to provide
substantial reduction of cost per feature and significant performance improvement.
Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of the control unit for the diesel high
pressure common rail system.
The control unit including the microcontroller module, the power management
module, the digital signals conditioning module, the analog signals conditioning
module such as the pressure signals, the temperature signals and the position
signals, the driver module, the communication module and so on.
2.2 The Dirver Module of the ECU
Fuel injectors are high-speed electromagnetic solenoid valve and controlled by the
FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) with peak module and hold module to
form the complex drive waves witch are used to produce peak current and hold
current with minimum peak time. It could avoid the processor from wasting time
for basic procedures by shifting software parts to the Hardware (FPGA). The peak
module is powered by boost voltage to reach the peak current as quickly as
possible, and the hold module is power by battery voltage to reduce energy con-
sumption. Other electromagnetic solenoid valves and relays are drived by intel-
ligent driver IC, and there are protection and diagnostic circuits to detect and
56 H. Wang et al.
Fig. 2 The hardware of the

control unit
monitor the fault of the actuators. Figure 2 is the hardware of the control unit for
the diesel high pressure common rail system.
3 Start Control Strategies
3.1 The Design of Four Modules Start Strategies
According to the characteristics of start process of the diesel engine, it is divided

into four modules including start initial module, start accelerate module, start
transient module and start close-loop control module as Fig. 3.
Each module are controlled and switched by the state of the start module, and
the injected quality, rail pressure and the starting of energizing (SOE) of the
injections were optimized respectively according to the characteristics of the four
stages, so the controlling could be more accurate and effective. The control logic is
shown in Fig. 4.
3.2 Start Initial Module Control
In the early start, ECU powers on, the starter drag the engine rotate, the rail
pressure control valve will open after ECU initialization, and the rail pressure is
established in the common rail, if the rail pressure above the threshold value, the
fuel injection valve will ready to open to complete the fuel injection, and this
initial module is end. If the rail pressure is still lower than the threshold value after
the set-point time, the fault indicator is on and the rail pressure control valve will
be shut off.
At this module, the engine speed is less than n0, in order to build the rail
pressure up as quickly as possible, the pressure control valve is open loop control
Fig. 3 Start control logic
Fig. 4 Four module design of start strategies for diesel engine
with a constant value, which could be changed according to the voltage of the
battery. There would be no fuel injection because the rail pressure is too low and
the fuel could not be atomized well.
3.3 Start Accelerate Module Control
Figure 5 shows the control strategies of the start accelerate module. In this module,
there are two injections per working cycle (pilot injection and main injection),
ECU calculates the basic pilot injection quantity (InjCtl_StartqPI_Base), basic
58 H. Wang et al.
Fig. 5 The control stragies of start accelerate module
main injection quantity (InjCtl_StartqMI_Base) and the basic pilot injection

phase(StartPhiPI_Base), basic main injection phase (StartPhiMI_Base) according
to the engine speed and the position of the accelerate pedal. All these base values
are corrected by engine coolant temperature (t_coolant), intake air temperature
(t_air) and intake air pressure (p_air).
In Start Accelerate Control module, the rail pressure is closed loop control with
the feedback value of the pressure sensor. The basic set point value is calculated
from the base map, and the base value is corrected and limited based on different
environmental conditions.
3.4 Start Transient Module Control
The engine speed increases rapidly as a large injection quantity is injected in Start
Accelerate Control module, which is far greater than the quantity needs of the idle
condition. According to PID closed loop control theory, the injection quantity
would increases based on the large injection quantity that is controlled in Start
Accelerate Control module when the engine speed is up to the target idle speed,
but engine doesn’t need such a large injection quantity so as to be able to smoothly
transit to the speed closed loop control stage, this will result in increasing
Table 1 The main specifications of engine

Number of cylinders/bore/stroke 4-92-94
Total displacement/L 2.498
Compression ratio 18.5
Maximum torque/speed/(N.m r/min) 260/2,200
Maximum power/speed/(kW r/min) 75/3,600
Fuel injection system Common rail
Injection pressure/MPa Variable up to 145
the overshoot of speed. So, the start transient module is designed to decrease the
injection quantity that is related to engine speed.
In the start transient module, the base injection quantity is got from the base
injection MAP according to the engine speed and the engine temperature, Then the
correction quantity is determined from the correction CUR according to induct air
temperature and pressure, the working status of the appurtenance such as air
condition and so on.
3.5 Start Colsed-Loop Control Module
The fourth control module of the start process is closed loop control. There are
three key functions in this module, the first function is used to calculate the target
engine speed, which is determined by the engine temperature and the working
status of the appurtenance. The second function is used to calculate the logic status
of module according to the engine speed and other working conditions. The third
function is used to calculate the control parameters of the module.
4 Experiments and Results
The tests were carried out to validate the control strategies on an in-line, four
cylinders, direct injection diesel engine that equipped with a common rail fuel
system, a turbocharger, an intercooler and so on. Table 1 report the main speci-
fications of the engine and of the fuel injection equipment. Ambient conditions
were checked and fixed during the experiments
Different environments and engine temperature have different influence on the
process engine start. In start control strategy, injection quantity and injection phase
are calculated by maps which are related to environmental parameters, and these
parameters in maps and curves should calibrated by experiments.
The pilot and main injection quality in start control strategy is difference in the
four individual modules. The pilot and main injection quality in Start Accelerate
Control module are the most important parameters for the performance of the
60 H. Wang et al.
Fig. 6 Main injection
Engine speed /(rpm)

quality optimize
Time/(s)
Fig. 7 Smoke emission 2
somke/(m-1)
optimize 1.5
1
0.5
0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Injection quality/(mg)
Fig. 8 Pilot injection quality 900

optimize
750
Engine speed/(rpm)
600 2.0mg
450 4.5mg
2.5mg
300 1.0mg
3.0mg
150
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time/(s)
engine starting. Experiments were done to optimize the pilot and main injection
quality in Start Accelerate Control module, and the ambient temperature, coolant
temperature and oil temperature was 25 °C.
Figure 6 shows the results of engine speed of start process with various main
injection qualities in Start Accelerate Control module. It is obvious that injection
quality of 35 mg is considered as the optimal value of the test engine.
Figure 7 shows the maximal smoke emission with various main injection
qualities at engine starting process. It is obvious that injection quality of 35 mg is
considered as the optimal value of the test engine.
Figure 8 shows the results of engine speed of start process for various pilot
injection qualities in Start Accelerate Control module. It is obvious that injection
quality of 2 mg is considered as the optimal value of the test engine. Injection
phase is related to the engine speed and coolant temperature, and the main
injection phase has great influence on the start performance of the engine.
Figure 9 shows the results of engine speed of start process with various main
injection phases in Start Accelerate module. It is apparently shown that injection
Fig. 9 Main injection phase 800

optimize 700
Engine speed/(rpm)
600
500 9º CA
400 12º CA
300 7º CA
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time/(s)
Fig. 10 Smoke emission 1
somke/(m -1)
contrast with various rail 0.8
pressure 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
20 25 30 35 40 45
Target rail pressure (Mpa)
phase of BTDC 9 °C. A is considered as the optimal injection phase of the test
engine.
The rail pressure is one of the most important parameters for engine starting
control. Open loop control strategy was used in the start Initial module to build up
the rail pressure as soon as possible, and closed loop control strategy was used in
other control module to control the inject pressure and quality accurately. The
target value of the closed loop module is very important on the start performance
of the engine.
Figure 10 shows the results of the maximal smoke emission of start process for
various target rail pressure, and according to the results, 40 MPa is the optimal
value of the test engine.
5 Conclusion
In this study, An Electronic Control Unit was developed based on the high
performance microcontroller SPC563M64 and the engine starting control strategy
was established for improving the starting performance of the high pressure
common rail diesel engine. The starting process was divided into four modules in
the new starting control strategy, and the control parameters were optimized
respectively according to the characteristics of the respective module, which could
achieve more control accurate. The experimental results showed that the control
strategies and optimized parameters could obtain quite a good control effects on
testing engine.
62 H. Wang et al.
Acknowledgments This paper has been supported by the ‘‘Electronic Control Unit Design and
Application for Diesel Engine’’ and ‘‘The Development of the Electronically Controlled high
pressure common rail diesel engine for Light vehicle’’ project which were organized by the
P.R.C. Ministry of Science and Technology and the P.R.C. Ministry of Industry and Information
Technology. The authors are grateful to the support of the projects.
References
1. Liu H, Henein NA, Bryzik W (2003) Simulation of diesel engines cold-start. SAE Paper 2003-
01-0080
2. Austen W, Lyn WT (1959–1960) Some investigations on cold starting phenomena in diesel
engines. SAE Paper no. 5
3. Phatak RE, Nakamura T (1983) Cold startability of open-chamber direct-injection diesel
engines—part I measurement technique and effects of compression ratio. SAE Paper 831335
4. Tsunemoto H, Yamada T, Ishitani H (1986) Behavior of adhering fuel on cold combustion
chamber wall in direct injection diesel engines. SAE Paper 861235
Study on Twin Modes Pilot Control
of Turbocharger
Sicong Lin, Jian Wu, Anwei Zhang, Jujiang Liu and Jin Hu
Abstract As the operating status of the turbocharger is complex, nonlinear and

requires high transient response, this paper studies a new control strategy which
add self-adaption pilot control to the traditional PID control method, and adopts
the static PI control or the dynamic PID control according to the control error,
finally, carries out nonlinear transform on the output signal. The control strategy
can both increase the respond speed of the turbocharger and avoid the over boost
phenomenon. The experimental study is carried out under a 1.8 L turbocharged
engine on the engine test bench and the automobile hub test bench, validates the
feasibility and practicability of the control strategy.
Keywords Twin modes Pilot Nonlinear Self-adaption Control strategy
1 Foreword
Current focus on the reduction of tailpipe CO2 emissions and fuel consumption of
road vehicles, people is increasing the interest on downsizing and turbocharging.
As the operating status of the turbocharger is complex, nonlinear and hysteresis,
thus increases the control difficulty of the control system.
The traditional PID control method is provided with the excellence of structure
simpleness, high stability, high reliability and easy to realize and therefore it is
widely applied in industry control, and acquires good control effect, but the tra-
ditional PID control method just can be used on the control system whose control
F2012-D01-012
S. Lin (&) J. Wu A. Zhang J. Liu J. Hu

GAC Engineering, Shanghai, China

64 S. Lin et al.
Fig. 1 Trubocharger control

system. 1-three way
electromagnetic valve, p2 —
boost pressure, pD —pressure
chamber’s pressure, PWM-
control signal, VT —volume
flow through turbocharger,
VWG —volume flow through
waste gate
object can be described with precise mathematical model better, it is not suit for
the turbocharger control system.
Contraposes the complex operation status of the turbocharger and requires high
transient response, the control strategy discussed in this paper designs static and
dynamic control modes with self-adaption and pilot control. In order to avoid the
influence of the nonlinear between the control signal and the control result, carries
out nonlinear transform specially before the signal outputs, and reaches satisfying
control effect at last.
2 The Characteristics of Gasoline Engine Turbocharging

System and its Control Requirements
The turbocharger depends on a three ways electromagnetic valve to control the

opening angle of the waste gate valve, the turbocharger control system is illus-
trated in Fig. 1, the three ways electromagnetic valve connects to upstream of the
compressor, downstream of the compressor and the pressure chamber of the valve,
the control system controls the pressure of the pressure chamber to change the
opening angle of the waste gate with the control signal PWM, then realizes the
control of the boost pressure [1].
In order to reach both good driveability and excellent power from a car which
equipped with turbocharged engine, the control system need to control the tur-
bocharger accurately and rapidly, and reduce the hysteresis of the power as more
as possible.
Study on Twin Modes Pilot Control of Turbocharger 65
3 Twin Modes Pilot PID Control Strategy
The PID control method is applied in the industry control widely, both practical
application and theoretical analysis indicate that the PID control for most industry
control object can reach satisfying control effect, but for gasline engine turbo-
charging system which with characteristic complex working condition, nonlinear
and hysteresis, it can’t reach good control effect with a group preset PID
parameters.
This paper designs twin modes PID control strategy which will execute static PI
control or dynamic PID control according to the control error, when the control error
is smaller than a certain value, carries out the static PI control to realize good and
stably control effect, when the control error is bigger enough, carries out the dynamic
PID control for the purpose of increasing the respond speed and resisting environ-
ment influence. The proportional coefficient Kp, integral coefficient Ki and differ-
ential coefficient Kd of the dynamic PID control are not a group of fix data, they will
change along with the control error. To increase respond speed and reduce the control
error quickly the greater proportional coefficient Kp and integral coefficient Ki will
be used when large control error occurs, they are an increasing function of the control
error [2, 3]. To ensure the stability of the control the D part of the PID control will not
work unless the engine speed is higher than 3,000 r/min. The dynamic PID parameter
need to be set through dynamic test on the engine test bench, and should be checked
carefully on car [4, 5].
In order to avoid overshooting and increase control precision, set the preset
value and the upper limit, lower limit of the I part to define the range of the I part.
When the control error is less than a certain value for some time, the range of the I
part will move down, when the control error is bigger than a certain value, the
range of the I part will move up, therefore it will adjust the range of the I part
automatically, then the I part parameter will keep in reasonable scope all the time,
this is self-adaption pilot control of the PID control [6, 7].
4 Nonlinear Transform of the Control Output Signal
As the turbocharging system is nonlinear, the controller outputs the PID control
signal after nonlinear transform to make the control signal and the control result
present a linear relationship, and the control precision will increases.
The nonlinear transform make the traditional PID control method which is suit
to linear system can apply to nonlinear system. The controller computes the PID
control duty cycle base on the control error first, and then computes the preset
boost pressure base on the PID control duty cycle via the I part precontrol line,
finally, computes the output duty cycle base on the preset boost pressure via the
curve of the boost pressure and the duty cycle, the process is illustrated in Fig. 2.
66 S. Lin et al.
235
225
215
205
195 5000
pressure/kPa
I part precontrol line

185
175
165
155
curve of duty
cycle and boost
145 pressure
135
125
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
duty cycle/%
PID control output after nolinear transform output
Fig. 2 Nonlinear transform of the output signal
Table 1 Parameters of test engine

Engine type T483, DOHC, Multi-injection
Displacement 1.75 L
Bore 9 stroke 83 9 91 mm
Compress ratio 9.5
Intake system Turbocharge
Number of intake valve 16
Max torque 230 Nm/1,700*5,000 r/min
Max power 130 kW/5,500 r/min
5 Test and Analysis
Carries out the tests of an 1.8 L turbocharged engine on the engine test bench and
on the automobile hub test bench that simulates the real road condition, validates
the feasibility and practicability of the control strategy.
5.1 Parameters of Test Engine
See Table 1.
Table 2 Test result of steady working condition on engine test bench
Engine speed/r/min BMEP/bar Target boost pressure/mbar Actual boost pressure/mbar Duty cycle/ % Control error/mbar Error rate/ %
2,000 14.06 1,557 1,561 31.18 -4 -0.256904
15.26 1,623 1,621 35.52 2 0.1232286
16.19 1,706 1,706 42.88 0 0
16.56 1,752 1,751 46.1 1 0.0570776
3,000 13.94 1,483 1,480 18.37 3 0.2022927
14.97 1,550 1,549 26.14 1 0.0645161
16.02 1,593 1,593 30.66 0 0
16.72 1,653 1,652 35.88 1 0.0604961
4,000 14.01 1,457 1,457 20.25 0 0
Study on Twin Modes Pilot Control of Turbocharger
14.93 1,496 1,492 25.81 4 0.2673797

15.9 1,541 1,542 32.75 -1 -0.064893
16.83 1,651 1,651 41.5 0 0
5,000 13.97 1,532 1,531 38.86 1 0.0652742
14.99 1,619 1,617 47.74 2 0.123533
16.08 1,734 1,733 56.56 1 0.0576701
16.58 1,820 1,820 62.21 0 0
67
68 S. Lin et al.
Fig. 3 Test result of with and without twin modes PID control of dynamic condition on 2,500 r/
min P2_T(p2_t)—target boost pressure, P2(p2)—actual boost pressure, E(e)—control error,
PWM(pwm)—control signal
5.2 Tests of Steady Working Condition on Engine

Test Bench and Results
5.2.1 Test Conditions
Carries out the tests on the conditions below:

Engine speed (r/min): 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000
BMEP(bar): 14, 15, 16, 17, BMEPmax
5.2.2 Test Results
The twin modes pilot PID control strategy discussed in this paper carries out
nonlinear transform of the control signal, make the traditional PID control method
can apply to the nonlinear turbocharging system. It shows very high control pre-
cision on all the steady working conditions of turbocharger PID close loop control,
and the control error is less than 5 mbar, see Table 2.
Fig. 4 Test result of with and without pilot control of dynamic condition on 2,500 r/min
PWM_IMN(pwm_imn)—I part lower limit, PWM_IMX(pwm_imx)—I part upper limit,
PWM_I(pwm_i)—I part value
5.3 Tests of Dynamic Working Condition on Engine

Test Bench and Result
5.3.1 Test Condition
Keep the engine speed on 2,500 r/min, increase the load of the engine from low
load to full load in 0.1 s, carries out the tests of PID control with and without twin
modes, and then carries out the tests of PID control with and without pilot control.
5.3.2 The Test Tesults of PID Control With and Without

Twin Modes
On 2,500 r/min, the increase of the boost pressure is 632 mbar for the test with
twin modes PID control in 1.5 s, and 503 mbar for the test without twin modes
PID control. The former increase 25.6 % more than the latter, illustrated in Fig. 3.
When use twin modes PID control strategy, it will adopt static or dynamic
control mode according to the control error automatically. The dynamic mode can
output larger duty cycle quickly and increase the dynamic respond of the turbo-
charger especially when rapid accelerate acceleration condition take place.
70 S. Lin et al.
Fig. 5 Test result of with and without pilot PID control on automobile hub test bench N(n)—engine
speed, PEDLE(pedle)—opening angle of fuel pedle
5.3.3 The Test Results of With and Without Pilot Control
It can be found that it can avoid the boost pressure overshoot with pilot control
from Fig. 4, the overshoot take place in different level when without pilot control.
Adds pilot control to the PID control method to regulate the upper limit and lower
limit of the control signal, and reach the purpose of avoiding overshooting.
5.4 Tests of Dynamic Working Condition on Automobile

Hub Test Bench
Carries out the tests with and without twin modes pilot PID control on the auto-
mobile hub test bench.
The test results is illustrated in Fig. 5, when with twin modes pilot PID control,
the boost pressure reaches the target value quickly without any overshoot, and then
follows the target value very well; when without, the boost pressure increases
slowly, and can’t follows the target value well. In 1.5 s, the former make the boost
pressure increase 679 mbar, and the later just 483 mbar, the former increase
40.6 % more than the latter.
6 Summary
The turbocharging system has the characteristics of nonlinear, hysteresis and

model uncertain, the traditional PID control method is not competent for the
control of the gasoline engine turbocharger.
The twin modes PID control strategy executes static PI control or dynamic PID
control according to the control error, to increase respond speed of the turbo-
charger and reduce the control error quickly the control parameters of the dynamic
PID control are the increasing function of the control error. Make the self-adaption
pilot control of the I part can increase the control precision and avoid over-
shooting. The controller outputs the PID control signal after nonlinear transform to
cover the disadvantage that the traditional PID control method is not fit to the
nonlinear system. Finally, realizes the stably and effectively control of the tur-
bocharger. The test results indicates that the twin modes pilot PID control
discussed in this paper can reach good control effect.
References
1. Moody JF. Variable Geometry Turbocharging with Electronic Control. SAE860107

2. Zhong Q, Xie J, Li H (1999) PID controller with variable arguments. Inf Control 28(4):
273–277
3. Chen Y, Zhu C, Li J, Wan Y (2005) The research of the variable parameters PID governor.
Control Autom 21(10–1):47–48
4. Gong Z, Zhou M, Li X, Quyang M (2001) A research on the variable geometry turbocharger
control system for diesel engine. Autom Eng 23(4):279–282
5. Xu B, Liu Z (2007) The algorithm research on an electronic control system of variable nozzle
turbocharger. Internal Combust Engines 5:28–31
6. Hoopes HS, Xu FL (1983) Fuzzy self-tuning of PID controllers. ISA Trans 22:49–58
7. Li W, Fan Y (2008) Application of fuzzy self-adaptive PID to adjustable nozzle turbocharger.
Passenger Car Tech Res 6:4–6
Braking Stability Control Algorithm
for Vehicle Based on Fuzzy Logic
Hongyu Zheng, Yuchao Chen and Changfu Zong
Abstract A stability control strategy for vehicle electronic hydraulic brake

system (EHB) related to active safety was developed for vehicle. A nonlinear
electronic-hydraulic brake system mathematical model was built through analyz-
ing the effects of the composing modules and linking pipelines of the EHB system
on the performance. The vehicle stability control algorithm was simulated using
software CarSim and MATLAB/Simulink under typical conditions. The results
showed that control strategy can effectively control vehicle motion and meet the
requirements of design.
Keywords Vehicle engineering Electronic hydraulic brake system Active

safety Fuzzy control Stability
1 Introduction
In recent years, with the development of electronic technologies and control

theories, vehicle handling and stability has become more and more important for
drivers. EHB (Electronic Hydraulic Braking) system is a new type of vehicle
active control braking systems, which replaced the mechanical connection
between brake pedal and brake wheel cylinder by wire and the driver’s braking
F2012-D01-013
H. Zheng (&) C. Zong

State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control in Jilin University, Jilin, China
e-mail: zhy_jlu@163.com
Y. Chen
FAW Group Corporation R&D Center, Changchun, China

74 H. Zheng et al.
behaviour is transmitted to the ECU (Electronic Control Unit) in the form of

electronic signal, then ECU identify the driver’s braking intention by collecting
others vehicle sensors signals, making out the optimal cylinder brake pressure by
controlling the solenoid valve to regulate cylinder pressure [1]. EHB can signifi-
cantly improve the braking performance and vehicle handling and stability, while
providing a variety of support functions, sharing information with other vehicle
control systems to provide the development of the vehicle chassis integrating and
realize the ultimate intelligent vehicle control system [2].
Based on the EHB system basic structure and working principle, this paper built
mathematical model by EHB system and studied the stability control algorithm to
improve vehicle stability. A nonlinear electronic hydraulic brake system mathe-
matical model was built by software Matlab/Simulink through analyzing the effects
of the composing modules and linking pipelines of the EHB system on the perfor-
mance. Based on fuzzy logic, the vehicle stability control algorithm was simulated
using software CarSim and MATLAB/Simulink under typical conditions.
2 Basic Structure of EHB System
EHB system can be broken with an electrical ‘‘joystick’’ completely independent

of the traditional brake pedal. The signals of brake pedal sensor and wheel velocity
sensor were transmitted to the ECU and integrated steering angle sensor, yaw rate
sensor and lateral acceleration sensor etc. by CAN bus. According to signals, ECU
can know about brake intention of driver and vehicle states to control the
switching of the solenoid valve to regulate the wheel brake cylinder pressure
which improved vehicle stability [3]. EHB system divided into some categories:
brake pedal system, wheel, brake actuators, sensors, ECU, power source and assist
systems [4] (Fig. 1).
Brake pedal system include brake pedal, pedal stroke sensor, pedal speed sensor.
Pedal stroke and velocity sensors can measure signals transmit it to ECU. According
to signals, ECU can know about brake intention of driver through the arithmetic in the
ECU. Wheel and brake actuators are controlled by the signals of ECU to provide
brake pressure with vehicle. Compared to traditional brake system, EHB has added to
four brake pedal stroke sensors, brake velocity sensors and so on. The sensors consist
of two kinds: the first sensor is used to know about intention of driver, for example
brake pedal stroke sensors. The second is used to know about the drive state of
vehicle, for example wheel sensors and yaw rate sensor. The sensors and ECU are
integrative with CAN bus to communicate with other ECUs [5]. ECU is the most
important in the EHB. It can get all signals come from sensors and actuators and
estimate to how to control brake actuators.
Braking Stability Control Algorithm 75
Power
actuator Source actuator
Controler Controler
ECU
Controler Controler
actuator actuator
Brake pedal
sensor
Fig. 1 Base structure of EHB system
3 Hydraulic System Mathematical Model of EHB
Hydraulic brake system model is consists of hydraulic unit, high speed on–off
valve, hydraulic pipelines, wheel cylinders and so on [6].
3.1 Hydraulic Unit
From deal gas state equations can be seen

pA VAn ¼ p1 V1n ¼ p2 V2n ¼ constant ð1Þ
where V1, V2 are max and min pressure volume of gas. Where system pressure
need be kept or leakage compensation by accumulator, n = 1, where need com-
pensate a great deal of oil liquid, n = 1.4.
3.2 High Speed On-Off Valve Model
The flow equation of hydraulic valve port

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2jp2 p1 j
Q ¼ Cd A ð2Þ
q
where Q is liquid flow rate, Cd is flow coefficients, A is flow area, P1, P2 are fluid
unsteady flow. High speed on–off valve is controlled by PWM signal with traffic
have an approximately linear relationship as
76 H. Zheng et al.
A ¼ A0 IPWM ð3Þ
where A0 is the biggest opening state of valve port, IPWM is the distribute coeffi-
cient of PWM signal and its range between 0 and 1.
3.3 Brake Wheel Cylinders System Model
The flux continuum equation of wheel cylinders as

Vw dPw
Qw ¼ ð4Þ
Kw dt
where Vw is volume of wheel cylinders, Pw is pressure of wheel cylinders, Kw is
representative volume modulus of elastic of wheel cylinders.
1 1 A2w
¼ þ ð5Þ
Kw Kl kbrake Vw
where is Kw stiffness of brake, Kl is modulus of elasticity of brake fluid, kbrake is
synthetically stiffness that include distortion of wheel cylinders and compressive
stress.
3.4 Brake Model
According to mechanism of friction, brake torque of wheel can be described to Tb as

Tb ¼ GNb ð6Þ
N b ¼ P w Aw ð7Þ
where G is a constant factor about material, structure and temperature of brake,
can be determined by experiment, Nb is piston thrust of wheel cylinders, Pw is
pressure of wheel cylinders, Aw is piston area of wheel cylinders.
4 Stability Control Algorithm Based on EHB
Based on vehicle stability control theory, a stability control algorithm was

established combined with structural characteristics of EHB hydraulic system.
Reference to vehicle linear model with two degree of freedom (2DOF), an addi-
tional vehicle yaw torque was designed to comparing vehicle actual states with
ideal states which were computed by two degree of freedom [7].
4.1 Computing Ideal States by Two Degree of Freedom Model
Equations of 2 DOFs linear model for vehicle as

8
> bKr aKf
< mVx ðb_ þ rÞ ¼ Kf þ Kr b þ
>
Vx
r þ Kf d
ð8Þ
>
> a2 Kf þ b2 Kr
: Iz r_ ¼ ðbKr aKf Þb r þ aKf d
Vx
where m is vehicle mass, Vx is vehicle speed, b is sideslip angle, r is yaw rate, kf is
cornering stiffness of front axis, kr is cornering stiffness of back axis, a is distance
from center of mass to front axis, b is distance from center of mass to back axis, d
is front wheel steering angle, Iz is moment of inertia to Z axis.
Vx d
rN ¼ ð9Þ
l ð1 þ KVx2 Þ
mðbKr aKf Þ
K¼ ð10Þ
Kf Kr l2
where rN is ideal yaw rate, l is the distance of between front and back axis, K is
stability factor. If actual yaw rate great than rN to a threshold value, it must be
controlled by brake torque for wheel. This may use fuzzy logic control algorithm
to control EHB system.

Vx l g
rN ¼ min
d ; sgnðdÞ ð11Þ
lð1 þ KVx2 Þ Vx
Dr ¼ r rN ð12Þ
where l is road friction coefficient, Dr is the difference of actual yaw rate and ideal
yaw rate. In order to avoid error too small to adjust frequently, so this need set a
threshold value as
jDr j jcrN j ð13Þ
where c is a threshold value and positive number.
According to driver’ handling and vehicle movement state, ECU can get
vehicle movement state and compute an ideal vehicle movement state. Compare
actual vehicle movement state with ideal vehicle movement state to compute an
error and introduction to ECU, ECU calculates a yaw moment to renew vehicle
stability. The yaw moment is distributed to four wheels to transform wheel cyl-
inder pressure. According to wheel cylinder pressure of sensor measured and
vehicle needed, ECU generates PWM signals to control solenoid valves to adjust
wheel cylinder pressure that control vehicle stability.
78 H. Zheng et al.
Table 1 Inference table of the fuzzy controller

Dr Very low Low Medium High Very high
Mr
D_r
Very low Very Very Very low Low Medium
Low Very Very Low High High
Medium Very Low Medium High Very high
High Low Low Medium Very high Very high
Very high Low Low High Very high Very high
4.2 Stability Control Algorithm
This paper chose fuzzy control method to control brake torque for wheel. Firstly,
the process to be controlled is difficult to mathematical model and the driving
environment is complex and strongly nonlinear. The fuzzy logic methods deal with
these difficulties by allowing the fuzzy rules. The input variable of fuzzy control
algorithm is Dr and Dr’s derivative and output variable is Mr to additional yaw
torque of vehicle. The fuzzy controller is defined by 25 rules Table 1.
4.3 Brake Force Distribution of Yaw Moment
EHB system can adjust wheel cylinder pressure all four wheel but different brake
distribution can attain different yaw moment. As usual, adjust wheel cylinder
pressure of one of diagonal wheels can control vehicle stability and the other
doesn’t have obvious effect. Brake Force Distribution Table 2.
The relation of wheel braking force with yaw rate can be described as
8
>
> d
< Ff cos d þ sin d a ¼ Mr
2
ð14Þ
>
> d
: Fr ¼ M r
2
where Ff is front wheel braking force, Fr is rear wheel braking force, d is distance
from front axis to back axis.
5 Simulation Result
It use software Matlab/Simulink to built mathematical model of the EHB system

and vehicle dynamic model was simulated using software CarSim.
Table 2 Brake force distribution methods

Frong wheel steering angle Difference of yaw rate Brake force distribution
Left turn Dr [ cDrN Right front wheel braking
Dr \ -cDrN Left rear wheel braking
-cDr No braking
N B Dr B cDrN
Right turn Dr [ cDrN Left front wheel braking
Dr \ -cDrN Right rear wheel braking
-cDrN B Dr B cDrN No braking
No turn Dr [ cDrN Right front wheel braking
Dr \ -cDrN Left rear wheel braking
-cDrN B Dr B cDrN No braking
Fig. 2 Input of front wheel

steering angle
5.1 l-Low Condition
Simulation experiments include that vehicle speed is 80 km/s, road friction

coefficient is 0.3, front wheel steering angle is a sinusoid. Figure 2 is front steering
angle, period is 4 s and amplitude is 0.03 rad, Fig. 3 is yaw rate and Fig. 4 is
vehicle running path.
From the simulation show that yaw rate can’t track ideal yaw rate of non
vehicle stability control. Vehicle stability control algorithm can make yaw rate
track ideal yaw rate based on fuzzy control logic and the path was more precisely
than the vehicle with no control.
80 H. Zheng et al.
Fig. 3 Yaw rate
Fig. 4 Vehicle running path
5.2 Double Change Condition
Double change condition refers to the ISO/TR 3888-1 [8]. The simulation
experiments include that vehicle speed is 100 km/h and road friction coefficient is
0.4.
Figure 5 is front steering angle, Fig. 6 is yaw rate and Fig. 7 is vehicle running
path.
In the simulation result that yaw rate can’t track ideal yaw rate of non vehicle
stability control and vehicle lost stability. Based on fuzzy control logic, vehicle
stability control can make yaw rate track ideal yaw rate and the path was more
precisely than the vehicle with no control.
Fig. 5 Front wheel steering

angle
Fig. 6 Yaw rate
Fig. 7 Vehicle running path

82 H. Zheng et al.
6 Conclusion
The mathematical models were built of EHB system by Matlab/Simulink and

vehicle dynamic models by CarSim, it provides platform for theoretical study and
product development of vehicle system, and besides, the research on the stability
control algorithm of EHB system based on fuzzy control logic. The computer
simulation test results show that vehicle stability can’t be kept if there is no
stability control and the control effect of fuzzy control logic improved the vehicle
stability.
References
1. Petruccelli L, Velardocchia M, Sorniotti A (2003) Electro-hydraulic braking system modelling

and simulation. SAE Paper, No.2003-01-3336
2. Joachim L, Bryan K (2003) Virtual design of a 42 V brake-by-wire system. SAE Paper, No.
2003-01-0305
3. Hac A, Bodie MO (2002) Improvements in vehicle handling through integrated control of
chassis systems. Int J Veh Auton Syst 1:83–110
4. Fortina A, Velardocchia M, Sorniotii A (2003) Braking system components modelling. SAE
Paper, No.2003-01-3335
5. Velardocchia M (2006) A methodology to investigate the dynamic characteristics of ESP and
EHB Hydraulic Units. SAE Paper No.2006-01-1281
6. Reuter DF, Lloyd EW, Zehnder JW (2003) Hydraulic design considerations for EHB systems.
SAE Paper, No.2003-01-0324
7. Ghoneim YA, Lin WC, Sidlosky DM, Sidlosky DM et al (2000) Integrated chassis control
system to enhance vehicle stability. Int J Veh Des 23:124–144
8. ISO/TR 3888-1 (1999) Passenger cars—test track of a severe lane change manoeuvre—part 1:
double change
Lane Keeping System Based on Electric
Power Steering System
Hailin Zhang, Yugong Luo, Qingyun Jiang and Keqiang Li
Abstract For integration issues between Electric Power Steering System and
Lane Keeping System, a Lane Keeping coordinated control method combining
time to lane cross and judgment of driver’s operating behavior has been proposed.
Lane Keeping System model, Magic Formula Tire model, 7-DOF vehicle model
and EPS model were built based on theoretical analysis. Then Hardware-in-the-
Loop experiment was done on EPS bench. Simulation and Hardware-in-the-Loop
experiment results show that Lane Keeping coordinated control method can solve
coordinated problems between conventional power steering component and lane
keeping executive component, and can keep the vehicle in the lane, thus ensure the
safety of the vehicle while driving.

Keywords Lane keeping Coordinated control Hardware-in-the-loop Vehicle

model EPS
1 Introduction
According to statistics, nearly 40 % of fatal accidents are caused by lane departure

[1]. The function of Lane Keeping System is to maintain the vehicle in the lane,
then ensure the drivers’ safety.
F2012-D01-014
H. Zhang (&) Y. Luo Q. Jiang K. Li

State Key Lab of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
e-mail: seaforestlove@163.com

84 H. Zhang et al.
EPS system has a series of advantages such as energy saving and simple
structure. Lane Keeping System based on EPS can achieve shared using of EPS
structure and reduce design costs of Lane Keeping System.
In Lane Keeping System based on EPS, EPS is conventional power steering
component and also lane keeping executive component. Coordinated control
between these two functions is the key of the research.
Literature [2, 3] studied Lane Keeping System based on EPS, but were not related
to coordinated control problems between conventional power steering component
and lane keeping executive component. Literature [4] designed individual steering
mechanism for Lane Keeping System. The mechanism didn’t have conventional
power steering function, so there weren’t coordinated control problems.
For coordinated control problems mentioned above, a Lane Keeping coordi-
nated control method combining time to lane cross [1] and judgment of driver’s
operating behavior has been proposed. This method combined calculation of time
to lane cross and judgment of driver’s operating behavior. Lane Keeping System
model, Magic Formula Tire model, 7-DOF vehicle model and EPS model were
built based on theoretical analysis. Then Hardware-in-the-Loop experiment was
done on EPS bench. Simulation and Hardware-in-the-Loop experiment results
show that coordinated control method of Lane Keeping System can decide whether
EPS is to achieve conventional power steering or is to respond commands from
lane keeping controller through judgment of driver’s behavior and vehicle states,
achieve coordinated control of these two functions and keep the vehicle in the lane
in order to ensure safety while driving.
2 Overall Structure of Lane Keeping System Based on EPS
The driver has the highest priority while driving, so driver’s operating behavior
must be considered when designing control strategies. The controller can decide
whether EPS is to achieve conventional power steering or is to respond commands
from lane keeping controller through integrated judgment of time to lane cross and
driver’s operating behavior, thus achieve coordinated control.
Based on ideas mentioned above, this paper has established overall structure of
Lane Keeping System based on EPS, which is shown in Fig. 1. Lane Keeping
System is inside the dashed box. Road environmental information and driver’s
information are inputs of vehicle model. Vehicle’s state parameters can be
obtained through calculation of vehicle model. We can judge whether the vehicle
has the danger of lane departure through driver’s behavior and time to lane cross.
If there is danger of lane departure, steering angle command is calculated by
lateral driver model. Then PWM signals are generated by PID controller, input of
which is error of steering angle. The motor executes PWM signals, generates
corresponding front wheel steering angle, then keeps the vehicle in the lane.
If there isn’t danger of lane departure, EPS works under conventional power
steering mode.
Lane Keeping System Based on Electric Power Steering System 85
Lane Keeping System
7-DOF Lane Steer

Road Driver departure lateral command
vehicle Road
info status driver
model info EPS
Road model
Magic Vehicle System
tire status TLC
Driver Driver No lane departure Conventio
Driver model count
input input nal power
steering
Actual steering
wheel angle
Fig. 1 Overall structure of lane keeping system based on EPS
3 Lane Keeping Coordinated Control Method
During lane keeping process, we first need to determine whether there is danger of
lane departure through information on all aspects. In this paper, we determine
whether there is danger of lane departure through judgment of driver’s behavior
and alarm algorithm based on time to lane cross (TLC).
Alarm algorithm based on TLC is to calculate time before the wheel crosses the
edge of the lane through establishing vehicle motion model and predicting the
trajectory of the vehicle. When the calculated time is less than certain threshold,
the system will warn the driver of danger of lane departure.
Lane keeping coordinated control algorithm is shown in Fig. 2. Figure 2 shows
when the driver is operating the steering wheel, the driver has the highest priority,
then EPS works under conventional power steering mode. When the driver is not
operating the steering wheel, if TLC is more than certain threshold, the vehicle
doesn’t deviate from the lane and there is no need to implement aid; if TLC is less
than certain threshold, there is danger of lane departure. We calculate target angle
from lateral driver model. Then PWM signals are generated by PID controller,
input of which is the difference between target angle and actual angle. Then motor
performs PWM signals, drives steering mechanism and keeps the vehicle in the
lane.
As is shown in Fig. 2, judgment of driver’s operating status is very important in
lane keeping coordinated control process. In this paper, torque signal is used to
judge driver’s operating status. Specific judgment process is shown in Fig. 3.
In Fig. 3, the system first gets torque signal from torque sensor. When the
torque is more than the set threshold, the driver is operating the vehicle. When the
torque is less than the set threshold, if the time when the torque is less than the set
threshold is more than certain threshold, the driver is not operating the vehicle,
otherwise the driver is operating the vehicle.
86 H. Zhang et al.
Fig. 2 Lane keeping Obtain driver input

coordinated control process information
YES EPS works under

Is driver operating? conventional power
steering mode
NO
Obtain vehicle status and
environmental information
YES Assist motor generates assist

Does lane departure happen? torque and keeps vehicle in
the lane
NO
No assistance
Fig. 3 Judgment of driver’s

operating status Obtain torque signal
YES Driver is operating

Is torque more than
threshold? vehicle
NO
Is time when the torque is YES Driver is not
less than threshold more than operating vehicle
another threshold?
NO
Driver is operating
vehicle
4 Lane Keeping System Simulation Model
Simulation model of Lane Keeping System based on EPS are built in Matlab/
Simulink. The block diagram of simulation model is shown if Fig. 4.
In Fig. 4, 7-DOF vehicle model gets front-wheel angle from EPS model and
sends aligning torque and velocity to EPS model. Auxiliary mode judgment model
determines whether EPS works under conventional power steering mode or lane
keeping mode through integrating the driver’s operating behavior and time to lane
cross information. If the system works under lane keeping mode, lateral driver
model calculates target steering wheel angle and sends it to EPS model, then the
whole control process is completed.
Lane Keeping System Model Driver
Driver input
Vehicle
position
Auxiliary
TLC
Lateral driver Vehicle TLC mode
calculation
model status judgment
model
model
Target steering
Vehicle status wheel angle Front wheel angle EPS work mode
Aligning
torque
7-DOF
Longitudinal EPS system
Vehicle
velocity model
model
Front wheel
angle
Fig. 4 Block diagram of simulation model
Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of

7-DOF vehicle model
4.1 Vehicle Model
This chapter selects seven degrees of freedom including longitudinal, lateral, yaw
and four wheels’ rotating, then establishes 7-DOF vehicle model.
Vehicle model is shown in Fig. 5 and the parameters are listed in Table 1.
88 H. Zhang et al.
Table 1 Meaning of parameters of 7-DOF vehicle model

Parameter Meaning Parameter Meaning
m Vehicle mass vX x-velocity
JZ Yaw inertia vY y-velocity
d Tread xZ Yaw velocity
a Centroid to front axle distance x11,x12,x21,x22 Wheel angular velocity
b Centroid to rear axle distance d Front wheel angle
JF Front wheel rotation inertia FX11,FX12,FX21,FX22 Longitudinal force of tire
JR Rear wheel rotation inertia FY11,FY12,FY21,FY22 Lateral force of tire
r Wheel radius TD11,TD12 Wheel drive torque
TB11,TB12,TB21,TB22 Wheel brake torque
7-DOF vehicle model equations are as follows.

8 P
>
> mð_vX v_ Y xZ Þ¼ P FX ¼ðFX11 þFX12 ÞcosdðFY11 þFY12 ÞsindþFX21 þFX22
>
> mð_vY þ v_ X xZ Þ¼ FY ¼ðFX11 þFX12 ÞsindþðFY11 þFY12 ÞcosdþFY21 þFY22
>
>
>
> X d d
>
> JZ x_ Z ¼ MZ ¼½ðFX12 FX11 ÞcosdþðFY11 FY12 Þsind þðFX22 FX21 Þ
>
>
< 2 2
P þ½ðF Y11 þF Y12 ÞcosdþðF X11 þF X12 ÞsindaðF Y21 þF Y22 Þb
>
>
>
> J F _
x 11 ¼ P M Y11 ¼TD11 T B11 F X11 r
>
>
>
> JF x_ 12 ¼ PMY12 ¼TD12 TB12 FX12 r
>
>
>
> J x_ ¼ M ¼TB21 FX21 r
: R 21 P Y21
JR x_ 22 ¼ MY22 ¼TB22 FX22 r
ð1Þ
4.2 Tire Model
The tire plays a role of media between vehicle and road. Tire model is the basis of
vehicle dynamics simulation. Magic tire model proposed by Pacejka is used in this
paper [5].
The general form of magic tire model is as follows.
yðxÞ ¼ D sinfC atan½Bðx þ Sh Þð1 EÞ þ E atanðBðx þ Sh ÞÞg þ Sv ð2Þ
of which: D is peak factor, C is shape factor, B is sharpness factor, E is curvature
factor, Sh is lateral offset, Sv is longitudinal offset, yðxÞ stands for longitudinal
force, lateral force or aligning torque.
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of

lateral driver model
4.3 Lateral Driver Model
Single point preview driver model proposed by Guo Konghui is used in this paper.
Schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 6 [6, 7].
In Fig. 6, XOY is a fixed coordinate system, f(t) is the center line equation of
expected trajectory, T is preview time, y(t) is the current vehicle coordinates.
To track f(t), the optimal steering wheel angle is:
2iL
d ¼ ½f ðt þ TÞ yðtÞ T y_ ðtÞ ð3Þ
d2
Of which: d is the optimal steering wheel angle, i is the gear ratio of steering
system, L is wheelbase, d is preview distance.
During lane keeping control process, if lane departure happens, we can
calculate target steering wheel angle from lateral driver model mentioned above if
lane center line and related parameters are given. The difference between target
steering wheel angle and actual steering wheel angle is sent to PID controller, from
which PWM signals are generated. Motor performs PWM signals and then the
whole lane keeping control process is completed.
4.4 EPS System Model
Schematic diagram of column-type power steering system is shown in Fig. 7.

Parameters of EPS model are all shown in Fig. 7. The meanings of related
parameters are listed in Table 2 [8, 9].
Dynamic equations of steering system are as follows:
8
< Th Kðhs hd Þ ¼ Bs h_ s þ Js €hs
Kðhs hd Þ þ Ta Tr ¼ Bd h_ d þ Jd €hd ð4Þ
:
hm ¼ G m hd
Voltage equation of DC motor is:
U ¼ LI_ þ IR þ KE h_ m ð5Þ
90 H. Zhang et al.
Fig. 7 EPS structure
Dynamic equation of motor is:

Tm ¼ Ka I
ð6Þ
Tm Ta =Gm ¼ Bm h_ m þ Jm €hm
Steering system dynamics can be solved through Eqs. (4), (5), (6). Relevant
parameters are calculated for further solution.
5 Lane Keeping Hardware-in-the-Loop

Experimental Platform
Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) experimental platform is built based on simulation.

HIL experimental platform is shown in Fig. 8.
HIL experimental platform consists of dSPACE system, EPS bench and motor
drive module. Simulation model of Lane Keeping System based on EPS is running
in dSPACE system. dSPACE collects torque and angle signals from EPS bench,
current signal from motor drive module. These signals are sent to simulation
model running in dSPACE system. After a series of calculation, PWM signals are
Table 2 Meanings of parameters of EPS model

Parameter Meaning
Js Inertia of steering wheel and upper steering shaft
Jd Inertia of front wheel and steering mechanism equivalent to steering shaft
Bm Motor damping coefficient
Bd Damping coefficient of front wheel and steering mechanism equivalent to steering
shaft
hd Angle of front wheel equivalent to steering shaft
Tr Aligning torque
L Motor inductance
KE Motor back EMF coefficient
I Motor current
Ta Assistant torque
Gm Worm gear ratio
Jm Motor rotation inertia
Bs Steering shaft damping coefficient
Th Steering wheel input torque
hs Steering wheel angle
hm Motor angle
U Motor voltage
R Armature resistance
K Torsion bar stiffness
Ka Motor torque coefficient
Tm Motor torque
Fig. 8 HIL experimental

platform
Torque&angle
EPS bench
Drive Motor
Current
Model Current
running
in
dSPACE PWM
Motor drive
circuit
92 H. Zhang et al.
Steering wheel
Fig. 9 Parameters change in
angle(deg)
100
simulation case 1
0
-100
0 2 4 6 8 10
TLC(s)
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Motor voltage(V)
5
0
-5
-10
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time(s)
sent to drive motor in order to change front wheel angle and control vehicle
trajectory.
6 Analysis of Simulation and HIL Experimental Results
In EPS system, the effect of EPS will be weakened with the increase of velocity. In
order to take obvious power steering effect and lane keeping effect into account,
the choice of velocity is 20 km/h.
6.1 Analysis of Simulation Results
Simulation case 1: straight line driving, velocity 20 km/h, ground friction coeffi-
cient 0.9, lane width 3.5 m, TLC threshold 3.5 s. Steering wheel angle, TLC and
motor voltage are shown in Fig. 9.
From 3 to 4.3 s (Inside the dashed oval frame), there is driver input and motor
works under conventional power steering mode. Motor voltage from 3 to 4.3 s in
Fig. 9 presents conventional power steering state. After 4.3 s, there is no driver
input. If TLC is less than 3.5 s, motor begins to work to adjust vehicle position. If
TLC is more than 3.5 s, motor doesn’t work and doesn’t provide auxiliary. In
summary, the control method can achieve coordinated control effect.
Control results of trajectory of vehicle centroid in case 1 are shown in Fig. 10.
When there is danger of lane departure, Lane Keeping System takes over control
of the vehicle and controls vehicle centroid near the centerline of the lane in order
to ensure the safety of the vehicle.
Fig. 10 Control results of 2
Lateral distane(m)
trajectory of vehicle centroid
in simulation case 1 1
0
Lane centerline
-1 Centroid trajectory
Lane boundary
-2
0 20 40 60
Longitudinal distance(m)
Steering wheel
Fig. 11 Parameters change
angle (deg)
in simulation case 2 100
-100
0 2 4 6 8 10
100
TLC (s)
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Motor voltage (V)
5
0
-5
-10
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
Fig. 12 Control results of 6 Lane centerline

trajectory of vehicle centroid Centroid trajectory
Lateral distance (m)
in simulation case 2 Lane boundary

4
-2
0 20 40 60
Longitudinal distance (m)
Simulation case 2: curve line driving, velocity 20 km/h, ground friction coef-
ficient 0.9, lane width 3.5 m, TLC threshold 3.5 s. Steering wheel angle, TLC and
motor voltage are shown in Fig. 11.
From 0 to 1.5 s (Inside the dashed oval frame), there is driver input and motor
works under conventional power steering mode. Motor voltage from 0 to 1.5 s
94 H. Zhang et al.
Fig. 13 Trajectory of 6 Lane centerline

vehicle centroid in HIL case 1
Centroid trajectory
4

Lane boundary
2
-2
-4
-6
0 100 200 300
presents conventional power steering state. After 1.5 s, there is no driver input. If
TLC is less than 3.5 s, motor begins to work to adjust vehicle trajectory. If TLC is
more than 3.5 s, motor doesn’t work and doesn’t provide auxiliary. In summary,
the control method can achieve coordinated control effect.
Control results of trajectory of vehicle centroid in case 2 are shown in Fig. 12.
When lane departure happens, the system can adjust the vehicle’s position in a
very short time, thus ensure traffic safety. Simulation results verify that Lane
keeping control method designed in this paper is effective.
6.2 Analysis of HIL Experimental Results
During HIL experiment, when the driver is not operating, hands are completely off
the steering wheel. When the driver is operating, hands are on the steering wheel.
HIL case 1: straight line driving, velocity 20 km/h, ground friction coefficient
0.9, lane width 3.5 m, TLC threshold 3.5 s.
Control results of trajectory of vehicle centroid in HIL case 1 are shown in
Fig. 13. The results show that when lane departure happens, the system can adjust
the vehicle to the center line of the lane, which is in line with expected result.
Parameters’ changing in HIL case 1 is shown in Fig. 14. From 3.5 to 4.5 s
(Inside the dashed oval frame), the torque exceeds the set threshold. According to
Fig. 3, the driver is operating. After 4.5 s, the torque is less than the set threshold
and persists for some time. According to Fig. 3, the driver is not operating. From
3.5 to 4.5 s, the driver is operating when EPS works under conventional power
steering mode and there is assist current in motor. After 4.5 s, the driver is not
operating. The system changes to lane keeping process. When TLC is less than the
set threshold, motor begins to work to adjust vehicle position through changing
front wheel angle. When TLC is more than the set threshold, there is almost no
current in the motor and the system works without assistance of the motor. The
results show that control method designed in this chapter can achieve coordinated
control effects.
Steering wheel
angle (deg)
in HIL case 1
100
0
-200
0 10 20 30 40
TLC (s)
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40
current (A)
Motor
4
0
-4
-8
0 10 20 30 40
Torque
(N.m)
4
2
0
-2
0 10 20 30 40
Time (s)
Fig. 15 Trajectory of 15 Lane centerline

vehicle centroid in HIL case 2
Centroid trajectory
10 Lane boundary
-5
0 20 40 60 80
HIL case 2: curve line driving, velocity 20 km/h, ground friction coefficient 0.9,
lane width 3.5 m, TLC threshold 3.5 s.
Control results of trajectory of vehicle centroid are shown in Fig. 15. Param-
eters’ changing in HIL case 2 is shown in Fig. 16.
In Fig. 15, when lane departure happens during cure line driving, the system
can adjust vehicle position in a short time and keep the vehicle near the centerline
of the lane, which verifies the effectiveness of the control method.
In Fig. 16, from 0.5 to 1.5 s (Inside the dashed oval frame), the torque exceeds
the set threshold. According to Fig. 3, the driver is operating. After 1.5 s, the
torque is less than the set threshold and persists for some time. According to
Fig. 3, the driver is not operating. From 0.5 to 1.5 s, there is driver operating when
EPS works under conventional power steering mode and there is assist current in
motor. After 1.5 s, there isn’t driver operating. The system works under lane
96 H. Zhang et al.
Steering wheel
angle (deg)
in HIL case 2 200
0
-200
0 2 4 6 8 10
TLC (s)
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
current (A)
5
Motor
0
-5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Torque
(N.m)
0
-5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
keeping mode. If TLC is less than the set threshold, motor works to change front
wheel angle and to adjust vehicle trajectory. If TLC is more than the set threshold,
there is no assistance of the motor in the system. Results show that control method
designed in this paper has coordinated control effects.
7 Conclusions
For coordinated control problems in Lane Keeping System based on EPS, a lane
keeping coordinated control method considering TLC and judgment of driver’s
operating behavior has been proposed. Lane keeping simulation model was built
based on this. Simulation study of control method and HIL experiments under
relevant cases were done. Conclusions are as follows:
1. Lane keeping coordinated control method designed in this paper considers both
driver’s operating status and lane departure information and can solve coor-
dinated control problems between conventional power steering component and
lane keeping executive component when the driver has the highest priority,
which is in line with reality.
2. Complete lane keeping simulation model based on EPS has been established by
integrating lateral driver model, 7-DOF vehicle model, magic tire model and
EPS model. The integrated model can simulate vehicle dynamics well while
lane keeping process.
3. Simulation and HIL experimental results show that lane keeping coordinated
control method designed in this paper can keep the vehicle in the lane and
ensure traffic safety with good control effect.
References
1. Wang R, Yu T, Guo L (2005) A survey on the research of vision-based lane departure warning
system. Automot Eng 27(4):463–466
2. Jing-Fu L, Jui-Hung W, Yi-Feng S (2007) Development of an interactive lane keeping control
system for vehicle. IEEE vehicle power and propulsion conference, pp 702–706
3. Meister T, Fleck R, Fischer M (2006) Enabling technologies for lateral dynamic assistant
systems. SAE Paper 2006-01-1172
4. Ma Y, Wang J, Xu Y et al (2004) Lane keeping system of autonomous vehicle. Intell Transp
Syst Z1:7–12
5. Pacejka HB (2006) Tire and vehicle dynamics. Oxford, Elsevier, pp 172–196
6. Guo K (1991) Dynamics of controllability for automobile. Jilin Science and Technology
Publishing House, Changchun, pp 500–503
7. Guo K (1984) Drivers-vehicle close-loop simulation of handling by ‘‘preselect optimal
curvature method’’. Automot Eng 3:1–16
8. Shimizu Y, Kawai T (1991) Development of electric power steering. SAE Paper 910014
9. Hu J, Li T, Qin D (2008) Modeling and simulation of electric power steering system based on
vehicle whole dynamics. J Syst Simul 20(6):1577–1581
Parking Brake Breaking-In Technology
Based on EPB
Leon Huang, Ted Huang, Wei Xu, Dongxu Yi, Lingtao Han
and Wutian Lin
Abstract When the parking brake shoes are installed, it must be initialized with
Breaking-in process, in order to meet the parking performance requirements,
especially the independent parking brake. This article describes a vehicle dynamic
Breaking-in technology for independent parking brake, based on electronic park-
ing brake system.
Keywords EPB Break-in After service DIH EOL
1 The Necessity of Breaking-In Process for Independent

Parking Brake
The new installation of the brake friction plate cannot be fully fit and brake
surface, because of its irregular surface and mounting structure reasons. Initial
friction plate efficiency will be low; resulting in vehicle brake performance does
not reach the goal, when the friction joint area is too small. As shown in Fig. 1:
To solve this problem, the Breaking-in process will increase friction plate joint
area in braking. The Breaking-in, or Running-in, is the process of sliding friction
under pressure between friction materials and brake disc or drum. The joints area
will increase while the irregularities of the friction materials are polishing. Braking
efficiency will continue improving in Breaking-in.
F2012-D01-015
L. Huang (&) T. Huang (&) W. Xu D. Yi L. Han W. Lin

Guangzhou Automobile Group CO., LTD Automotive Engineering Institute,
Guangdong, China
e-mail: huangliang@gaei.cn

100 L. Huang et al.
Fig. 1 The indication of friction plate joint surface
For service brake, Breaking-in process can occur in vehicles moving. Depressing
the brake pedal, the friction lining will be abraded in wheels rolling and it will
improve the braking efficiency continuously [1, 2]. However, for the parking brake, it
only works in static mode generally, and the working frequency is far less than the
service brake, so it cannot be Break-in in application of conventional. If the initial
braking efficiency is unqualified, the parking brake may not provide enough parking
force in slope. It will cause the risk. Therefore, the friction plate, shared by parking
brake and service brake, can be used without special Breaking-in. But the inde-
pendent friction plate for parking brake, such as Drum in Hat (DIH), is very necessary
to be Break-in. (See Fig. 2)
2 The Conventional Mechanical Handbrake Breaking-In
There are two methods to Break-in the conventional mechanical handbrake, which
connecting to DIH.
2.1 Parts Breaking-In
The first method is approach named ‘‘parts Break-in’’, after parking brake is
assembled with shoes and drum together. There is a Breaking-in equipment to
ensure the parking brake is acceptable. Then the parking brake assembly can be
sent to the vehicle assembly process. In this way, the consistency of the vehicle
parking performance can be ensured at equipment, but the costs will be higher
from the equipment construction and operating. In addition, this method isn’t
applicable for lining replacing in after service. It is not worth to replace entire
‘‘well-done’’ parking brake, if it only because abrasion of the friction plate.
Parking Brake Breaking-In Technology Based on EPB 101
Fig. 2 Independent parking brake and service brake
2.2 Vehicle Dynamic Breaking-In
The second Break-in method is ‘‘vehicle dynamic Breaking-in’’. New car off the
assembly line can be Break-in when moving in a low parking force, similar to
service brake process. When mechanical handbrake to be pulled up the appropriate
latch number, can make the parking brake force not only maintaining the friction
plate to joint, but also to ensure that force not big enough to locking wheel
completely. So choosing the appropriate parking force is important conditions fit
the dynamic Breaking-in.
When you select the appropriate Breaking-in parameters, you can also ensure
the consistency of braking efficiency in batch after Breaking-in. The dynamic
Breaking-in process can be finished in wheel revolving test equipment to fit
vehicle factory. It can also be done on the testing road, so it can meet the demands
of factory and after service at the same time.
102 L. Huang et al.
Fig. 3 Electronic parking breaking-in system hardware architecture
3 The Electronic Parking Brake Breaking-In
Electronic parking brake system (EPB), which is different from the mechanical
handbrake, users can not choose the parking force free. When the vehicle static
parked, the biggish force will completely lock the wheels, and the vehicle will be
difficult to accelerate. So it’s unable to complete the dynamic Breaking-in.
EPB started brake when vehicle moving, will enter an emergency mode called
‘‘dynamic braking’’. After rapid deceleration, the vehicle will be stopped even-
tually. The wheel does not roll, so amount of Breaking-in will not meet the
requirements. In order to achieve Break-in effect, it must be repeated using the
‘‘dynamic braking’’ mode to Breaking-in by repeating acceleration and decelera-
tion cycles. But by this method, each Breaking-in amount is limited, and cannot be
precise cumulative. Process is difficult to control and count manually, with the
huge workload and low efficiency.
Therefore, the EPB system function, similar to the mechanical hand brake, can
select the appropriate parking force and perform the vehicle dynamic Breaking-in.
An efficient Breaking-in system need to precisely control the amount of Breaking-
in. Amount of Breaking-in is defined in the following:
Fig. 4 Detailed description following
A¼kFL
A Amount of Breaking-in
F Force of Breaking-in
L Distance of Breaking-in.
The following hardware structure can be obtained running the force and
distance (Figs. 3, 4):
In this figure, the equipment can get the parking force from wheels. Breaking-in
equipment is any diagnostics equipment adding Breaking-in software.
4 The Breaking-In Process
The function of different part in Breaking-in system

Breaking-in equipment sends a target to EPB ECU, and monitors and controls the
Breaking-in process. At the same time, equipment can also be receiving commands
from operator.
EPB ECU is responsible for controlling the actuators, precise control of the
force of the parking and calculation of the running distance.
104 L. Huang et al.
Exit Breaking-in processes

(a) Breaking-in distance
The running distance calculated by the EPB ECU, integrating the wheel speed to
distance value by signals from CAN network. EPB will automatically quit
Breaking-in and release parking brake when distance reach or exceed the distance
target.
(b) Through the brake efficiency:
Running equipment receives real-time cable force from EPB ECU and continues
testing parking force to calculate the real-time parking brake efficiency. When the
parking efficiency monitored by equipment is greater than target, the equipment
will send command to the EPB to exit Breaking-in.
c) The Breaking-in process can be manual intervention to exit to face special
unknown situation.
Confirmation of Breaking-In Effect

Exit (a) is an open-loop control, according to the parameters set, it can be ensured
that all vehicle match Breaking-in parameters. But all vehicles should pass the
parking force testing process, as same as handbrake; Exit (b) is a closed-loop
control, Breaking-in at the same time to detect the efficiency of parking. Therefore,
after the end of the Breaking-in process, all vehicles can meet the objectives. Due
to individual differences of brakes, every brake need different Breaking-in distance
to fit to parking efficiency. The target distance of Breaking-in is the longest one, in
order to meet all vehicles. So Exit (b) can save time.
Development of new car model
For different vehicles or brake, we only need to add a new Breaking-in parameters.
There is no need to change the ECU or equipment software logic.
5 Breaking-In Parameter Settings
1. Breaking-in force F
As refer earlier, the right Breaking-in force, which maintaining friction plate to
joint and not lock the wheels, is important. We can get a range from vehicle test.
Sometimes we choose a big one, to reduce the distance of Breaking-in.
2. Parking Brake efficiency g
We need calculate the target of qualified parking brake efficiency.
The definition of the parking braking efficiency:
g ¼ K ðFP FC Þ
FP Parking force;
FC Cable Force
We set efficiency (gF ) the perfect fully Breaking-in shoes as 100 %, and get the
ratio of ‘‘FP’’ and ‘‘FC’’ from vehicles which are perfect fully Break-in. then we
get constant K.
Then we can get target efficiency (gT ) from the vehicle performance target. For
example, we need park at slope of 20 % when cable force below 800 N. Any
vehicle meet or over target efficiency can be set passing.
3. Breaking-in distance L
This technology is based on distance accumulating and force controlling.
Based on Breaking-in force has been selected and qualified efficiency goals,
vehicle calibration test by vehicles of a quantity can get the range of Breaking-in
distance. The maximum one in all samples should be choose.
References
1. Han Byul C, Youngsup S, Paljoo Y, Choong Woo L, Doo Ho L, Young Ok L, Chung Choo C
(2007) A fault detection method for Electric Parking Brake (EPB) Systems with sensor less
estimation using current ripples. In: 14th Asia pacific automotive engineering conference, 2007
2. Raajha MP, Lakshmi Narayanan V (2003) High-performance drum brake assembly for
automotive braking applications. In: 21st Annual brake colloquium and exhibition, p 384
Engineering Design of TPMS
Lingtao Han, Ted Huang and Wei Xu
Abstract Research and/or Engineering Questions/Objective: Tire Pressure Moni-

toring System (TPMS) mainly focus on the tire pressure, temperature monitoring. Or
over-inflated tire under inflated, will affect the car’s safety. According to the traffic
control department of statistics, 46 % of accidents on the highway due to tire failure
caused the puncture accounted for 70 %. TPMS can monitor real-time tire pressure and
temperature, the driver informed in advance, improve vehicle safety. And tire pressure
is too low will result in increased resistance and improve fuel consumption. Improved
by monitoring the tire pressure can improve fuel economy. Methodology: This article
describes the principle of TPMS systems, the system components, and solve the TPMS
R & D among the key issues to be resolved, providing a human interface and infor-
mation communications for the overall design performance, and ultimately go through
test tools with CAN, the spectrum analyzer, network analyzer test validation. Results:
This design of TPMS systems, real-time monitoring of tire pressure, temperature,
acceleration, and the man–machine interface can be displayed to the driver. For the tire
failures and system failures can itself provide timely text, graphics, alarm. Optimized
layout of the entire system through the vehicle to improve the reception rate and
reception stability. Communication with other systems using the CAN approach,
stable and reliable signal transmission speed. Based on the above system design, in
engineering has been widely used to improve the protection of tire safety and fuel
economy has made some achievements. Deficiencies and limitations Limitations of
this study: This paper focuses on the tire pressure monitoring, and providing alarm. But
the puncture cannot be predicted, and the puncture of no implementation action. What
does the paper offer that is new in the field in comparison to other works of the author:
F2012-D01-016
L. Han (&) T. Huang W. Xu

GAC Engineering, Shanghai, China
e-mail: hanlingtao@gaei.cn
108 L. Han et al.
The system uses sensors directly, in real time and accurate monitoring of tire pressure,
temperature, acceleration, battery voltage sensor signal. Relative to the indirect tire
pressure monitoring, with a measurement accuracy, system stability, the advantages of
wide range of applications. RF signal using FSK modulation mode, better than the
adjustment means ASK. Conclusion: This tire pressure monitoring system designed to
achieve an accurate tire pressure and tire temperature monitoring alarm display can be
applied in the real car.
Keywords TPMS Hardware design Software design Test on vehicle RF

protocol
1 Proposal Design
TPMS is a wireless transmission system for a vehicle, apply to short-range radio

signal transmission. The main transmission signal including a tire pressure signal,
the temperature signal, and sensor battery voltage status signal and the centripetal
acceleration signal when wheel rotating. Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of
the TPMS system. The signal such as pressure or temperature will be detected by
the signal source then encoded for the radio frequency signal transmitted out by
the transmitter. Receiver in working condition will receive the signal from the
transmitter, then decode, and analyze the data, sent the data to the LCD for display.
RF signal, because of reflection, diffraction, etc., will be degraded, When system
design is finished, it should be checked on vehicle.
The Fig. 1 shown is for a low-line TPMS, TPMS mentioned in this article refers
to the low-line system.
2 System Components
The TPMS system is composed of 4 sensors (transmitter) and a receiver, the spare
tire does not install the sensor. Sensor working principle is shown in Fig. 2. The
sensor uses a 3 V lithium battery as power supply, the sensor contains a pressure
sensor, temperature sensor, voltage sensor, the centripetal acceleration sensor, an
MCU, the RF transmitter circuit, the antenna. Each sensor will input the signal
detected to the MCU, MCU processes the signal then gives the data to the RF
converter circuit to convert to the RF signal, the RF signal will be send out through
the transmitting antenna. Choose 433.92 MHz FSK modulation mode according to
China radio environment.
Such as Fig. 3, the receiver working principle, the receiver is powered by 12 V
battery, IG signal as an excitation signal wake-up receiver circuit such as the CAN
Transceiver. Receiver antenna receives the RF signal, then decode the signal, and
then sent to the MCU for processing to restore the data and send the data to CAN
Engineering Design of TPMS 109
Signal Signal coding Sender

source
RF
LCD Display Signal decoding Receiver
Fig. 1 Diagram of TPMS
Pressure
Sensor
Temperature
RF Antenna
Sensor
MCU Transmitter Match
Voltage Circuit Network
3V Sensor
Acceleration
Sensor
Fig. 2 Diagram of sensor
Transceiver, CAN Transceiver transmit the data to data frame for CAN bus. LCD
read from the CAN bus, and give data display to the driver for safety.
LCD display interface as shown Figs. 4 and 5, contains the pressure display,
temperature display, warning lamp. Normal driving circumstances, LCD display
real-time temperature of each tire, pressure value of each tire, alarm lamp does not
shine on this condition; when a tire pressure or temperature failure, alarm lamp
lights, the display interface displays the current pressure and temperature, and tire
failure temperature, pressure value flashes to alert the driver. If the system fails,
warning lamp lights, the interface prompts the system failure.
3 Software Design
3.1 Signal Coding
TPMS using the Manchester encoding, in Manchester encoding, every middle

there is a transition from high to low transition of said ‘‘1’’, ‘‘0’’ from low to high
transition, such as in Fig. 6 [1].
Manchester encoding in the source coding main reasons are the following:
1. Manchester encoded sequence there is no DC component. To avoid miscarriage
of justice because the receiver amplifier zero drift and back-end points of the
110 L. Han et al.
Vbatt 12 V
Antenna FSK MCU CAN

Match Receiver LDC
Transceiver
Network Circuit
IGN 12 V
Fig. 3 Diagram of receiver
Fig. 4 Display
Fig. 5 Warning lamp
comparator signal DC review an error of judgment caused by the decoding

circuit.
2. The Manchester coding, synchronization signal for the receiver circuit is a
typical self-synchronizing encoding. The so-called self-synchronization refers
to the direct method to extract the sync signal from the data signal waveform.
0 0 1 1 0 1
Fig. 6 Manchester coding
Table 1 RF Frame structure

Preamble Sensor ID Battery voltage Pressure Temperature Acceleration Check sum EOM
3. The Manchester encoded codeword is limited, can only be a hexadecimal

number 5, A, 6, 9 of the various combinations, so long as the data frame
synchronization code take a sequence of these combinations, it can completely
avoid the misjudgement of the header.
4. The Manchester coding is relatively simple, suitable for the weak system of
processing capacity.
Visible, the Manchester coding is not only way to achieve simple, but also has
good anti-interference performance and self-synchronization capabilities.
3.2 RF Protocol
TPMS Sensor RF Frame have the following structure as Table 1.‘
3.2.1 Preamble
Each message must start with 15 bits of zeros and followed with one bit of zero.
3.2.2 Sensor ID
Sensor ID follow the Pre-amble. Sensor ID has 32 bits programmed at factory.
3.2.3 Pressure Byte
The pressure is transmitted using an 8-bit representation, 1 bit representing

1.37 kPa. The transmitted pressure data should be linear between incremental
112 L. Han et al.
Table 2 Pressure data No. Real pressure Pressure data transmitted

1 100 0x00
2 101.37 0x01
3 102.74 0x02
254 450
255 Over range 0xFE Invalid
Table 3 Temperature data Temperature data transmitted Real temperature (C)

0–0x0F Invalid data
0x10 -40
0x11 -39
…… ……
0xB5 125
0xB6– 0xFF Invalid data
pressure measurement. The Sensing minimum absolute Pressure is 100 kPa, and
maximum absolute Pressure is 450 kPa (Table 2).
3.2.4 Temperature Byte
The temperature is transmitted using an 8-bit digital representation, 1 bit repre-

senting 1 C (Table 3).
4 Test on Vehicle
The sensor sends RF signals as a data packet, each data packet contains three RF
Frames. The position of receiver on vehicle will cause the RF signal diffraction,
reflection, etc., directly affect the reception effect, you need do a reception test on
vehicle. Sensor for a wheel, the reception rate is calculated by two ways:
Nrd
1. Data Packet reception rate ¼ :
Nsd
Nrd Number of Data Packet received by receiver;

Nsd Number of Data Packet send by the sensor;
2. Nrf
Frame reception rate ¼ ;
Nsf
Lab Top
Sensor1 Sensor2
CANoe
Receiver
Sensor3 Sensor4
Fig. 7 Theory diagram of test
Nrf Number of Frame received by receiver;

Nsf Number of Frame send by the sensor.
Figure 7 shown, theory diagram of test. The test software is installed in the lab
top. For a wheel Sensor such as Sensor 1, when the receiver gets a Data Packet
from Sensor 1, receiver will give the information to Lab Top via CANoe. The data
packet counter in the testing software of the Lab Top will plus 1. In the end of the
trial, the counter shows Data Packet reception number Nrd for sensor 1. Similarly
frame counter gives the number of frame send by sensor 1 Nrf.
Sensor launch RF is cyclical, and the cycle is T is fixed. Launched for a wheel
of Sensor Data Packet number, such as Sensor 1, when the receiver is first received
Data Packet, the receiver gives information to the Lab Top and the data packet
launch counter in the software gets activation, and every T time counter plus 1
until the end of the trial, you can record the launch number of the data packet Nsd.
Similarly record number Nsf of the launch Frame.
According to (1–2) it can be calculated out of a wheel Sensor Data Packet
reception rate and frame reception rate. Similarly the other three tires. To judge the
reception effect of the entire system.
Reference
1. Ningning W (2006) Key technology research and engineering application of TPMS, Wanfang
Data
An Integrated Electric Energy
Management System to Improve
Fuel Economy
Mingming Wang and Ted Huang
Abstract Fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions pose serious challenges
to automotive industry. Today’s vehicles require much more electric energy due to
the much wider array of electrical and electronic on-board comfort and safety sys-
tems. The balance of power delivery to different systems is becoming more and more
difficult. In response to the growing need for more electric power, an integrated
electric energy management system is introduced. An energy management unit
(EMU) is the brain of whole system; it integrates charging management, auto start
stop function, battery monitoring and electric load management. Based on the battery
state of charge (SOC), EMU determines the strategy for energy management. The
EMU controls charging voltage by a LIN connected alternator regulator to maintain
SOC. When the battery soc is low, EMU increases the charging voltage to stimulate
battery charging. But when soc is in a normal range, charging voltage is adjusted
according to vehicle motion to improve fuel economy. The auto start stop function
turns off and restarts engine automatically, when the battery SOC is in an appropriate
status. EMU also determines which electric load the power should be preferentially
supplied to when the battery SOC is low or when the alternator malfunctions. In these
situations, the EMU will reduce electric power delivered to such components as a
seat heater, for example, in order to ensure enough power for safety systems such as
the x-by-wire systems. A closed-loop control of the battery SOC improves stability of
electric power net. EMU increases the charging voltage when vehicle is decelerating,
and decreases the charging voltage when vehicle is accelerating. Regeneration
increases fuel efficiency while simultaneously enhancing driving dynamics.
F2012-D01-018
M. Wang T. Huang
Guangzhou Automobile Group CO.,LTD Automotive Engineering Institute,
Guangdong, China
e-mail: wangmingming@gaei.cn
116 M. Wang and T. Huang
A continuous charging voltage adjustment way is introduced. This avoids the abrupt
torque output, and improves NVH performance. Auto start stop function combined
with charging management delivers more reductions in fuel consumption and CO2
emissions.
Keywords Energy management Fuel economy Start stop Charging man-

agement Regeneration
1 Introduction
1.1 Trends of Growing Need for Electric Power
Today’s vehicles require much more electric energy than older ones, due to the much
wider array of electrical and electronic on-board comfort and safety systems. Electric
loads in a conventional ICE vehicle are increased up to 2–3 kW. In general, in the
case of power 1 kW, driving 100 km each needs to consume 0.7–1.2 L of petrol. Fuel
consumption and exhaust emissions pose serious challenges due to the increase of
electric power. Also the reliability of power supply is strongly required, when electric
security systems such as x-by-wire systems (e.g. steering-by-wire, brake-by-wire)
are introduced in the vehicles [1, 2]. The balance of power delivery to different
systems is becoming more and more difficult.
1.2 Solutions to Improve Fuel Economy
For a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle, there are several
ways to improve fuel economy by improving the electric energy system. Charging
management is one technique. Regeneration is converting a vehicle’s kinetic
energy to electric energy for battery recharging during deceleration. Regeneration
improves fuel efficiency by up to two percent, though this result is influenced by
the engine capacity and electric load. But overcharge or insufficient battery SOC
can still be problems if there is no battery SOC monitoring.
The second way is the auto start stop system which turns off the engine each
time the vehicle comes to a complete halt—such as at traffic lights—and restarts it
automatically. This is an effective way for drivers living in urban areas to reduce
fuel consumption by an estimated 5 % [3]. But inadequate battery SOC level can
be caused by frequent engine stop, which limits fuel reduction effect.
An Integrated Electric Energy Management System 117
Fig. 1 Power flow in a

conventional ICE vehicle
1.3 Introduction of Electric Energy Management System
This paper presents an electric energy management system which integrates

charging management, auto start stop function, battery monitoring and electrical
load management. This system shows the following features:
• Strategy for energy management is based on the battery state of charge (SOC).
• Charging voltage is increased to stimulate battery charging when the battery soc
is low, but when soc is in a normal range, charging voltage is adjusted according
to vehicle motion to improve fuel economy.
• Start stop function turns off and restarts engine automatically, when the battery
SOC is in an appropriate status.
• Power supply priority is applied to preferentially delivery electricity to the
important loads, when battery SOC level is low.
2 Analysis of Electric Energy Management
2.1 Electric Power Flow in a Conventional Vehicle
In a conventional ICE vehicle, usually the electric energy system consists of an

alternator that generates electric power, an electric storage device, such as a lead-
acid battery, and various electric loads [4]. The alternator tries to maintain a fixed
voltage level on the power net. A traditional lead-acid battery is present for
supplying IG-off loads and for making the power net more robust against peak-
power demands. The power flow is shown in Fig. 1.
The power flow starts with fuel which is injected into the engine. The output
power of engine splits up into several directions: one part goes to the transmission
for vehicle propulsion, while other part goes to the alternator. The alternator
generates electric power for various electric loads, and also charges the battery.
Contrary to the electric loads, the power flow of the battery can be positive as well
as negative. In the end, all power, except for losses, is used for vehicle propulsion
and for electric devices connected to the power net.
Fig. 2 Model of electric

energy management
controller
2.2 Problems of Common Electric Energy System
Electric energy system in a conventional ICE vehicle has several problems as

follows:
• Bad battery maintenance: There is no monitoring function for battery SOC, both
charging side and consuming side are out of control from the electric energy
system. Insufficient SOC and overcharge both can be caused by the imbalance of
generated power and load power.
• Lack of protection for important loads: There is no priority distinction for different
electric loads. Important loads can also be shut down when the SOC is low.
• Fuel economy degradation: The alternator is connected to the engine by a belt
with a fixed gear ratio, and output voltage is fixed. This means that electric
power is going to be generated even though efficiency of the engine is worse. In
such a case, more fuel is required to generate electricity and fuel economy
deteriorates.
2.3 Model of Electric Energy Controller
The defects of the electric energy system in a conventional ICE vehicle are caused
by the fact that there is no vehicle level control of electric power flow. Therefore,
an electric energy controller is needed. The electric energy system should be
restructured as Fig. 2.
The electric energy management system consists of three subsystems: genera-
tion, storage and distribution. In such a system, generation can be adjusted
according to the vehicle motion status, battery sensor is present for monitoring the
SOC to keep good battery maintenance, and power supply priority is introduced to
Fig. 3 Implementation of electric energy management system
guarantee the safety of important loads. Similar like the idea of ‘‘torque based
control’’, SOC of battery is the core parameter to coordinate three subsystems.
Based on the battery state of charge (SOC), system determines the strategy for
energy management.
3 Design of an Integrated Electric Energy

Management System
3.1 Structure of an Integrated Electric Energy

Management System
This chapter presents the implementation of an integrated electric energy manage-

ment system, which is shown in Fig. 3. An energy management unit (EMU) is the
brain of whole system. Based on the battery state of charge (SOC), EMU determines
the strategy for energy management. Charging management, auto start stop function,
battery monitoring and electric load management are all controlled by EMU.
A battery sensor computes the SOC of battery from voltage current and temper-
ature signals, and sends the info to EMU by LIN bus. EMU controls charging voltage
by a LIN connected alternator regulator to maintain SOC. When the battery soc is
low, EMU increases the charging voltage to stimulate battery charging. But when soc
is in a normal range, charging voltage is adjusted according to vehicle motion to
improve fuel economy. Producing electricity in this highly efficient way delivers an
additional advantage: when accelerating, the alternator is restrained; more power of
the engine can be directed to the drive wheels. Regeneration increases fuel efficiency
while simultaneously enhancing driving dynamics.
The status of power train can be derived from clutch sensor and neutral sensor
(for manual transmission) or TCU (Transmission Control Unit for automatic
transmission). Also engine status signals from EMS (Engine management system)
are also necessary for the auto start stop function. The auto start stop function turns
off and restarts engine automatically, when the battery SOC is in an appropriate
status. If necessary for comfort or safety reasons, EMU will restart the engine: for
example, if the vehicle begins to roll or refrigeration is needed for a comfortable
temperature. Because of good battery maintenance, battery SOC never falls too
low, the auto start stop function is available in most cases, makes more fuel
reduction.
EMU determines which electric load the power should be preferentially
supplied. When the battery SOC is low or when the electric system malfunctions,
EMU shut down the electric loads with low supply priority such as a seat heater by
a CAN connected digital relay controller.
Fuel reduction is obtained from regenerative braking and engine shut-off. For
regeneration, the alternator absorbs energy from the drive train and stores it into
the battery in terms of electric energy. This is the most economical way to charge
the battery, since it requires no additional fuel. When used consistently, auto start
stop function can deliver significant reductions in fuel consumption and emissions.
3.2 Torque Control Improvement for Regeneration
For most regeneration cases, charge voltage is stetted in only three fixed steps [3].
As showed in Fig. 4, system increases the alternator’s adjustment voltage during
accelerating phase while decreases the voltage when vehicle is decelerating.
Adjustment voltage is set to be a default value if cruise driving is recognized or in
a malfunction mode. By controlling the alternator, the engine torque output can be
influenced. Discontinuous torque output to wheels can be felt due to discrete
voltage setting steps.
A better way for charging voltage adjustment is to set the voltage in continuous
steps. Setting voltage is dependent on vehicle’s acceleration which is the first
derivative of vehicle speed. The relationship between setting voltage and accel-
eration can be expressed as a linear function which is shown in Fig. 5. A nonlinear
function can also be adopted for accelerating the response.
The setting voltage V can be represented as follow:
V ¼ V default þ k a
Where V default is the default voltage, a is acceleration of vehicle and k is the

coefficient. The value of acceleration becomes positive during accelerating while
minus if vehicle is decelerating. This brings the same effect as above fixed voltage
adjustment but avoids the abrupt torque output, and improves NVH performance.
Fig. 4 Charge voltage

adjustment by estimating
vehicle motion
Fig. 5 Relationship between

setting voltage and
acceleration
4 Conclusion
Improving fuel economy and restricting emissions has always been a major
challenge to the automotive industry. Historically, the research was focused on
improving the mechanical side of the vehicle. Because of the growing need for
more electric power, electric energy management becomes a promising resolution.
This paper presents a design of electric energy management system which
integrates charging management, auto start stop function, battery monitoring and
electrical load management. A closed-loop control of the battery SOC improves
stability of electric power net. Auto start stop function combined with charging
management delivers more reductions in fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. A
continuous charging voltage adjustment way is introduced. This avoids the abrupt
torque output, and improves NVH performance.
References
1. Shen J, Masrur A, Garg VK, Monroe J (2003) Automotive electric power and energy
management: a system approach. In Business Briefing: Global Automotive Manufacturing and
Technology. Touch Briefings, April 2003
2. Kazuyoshi O, Keisuke T (2004) Concept of Vehicle Electric Power Flow Management System
(VEF). SAE 2004 World Congress & Exhibition, Detroit, Michigan. SAE Paper 2004–01-0361
3. Tadatoshi A, Syunichi M (2008) A Stand-Alone Charging Management System to Improve
Fuel Economy, Based on an Algorithm of Estimating Vehicle Motion. SAE 2008 World
Congress & Exhibition, Detroit, Michigan,. SAE Paper 2008-21-0045
4. Emadi A, Ehsani M, Miller JM (2003) Vehicular electric power systems: Land, Sea, Air, and
Space Vehicles [M]. Marcel Dekker, New York
Modeling on Torque Generation
for Turbocharged Diesel Engine
Based on Identification Method
Gang Li, Ying Huang, Fujun Zhang and Xiaoyan Dai
Abstract Torque-based engine control system has been developed for complexity
of powertrain control. Compared with open-loop torque control, close-loop control
can improve control performance radically and reduce calibration workload
greatly. For turbocharged diesel engine, dynamic torque generation model of Fuel
Delivery-Mean Indicated Torque should be provided. The relationship between
fuel delivery and mean indicated torque is nonlinear. In different operating points,
engine demonstrates different dynamic torque output characteristic. Through
piecewise linearization and identification, dynamic torque generation model has
been obtained in different operating points. Based on this model, close-loop torque
and engine speed control algorithm can be investigated further.

Keywords Turbocharged diesel engine Dynamic characteristic analysis Torque

generation model Piecewise linearization Identification
1 Introduction
Indicated torque is an important variable for powertrain control and torque-based

engine control system. Torque can be obtained through measurement or recon-
struction of engine speed [1, 2], but the sensor is expensive and reconstruction is
F2012-D01-021
G. Li (&) Y. Huang F. Zhang X. Dai

Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
e-mail: ligbit@126.com
124 G. Li et al.
difficult to access. The development of torque model with certain accuracy became
a research focus.
Hong Munan proposed online torque estimation algorithm based on mean value
engine model, and identified the parameters of the estimation algorithm [3].
Y. Chamaillard obtained the transfer function between the throttle and indicated
torque by system identification, and designed a robust control algorithm [4]. In
addition, neural network approach based on the engine test data is also applied to
establish the torque model [5, 6].
Compared with gasoline engine, the relationship between fuel delivery and
mean indicated torque of turbocharged diesel engine shows stronger nonlinearity.
In different operating points, turbocharged diesel engine demonstrates different
torque output characteristics. In addition, torque response of turbocharged engine
is lagged to fuel response, especially under the fast torque changing case and in the
various operating points, lag time is not consistent [7, 8]. Establishing a uniform
torque dynamic model in all operation conditions is difficult. In this paper,
considering the steady-state and dynamic torque characteristic, piecewise linear-
ization and identification have been implemented; and dynamic torque generation
model in all operating points has been obtained.
2 A Detailed Engine Model for Identification
2.1 Analysis of Torque Output Characteristics
Firstly a detailed model of turbocharged diesel engine will be established. The

detailed model should predict state and dynamic characteristics of the average
indicated torque in different operating points, and neglect the high frequency
torque fluctuations.
For turbocharged diesel engine:
Mi ¼ mf g Qlhv =120000 ð1Þ
where Mi is the mean indicated torque, the unit is Nm; Mf is the fuel delivery, the
unit is mg; g is the thermal efficiency; Qlhv is the low heat value, the unit is J/mg,
about 43.2.
In different operating points, indicated thermal efficiency of turbocharged diesel
engine displays non-linearity. Combustion timing and velocity have changed with
different operating points, thus affecting indicated thermal efficiency of engine.
Some research indicates that the indicated efficiency mainly depends on the engine
speed, load and fuel injection timing [8, 9]. The calibration of injection timing is
carried based on the principle of economy and emissions. Therefore, steady-state
indicates efficiency is directly related to the engine operating points.
In dynamic working conditions, the response of indicated torque lags behind the
change of fuel injection quantity for turbocharged diesel engine. Under transient
Modeling on Torque Generation for Turbocharged Diesel Engine 125
Table 1 Sub models and modelling method adopted

Sub-model Modeling method
Combustion and torque production Experimental data MAP
Engine friction model Experimental data MAP
Crankshaft rotation model First order differential equation
Intake manifold model Experimental data MAP and first order differential equation
Intercooler model Experimental data MAP and first order differential equation
Exhaust manifold Experimental data MAP and first order differential equation
Compressor model Character MAP
Turbine model Character MAP
Turbocharger rotor model First order differential equation
operating conditions, the efficiency decreased significantly. The specific reasons

include that the inertia of turbocharged system, volume effect of intake and
exhaust manifold, delay of heat transfer and energy conversion [10, 12]. These
reasons lead to air–fuel ratio deviation from the steady-state value and the loss of
heat transfer balance in the dynamic process [11].
2.2 A Detailed Model for Identification
Deutz V6 turbocharged diesel engine is chosen as the research object in this

paper.A dynamic engine model for identification has been established. According
to Sect. 2.1 analyses, the modeling should focus on some important links to
indicate torque characters.
It is known that indicated efficiency is function of engine speed and A/F ratio.
An indicated efficiency MAP was obtained by fitting the experimental data, as
shown:
git ¼ MAPðA=F; ne Þ ð2Þ
where A/F is the air–fuel ratio, ne is the engine speed.
Quasi-steady empirical along with filling and emptying method were used for
the airpath modeling. Filling and emptying method was used to gain better tran-
sient prediction of pressures and temperatures in manifolds [12]. Therefore, tur-
bocharged diesel engine model was divided into a series of control volumes.
Table 1 gives some sub models and methods for the modeling. More detailed
descriptions of these sub-models are given in literature 13.
Moreover, considering the crank angle lag of the intake flow, fuel injection,
indicated torque and exhaust gas flow, time delay has been added in all working
conditions. In addition, verification for heat transfer coefficient, temperature rise
model, and heat transfer model of the exhaust pipe have been carried out based on
experimental data.
126 G. Li et al.
Table 2 Operating points chosen for piecewise linearization

70 mg 100 mg 130 mg 160 mg
1,000 rpm 468.6 Nm 873.1 Nm 1246.5 Nm 1556.3 Nm
1,400 rpm 510.6 Nm 906.2 Nm 1331.4 Nm 1756.4 Nm
1,800 rpm 490.4 Nm 920.3 Nm 1395.8 Nm 1741.7 Nm
3 Piecewise Linearization and Analysis of Torque

Generation Model Structure
The relationship between injection quantity and mean indicated torque is nonlin-
ear. In different working conditions, engine demonstrates different dynamic torque
output characteristic. Through piecewise linearization and theory analysis, the
structure and order of dynamic torque generation model will be determined in the
selected engine working conditions.
3.1 Piecewise Linearization and Normalization
Using piecewise linearization method, a nonlinear system can be divided into a

number of linear intervals. Considering that engine torque generation model
demonstrate linear near the selected working condition, we can use a number of
linear models for different working conditions to describe engine torque generation
process. Step size in the division of the operating point is usually determined
according to the severity of nonlinearity of the system. According to analysis of
the global nonlinear behavior of the turbocharged diesel in Sect. 2.1, the operating
points are chosen as shown in Table 2, covering small load, medium load and
heavy load region in the low-speed, medium-speed as well as high-speed
segments.
In general, controller design is easier to perform using linear models and
normalized variables. In the case of non-normalized variables, it is hard to analysis
characters of the system and compares controllers to each other. In this paper,
based on the idea of normalization, fuel delivery quantity per cycle and torque are
transformed into normalized quantity normalized torque in different operating
points.
In the N0 operating point, normalization process is performed as follows:
steady-state fuel delivery value is Mf0 and indicated torque value is Ti0, the
neighborhood variable is defined as:
Mf ðtÞ ¼ Mf 0 ðtÞ uðtÞ ð3Þ
Ti ðtÞ ¼ Ti0 ðtÞ yðtÞ ð4Þ
The new variables u(t) and y(t) are dimensionless and around 1 in magnitude:
uðtÞ ¼ 1 þ duðtÞ ð5Þ
yðtÞ ¼ 1 þ dyðtÞ ð6Þ

dM
where duðtÞ ¼ Mf f ; dyðtÞ ¼ dT
Ti
i
After the above processing, a model GðsÞ ¼ dyðsÞ=duðsÞ can be identified in

each defined operating point.
3.2 Analysis of Torque Generation Model Structure
Mean indicated torque is product of the amount of fuel injected, the lower heating
value of the fuel, and indicated efficiency:
Ti ¼ K M f g ð7Þ
dTi ¼ K Mf dg þ K g dMf ð8Þ
dy 1 dg
¼ þ1 ð9Þ
du du g
Formula 9 shows that, dy=du related to diesel engine efficiency g of the current
operating point, efficiency change dg and excitation signal du. Based on analysis of
efficiency characteristics in Sect. 2.1, both steady-state efficiency and change of
dynamic efficiency are not the same in different operation points. With the same
excitation signal du, the torque model parameters are corresponding to with the
indicated efficiency g and indicated efficiency change dg.
Using the built detailed turbocharged engine model, give step-fuel excitation in
the selected operating point. According to the simulation results, shown in Fig. 1,
dynamic conditions of the turbocharged diesel engine indicated efficiency with the
increase of fuel supply showing decreases rapidly and then gradually increase the
torque step increases and then gradually approaches a steady state value. Dynamic
process will be divided into the following three stages.
The first stage: The increasing of fuel delivery leads to decline of air–fuel ratio,
resulting in the rapid decline of the indicated efficiency. But the step increase of
fuel delivery will cause that the indicated torque still increased in the next cycle.
The first stage can be approximate to a proportional link:
G1 ðsÞ ¼ K1 ð10Þ
The second stage: After several operating cycles, the turbine drives compressor
to a high speed with the increasing of exhaust gas energy. Due to the large power
difference between turbine and compressor, the speed of turbocharger rapidly
increases. That will cause the indicating torque of engine increases gradually. The
second stage can be approximate to a proportion and inertia link:
128 G. Li et al.
160
Fuel Delivery
140
mg/cc
120
100
Indicated Efficiency
0.48
0.46
%
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.38
1400
Indicated Torque
1300
Nm
1200
1100
1000
29 30 31 32 33
time (s)
Fig. 1 PRBS for identification
K2
G2 ðsÞ ¼ ð11Þ
T2 S þ 1
The third stage: Unbalanced of turbine power and compressor’s power leads to
the turbocharger speed continues to increase, and the heat transfer of the cylinder
and the exhaust pipe slowly approached equilibrium. The torque reached gradually
a steady state value. The third stage can also be approximate to a proportion and
inertia link, with a longer duration of inertia link:
K3
G3 ðsÞ ¼ ð12Þ
T3 S þ 1
According to Fig. 2, the duration of third stage is longer, but indicated torque
change is small. Therefore, the third stage can be ignored in most conditions. And
transfer function of Fuel Delivery-Mean Indicated Torque can be simplified:
K2
G ðsÞ ¼ K1 þ ð13Þ
T2 S þ 1
K ðT2 S=K þ 1Þ
G ðsÞ ¼ ð14Þ
T2 S þ 1
Fig. 2 Torque generation 0.4

dynamic process for
turbocharged diesel engine
0.2
PRBS
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
time/(s)
Where K ¼ K1 þ K2 :
As shown in formula (14) torque generation model can be approximated to a
first-order system, including a proportional link, a one-order differential link and a
one-order inertial link. In the same time, pure delay link also should be considered.
4 Identification for Torque Generation Model
In different operating points, diesel engine demonstrates different dynamic torque

output characteristic. According to the previous analysis and piecewise lineari-
zation, the structure of torque generation model was approximately obtained. In
this section, parameters identification of torque model is developed in each defined
operating point.
4.1 Design of identification experiment signal
The general transfer function is defined as
dYðsÞ b0 þ b1 s þ þ bnb snb

GðsÞ ¼ ¼ eLs ð15Þ
dYðsÞ 1 þ a1 s þ þ ana sna
Firstly time delay should be determined in the operating points. Y. Chamaillard
thinks time delay of torque model is in function of the engine speed and load, but
more sensitive to the engine speed [5]. Time delay values (Table 3) have been
chosen:
A Pseudo-Random Binary Sequence (PRBS) is adopted for identification. Based
on analysis of Sect. 3.2, designing of the PRBS is proposed, including the clock
cycle Dt, signal amplitude and sequence period length Ts. Simulation shows that the
130 G. Li et al.
Table 3 Time delay choice for each speed

ne (r/min) 1,000 1,400 1,800
Time delay(s) 0.02 0.014 0.011
1420
Engine Speed
1410
(rpm)
1400
1390
1380
1000
900
mass flow
(kg/h)
800
700
600
2.4
Intake Pressure
2.2
(/bar)
2.0
1.8
1.6
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
time (s)
Fig. 3 Changes of boost pressure, mass flow and engine speed
Fig. 4 Comparison of the identification

identification results 0.3 Output
0.2
0.1
Magnitude
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
15 20 25 30 35 40
time (s)
Table 4 Identification results in different conditions

1,000 r/min 1,400 r/min 1,800 r/min
70 mg 1:21ð0:96s þ1Þ 1:2ð1:03s þ1Þ 1:17ð1:13s þ1Þ
1:16s þ1 1:24s þ1 1:32s þ1
100 mg 1:05ð1:15s þ1Þ 1:10ð0:96s þ1Þ 1:14ð1:26s þ1Þ
1:21s þ1 1:06s þ1 0:91s þ1
130 mg 0:93ð0:54s þ1Þ 0:87ð1:32s þ1Þ 0:91ð0:89s þ1Þ
0:49sþ1 1:14s þ1 0:81s þ1
160 mg 1:01ð0:25s þ1Þ 0:80ð0:47s þ1Þ 0:80ð0:77s þ1Þ
0:26s þ1 0:38s þ1 0:62s þ1
Fig. 5 Proportion valueof 1.25

torque model 1400rpm
1.20 1600rpm
1800rpm
1.15
1.10
proportion value
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
60 80 100 120 140 160
fuel delivery (mg)
Fig. 6 Derivative time

constant of torque model 1.4
1.2
Derivative time constant
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 1400rpm
1600rpm
0.2 1800rpm
60 80 100 120 140 160

fuel delivery (mg)
time of turbocharger transition process is about 0.6*1.0 s. Thus the clock cycle Dt
is taken as 0.5 s. Reference to the empirical formulaðNPRBS 1Þ Dt [ Ts , in order
to ensure the transition process time greater than the system, NPRBS is chosen as 25
132 G. Li et al.
and the PRBS sequence period is 12 s. In a certain defined operating point, with the
PRBS as the input signal, changes of boost pressure, mass flow and instantaneous
speed are present in Fig. 3. The input signal meets the needs of the system
identification.
4.2 Identification and Results Analysis
According to Sect. 3, time delay and the transfer function structure has been
defined. Ignoring the third stage of the dynamic process, the transfer function can
be approximate to a first-order system. Select the engine speed 1400 r/min, fuel-
delivery 100 mg/cycle as an identification point. Identification is computed by a
classical recursive least-squares (RLS) method. Figure 4 compares the identifi-
cation results with the output of the detailed model. Identification results show that
a first order system can meet the accuracy need of identification.
Similarly, identification has been carried out successfully in the other operation
points, as shown in Table 4. The system identification results show that the
transfer function parameters are not the same in each operation points, and the
diesel engine is a nonlinear time-varying system. Proportion coefficient, inertia
time constant and derivative time constant in different conditions are present in
Figs. 5, 6 and 7.
The proportion links is similar to the trend indicated thermal efficiency, in the
range of 0.77–1.2. According to Sect. 3 analyses, the dg change of the dynamic
process is smaller than difference of g with the small exciting signal, so the
proportion value and indicated thermal efficiency trends are similar in each defined
operating points. Derivative time constant increases at first then decreases with the
increasing fuel injection quantity, in the range of 0.2–1.3. Inertia time constant
showing the trend of decrease with increasing fuel injection quantity, in the range
of 0.3–1.2. One reason is that turbocharger speed is rising faster in the dynamic
process when engine runs in high-load operation point.
5 Conclusions
Considering key transient phenomenon of turbocharged diesel engine, including

turbocharger inertia, volume effect, thermal transient and energy transport delay, a
detailed engine model was constructed for identification.
Dynamic torque generation model can be approximated to a first-order system,
including proportional link, one-order differential link, one-order inertial link and
pure lagging link.
Parameters of dynamic torque generation model are associated with operating
points. Time delay decreases with the speed increase. The trend of proportional
Fig. 7 Inertia time constant 1.6

of torque model
1.4
inertia time constant

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 1400rpm
1600rpm
0.2 1800rpm
60 80 100 120 140 160

fuel delivery (mg)
factor is equivalent to the trend of thermal efficiency. The time delay is a function
of engine load and speed, and it decreases with increasing of fuel injection
quantity.
References
1. Marciszko F (2004) Torque sensor based powertrain control. Daimler Chrysler AG 2004:
24–30
2. Rizzoni G (1989) Estimate of indicated torque from crankshaft speed fluctuations: a model
for the dynamics of the IC engine. IEEE Trans Veh Techno 38(3):168–179
3. Hong MN, Ouyang M (2009) On-board torque estimation base on mean value SI engine
models. J Mech Eng 45(4):290–294
4. Chamaillard Y, Higelin P, Charlet A (2004) A simple method for robust control design,
application on a non-linear and delayed system: engine torque control. Control Eng Pract
12(4):417–429
5. Du C, Yan F, Yan Y, Yang P (2008) Methods of engine torque estimation for control
algorithms. Trans CSICE 26(5):446–451
6. Müller R, Schneider B (2000) Approximation and control of the engine torque using neural
networks. SAE Paper 2000-01-0929
7. Wang Z, WU N, XU Y, LIU Z (2007) Study on combustion parameter from a turbocharged
DI diesel engine under transient operating conditions. Trans CSICE 25(5):385–389
8. Serrano JR, Arnau FJ, Dolz V, Piqueras P (2009) Methodology for characterisation and
simulation of turbocharged diesel engines combustion during transient operation. Part 1: Data
acquisition and post-processing. Appl Therm Eng 29(1):142–149
9. Oh S, Kim D, Kim J et al. (2009) Real-time IMEP estimation for torque-based engine control
using an in-cylinder pressure sensor. SAE Paper 2009-01-0244
10. Galindo J, Bermú V, dez Serrano J, López J (2001) Cycle-to-cycle diesel combustion
characterization during engine transient operation. SAE Paper 2001-01-3262
134 G. Li et al.
11. Horlock J, Winterbone D (1986) The thermodynamics and gas dynamics of internal-
combustion engines. Oxford University Press, Oxford
12. Kao M, Moskwa J (1993) Turbocharged diesel engine modeling for nonlinear engine control
and state estimation. Proceedings of the 1993 ASME Winter Annual Meeting. ASME, New
Orleans, p 135–146
Design of a Versatile Rapid Prototyping
Engine Management System
Bernd Eichberger, Eduard Unger and Mario Oswald
Abstract The performance and capabilities of an electronic control unit for internal
combustion engines are key issues for engine research and development. The
objective of this hardware and software co- development was the design of a versatile
and rugged rapid prototyping engine management system (RPEMS). This work has
been carried out in cooperation between AVL List GmbH Graz and University of
Technology, Institute of Electronics, Graz. The advantages and drawbacks of
available RPEMSs have been analysed and compared to current and future
requirements of modern internal combustion engine control. Hardware and software
functionality and the mechanical design have been optimized and focused on up-
gradeability and scalability. The main version of the hardware is for direct injection
gasoline engine control, with subsequent variants for diesel engine and for vehicle
control. The new RPEMS and its derivatives turned out as reliable and powerful
tools. They are equally well suited for laboratory use and small volume field tests.
Two hardware versions control up to eight cylinders of a direct or intake-manifold
gasoline or of a diesel engine, two high-pressure pumps, four knock detectors, several
bus interfaces and feature additional I/O lines with dedicated sensor/actuator inter-
faces for special development purposes. For safety–critical applications, two units
can be linked together in a master–slave or redundant configuration. A dedicated
version for vehicle control supports the development of hybrid drives. While former
works of the authors were related to specific detailed aspects of engine control, the
design of this new RPEMS is a practical example of prototype engine control and
F2012-D01-022
B. Eichberger (&)
Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
e-mail: bernd.eichberger@tugraz.at
E. Unger M. Oswald
AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria
136 B. Eichberger et al.
application-oriented engineering. The paper outlines the specific placement of the

product for and within the engine development process. Therefore it presents the
requirements on the electronic control unit from a functional point of view and shows
how they have been fulfilled by means of joint hardware/software research and
development. A hardware development platform as well as software toolboxes have
successfully been developed. The outcome—AVL RPEMS—serves as a prototype
engine control unit for initial prototype and extra-low volume production vehicles. It
proved its fitness at test bench and demo vehicle applications and equally well under
tough fleet testing operation.
Keywords Engine management Rapid prototyping Hardware Software

Co-design
1 Introduction
The quest for an on-going reduction of CO2 emissions poses a key challenge for
the global car industry. The European Parliament agreed to limit the CO2 emis-
sions from new passenger cars sold within the European Union to an average of
130 g/km by 2015. Further proposals schedule to limit them to 95 g/km by the
year 2020. Drivers request lower fuel consumption without compromise in engine
performance. For that purpose, modern internal combustion engines (ICE) heavily
rely on powerful and feature-rich electronic control units. Complex software
algorithms control and monitor the engine and its additional systems under all
operating conditions. It is this combination of mechanical, electrical and software
engineering that cares for an optimum performance of an ICE.
The objective of this hardware and software co-development was the design of
a versatile and rugged rapid prototyping engine management system (RPEMS).
Such prototype engine management systems are available in a variety of designs,
with pros and cons. AVL List GmbH decided to develop both the hardware and
software of this RPEMS in house. The main reason for this decision was the full
access and control of the software functionality at all development stages. A basis
of decision-making whether buying or developing a PEMS is, of course, also costs
versus performance criteria.
2 Requirements and Scopes of Applications
The main application of the RPEMS is to support the development of new internal
combustion engines. Moreover, it is equally well suited for engine upgrades and
small volume field tests of preproduction cars.
Prototype engine control units are available on the market in an ample variety and
shape. They are restricted with respect to modifications of software algorithms and/or
Design of a Versatile Rapid Prototyping Engine Management System 137
internal parameters, variables or engine operating maps. In series applications, this

access is supported by the ECU supplier using CCP, XCP or similar protocols, such
that OEMs can calibrate the engine controller for series production.
These options are inadequate in case of a non-standard engine or engine
development including new components as the control program itself cannot be
altered. A modification of the engine which involves different types or numbers of
sensors or actuators cannot be handled without modification of the software itself,
quite often including hardware parts too.
The RPEMS should be used both engine test bench conditions and automotive
mechanical, thermal and electrical environment conditions. This narrows the range
of available products. A continuous workflow would require using the same
RPEMS from the early development stage up to low volume series tests, making
costs a basic decision criterion.
Such a versatile RPEMS has been developed, meeting most of the demands to a
great extent. It supports a super-set of hardware and software services, whereupon
unnecessary hardware parts can be omitted as a mounting option [1–3]. Combining
gasoline and diesel engine control into a single unit turned out to be impractical
since they differ significantly in the design of the actuator driver stages.
Three main hardware types have been derived from the basic development,
namely
• RPEMS DI for modern direct injection turbo charged gasoline engines.
• RPEMS CR for common rail turbo charged diesel engines.
• RPEMS VCU for vehicle control (safety functions, e-cars).
RPEMS DI is the lead variant, which the others have been derived from. All of
them share the same main hardware functions while they differ in the type and
number of dedicated sensor and actuator interfaces [4–9].
Functional safety can be quite an important demand, especially for test runs in
the field and use in prototype cars. Full compliance with regulations and engi-
neering standards may not be adequate at such a design stage because of the
organizational overhead that they implicate. For safety–critical applications a
special variant is foreseen. It uses the peripheral control processor (PCP) of the
TriCore microprocessor with special safety software (PROSIL) [10]. The PCP
communicates via a serial peripheral interface (SPI) with a signature watchdog
device, which is part of the main voltage regulator, in a question—answer mode
(Level 3 of 3-stage EGAS monitoring concept) [11–13].
3 Hardware Design
In the first instance, the properties of the attached sensors and actuators and the
way they are evaluated/controlled determine the requirements on the hardware.
Next are bus interfaces, computing capacity and power supply. Standard compo-
nents or dedicated integrated circuits for automotive operation can be used. The
latter usually offer more adjustment options, especially for driving actuators and
USB
EMI / ESD
DEBUG SD-Card Protection
Microprocessor Board
Power Supply
Signal Power Bus Supervisory
Conditioning Drivers Transceivers Functions
EMI ESD EMI ESD EMI ESD EMI OVP

Protection Protection Protection Filter
INPUTS OUTPUTS Bus Power

Sensors Actuators Interfaces KL30, 31, 15
Fig. 1 RPEMS hardware block diagram
evaluating special sensor signals (UEGO). Figure 1 illustrates the functional block
diagram of the RPEMS unit.
It is desirable to have a hardware architecture which widely complies with
large-scale production engine management units. The circuitry-wise realization
strongly interacts with the low-level hardware drivers of the firmware. Lower level
drivers and the hardware abstraction layer (HAL) would keep the real hardware
functions away from the application program. This allows for the re-use of soft-
ware parts, regardless of changes in hardware. However, differences may exist in
response times, general timing performance, error handling, to mention just a few.
The RPEMS is equipped, wherever applicable, with dedicated automotive appli-
cation specific integrated circuits (ASICs). They represent proven solutions and
can be configured by software according to the particular sensors and actuators.
Moreover, they relieve the microprocessor from low-level real-time tasks by
preconditioning signals or stand-alone handling of control loops.
All variants of the RPEMS use an Infineon TriCore microprocessor. They differ
in computing power (clock speed), ROM/RAM size, number of I/O lines and on-
chip peripherals.
The key hardware features of the RPEMS and its derivatives are:
• Prepared for Gasoline Engines up to 8 Cylinders
• Prepared for PFI and DI Injection (Hybrid Injection)
• Integrated Ignition Power Stages (IGBT) and Smart Coil Drivers
• 2x Fuel High Pressure Pump Drive.
• 2x H-Bridge.
• 3x (optional 4x) CAN Interfaces.
• 25 Low-Side Drivers (Digital, PWM).
• 2x Wide Band Oxygen Sensor (LSU), 2x HEGO Sensors.
• Various analog, digital, speed and frequency inputs.
Fig. 2 RPEMS printed

circuit board, partially
populated
Figure 2 shows the top side of the partially populated printed circuit board.
The connectors and electronic components are mounted on a four-layer printed
circuit board, except for the microprocessor and its support parts. These are
mounted on a small pluggable sub-print, which is accessible by removing the top
cover of the RPEMS housing. This main board and sub board concept enables a
scalable performance, ranging from a ‘‘low-end’’ TC1796 up to a ‘‘high-end’’
TC1793, TC1798 microprocessor.
Figure 3 shows an exterior view of the RPEMS. ‘‘Future’’ is an addendum for
marketing.
4 Hardware Variants
A ubiquitous hardware is the preferred choice, but this would implicate a signif-
icant complexity and increase in costs. The solution was a modular hardware
design at the circuit/functional and at the layout level. Such an approach reduces
time and effort for an upgrade or design change. The main part of the development
efforts is spent on the first variant, which undergoes several re-designs and
improvements of EMC/ESD compliance. This was the RPEMS DI for gasoline
direct injection engines. Its injector driver stages are totally incompatible for diesel
injectors, so this part of the hardware had to be modified. Bus interfaces or sensor
inputs can be adapted in a similar way. Test expenditures for such a derived
hardware variant are remarkably lower than for a new design. Alternative hard-
ware components undergo tests and optimisations on dedicated prototype boards
before being implemented on the RPEMS printed circuit board. The benefit of this
straightforward replace ability is a minimal number of re-designs and a short lead
time.
Figure 4 shows the change of selected hardware components in order to
transform the DI variant into the CR variant.
Fig. 3 RPEMS exterior view
RPEMS - DI RPEMS - CR
Gasoline direct Diesel common rail
injection variant variant
(Modified actuator
drivers)
Fig. 4 RPEMS hardware layout: further development from gasoline (DI) to diesel (CR) variant
5 Software Design
Application Software (ASW) libraries have been developed to run applications on

3 different hardware variants (DI, CR, VCU). Approved functional blocks are
ready for re-use and help to reduce the setup time of new configurations. The
algorithms mainly focus on engine/vehicle control strategies—diagnosis is of
minor relevance. All control strategies are developed by means of a graphical
programming user interface (ASCET, SIMULINK).
Fig. 5 RPEMS software concept
Main features of all variants of RPEMS are:

• Complete SW development @ AVL with ASCET-MD/SE 5.2, 6.1 [14]
• Integration of Simulink/Targetlink via C-Source Code
• Standard calibration interface: CCP (Can Calibration Protocol) [15]
• Standard calibration interface compatible to INCA-PC [16]
• High reusability of software components.
The software is characterized by its hierarchical structure and the underlying
real-time operating system. Access to the hardware is given by a hardware
abstraction layer (HAL). This HAL requires only a small extra amount of pro-
cessing time and substantially eases the development of the application program.
All real-time and periodic functions run at this level. Adding new functions or
applying changes to this HAL is easily done because all these routines are
available as source code.
Separating the application program from hardware-dependent routines makes it
much easier to transfer the software from the prototyping stage to the final
application. The hardware abstraction layer (HAL) consists of two parts: layer 1
handles peripheral hardware using dedicated on-chip interfaces, layer 2 is a SW
driver layer (LLD) which converts raw input/output data into physical units and
vice versa. Most of this functionality is performed by the Peripheral Control
Processor (PCP) of the TriCore Microprocessor, thereby unloading the main CPU
from time-critical tasks.
Figure 5 shows an overview of the RPEMS software concept.
The libraries use a data base structure. To build a project the necessary modules
can easily be linked together using a graphical project editor. Additionally the
scheduling of the whole project can be done in a graphical way. After this con-
figuration process the software development environment generates the executable
code for the microprocessor. The resulting *.hex and *.a2l files are ready for
downloading to the engine controller.
6 Conclusions
A hardware development platform as well as software toolboxes have successfully

been developed.
The outcome—AVL RPEMS—serves as a prototype engine control unit for
initial prototype and extra-low volume production vehicles.
It proved its fitness at test bench and demo vehicle applications and equally well
under tough fleet testing operation.
References
1. Unger E (2002) HCCI engine control. Graz University of Technology, Doctoral thesis
2. Oswald M (2010) Development of an engine control unit based on Infineons TC1797
microcontroller. Graz University of Technology, Diploma thesis
3. ISO 7637-2 (2011) Road vehicles: electrical disturbances from conduction and coupling, Part
2: electrical transient conduction along supply lines only
4. ISO/CD 7637-3 Road vehicles: electrical disturbances from conduction and coupling–Part 3:
electrical transient transmission by capacitive and inductive coupling via lines other than
supply lines
5. ISO 10483-1(2004) Road vehicles, intelligent power switches, Part 1: high-side intelligent
power switch
6. ISO 10483-2 (1996) Road vehicles, intelligent power switches, Part 2: Low-side intelligent
power switch
7. ISO 10605 (2008) ISO 10605 (2008)/CD Amd 1 ISO 10605 (2008)/Cor 1 (2010) Road
vehicles, test methods for electrical disturbances from electrostatic discharge
8. ISO 11452-5 (2002) Road vehicles, component test methods for electrical disturbances from
narrowband radiated electromagnetic energy, Part 5: Strip line
9. HITEX Development Tools GmbH, Germany, Internet home page: www.hitex.com
10. ISO 26262-4 (2011) Road vehicles, functional safety, Part 4: Product development at the
system level
11. ISO 26262-5 (2011) Road vehicles, functional safety, Part 5: Product development at the
hardware level
12. ISO 26262-6 (2011) Road vehicles, functional safety. Part 6: Product development at the
software level
13. ETAS GmbH, Germany, Internet home page: www.etas.com
14. ASAM MCD-1 CCP V2.1.0 (1999) CAN Calibration Protocol V2.1.0, ASAM e.V. 18
February 1999
15. ASAM MCD-1 XCP (2003) The universal measurement and calibration protocol family
V1.0.0, ASAM e.V. 28 April 2003
16. Schaffer Horst (2008) Development of an HAL for the 32-bit microcontroller TC1775 from
Infineon. Graz University of Technology, Diploma thesis
Study on State Parameters Estimation
for Commercial Vehicle
Li Liu, Chaosheng Huang, Yuanfang Li and Shuming Shi
Abstract Vehicle mass and road gradient are the important parameters for engine
torque control, transmission shift scheduling and vehicle longitudinal control.
It will add manufacturing cost to use more sensors to obtain these values.
Therefore, there is increasing concern on the estimation methods of vehicle mass
and road gradient based on the vehicle model. In this paper, on the premise of no
additional sensors, the engine torque, engine speed, velocity, acceleration/brake/
clutch pedal signals and gear from the CAN bus are used as the original data. The
estimation methods of vehicle mass and road gradient are studied by applying
vehicle dynamic, Luenberger state observer and Recursive Least Square with
varying forgetting factors. Furthermore, the real time estimation arithmetic is
validated through dSPACE/MicroAutoBox system on FAW J5 commercial
vehicle.

Keywords Vehicle mass estimation Road gradient estimation State parameter

CAN BUS Commercial vehicle
Nomenclature
Ft Vehicle traction force (N)
Fi Road gradient resistance (N)
Ff Rolling resistance (N)
Fw Air resistance (N)
F2012-D01-026
L. Liu C. Huang
China FAW R and D Center, Changchun, China
Y. Li S. Shi (&)
College of Traffic, Jilin University, Changchun, China
e-mail: huangchaosheng@rdc.faw.com.cn
144 L. Liu et al.
Fj Acceleration resistance (N)

v Vehicle velocity (m/s)
i Road gradient (rad)
a Acceleration (m/s2)
m Vehicle mass mfull ¼ 31; 240; mempty ¼ 11; 940 (kg)
g Acceleration of gravity (g = 9.8) (m/s2)
d Coefficient of the revolving mass changes to linear mass
f Rolling resistance coefficient (f = 0.0059)
1 Introduction
In modern vehicle control systems, more accurate signals and parameters are
required for engine, transmission and vehicle control systems. It will add manu-
facturing cost to use more sensors, therefore, there is increasing concern on the
estimation methods based on the vehicle model.
Vehicle mass and road gradient are the important parameters for engine torque
control, transmission shift scheduling and vehicle longitudinal control. From the
view of accuracy and manufacturing cost, it is a great project to study how to
obtain accurate and real-time vehicle mass and road gradient without additional
sensors.
There are basically three methods on road gradient parameter research. The first
method is to obtain the road gradient by calculating vertical velocity and hori-
zontal velocity based on GPS data or by longitudinal motion equation and filter
based on GPS data and Toque sensors [1–3].
The second is to estimate the road gradient and vehicle pitch angle by filter
based on vertical/longitudinal acceleration sensor and wheel speed sensor [4, 5].
The last is state parameters estimation method based on the CAN bus data and
vehicle equation of motion [6–8].
Although the sensors can obtain the data easily and directly, the accuracy could
not meet the requirement and the manufacturing cost will increase greatly.
The arithmetic studies on road gradient and vehicle mass estimation mainly focus
on Least Square method [9], Kalman Filter [10, 11] and state observer [12, 13]. Least
Square method belongs to system identification, and the other two methods belong to
state estimation. Kalman Filter solves the optimal solution by estimating the mini-
mum value of mean square deviation, and state observer eliminates deviations by
deviation feedback. The computation of state observer is simpler than that of Kalman
Filter. On vehicle mass parameter research, since mass is a slow-changing variable, it
is more rational and simpler to treat vehicle mass as system parameter and use Least
Square method. For road gradient estimation, road gradient is a time-varying state
variable, and it is suitable to use Luenberger state observer.
Study on State Parameters Estimation for Commercial Vehicle 145
Fig. 1 Sketch of longitudinal forces of an ascending car
In this paper, on the premise of no additional sensors, the engine torque, engine
speed, velocity, acceleration/brake/clutch pedal signals and gear from the CAN
bus are used as the original data. The estimation methods of vehicle mass and road
gradient are studied by applying vehicle dynamic, Luenberger state observer and
Recursive Least Square with varying forgetting factors. Furthermore, the real-time
estimation arithmetic is validated through dSPACE/MicroAutoBox system on
FAW J5 commercial vehicle.
2 State Parameters Estimate Method
2.1 Road Gradient Estimation Method
The effect of the lateral dynamics on road gradient estimation is neglected. The
vehicle body side slip angle is assumed to be zero. This assumption is true for straight
on driving situations. Setting up the force balance of the forces is displayed in Fig. 1.
The forces balance equation is shown in Eq. (1).
Ft ¼ Fw þ Ff þ Fi þ Fj ð1Þ
The equation is changed into the following format:
|fflffl{zfflffl}v_ ¼ Ft Ff Fw |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
dm m g sin i ð2Þ
Fj Fi
To reduce the computational complexity, a linear observer is employed here.

Therefore, Eq. (1) has to be linearized. For the linearization, the following
assumptions are made [14]:
• The road gradient angle of public roads is limited to approx. ±12. This yields
tan a ¼ sin a i
• The forces Ft ; Ff and Fw are merged into a resultant force Ftfw ¼ Ft Ff Fw :
This is advantageous because the nonlinear term Fw becomes part of the input.
The remaining state space model therefore is linear.
As a consequence of these assumptions, Eq. (2) is simplified
146 L. Liu et al.
dm v_ ¼ Ftfw m g i ð3Þ
Equation (3) is now transformed to a state space model. The state vector x for
the linear model contains the velocity v and the road gradient angle i: The input u
is the resultant force Ftfw : The road gradient model can then be written as

v_ 0 g=d v 1=
ðdmÞ 0 Ftfw
¼ þ ð4Þ
i_ 0 0 i 0 0 0

v
y ¼ ½1 0 ð5Þ
i
State vector : x ¼ ½v; iT ð6Þ

T
Input vector : u ¼ Ftfw ; 0 ð7Þ
Output vector : y ¼ v ð8Þ

0 g=d
State matrix : A ¼ ð9Þ
0 0

1= 0
Input matrix : B ¼ ðmdÞ ð10Þ
0 0
Output matrix : C ¼ ½ 1 0 ð11Þ

In this model, matrix A; B; C; uand y could be measured or calculated from the
CAN bus data.
The observer design is carried out by means of pole placement. This requires an
analysis of the system observability. The observability matrix QB must have
maximum rand. The matrix QB is calculated by means of Eq. (12), when n demotes
the system order.

C 1 0
QB ¼ ¼ ð12Þ
CA 0 g=d
As QB is square, the maximum rank can be checked by means of the deter-

mination of QB :

1 0
detðQB Þ ¼ det ¼ g=d 6¼ 0 ð13Þ
0 g=d
According to Eq. (13) the determinant of QB is g=d: Therefore, the rows of

matrix QB are linearly independent and the linear road gradient model (4) is
observable. Thus, the observer design by means of pole placement is feasible.
Since the system order is n ¼ 2; the observer gain matrix L consists of two
elements l1 and l2 : In order to calculate these elements, the poles of the observed
system must be placed appropriately. Its characteristic polynomial of the closed

loop system is

s 0 0 g=d l1 0
detðsI A þ LC Þ ¼ det þ
0 s 0 0 l2 0 ð14Þ
2 gl
¼s þ sl1 =d2
The eigenvalues are denoted as k1 and k2 ; and are chosen according to the
following equation.
s2 þ sl1 gl2=d ¼ ðs k1 Þðs k2 Þ

ð15Þ
¼ s 2 s ð k1 þ k 2 Þ þ k1 k 2
For pole-placement, the coefficients of Eq. (15) are compared. This yields the
elements of the observer gain matrix L:
k1 k2
l1 ¼ k1 k2 ; l2 ¼ g= ð16Þ
d
Considering the constraints of L and the engineer problem, after calibration the
eigenvalues are fixed
k1 ¼ 0:9; k2 ¼ 1 ð17Þ
2.2 Mass Estimate Method
For a SISO system, the process model [14] is

A z1 yðkÞ ¼ B z1 uðkÞ þ eðkÞ ð18Þ
where, yðkÞ is output vector, uðkÞ is input vector, eðkÞ is white noise.
Change the process model into Least Squares, the model structure is
ym ðkÞ ¼ hs ðkÞh þ eðkÞ ð19Þ
ym ðkÞ is assumed to be known, and the inputs uðkÞ are known or can be measured
without errors.
The task of the parameter estimation is to determine the process parameter h.
The modeled outputs ym ðkÞ must correspond as exactly as possible with the
measured output yp ðkÞ of the system. The quality of the correspondence is defined
in that the sum of the square of the observed errors at a particular time instant k is
minimized:
148 L. Liu et al.
Estimation of Road Gradient and Vehicle Mass
-K- [RoadGradient_est]
RoadGradient RoadGradient_est RoadGradient_est_filter Gain2 RoadGradient_est
CAN CAN Processed CANData CAN Vehicle Mass Mass_rls Mass_rls_filter

[VehicleMass_est]
Second Filter
Acc_est1 VehicleMass_est
Processe [Acc_est]
ReadCANData_CurrentTime Luenberger & RLS
CANData
for Real Time Application Acc_est
V2.1
Fig. 2 Simulation model of estimation of road gradient and vehicle mass
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of real time experiment
Fig. 4 Velocity and acceleration

Fig. 5 Engine speed and output torque
Fig. 6 Accelerator pedal,

brake pedal and clutch pedal
X
L X
L 2 X
L
J ð hÞ ¼ e2 ðk Þ ¼ bðkÞ yp ðkÞ ym ðkÞ ¼ bðkÞ½yðkÞ hs ðkÞh2 ð20Þ
k¼1 k¼1 k¼1
Vehicle longitudinal balance Eq. (1) is changed into the following format:
Ft ¼ Fw þ mgf þ mgi þ dma ð21Þ
150 L. Liu et al.
Fig. 7 Gear
Fig. 8 Road gradient
Equation (21) could be written as following:

Ft Fw ¼ |{z}
m ðgf þ gi þ daÞ þe ð22Þ
|fflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
Ftw h ae
In this model, Ftw and ae could be calculated from the CAN bus data.
In order to adapt the vehicle model to the current conditions and, should the
occasion arise, to design adaptive controllers, changing parameters must be
identified online. The recursive method is used in this paper, which could prevent
the saving of all past measurement values, and save computation time. The
recursive equations are shown as follows:
Fig. 9 Vehicle mass
Fig. 10 Velocity and

acceleration
m ^ ðk 1Þ þ cðkÞ½Ftw ðkÞ ae ðkÞm

^ ðk Þ ¼ m ^ ð k 1Þ
cðkÞ ¼ Pðk 1Þae ðkÞ½ae ðkÞPðk 1Þae ðkÞ þ lðkÞ1 ð23Þ
PðkÞ ¼ lð1kÞ ½I cðkÞae ðkÞPðk 1Þ
Via the introduction of the forgetting factor l, which increases the elements in
the covariance matrix PðkÞ for each iteration and the weights of the new data
higher than the older data, one is able to slowly forget past values. This overcomes
the consistency property of least squares estimators for time variant parameters.
The forgetting factor is set as follows [15].
152 L. Liu et al.
Fig. 11 Engine speed and

output torque
Fig. 12 Accelerator pedal,

brake pedal and clutch pedal
lðtÞ ¼ 1 0:05 0:98t ð24Þ
3 Vehicle Experiment
3.1 Simulation Model and Vehicle Online Test
The application object is FAW J5 automatic commercial vehicle, and the original
data, such as engine output torque, engine speed, vehicle speed, accelerator pedal
position, and gear are all from CAN bus.
Fig. 13 Gear
The simulation model to estimate the road gradient and vehicle mass is build
based on Matlab/Simulink, shown in Fig. 2. This model has four parts: CAN bus
data read model, data preprocess model, parameter estimation model and data
post-process model.
After building the simulation model and parameter calibration, the real-time
estimation arithmetic is validated through dSPACE/MicroAutoBox system, shown
in Fig. 2. In order to fully validate the estimation result, experiments with different
vehicle mass (empty load and full load) are carried out in mountain areas.
3.2 Estimation Results Analysis
There are many real-time vehicle tests that we have done on different types of
road, containing flat road, constant gradient road and montanic road with empty
load and full load. In this part, only two kinds of experiments are shown. Fig-
ures 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 respectively show the vehicle state
information and estimate results of vehicle mass and road gradient when the
vehicle is driving in mountain areas with empty load and full load. There are
complicated multi-working conditions, such as vehicle starting stage condition and
continuous shift/brake condition, which could validate the estimate results during
normal vehicle driving operations.
It is shown from the empty load experiments that the real value and estimated
value of vehicle mass is 11.94 and 12.6 t respectively. The trend of estimated road
gradient matched with that of the measured value, and the maximum absolute error
of road gradient is 1 %.
The conclusion of full loaded experiments is similar with that of empty loaded
experiments. The real vehicle mass is 31.24 t and the estimated value is 29.4 t.
There is a little difference in the estimated road gradient, which is caused by
154 L. Liu et al.
Fig. 14 Road gradient
Fig. 15 Vehicle mass
shifting at the beginning, and the maximum absolute error between measured
value and estimated value is about 1.5 %.
It is concluded from the above experiment results that the Luenberger state
observer and Recursive Least Square is effective for the estimation of road gra-
dient and vehicle mass. According to the statistics of all vehicle experiments, the
estimated range of vehicle mass changes from 10 to 32 t, and the absolute error of
vehicle mass is less than 5 t. Also the range of road gradient changes from -6 to
10 % and the absolute error of road gradient is less than 2 %. The accuracy and
range fully satisfy the engineering requirement. Furthermore, these estimated
values could rapidly get constringency within a short time. Therefore, the arith-
metic proposed in this paper is a practical method for engineer problem, satisfying
both the accuracy and real time performance, and the estimation method could be
considered to be applied on the commercial vehicle product.
4 Conclusion
Vehicle mass and road gradient real-time estimation are realized through the
Luenberger state observer and Recursive Least Square method for commercial
vehicle. The estimation arithmetic of vehicle mass and road gradient directly uses
the CAN BUS signals as the original data, which need no additional sensors and do
not increase the manufacturing cost. Furthermore, by this estimation arithmetic,
the vehicle mass and road gradient are real-time estimated, and the estimation
precision could also satisfy the engineering requirement. The real-time estimate
value of vehicle mass and road gradient will provide great references for engine
torque control and economical transmission shift scheduling. There is significant
research value for fuel-saving of future commercial vehicle.
References
1. Hahn J-O, Rajamani R, Alexander L (2004) Real-time identification of road-bank angle using
differential GPS. IEEE Trans Control Syst Technol 12(4):589–599
2. Johansson K (2005) Road slope estimation with standard truck sensors. KTH, Sweden
3. Bae HS, Ryu J, Gerdes JC (2001) Road grade and vehicle parameter estimation for
longitudinal control using GPS. IEEE intelligent transportation systems conference (ITSC
2001)
4. Ohnishi H, Ishii J, Kayano M, Katayama H (2000) Study on road slope estimation for
automatic transmission control. JSAE Rev 21(2):235–240
5. Shi J, Lu T, Li X, Zhang J (2011) Self-adaptive slope gearshift strategy for automatic
transmission vehicles. Trans Chin Soc Agric 42(4):1–7
6. Mangan S, Wang J (2007) Development of a novel sensorless longitudinal road gradient
estimation method based on vehicle CAN bus data. IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron
12(3):375–386
7. Mangan S, Wang J, Wu Q (2003) Longitudinal road gradient estimation using vehicle CAN
bus data. IEEE
8. Wang Y, Dong R, Wang S, Zheng X (2010) Real-time road slope recognition algorithm for
heavy truck based on SAE J1939 protocol. Automot Eng (7):640–642+647
9. Fathy HK, Kang D, Stein JL (2008) Online vehicle mass estimation using recursive least
squares and supervisory data extraction. American control conference. Westin Seattle Hotel,
Washington
10. Eriksson A (2009) Implementation and evaluation of a mass estimation algorithm. KTH,
Sweden
11. Winstead V, Kolmanovsky IV (2005) Estimation of road grade and vehicle mass via model
predictive control. The 2005 IEEE conference on control applications, Toronto
12. Vahidi A, Druzhinina M, Stefanopoulou A, Peng K (2003) Simultaneous mass and time-
varying grade estimation for heavy-duty vehicles. IEEE
13. Vahidi A, Stefanopoulou A, Peng K Recursive least squares with forgetting for online
estimation of vehicle mass and road grade-theory and experiments
14. Kiencke U, Nielsen L (2005) Automotive control systems for engine, driveline, and vehicle,
2nd edn. Springer
15. Ljung L (2009) System identification theory for the user, 2nd edn. Prentice hall, New Jersey
The Research and Implementation
of Engine-Timing-Control System Based
on AUTOSAR Standard
Weimin He, Guilin Lv, Tao Chen, Shizhen Liu and Hui Han
Abstract The main task of the engine-timing-control system (timing system for
abbreviation) is to build up the engine phase according to the crankshaft and
camshaft signals, and to control the actuators accurately according to the engine
phase. The timing system is mainly constructed with the following modules:
engine phase management module, injection control module, ignition control
module and pump control module. FAW designed and implemented the timing
system based on AUTOSAR standard. The timing system can support gasoline
engine, diesel engine and alternative fuel engine through parameter configuration
via AUTOSAR standard tools. The timing system has good portability, scalability
and reliability, and it can reduce the cost and shorten the cycle of the system
development.
Keywords AUTOSAR Engine-timing-control system Platform
1 Introduction of the Timing System
Timing system is one part of the core of the engine-control-system, and it has a
significant impact on engine smoothness, robustness, safety and emissions. The
inputs and outputs of the timing system are shown in Fig. 1.
F2012-D01-027
W. He G. Lv (&) T. Chen S. Liu H. Han

China FAW Co. Ltd R&D Center, Changchun, China
e-mail: heweimin@rdc.faw.com.cn
158 W. He et al.
Application
PumpControl
IgnControl
InjControl
CylNum
.
EngAcc
.
EngPos
EngSpd
. .
. .
Inj Drive
Crank Sig
Engine Timing Control System Ign Drive
Cam Sig
Pump Drive
Fig. 1 Block diagram of the engine-timing-control system
Cam signal INJA

Input signals in SELA Inj Drive signals
GDI project Crank signal INJB in GDI Project
SELB
Cam signal INJ1
Input signals in INJ2 Inj Drive signals
Crank signal Engine Timing Control System INJ3
LNG project in LNG Project
INJ4
INJ5
INJ6
Cam signal
Input signals INJA
in PFI project Crank signal
SELA Inj Drive signals
SELB in PFI Project
SELC
Fig. 2 The combinations of inputs and outputs of the timing system
The timing system receives signals from the crankshaft and camshaft and builds
up the engine phase to control the actuators. At the same time, the timing system
receives the inputs from application software, such as injection control command,
ignition control command and pump control command. Then it activates the
actuators when the specific events happened. Simultaneously, it provides the
critical information of the engine to application, such as engine speed, engine
acceleration etc.
The control of the timing system is complicated. In order to illustrate the
complexity of the timing system, the combinations of the crankshaft and camshaft
signals and the injection signals are shown in Fig. 2.
As shown in Fig. 2, the inputs are complex. For many different types of
engines, there are different combinations of crankshaft and camshaft signals. For
example, a GDI engine has a 60-2 teeth crankshaft and a two-long-two-short
camshaft. A natural gas engine has a 60-2 teeth crankshaft and an N ? 1 teeth
camshaft (N is the engine cylinder number). A port fuel injection engine has a 36-6
teeth crankshaft and an N - 1 teeth camshaft (N is the engine cylinder number).
The Research and Implementation 159
Current Current I peak

I
waveform
I Pullin
waveform
peak _ no min al
I Hold _ no min al
I Pullin _ no min al
I Hold _ no min al
T Ipeak
T Ipeak
Control signal T ON ON
CYL _X _SEL Pull-in injection time MODE
PI _HO SEL0
FS _TTL
SEL1
Fig. 3 Injection commands of a diesel engine and a GDI engine
As shown in Fig. 2, the outputs are quite complex too. First of all, there are
large quantities and many categories of actuators. A specific drive form is required
for each category of actuators. Secondly, even for the same category, the drive
form may be different because the types of the actuators are different. At last, even
for the same type of actuators, the output drive signals may be different due to the
differences of the hardware circuit. Figure 3 shows the fuel injection character-
istics of different injectors.
The development of the timing system has relatively strong pertinence. A
specific design of the system may be carried out according to a specific type of
engine or a specified engine [1]. When there are new requirements or there comes
a new engine, the timing system will carry out a large number of modifications,
even need to be re-designed and re-developed.
In order to reduce the duplication of work and to improve the efficiency
of development, a timing system platform is urgently needed. The existence of
AUTOSAR provides guidance to the design and development of the timing system.
AUTOSAR defines a set of criteria to be used in different platforms. It can
improve the capability of software reuse and reduce the cost of the software
development [1]. FAW developed the timing system platform which followed the
AUTOSAR standard by using the standard AUTOSAR tools.
2 The Design of the Timing System in AUTOSAR
To meet the requirements mentioned above, FAW carried out fully requirements
analysis on many types of engines. And the design of the timing system consists of
modular design, hierarchical design and standardized design.
2.1 The Modular Design of Timing System in AUTOSAR
As shown in Fig. 4, the timing system can be divided into the following modules
[2]: engine phase management module (the left two columns), injection control
160 W. He et al.
RTE
AUTOSAR Interface
InjData IgnData
EngSpd EngPos Mnmt Mnmt
Mnmt Timing
PumpData Control
Elec Mul Inj Ign Mnmt Service
LimpCrk LimpCam CylOff Inj Cor Cor Layer
Timing
Control
CrkIf CamIf InjIf IgnIf PumpIf Abstract
Layer
Timing
Control
CrkDrv CamDrv InjDrv IgnDrv PumpDrv Driver
Layer
Crank signal Cam signal Injectors Ignition Coils Pumps
Fig. 4 Hierarchical design of timing system
module (the third column), ignition control module (the fourth column) and pump
control module (the last column).
The core module of the timing system is the engine phase management module.
This module was divided into sub-modules to fulfil detailed functions [3, 4]. The
CrkDrv and CamDrv module mainly recognize the crank and cam signals to
provide the basic information to the CrkIf and CamIf. Through the CrkIf and
CamIf module, the upper modules can get and set information of the crank and
cam. The EngPosMnmt module manages the crank and cam information and
generates the engine position information for other modules. When there is
something wrong with the crankshaft or camshaft, the LimpCrk and LimpCam
module can catch the faults and switch normal mode to limp home mode. In limp
home mode, the EngPosMnmt module generates the engine angle by using the
crankshaft or camshaft. At the same time, it manages the state machine of
the timing system, ensure the stability and robust during the mode switching. The
engine speed information which should be used in other modules is generated by
the EndSpd module.
The injection control module was divided into some sub-modules too. The
InjDrv module mainly drives the injectors and provides basic injection information
to InjIf. The InjIf is the interface module between the upper modules and InjDrv.
The upper modules mainly completer the injection data management, multi-
injection and injection correction functions. These modules get and set information
of the injectors through the InjIf module.
The ignition control module and the pump control module are similar with the
injection control module.
2.2 The Hierarchical Design of Timing System in AUTOSAR
The principle of the hierarchical software design is that the boundary between
software levels must clear enough to help the users to understand, and each level of
the hierarchy can achieve their specific function well [5].
The hierarchical graph of the timing system is shown in Fig. 4.
The bottom of the hierarchies is the timing control driver layer, its role is to
make the timing control abstract layer and the actual hardware environment
completely isolated. The main task of the timing control drive layer is to complete
the driven task of the sensors and the actuators, and to provide base information for
the application software.
For different engine control systems, the realization of the hardware platform
maybe different, so there are maybe different implementations of the timing
control driver layer according to different hardware platforms. By selecting suit-
able hardware platform driven library, the modules can be integrated into the
engine control system quickly. For example, if the single-chip of MPC series is
used, the developers only need to prepare the timing driver library for eTPU2; and
if the single-chip of TriCore series is used, the developers only need to prepare the
timing driver library for GPTA.
The role of the timing control abstract layer is to make the upper service layer
and the lower driver layer completely isolated. When the upper level of the system
wants to get and set the information of the sensors and actuators, there is no need
for the upper layer to pay attention to the actual type of the sensors and actuators.
All you need to do is to control the sensors and actuators at logic aspect.
The role of the timing control service layer is to provide services through the
standard interfaces and to make the upper application and the timing system
completely isolated. When the upper application layer needs to access the timing
system, there is no need to pay attentions to the actual implementation of the
timing system. The application layer only needs to access the timing system
through RTE.
2.3 The Standardized Design of Timing System in AUTOSAR
In order to achieve the rapid transplantation, a series of system standardization

work must be carried out [6].
Between the adjacent layers of the software, FAW standardizes the interfaces
for each module. The detailed work includes the name of the interfaces, the
parameter types of the interfaces, the parameters value range, the call methods, etc.
162 W. He et al.
Application SWCs
RTE
OS calls Task handler ISR handler
Basic Autosar
Modules ISR Entry
DET calls Timing Control Driver Layer
Fig. 5 The interface of the timing system and interrupt system
The interfaces of the timing control abstraction layer are also standardized.
Through the standardized interfaces, the development of the timing control
abstract layer can be relatively independent. No matter what the realization
methods are used, the modules can be integrated into the timing system. The upper
level of the software can access the lower level services through the interfaces to
get the needed information. At the same time, the timing control abstract layer can
provide critical information to the upper layer through the interfaces.
The interface of the timing control service layer is between the whole timing
system and the application [7]. As shown in Fig. 5, the timing system can provide
the appropriate information, such as the state of the engine, the diagnosis infor-
mation of the system, the engine speed information as well as the interrupts, to the
upper layer through the standard interfaces. And the control commands coming
from the application can be passed to the timing system through the interfaces.
FAW carried out standardization for every function module and unified the
description and explanation of the modules and unified the definition of the
interfaces.
FAW standardized the interrupt mechanism of the timing system. FAW defined
every trigger event for each module, and managed the events in the interrupt
service routine. The interrupt mechanism is shown in Fig. 5. Every module in the
timing system can generate specific events to trigger the interrupt service. In the
interrupt service, the system can determine whether to process the interrupt
directly or not. For some events that need the upper layer to process or need the OS
services, the system will trigger tasks for the events. Some emergency events can
be directly handled in the interrupt service routine.
AUTOSAR defines methodology for the development of the system. The
methodology not only includes the system development process but also includes
the corresponding development tools and the exchange format between the various
steps of the development. When developing the system, the developers must be
strict with the standardized process and must have direct responsibility on their
own software modules. The developers need to write the module description files
MPC56XX Timing
Host_CPU Control
Service
Host_CPU_SW Layer
+Projects
+Application SWCs
+RTE
+EngineCDD Timing
+Basic AUTOSAR Modules Control
Abstract
Layer
ISR
HSR
LSR
SCM SPRAM
eTPU2
eTPU2
+Projects
+eTPU_Crankshaft_Driver Injector
CamShaft Drive
+eTPU_Camshaft_Driver
Signal
+eTPU_Vehicle_Speed_Driver Timing
+eTPU_IgnitionCoil_Driver Control
+eTPU_Injector_Driver Ignition Coil Driver
+eTPU_Pump_Driver Drive Layer
CrankShaft
Signal +eTPU_KnockWindow_Driver
+eTPU_Missfire_Driver
+eTPU_AngleTime_Converter Pump Pulse
Drive
Fig. 6 The framework of the timing system
and the code generation rule files used to integrate the modules into the system
which followed the AUTOSAR standard.
3 The Application of Timing System in GDI Project
When the engine timing system is used in different types of engines, all you need
to do is to select the corresponding function modules according to your require-
ments and configure the modules of the system.
The main single-chip used in the gasoline engine project is MPC56xx. In order
to reduce the work load of the single-chip, a specifically designed eTPU2 module
is used to handle the timing events [8].
The relationship between the framework of the timing system and the gasoline
direct injection project is shown in Fig. 6. The timing control driver layer of the
timing system is implemented by using eTPU2. The eTPU2 can exchange infor-
mation with CPU through the SPRAM. This will complete the information exchange
between the timing control driver layer and the timing control abstract layer.
Referring to the AUTOSAR methodology, FAW followed the following steps
to configure the timing system [9]. First of all, it has to configure the timing system
at the engine aspect, such as the type of the engine, the cylinder numbers of the
engine, the number of the crankshaft and camshaft. Secondly, the detailed infor-
mation of the timing system should be configured, such as the type of the
crankshaft and camshaft and the type of the sensors and the actuators.
164 W. He et al.
Engine Timing
Control System .XML
.XML
.XML
.XML
Module Generation
Rule Files
Engine Timing Generation Engine Timing

.XML
.XML Engine Timing Control
Control System .XML
.XML Control System Modules .c.c
Module Description .c.c System Module Code
Files
Engine Timing
Control System .c.c Engine Timing Control
.c.c .h.h
Code Generation .h.h System Module Headers
Templates
Engine Timing AUTOSAR BSW

Control System .h.h Module Generator
.h.h
Header Generation
Templates
Fig. 7 The configuration diagram of timing system
Fig. 8 The curve of the start phase of the engine
As shown in Fig. 7, the configuration information is stored in the ECU con-

figuration description file. The system developers had designed the code templates,
the module description files and the code generation rule files.
Through the configuration of the timing system using standard tools, the source
code of the timing system can be generated quickly.
4 The Validation of the Timing System in GDI Project
After the configuration, integration and test, the timing system now is running well
in the ECU. FAW monitored the states of the engine while the engine was running,
and FAW found that the timing system has outstanding on functions and perfor-
mance. The curve of the start phase of the engine is shown in Fig. 8.
The engine can be synchronized in a short period of time, and the engine can
achieve the respective engine speed in a relative short period of time.
Through many engine bench tests, it shows that the gasoline direct injection
engine has outstanding stability, good performance. The timing system can satisfy
the requirements of the projects. When applying the timing system, FAW only
made a few modifications to the corresponding modules. The development period
of the timing system is reduced greatly and the development efficiency is improved
a lot.
5 Conclusions
In order to improve the reliability, portability and efficiency of the timing system,
FAW followed the core idea of AUTOSAR standard and carried out the modular
design, hierarchical design and standardized design of the system. In order to
verify the design, FAW has applied the timing system on a gasoline direct
injection engine. Through the configuration, integration and test of the modules,
the timing system runs well in the ECU. It shows that the timing system has good
characteristics of platform, and it can be used in an engine project through simple
configuration.
References
1. Gao H (2010) Embedded Software Development for Vehicle Electronic Control System Based
on AUTOSAR. Automot Electr Appl 5:11–14
2. AUTOSAR_BasicSoftwareModules Rel. 3.1 [S] (2008) www.autosar.org
3. Hu Q (2011) Design and implementation of ECU software for electronic gasoline engine based
on AUTOSAR. J Zhejiang University (Engineering Science) 45(6):1120–1121
4. Zhou Z (2008) Research of modulation of diesel engine control software based on AUTOSAR.
Comput Sci Technol Zhejiang University 6(12):35
5. Wu R (2011) Analyze and design of automotive electronics software development platform
based on AUTOSAR standard. Comput Sci Technol Zhejiang University 8:33–38
6. Zhang P (2010) Gasoline engine ECU software design according to AUTOSAR. Comput Sci
Technol Zhejiang University 4:21–25
7. AUTOSAR_SWS_RTE Rel. 3.1 [S] (2008) www.autosar.org
8. eTPU reference manual Rel [S] www.freescale.com
9. AUTOSAR_Methodology Rel. 3.1 [S] (2008) www.autosar.org
Calibration Techniques for Modern
Commercial Vehicle
Yong Deng, Zhong Zhuang Yuan and Lai Wei
Abstract In recent year, electronic control system was increasingly applied in

modern commercial vehicle, and the calibration work is the key technology of
using electronic control system on the commercial vehicle. To satisfy national
emission legislation and commercial vehicle products updating, there is a great
challenge that how to master this technology. This paper introduce calibration
function, calibration workflow and calibration method of modern commercial
vehicle. Meanwhile, the challenges and trends of modern commercial vehicle
calibration techniques were pointed out in this paper.

Keywords Modern commercial vehicle Electronic control system Vehicle

calibration Technology trends Model based calibration
1 Introduction
With the rapid development of automotive electronic technology, various kinds of

electronic control system are widely applied in the modern commercial vehicle.
Compared with traditional commercial vehicle with mechanical control system,
the performance, fuel economy, safety, comfort and exhaust emission of the
modern commercial vehicle are considerably improved through the electronic
control system.
F2012-D01-028
Y. Deng (&) Zhong ZhuangYuan L. Wei

China FAW Group Corporation R&D Center, Changchum, China
e-mail: dengyong@rdc.faw.com.cn
168 Y. Deng et al.
For the automotive electronic control system, the control parameters are cal-
culated via the maps. At first the control unit determines the working point
according to external sensor signals, then the control unit calculate the control
parameters by looking for predefined maps. At last the control unit sends the
command to actuators. The optimal value of control parameter is very important
for control results and is optimized by calibration work.
Vehicle calibration is an important step to apply the automotive electronic
technology to modern commercial vehicle. With severe market competition, modern
vehicle control system become more complicated and updating cycle become
stringent, products life cycle is accelerated, all of these provide challenges for the
vehicle calibration technology. To meet these challenges, some new calibration
technologies such as Model Based Calibration have been introduced into modern
commercial vehicle calibration work. At the same time, the scope of application of
modern commercial vehicle calibration has expanded from engine control to gearbox
control, traction control, brake system control and so on. Vehicle calibration tech-
nology has been one of the commercial enterprise’s core technologies to enhance the
ability of independent innovation and the competitiveness of products [1].
2 Calibration Function of Modern Commercial Vehicle
2.1 Basic Function of Electronic Control System

Realization via Calibration
For a typical diesel engine control system, not only the mechanical control system
but also electronic control system, realization of fuel mass and injection timing
control is the basic function. For mechanical control system, the control function is
realised by mechanism. Correspondingly, for electronic control system, the control
function is realised by optimized control parameters in ECU, and the value of the
control parameters is optimized by calibration work.
2.2 Advantages of Electronic Control System is Realized

Via Calibration
Compared with the mechanical control system, the electronic control system is
with more advantages, such as more powerful and more control functions.
As for the performance, the mechanical control system is limited by inherent
characteristics of mechanism, it can only realise optimal control in part of the
operation range. But the electronic control system is very flexible and can realise
optimal control almost in whole operation range.
Calibration Techniques for Modern Commercial Vehicle 169
Fig. 1 Application of common rail injection control system for diesel engine
As for the function, the mechanical control system can only realise the basic
control function, such as fuel mass, rail pressure and injection timing. But the
electronic control system can also realise cruise, smoke limitation, engine pro-
tection, diagnosis, and so on. Especially, the diagnosis function can detect and
locate the fault for repairing the vehicle. The vehicle with failure can run in limp
home mode through diagnosis function for vehicle’s safety.
Vehicle calibration work supplies correct control function parameters to assure
optimal control results. The vehicle control function will be badly affected with
incorrectly calibrated control parameters.
2.3 Flexibility of Electronic Control System Realization

Via Calibration
Generally, the hardware and software of one type electronic control system are
fixed, but thousands of control parameters are adjustable by calibration, thus the
electronic control system can realise flexible application easily.
As for a typical high pressure common rail injection control system, it can be
applied in many different diesel engines and commercial vehicles for different
performance and function requirement. Different calibration data can fit for dif-
ferent engine and vehicle configuration via calibration work (Fig. 1).
170 Y. Deng et al.
Fig. 2 A typical vehicle System Integration Vehicle SOP

calibration workflow
Test bench Calibration Vehicle Validation
Vehicle Calibration
3 Calibration Workflow for Modern Commercial Vehicle
According to work principle, function features of the electronic control system, the
goal of the vehicle development, the calibration workflow is not fixed. There are
some differences in calibration workflow for different companies and vehicle
development project. The overall thought of calibration workflow is basically the
same. The typical calibration workflow is shown in the following figure (Fig. 2).
4 Calibration Approach for Modern

Commercial Vehicle
4.1 Manual Calibration Approach
For all the operating points in the map, calibration engineer adjust the control
parameters of the electronic control system, measure and record the test results,
then do a lot of analyses based on engineer’s experience to get the better value of
control parameters. In this way the calibration results are limited by the engineer’s
technological level and experience. This calibration approach is easy to learn, but
be inefficient, time-consuming, laborious and inaccurate.
4.2 Calibration Approach Optimization
The calibration approach optimization combines the mathematical optimization

theory with the calibration technology. This approach is designed for limited
operating points in the map. With the help of conventional equipment and cali-
bration system, calibration engineer can monitor the test results real time and
adjust the control parameters on-line. The mathematical model of the vehicle
control parameters was built based on statistical method. With the help of the
mathematical model and optimization algorithm, calibration engineer can optimize
the control parameters on-line or off-line to get the optimal data. The advantage of
this approach is with short calibration cycle, high calibration precision and low
calibration cost [2].
Fig. 3 The typical automatic calibration process with the help of CAMEO
4.3 Automatic Calibration Approach
With the help of automatic calibration system, calibration engineer can predefine a
calibration test program. According to the predefined program, the host computer
of automatic calibration system is in charge of whole calibration test process. The
test bench computer is in charge of all of the test equipments, control equipments,
and change the control parameters of electronic control system as required. The
host computer of calibration system, the test bench computer and calibration
console can make communication with each other through control interface. The
setting of operating points, the measurement of test results and the optimization of
control parameters and be done simultaneously. The advantage of this approach is
high calibration efficiency and good calibration results. But he disadvantage of this
approach is expensive equipment and complicated technology. The typical auto-
matic calibration system is CAMEO of AVL company(Austria) and VEGA of
SCHENCK company(Germany) (Fig. 3).
5 Calibration Challenge of Modern Commercial Vehicle
5.1 Calibration Requirements Challenges
To reduce the air pollution by commercial vehicle, the emission legislation

become more and more strict. For customer they want a commercial vehicle with
high performance, fuel economy, safety and comfort. For manufacturer they want
reduce development time and cost. All of these requirements challenge the modern
commercial vehicle calibration.
172 Y. Deng et al.
5.2 New Technology Application Challenges
Today more and more new technology was applied in modern commercial vehicle.
For example, turbo charging, EGR, advanced exhaust treatment system, AMT,
hybrid, etc. All kinds of electronic control system become more and more com-
plicated, at the same time, it means more difficulty for modern commercial vehicle
calibration.
5.3 Workload Challenges
Firstly, the control unit becomes more and more complicated, the labels that need
to be calibrated increase manifold, for example, there are over 8,000 labels in the
EDC17 system from BOSCH, these include maps (3D), curves (2D) and constant
values (1D). Secondly, with the specialized division of labour was encouraged,
more and more vehicle variants such as van, dump truck, truck, semi-tractor, were
developed in a major series of vehicle. Finally, more and more electronic control
technology are applied in modern commercial vehicle, the vehicle are getting more
intelligentized not only because of electronic engine control, but also because of
gearbox control, ABS, ESP, ACC, etc. All of above will increase the vehicle
calibration workload manifold.
6 Calibration Technology Trends for Modern Commercial

Vehicle
6.1 Refined Calibration
With the high requirement to detail quality of commercial vehicle form customer,
the control system become more and more complicated and can do fine control to
most of the vehicle operation range. In order to achieve that, the refined calibration
work is needed. For example, as for engine start calibration, the goal is not only
focused on successful start, but also focused on start duration, start noise, start
smoke and engine speed transition from start to idle. All of the related control
parameters should be refinedly calibrated.
Idle Data Drivabilit Cruise Smoke

y Control Limitation
Data Data Data
Vehicle Dataset
Pump Start Engine Diagnosi

Data Data Brake s
Data Data
Fig. 4 The example of calibration data modularization
6.2 Advanced Calibration Data Management
6.2.1 Calibration Data Modularization
An important feature of modern commercial vehicle calibration is an ever expanding

workload because of a number of vehicle variants. When a basic vehicle calibration
project is completed, a number of vehicle variants calibration should be done next.
Therefore the calibration workload is expanded and the data management becomes
more and more difficult. The calibration data modularization is a practical and
effective solution. The calibration dataset is split into many modules, each module is
related to a certain control function or vehicle part. As for the basic vehicle and the
variant vehicle, part of the data modules is same, and the others are different because
of variant. Therefore the main work of the vehicle variant calibration is to research
and find out the differences between basic vehicle and variant vehicle, then do
necessary calibration work about them. Finally the correct modules will be integrated
into dataset for vehicle variant. In this way the calibration workload and the cost of
data management is reduced (Fig. 4).
6.2.2 Calibration Data Management Tool Application
In recent yeas, the professional calibration data management tool is applied in

calibration work. A typical example is eASEE.cdm software tool from Vector
Company. The calibration data management tool can split calibration work into
data modules and tasks that can be easily distributed and managed over a large
team, and ensure that all calibration engineers across all projects, groups and
locations consistently use the same processes and data for uniform results. In this
way, the data quality and consistency is increased, at the same time, the work
efficiency through the overall calibration process is increased because of collab-
oration of different calibration engineers (Fig. 5).
174 Y. Deng et al.
Fig. 5 The example of calibration data management tool
6.3 Model-Based Calibration Technology
To meet stricter demand of commercial vehicle performance and emission legis-

lation, more kinds of electronic control system are developed. The system function
becomes more and more powerful, and the structure becomes more and more
complicated. At the same time, the labels that need to be calibrated and calibration
workload increase manifold. In such cases, the traditional calibration technology
can not meet the demand of commercial vehicle calibration, but the model-based
calibration (MBC) technology can do it efficiently.
The model-based calibration technology can get optimal control parameter
values by building and utilizing the physical model or mathematical model of the
relations between control parameters and calibration results. This calibration
technology has a significant advantage in reducing calibration workload, short-
ening calibration cycle and cutting down the calibration cost [3].
The typical model based calibration workflow is shown below:
DOE design ? Data collection ? Data modelling ? Calibration ? Imple-
mentation (Fig. 6).
The model-based calibration technology has been applied maturely and wildly
in modern commercial vehicle development. Most of the application is focused on
steady state. In future, the model based calibration technology in transient state,
model based control techniques and the calibration techniques based on coupling
models will guide the trend of model-based calibration for modern commercial
vehicle [4].
Fig. 6 Model based calibration workflow
Fig. 7 Multi-system coordination control calibration
6.4 Multi-System Coordination Calibration
With the development of electronic control technology, various kinds of electronic

control system such as diesel engine control system, gearbox control system, ABS,
ASR, are applied widely in the modern commercial vehicle. The control system
has come out of the isolated work mode. With the help of CAN bus, all kinds of
working information are received and sent among different control systems, in this
way, different control systems realize torque and speed coordination control.
176 Y. Deng et al.
Correspondingly, the calibration work is done not only in a certain control system
but also in several control system that coordinate with each other.
Multi-system control calibration can accomplish optimal coordination control
and have important effect on electronic control system. For example, in a truck
with diesel engine and AMT gearbox, engine ECU and AMT TCU communicate
operating information and control command through CAN bus. The TCU send
torque/peed control command to ECU, and the ECU response rapidly and accu-
rately. Based on the accurate calibration to the torque/peed coordination control,
the diesel engine and the AMT gearbox can work well with each other according
to driver demand, road condition and vehicle load. Moreover, the vehicle per-
formance, fuel economy, safety, comfort and emission are improved (Fig. 7).
7 Conclusion
With the rapid increase of commercial vehicle market, the automotive electronic
technology was greatly improved because of severe competition. Correspondingly,
automobile enterprises pay more attention to commercial vehicle calibration
techniques, and commercial vehicle calibration techniques was greatly improved
and widely applied. In future, it will has a great potential.
References
1. Jun L, Qu WD, Wei G (2009) The automobile powertrain core technology and FAW’s strategy
for environmental protection and energy conservation. Automobile Technol 5:1–7
2. Maloney P (2009) Objective determination of minimum engine mapping requirements for
optimal SI DIVCP engine calibration. SAE Paper 2009-01-0246
3. Liu FS, Qiu T, Liu XH, Cheng CQ, Bai XD (2005) Model based calibration method for
electronic controlled diesel engine. Vehicle Engine 6:1–4
4. Art O, Keith B (2003) A practical implementation of ASAM-GDI on an automated model
based calibration system. SAE 2003-01-1030
Powertrain Control and System
Integration Technology from OEM’S
Perspective
Jun Li, Fengjun Li, Peng Zhang, Yongjun Li and Weimin He
Abstract Powertrain control is significant for commercial vehicles to meet the

requirements of energy-saving and emission regulations; also it is critical to
improve the power performance of vehicles. Under the pressure of cost, the
diversities of user-requirement, frequently changing market, FAW makes a deep
study of powertrain control, while some non OEM-specific functions, for example
some components in basic software, are developed by suppliers and integrated by
FAW. The product development platform for powertrain is built following this
way, based on which some OEM-specific features can be implemented rapidly and
efficiently. These features will make the products more competitive in the market.
This paper gives an overview to the powertrain control development situation of
FAW, including the system integration strategy and the coordination control
between the networked ECUs on vehicle.
Keywords Powertrain control Software integration AUTOSAR
1 Introduction
Powertrain system integration is one of FAW’s development strategies, which

consists of three levels: the integration of suppliers’ resources; coordinated control
among powertrain control modules; FAW-specific functions development in single
control module. It is achieved with consideration of FAW developing capability
and commercial requirements, a compromise between energy-saving demands,
F2012-D01-029
J. Li (&) F. Li P. Zhang Y. Li W. He
CHINA FAW Co., Ltd R&D CENTER, Changchum, China
e-mail: lj_qy@faw.com.cn
178 J. Li et al.
emission regulations, costs, performance and user-spec features. It improves

competitiveness of products in the market.
2 Integration Method of Suppliers’ Resources
During Electrical and Electronic (E/E) design stage, the functions of general and
OEM-specific will be defined and distinguished by FAW, then the specifications of
general functions will be distributed to different suppliers to be developed. At
vehicle E/E level, OEM is facing great challenges. The interaction among various
electronic systems, caused by automotive network environment, has to be taken
into account during the development processes. All the interfaces between OEM
and suppliers need to be clearly defined.
In the traditional way, a large volume of design documents needs to be written
by hands. If there is no proper methodology and standardized software architec-
ture, the E/E level development and integration work will be very difficult.
AUTOSAR provides a solution for this problem.
The objective of the AUTOSAR partnership is the establishment of an open
standard for automotive E/E architecture. The AUTOSAR Software Components
have standardised description formats and well-defined interfaces, which are also
described and standardised. After FAW has defined interfaces of components for
the suppliers according to AUTOSAR, the Virtual Functional Bus (VFB) will
allow a virtual integration of them in an early development phase [1].
FAW has already made a basic software platform based on AUTOSAR, and the
standardization of development methodology in FAW is now being towards the
right direction. In FAW’s AUTOSAR basic software, some powertrain specific
drivers in Complex Device Driver (CDD), for example engine timing driver, are
developed and integrated.
3 Powertrain Coordinate Control
The powertrain coordinate control involves many electronic systems such as

transmission, engine, ABS and so on. In order to achieve better vehicle perfor-
mance, it’s necessary to coordinate the actions of the electronics control systems.
Several key points will be presented below.
3.1 Vehicle Torque Control
In order to meet the torque coordinate requirements from other electronic systems,
such as Transmission control System, ABS and so on, FAW has implemented
Powertrain Control and System Integration Technology 179
Fig. 1 Torque control structure diagram
vehicle torque control, which is evolved from fuel-mass control. The control
architecture of vehicle torque and engine torque is designed from OEM’s per-
spective at the beginning of the development. According to the demands from
regulations, market and customers, many sub-functions of torque control,
including engine torque physical model, torque coordinate control, fault moni-
toring, engine protection, etc., are implemented by FAW, which satisfy expecta-
tion of power, economy and emission performance.
Vehicle torque model is in charge of the collection of the driver’s intention and
the demands from other electronic systems, and then a proper control mode is
decided on how to satisfy the control requirements of vehicle speed, vehicle-load,
thermal management and storage battery. The destination values of engine speed
and demand torque are output to engine torque model. Engine torque model will
monitor and analyse such dynamic data as engine speed, torque, intake and
exhaust, oil, fuel, emission and other important data, necessary protection mea-
sures will be taken if needed. Finally, the demand engine torque is set according to
idle speed demand in different conditions by engine toque model. The whole
torque control structure is shown in the following figure (Fig. 1).
3.2 Multiple Parameters Shifting Strategy Based

on Traction Force
FAW’s shifting strategy is based on traction force. The traction force before
shifting, the driving resistance and the traction force needed after shifting will be
computed from the parameters of the engine output torque, friction torque and
180 J. Li et al.
Fig. 2 Primary gear selection
engine performance curve [2]. Many techniques are used to avoid frequent and
unexpected shifting, including the vehicle-speed loss compensation, engine speed
limit, gear limit, basic gear calibration, accelerator pedal signal filter and other
ways to do some dynamic adaption to the shifting rules. This strategy is more
superior and has better performance compared to the two-parameter shifting
strategy under complex road environment and vehicle load (Fig. 2, 3).
3.3 Automatic Driveaway Controls
During the automatic driveaway control, the engine and clutch are involved.
Clutch engagement control follows the engine torque dynamic change, at the same
time the engine speed are limited. By this way, the life of the clutch and related
accessories is lengthened, with the driving comfort also enhanced (Fig. 4).
3.4 Shifting Coordinate Control Based on Networked ECUs
During the process of gear shifting, the coordinate control of engine torque and
engine speed is implemented by exchange information between AMT ECU and
Engine ECU on CAN bus, such information of Engine ECU as the engine speed,
engine load and friction torque should be available for AMT ECU. Engine torque
limit during shifting will make the switch process from the power interruption to
Fig. 3 Determination of gear limited by traction force
Fig. 4 Engine control and clutch control during driveaway
resumption smoother. The vehicle speed limit can make the shifting process more
comfortable, shorter, and helps to improve the energy efficiency and shorten drive-
power lost time.
The shifting strategy of AMT can be optimized according to the wheel speeds
signals on CAN bus from ABS. By analyzing and computing the difference of the
wheel speeds, the direction and the angle of the vehicle is turning can be identified.
According to this, the shifting strategy of AMT can be optimized to avoid circle
shifting during going around the curve and improve the comfort of driving.
In vehicle brake direction, especially in the complex hill-road conditions,
a proper brake mode needs to decide on from engine brake, exhaust brake, the
retarder brake and etc., and a proper gear needs to be selected. The decision should
be made according to the vehicle current load, road slope and road friction
coefficient. In this way, the danger caused by brake ability loss is reduced in
complex hill-road conditions (Fig. 5).
182 J. Li et al.
Fig. 5 Communication between networked ECUs
3.5 Powertrain Vehicle Coordinate Control Based on VCU
Some of the electronic functions will be developed by FAW, but most of them will be
provided by suppliers. It’s crucial for OEMs to have a good way to manage all the
functions, therefore brings up some topics such as the E/E architecture design, the
distributed network control (normally this function is realized in VCU) and so on.
Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) can be used to implement the powertrain coor-
dinate control. VCU will at least has two CAN bus channels. One is connected to
the powertrain CAN bus; the other will support other functions such as diagnosis,
calibration. VCU is set up in the cab and act as the brain of the vehicle and the
interfaces between the driver and vehicle functions. It provides a better platform
for future commercial vehicle coordinate control.
In vehicle driving direction, VCU will identify the current control demands
according to the information from the drivers and CAN bus. Then control
demands, for example request engine running mode switch or gear shifting, will be
sent to the powertrain electronic system. The required engine running modes,
economy running mode or max torque output mode, are determined according to
related information such as accelerator pedal action, the longitudinal acceleration
and so on. Normally powertrain control parameters need to be adapted according
to the different performance requirement of vehicle variants. In order to improve
the performance of the coordinate, more accurate torque resolution and faster
response of engine torque are needed.
4 Faw-Specific Functions Development
Electronic control system (such as engine control system) consists of sensors,

actuators, ECU hardware, basic software and application software. The application
software is the embodiment of user requirements and OEM-specific features, and
therefore it is developed by FAW. Through a balance among quality, cost and long-
term strategy, other parts from the suppliers will be integrated. See also Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 System integration strategy
4.1 Fuelling System Control
Control of fuelling system is critical for diesel engine control, which will directly
affect the overall performance of the diesel engine. FAW has developed the
software compatible with FAW Electronic Unit Pump (FEUP) and FAW Common
Rail Integration (FCRI), and the fuelling systems of main suppliers are also sup-
ported. This will greatly improve the flexibility for OEM to choose fuelling sys-
tems from the suppliers.
Generally different fuelling systems have different demands for driving mode
and control method. FAW has a platform solution to the variable demands from
different diesel fuelling systems, in which many sub-functions are implemented,
such as rail pressure control, multiple-injection, cylinder trim, misfire identifica-
tion, fault disposal and so on. Software calibration switches are used to enable or
disable the corresponding software functions, and therefore the platform can be
conveniently configured for specific use cases (Fig. 7).
4.2 Vehicle Load Computing
The load of vehicle is computed based on vehicle longitudinal dynamics equation.

During the process of gear shifting, transmitting mechanism is disconnected, and
the road slope aroadslope is estimated according to the equation below. In the
equation fR is the value of rolling resistance coefficient, ax is the vehicle accel-
eration on running direction, g is the gravity acceleration.

ax
aroadSlope ¼ arcsin fR
g
After the process of shifting is finished, aroadslope is also available. Suppose that
aroadslope has no changes, and then the load will be computed according to the
equation below.
184 J. Li et al.
Fig. 7 Fuelling system control
P
n
JRj
Fx cw A q2 v2 rj Rj ax
j¼1
m¼
g fR þ g sinðaroadSlope Þ þ ax
In the equation, m means vehicle mass, Fx means the driving force on the
wheels, the result of cwAqv2/2 is air resistance, R (JRj/(rjRj)) means inertia of
rotational mass. By applying the vehicle load parameter in the control strategy, the
vehicle traction calculation accuracy and the shifting strategy can be improved
further.
5 Conclusions
By now FAW has already developed her own E/E architecture and powertrain
control and integration technique. Powertrain control system based on these
concepts has already been put into mass-production on multiple vehicle variants.
Heavy commercial vehicle will be more and more energy-efficient, intelligent,
safety and reliable. In order to satisfy the requirements and demands from the
customers and market, FAW will make deep research on the powertrain coordi-
nation control, by which to contribute to the realization of the vehicle differenti-
ation competition with other OEMS.
In the future more and more electronic control functions, which are configu-
rable and selectable by customers, will be applied on FAW commercial vehicles,
such as Electronically Controlled Air Suspension (ECAS), Traction Control Sys-
tem/Electronic Stability Program (TCS/ESP), Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC),
Central Tire Inflation System (CTIS) and so on.
References
1. The Technology Roadmap Report Published by Supplier Business Ltd

2. Yu Z (2009) Vehicle theories. China Machine Press, Beijing, p 3
Part II
Electrical and Electronic System
Virtual Development of Engine ECU
by Modeling Technology
Haifeng Xu, Yukihide Niimi and Takayuki Ono
Abstract Along with the evolution of vehicle electronic systems from domain-
specific control to the integrated control of the entire vehicle system, ECU systems
have become increasingly complicated and large-scale. This has made it difficult to
set out an optimal architecture of the ECU system efficiently at the early planning
stages. As well, the conventional ECU development methodology is also
becoming difficult to achieve the increasingly strict requirements for safety design
based on multi-ECU systems. Conventionally, optimizing electronic systems
requires fabricating many prototypes and evaluating them repeatedly, but with
their increasing scale, this method has become impractical. We therefore believe
virtual development is a required step. Although functional-level simulators and
implementation-level simulators are being used currently, these are both separate
and independent. Because of this, it is necessary to introduce virtual development
as a new physical-level development environment to connect functional-level and
implementation-level. In terms of not only function but also safety design, virtual
development has the ability to inject failures that are difficult to recreate in an
actual device. Therefore we have started introducing the virtual development of
ECU systems by using system level modeling and simulation technology with
SystemC language which provides the concept of time. In the phase of physical-
level design, because a virtual ECU system is developed by designing each
functional model of system such as ADC and drive circuit and connecting these
models as a system, the behavior of the whole ECU system can be verified easily
without having actual devices. Therefore the optimized structure of ECU, such as
microcomputer, software and peripheral LSI, can be determined efficiently at the
F2012-D02-004
H. Xu (&) Y. Niimi T. Ono

DENSO Corporation, Kariya, Japan
e-mail: haifeng@eeda.denso.co.jp
190 H. Xu et al.
early stages of ECU development. Safety design can also be achieved efficiently
because the data transferred in the system can be changed to failure data forcibly
by covering functional models with failure models. We believe that maximizing
the performance of ECUs in electronic systems, and ensuring that these systems
meet safety design requirements will require methods to visualize things that are
difficult to visualize, and that this visualization is needed both before and after
manufacturing. Virtual development of ECU systems by using system level
modeling and simulation technology with SystemC language provides a useful
method to achieve these requirements.
Keywords Modeling Simulation SystemC ECU Safety
1 Introduction
As part of the push towards a lower-carbon society, electronic control systems for
automobiles are developing and evolving from domain-specific control in the vehicle
(power train, body, safety, etc.) to the integrated control of the entire vehicle. The
ECU, which forms the backbone of such control systems are thus growing in scale
and complexity. The development of ECUs in this changing environment requires
having an overview of the entire electronic system at the planning stages; this
overview would set out an optimized ECU structure in which even the structure of the
chipsets are defined; without such an overview, it will be difficult to keep up with
vehicle requirements and specifications. As well, the more stringent design
requirements for safety that straddle multiple systems are becoming difficult to
achieve using the conventional ECU development approach [1].
In response to these issues, DENSO has started introducing the virtual
development of electronic systems in order to further leverage our experience
developing the logical architecture and physical architecture that support our
vehicle product planning, as well as our experience implementing this architecture
over the entire vehicle. This paper discusses the virtual development of engine
ECUs based on the perspectives described above.
2 Issues in ECU Development
Currently, when developing automotive electronic systems, an overview of the

entire vehicle is created, and the architecture is developed using logical models
with a high level of abstraction to make the structure of the entire vehicle easy to
understand, and the functions to distribute to each ECU are decided.
In the next stage, the ECU development phase, the software and hardware
allocation is reviewed along with the microcomputer and ASIC configuration, and
Virtual Development of Engine ECU by Modeling Technology 191
the ECU implementation specifications are decided. The phase after that is the
actual implementation design phase, where implementation-level simulators are
used to perform detailed design. However, at this detailed design stage, the various
constraints interact in complex ways, and specifications must be repeatedly veri-
fied with the constraints in the ECU system specifications and the constraints in the
implementation. This is because as the development process moves downstream,
the amount of information required increases; however large amounts of infor-
mation becomes apparent for the first time downstream. In order to keep such
coordination to the minimum, it is necessary to determine as much information at
the upstream stages and to create a large-scale, detailed verification environment.
3 Aims of Virtual Development
Conventionally, implementing the processes mentioned above requires fabricating

large numbers of prototypes and evaluating them repeatedly, but with their
increasing scale, this method of optimization has become impractical. Because of
this, we have introduced virtual development as a new physical-level development
environment to connect the logical and implementation domains. In terms of not
only function but also safety design, in which failsafe specifications are considered
to ensure the completeness of failsafes for different malfunctions, one of the ele-
ments that is required of virtual development is the ability to inject failures that are
difficult to recreate in an actual device. Thus, it was decided to use modeling
technology based on SystemC, a language that can be used to rapidly run system
level simulations while having the notion of time, in order to create the virtual
development environment. This ECU modeling technology is described in more
detail below.
4 ECU Modeling Technology
4.1 ECU Modeling Concepts
Based on the issues described above, the virtual development should be applied to
meet the following requirements.
(1) Optimizing the allocation of hardware and software.
(2) Reviewing the configuration of microcomputers and ASICs.
(3) Performing failure simulations.
Though the models that would be used to meet requirements 1–3 may need
different levels of abstraction [2], we believe that it is possible to come close to
connecting these models with differing levels of abstraction in what is practically a
192 H. Xu et al.
ECU A
LAN
ECU B
Communication
Driver
Sensor ADC Digital filter Actuator
(Knock sensor etc) (Igniter etc)
IC Microcomputer
Inpu Peripheral Outpu
CPU
C code software
Feedback Connector
Fig. 1 Schematics of system model
single virtual environment. As shown in Fig. 1, building a virtual ECU environment

by creating and connecting all the necessary models of LAN, various sensors,
functional blocks in control units (ECUs), and actuators being controlled will allow
us to verify the feasibility of the operation of the entire system and to review the
suitability of software and hardware structure and microcomputer performance.
4.2 Component Modeling
Based on the existing system structure, we modeled each functional block including
the AD converters in the ICs as well as the microcomputer peripherals such as the
drive circuits and digital filters. This allows not only the overall activity to be
observed but also the detailed behavior of each block. The microcomputer manu-
facturer provided the model of the microcomputer core which is a cycle-accurate ISS
model, and this model was connected to the other models. By doing so, Requirement
1 (layout and review of hardware and software) and Requirement 2 (verifying
microcomputer performance by calculating the CPU processing load and RAM/
ROM usage) are satisfied. However, because having everything at a detailed level of
abstraction results in the disadvantage of increased simulation time, the behavior in
the models is investigated making strategic use of transaction level and pin level
interfaces between models to adjust the abstraction based on whether or not a block is
under detailed review [3]. This allows the total number of runtime events in the
Fig. 2 Model interface

Initiator Channel Target
Pin level
Socket Socket
Initiator Target
Transaction level
simulation to be decreased in order to create an environment in which large-scale

systems can be run at high speeds. Figure 2 shows two kinds of model interfaces.
Figure 3 shows use of transaction level interface and pin level interface.
When it considers how to model 32-bit communication line, transaction level
interface is for verifying overall operation, and pin level interface is for verifying
communication method. These are different abstractions. The degree of abstraction
is frame-based for the first type and bit-based for the second type, and the simu-
lation process has a single event for the first type and 64 events for the second type.
The disadvantage for the first type is that bit errors during transmission cannot be
simulated, and for the second is that the simulation takes too long. It was for these
reasons that we developed a modeling method that maintained the advantages of
both and resolved their disadvantages. The method is to add a switching event
between transaction level and pin level modeling so as to enable dynamic
switching. This can reduce the overall simulation time while still allowing per-
forming detailed verifications.
4.3 Failure Modeling
To inject failures, the failure modes were first analyzed. The results of this analysis
reveals that failures can occur in various locations including physical connections
and gates inside ICs, but all of these failures can be classified into a few modes
such as disconnection, locking, corruption, drift, and oscillation.
Another issue is where and how to inject these failures. Because the locations
where failures can be observed in an actual device are at its various terminals, a
failure model is laid over the functional model as shown in Fig. 4, and the failures are
defined in the output (a GND short failure is shown), which forces the system to treat
the data transferred as abnormal values; this simplifies the failure model and makes
failure injection easier, all without making any changes to the functional model.
The final issue is the timing of the failure. The failure model added above is
given a failure changeover signal as an input with the value and time of occurrence
194 H. Xu et al.
Fig. 3 Use of different interface
Fig. 4 Failure model Failure model
Functional
model
Switchover signal
set in the initial settings; because such failures can be analyzed in the same way as
a regular simulation, it is easy to express not only steady-state failures but also
transient failures, and we are able to use this method to verify safety design.
However, when performing a bit corruption failure in the communication data
during transmission between models, in order for the failure model to inject a
malfunction with respect to particular bits, the functional model transmits data one
bit at a time and this results in the disadvantage of increased simulation time [1].
Therefore, an effective modeling method that can be used to freely inject bit
corruption malfunctions during transmission even with frame-based communica-
tions is explained below.
Specifically, the framed-based data that the functional model tries to transmit is
outputted at the transmission start time, and the failure model saves the outputted
data until the transmission end time. If a bit corruption failure occurs at the given
time during saving, the abnormal data is calculated based on the time that the
failure occurs, and the saved transmission data is substituted with the abnormal
data, and at the transmission end time, the saved abnormal data is transmitted. In
this way, it is now possible to shorten the simulation time and perform detailed
verifications at the bit level.
5 Application Examples
Two examples are shown below to explain the application of virtual development.
Example 1 covers Requirement 1 (optimizing the allocation of hardware and
software) and Requirement 3 (failure simulations). Example 2 covers Requirement
2 (reviewing the configuration of microcomputers and ASICs).
5.1 Example 1
During the early stages of ECU development with conventional development

methods, which have no actual devices, CPU processing loads cannot be verified,
so it is difficult to verify the suitability of allocation of hardware and software. The
introduction of virtual development technology is an efficient way to solve this
problem.
This example is the development of the ECU for a 4-cylinder engine. At the
ECU implementation specification review stage, the virtual ECU is built based on
the CPU model. At this point, the allocation of hardware and software has not been
decided, so a temporary allocation based on design experience may be devised. If
an allocation cannot be devised, a software implementation may be used.
Next, the operation of the virtual ECU system is verified. In terms of the control
software, the statistical data for each task and function call can be obtained, which
allows the CPU processing load across the range of engine speeds to be analyzed as
shown in Fig. 5. If there is some extra CPU processing capacity, some of the hard-
ware-based processing can be transferred to the software, and if there are any high-
load tasks, the corresponding processing can be transferred from the software to the
hardware; all of this information is useful when reviewing the system. When doing
so, as shown in Fig. 6, the feasibility of the operation of the entire system across the
range of engine speeds and the timing of operations can be observed, and the per-
formance of the portions that have been made hardware can be verified as well.
Next, Fig. 7 shows the injection of a failure into the actuator drive circuit as
well as the results of the system failsafe analysis.
Here, after an over current failure was injected into the drive circuit, the power to
the actuator was cut off. The specification called for 600 ms max., and the power was
cut in 500 ms, so the effectiveness of the system failsafe was confirmed.
5.2 Example 2
At the early stages of ECU development, all of the possible ECU implementation
possibilities need to be laid out, so that they can be optimized and to review their
suitability in terms of mass production and cost. Because of this, the different
196 H. Xu et al.
Fig. 5 CPU processing load
Fig. 6 Analysis of engine ECU
Fig. 7 Analysis of failure

model Max delay: 600ms
Over current
Power supply cut off
500ms
configurations of microcomputers and ASICs need to be reviewed. For example,

when reviewing the configuration of microcomputers and ASICs, one option is to
use a custom microcomputer with a wide range of functions and to use a general-
purpose IC. Another option is to use a general-purpose microcomputer and build
custom functions into an IC. By using virtual development technology, it is pos-
sible to verify whether each configuration option satisfies the performance
requirements.
Fig. 8 Possible Microcomputer Communication

configuration of Injector
Compare Driver
microcomputer and ASIC (for INJ) (INJ)
CPU
Timer
Timer ASIC
(for INJ)
Compare
Bus Register
ECU
Explained below is an example of using a general-purpose microcomputer with

few compare channels to build into the ASIC the custom microcomputer’s com-
pare function for driving the injectors.
When a compare function is built into the ASIC, as shown in Fig. 8, specifi-
cations for communication between the CPU and compare function, implemen-
tation specifications for the timer required for the compare function to operate, and
software specifications required for communication must be considered. Also, the
communication performance and CPU processing load must be verified to satisfy
the ECU performance requirements. The review procedure with virtual develop-
ment technology is outlined below.
In Step 1, the implementation specification options are reviewed and the models
are built. A specific example of a specification is this: The CPU uses the existing
CSI communication channel in a general-purpose microcomputer to read the timer
value stored in the ASIC, calculates the expected injector operation time and
injector number, and sends the result to the ASIC; the compare function deter-
mines the injector operation timing based on the received data. Such detailed
specification options are reviewed in this step to build the required models and
create the virtual ECU.
In Step 2, the operation is verified. Examples of what is verified are the
feasibility of the operation, accuracy of the operation (injection start timing and
duration), CPU processing load, and RAM/ROM usage. In terms of methods to
verify operation, the operating frequency for CSI communication is adjusted to
verify operation across the range of engine speeds. For example, Fig. 9 shows the
delay in injection start time when the CSI communication operation frequency is
varied from 4, 2, to 1 MHz in accordance with the specifications of the general-
purpose microcomputer. At frequencies of 2 MHz and higher, the delay time is
within the allowable range defined in the ECU performance requirements. At
1 MHz, the communication delay is too long, and the injection operations at high
engine speeds are abnormal. The injection duration and the CPU processing load
and RAM/ROM usage can be verified in the same way, so the suitability of
microcomputer performance can be evaluated.
In Step 3, the results are fed back into the implementation specification options.
Based on the results of the operation verification, it is judged if the ECU perfor-
mance requirements are satisfied. If necessary, the implementation specification
options are improved through feedback, and the operation is verified again.
198 H. Xu et al.
Engine Speed
Delay (us)
Normal
range
CSI operation frequency (MHz)
Fig. 9 Analysis of injection delay
In the ways described above, the introduction of virtual development technol-

ogy allows verifying various implementation specification options that are difficult
to verify in actual devices and deriving the optimal solution efficiently.
6 Outlook
The role of electronic systems in the move toward a lower-carbon society is

expected to grow increasingly important. We believe that maximizing the per-
formance of ECUs in electronic systems, which continue to grow in scale and
complexity, and ensuring that these systems meet safety design requirements will
require methods to visualize things that are difficult to visualize, and that this
visualization is needed both before and after manufacturing. We would like to use
the modeling technology described in this paper as a base for creating a virtual
development environment and to carry out the development of vehicle electronic
systems and products that contribute to society.
References
1. Niimi Y, Ono T, Tsuchiya N (2012) Virtual development of engine ECU by modeling

technology. [J] SAE technical paper, 2012-01-0007:1–5
2. Bailey B, Martin G, Piziali A (2007) ESL design and verification [M]. Morgan Kaufmann,
USA
3. STARC (2008) TL modeling guide, 2nd edn [M] Semiconductor technology academic
research center, Japan
The Research of a Novel High Energy
Density Ultracapacitor System Applied
in the Full Hybrid Vehicle
Jianxin Zhu, Qiu Xiao, Lin Yang and Xiance Ai
Abstract This paper studied a novel high energy density ultracapacitor and
develops the applicable ultracapacitor management system. The ultracapacitor
system is successively tested on the charge/discharge test bench and the hybrid
energy test bench. The result indicates that the ultracapacitor system has a
advantage of low resistance, high efficiency, and long life span, its energy density
and power density can fulfill the requirement of the full hybrid vehicle.

Keywords Ultracapacitor system High energy Density Full hybrid vehicle

Performance study Emulation of road test
1 Introduction
The ultracapacitor has a property of high power density, high efficiency, low
resistance and long lifespan, so it is suitable for the application in the hybrid
vehicle.
‘‘Ortuzar M’’ has studied the hybrid vehicle which uses the lead-acid battery as
the main energy source and the ultracapacitor as the second energy source [1].
‘‘Gopalakrishnan S’’ has studied the application of the ultracapacitor as the energy
recover device in a conventional vehicle [2]. ‘‘Farzad A’’ has designed a hybrid
energy storage device which consists of the battery and the ultracapacitor [3].
These applications have improved the economy performance of the vehicle and the
lifespan of the battery.
F2012-D02-008
J. Zhu (&) Q. Xiao L. Yang X. Ai

Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
e-mail: zhujianxin@sjtu.edu.cn
200 J. Zhu et al.
Fig. 1 The charge/discharge

principle of lithium-ion
hybrid ultracapacitor
The previous application of the ultracapacitor is either on a mild vehicle or used

as a part of the hybrid energy storage device with the battery. In this paper, a novel
high energy density lithium-ion hybrid ultracapacitor is researched and the
appropriate ultracapacitor management is designed. The ultracapacitor system is to
be applied in the full hybrid vehicle as the single energy storage device and its
characterization is studied in this paper.
The ultracapacitor system is firstly tested in the charge/discharge test bench to
study the basic characterization of the ultracapacitor. Then in order to simulate the
actual vehicle operating conditions, the emulation experiment of road test is
successively done on the charge/discharge test bench and then on the hybrid-
energy test bench.
This paper first introduces the ultracapacitor system and the test equipment. Then
the experiment results are presented and analyzed. Finally the conclusion is got.
2 Ultracapacitor System
2.1 The Principle of the High Energy Density Ultracapacitor
The conventional ultracapacitor stores energy through physical electrostatic

adherence, which possesses high power density and low energy density. The
proposed novel ultracapacitor in this paper is lithium-ion hybrid ultracapacitor
which possesses the advantages of conventional ultracapacitor and lithium-ion
battery. The principle of the novel ultracapacitor is illustrated in the Fig. 1.
It adopts the oxidation reduction material lithium electrode as the positive elec-
trode, the activated carbon as the negative electrode and the organic electrolyte as
the electrolyte. The new ultracapacitor stores the energy through the oxidation
reduction between the electrode and the electrolyte [4].
The rated operating voltage of the cell is 2.7–4.0 V and the rated capacitance of
the cell achieves to about 9000 F, which enables the ultracapacitor to possess high
energy density. The proposed ultracapacitor system consists of 90 cells and weighs
The Research of a Novel High Energy Density 201
Fig. 2 The structure of the ultracapacitor management system
Thermotank
DC/DC Current
Charge/Discharge Ultracapacitor
Device Package
Control
Signal
Sampling
Ultracapacitor Signal
CAN Management
Signal System Computer
CAN Bus
Fig. 3 The structure of the discharge/charge test bench
61 kg. The rated capacitance of the ultracapacitor system is 100 F and the
maximum continuous operating current is 200 A.
2.2 The Structure of the Ultracapacitor Management System
The structure of the ultracapacitor management system is illustrated in the Fig. 2.

The management system introduces a distributed structure and the cells are divi-
ded into six groups. The submodule is responsible for the sampling of cell voltage
and temperature. The main module is responsible for the sampling of the current
and the total voltage. Besides the basic function, the management system also need
to complete the work of heat management, high voltage management, etc.
202 J. Zhu et al.
Motor 2 Motor 1
Engine
Gear-box
Ultracapacitor +
DC/AC
system -
Fig. 4 The structure of the hybrid energy test bench
3 The Test Equipment
3.1 The Charge/Discharge Test Bench
The structure of the test bench is illustrated in the Fig. 3, which includes the
ultracapacitor system (ultracapacitor package and the ultracapacitor management
system), the computer and the DC/DC charge/discharge device. This Test bench is
responsible for the basic characterization test and the road simulation cycle test.
3.2 The Hybrid Energy Test Bench
In order to simulate the actual operating condition of the full hybrid vehicle, the
ultracapacitor system is tested on a hybrid energy test bench together with the
gasoline engine and the electric motor system .The structure of the hybrid energy
test bench is illustrated in the Fig. 4.
The parameters of the key components in the hybrid energy test bench are
illustrated in the Table 1.
4 The Result and the Analysis of the Basic Characterization

Test
4.1 The Constant Current Charge/Discharge Test
The Fig. 5 is the constant current discharge curve under different currents. The
maximum available removed charge is near to 3.0 A.h when the current is 20 A.
The reason of the reduce of the available discharge electric quantity at large
current condition is because there is larger voltage drop in the resistance and the
available discharge voltage interval decreases.
Table 1 The parameters of the key component in the hybrid energy test bench
Component name Parameter
Maximum power /kW Maximum speed/rpm Maximum Torque/N.m
Engine 69 6,000 128
Motor 2 36 10,500 80
Motor 1 56 8,500 200
Fig. 5 Total voltage as a

function of charge removed
for a series of constant-
current tests
Figure 6 illustrates the relationship between the test current and the basic char-
acterization of the ultracapacitor system, such as efficiency, resistance and capaci-
tance. It is known from the Fig. 6 that the resistance of the ultracapacitor is about
0.3 X,which is much smaller than the battery. The resistance will increase to 0.35 X
when the current decrease to 10 A, which has little effect on the energy loss. The
energy efficiency of the the charge/discharge cycle process is usually higher than
90 %, which can help to improve the energy recovery rate of the hybrid vehicle. The
capacitance of the ultracapacitor is about 100 F, considering that the operating
voltage interval of the ultracapacitor system is 243–360 V, the maximum available
energy can achieve to 980 W.h. The resistance is caculated at 350 OCV point at the
beginning of discharge, the capacitance is calculated at the 330–290 V OCV interval
and the energy efficiency is calculated at the 350–250 V interval.
4.2 The Minimum Hybrid Plus Power Characterization Test
The Fig. 7 illustrates the relationship between the open circuit voltage (OCV) and
the state of charge (SOC) from the minimum Hybrid Plus Power Characterization
(HPPC) test [5]. It can be seen from the figure that there are nearly linear
relationship between the OCV and SOC, which will benefit the SOC calculation.
204 J. Zhu et al.
Fig. 6 Discharge ESR, capacitance and energy efficiency for a series of constant-current tests
The zero SOC point is set at the point when the OCV is 243 V, and the 100 %
SOC point is the 360 V OCV point. During the HPPC Test the discharge plus
current is 50 A and the charge plus current is 37.5 A.
Figure 8 illustrates the relationship between the plus power and the depth of the
discharge (DOD).It is seen from the figure that the plus regen power achieves to
30 kW in the 20 % DOD point, and the plus discharge power is over 20 kW at the
80 % DOD point, which means the ultracapacitor system has a high power density.
Considering the long lifespan of the ultracapacitor under deep charge/discharge
cycle performance, the operating DOD interval of the ultracapacitor system in the
control strategy can set in a wide interval.
4.3 The Lifespan Test
For the lithium-ion hybrid ultracapacitor, the long time charge/discharge perfor-
mance can cause the electrode material changed, dissepiment damaged and side
functions happening, which can increase the equivalent series resistance and reduce
the capacitance. The raw of the capacitance deterioration can be illustrated in the
Fig. 9. During the lifespan test the limited voltage interval is 260–350 V(20–80 %
SOC) and the test current is 25 A.
From the figure it can be known that the 20 % reduction in rated capacitance
may occur after 1,500 h(6,000 times). Considering the fact that the influence of
temperature has a doubling effect for every 10 °C and the temperature of the
ultracapacitor system in the normal ambient temperature environment is about
35 °C, so the lifespan of the ultracapacitor system could achieve to 6,000 h
Fig. 7 Open circuit voltage

versus SOC in the HPPC Test
Fig. 8 Plus power capability

results from HPPC test
(24,000 times). It should be noted that the lifespan test data is got from the
manufacturer and can be only used to estimate the rough life. In our experiment
the capacitance of the ultracapacitor decreases to less than 1 F after 300 h of the
basic characterization test and the road condition simulation test. According to the
20 % deterioration criterion, considering the experiment condition is tougher than
the real operating condition, the ultracapacitor can fulfill the requirement of
10 year service life [6].
206 J. Zhu et al.
Fig. 9 The capacitance

deterioration curve of the
ultracapacitor at 55°C
Fig. 10 The power

requirement of the energy
storage device in the hybrid
vehicle during the on-road
test
5 The Emulation of Road Test on the Test Bench
5.1 The Emulation of Road Test on the Charge/Discharge

Test Bench
According to the 3,000 h on-road test in the previous hybrid vehicle research
experience, the power requirement of the storage device is analyzed and then
broken down into 15,000 small cycles .The small cycle operating mode is illus-
trated in the Fig. 10.
According to small cycle operating mode, the road simulation test criterion is
formed. The ultracapacitor system is tested on the charge/discharge test bench
according to the road simulation test criterion and the experiment result is illus-
trated in the Fig. 11.
From the Fig. 11 it is known that the maximum cell voltage difference is not
more than 0.2 V and the cell voltage difference is less than 0.05 V during the open
Fig. 11 The SOC and maximum cell voltage difference during the road simulation cycle test
Fig. 12 The current requirement and SOC under the ECE_EUDC road condition
circuit condition, which is more precise because it is independent of the sampling

error. So the ultracapacitor system possesses a good ability of equalization. In
addition, the SOC is always between the interval of 0.4–0.7, which means that the
energy density of the ultracapacitor can fulfill the requirement of the full hybrid
vehicle well.
208 J. Zhu et al.
5.2 The Emulation of Road Test on the Hybrid

Energy Test Bench
In order to study the performance of the ultracapacitor system in the full hybrid
vehicle. The ultracapacitor system is tested on the hybrid energy test bench. In the
control strategy the SOC operating interval is set between 0.2 and 0.8, the
objective SOC operating point is 0.5 and the engine starts when the SOC is below
the point 0.4. The current requirement and SOC under the ECE_EUDC road
condition is illustrated in the Fig. 12. From the figure it is known that the SOC is
always between the interval of 0.4–0.7. The experiment result indicates that the
fuel consumption is 5.2 L/100 km, and the emission index of HC, CO and NOX is
0.693, 0.708, 0.105 g/km, which means that the hybrid vehicle with the ultraca-
pacitor system would have a good performance of economy and emission.
6 The Conclusion
The proposed ultracapacitor system has low resistance, high efficiency, and long
lifespan. It can can deliver high regen and discharge power in a large SOC interval.
Moreover, because of the large capacitance and high operating voltage, the
maximum available energy of the ultracapacitor achieves to nearly 1000 W.h.
From the experiment result it is known that the ultracapacitor can meet the
demands of full hybrid vehicle.
More experiments are needed to study the deterioration detail of the characters
such as capacitance, resistance and efficiency. Additionally, further tests need to be
done in the hybrid vehicle and the control strategy needs to be optimized.
References
1. Ortuzar M, Moreno J, Dixon J (2007) Ultracapacitor-based auxiliary energy system for an

electric vehicle: implementation and evaluation. J Ind Electron 54(4):2147–2156
2. Gopalakrishnan S, Namuduri C, Reynolds M (2011) Ultracapacitor based active energy
recovery scheme for fuel economy improvement in conventional vehicles [J] SAE technical
paper 2011-01-0345, doi:10.4271/2011-01-0345
3. Farzad A, Abas G (2011) Hybrid lithium-ion/ultracap energy storage systems for plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles [C]. Vehicle power and propulsion conference, IEEE
4. Bockenfeld N, Kuhnel Composite liFePO4/AC high rate performance electrodes for Li-ion
capacitors [J]. Piwer siyrces, 2012, 1969(8) 4136–4142
5. Idaho national engineering and environmental laboratory (2004) FreedomCAR ultracapacitor
test manual [M]. USA:DOE/NE ID, 2004-09
6. Tongzhen Wei, Sibo Wang (2009) Deterioration diagnosis of ultracapacitor for power
electronics applications [C]. Sustainable power generation and supply, IEEE
Starting System for Stop/Start
with Change of Mind
Koichi Osawa and Hideya Notani
Abstract Further fuel consumption improvement of stop/start vehicles can be

achieved by expanding the fuel cut period. In order to maintain vehicle response, ability
to restart the engine during an engine stop event, known as change of mind (CoM), is
necessary. Two current technologies to enable CoM are belt driven starter generator
and permanently engagement starter. Both these technologies, however, require
modification to additional vehicle components. The conventional pinion-shift-type
starter has constant timing between pinion movement and motor rotation. If applied to
CoM, the conventional starter risks making a loud noise or suffering serious mechanical
damage during pinion engagement into the rotating ring gear of the engine and so is
considered as unacceptable. Theses issues can be solved by using a new pinion-shift-
type starter, which has independently controllable pinion movement and motor, and
starter operation control, which can change the starter operation depending on engine
speed. Furthermore, engine speed prediction based on engine rotational energy gives
more accurate starter operation control which improves noise and restart response. The
new pinion-shift-type starter and starter operation control with engine speed prediction
has been fitted to vehicles and the performance compared to conventional starter
systems. It is confirmed that engagement noise for CoM restart is equivalent to normal
start engagement and that restart response is faster than current starting system with
conventional starters. In this paper, details of the newly developed starter and starter
control are described, together with performance of the new starting system.
Keywords Stop/start Fuel consumption Change of mind Starter Engine

speed prediction
F2012-D02-010
K. Osawa (&) H. Notani

e-mail: koichi_osawa@denso.co.jp
210 K. Osawa and H. Notani
1 Introduction
Recently, many low fuel consumption technologies, such as hybrid and stop/start,
have been introduced in the market to reduce CO2 emissions. Stop/start is a
particularly attractive technology for fuel consumption improvement because it
can be easily installed on the existing vehicles. On stop/start vehicles, further fuel
consumption improvement can be achieved by expanding the fuel cut period.
Current stop/start vehicles cut the fuel after the vehicle has completely stopped.
Therefore, cutting fuel before the vehicle stops will save more fuel than the current
system. In the case of fuel cut timing at 20 km/h, the simulation result is shown in
Table 1. An additional 3 % improvement in fuel consumption is expected due to
expanding the fuel cut on a 2.0 L gasoline, automatic transmission vehicle over the
NEDC (New European Driving Cycle). However, restart response requirements
during engine run down (i.e. engine stopping), which is called change of mind
(CoM), will increase as shown on Fig. 1, because the vehicle is still decelerating.
In the case of CoM, it is important to maintain driveability by restating the engine
as soon as possible. Therefore, a starting system is required to restart an engine
when it is sopping. Currently, belt driven starter generator and permanently
engagement starter can restart engine at CoM event. Both these systems, however,
require vehicle components modifications and such modifications make these
technologies less attractive to vehicle manufacturers. This paper describes the
details and performance of a new starting system, consisting of a newly developed
starter, based on conventional pinion-shift-type starter, and added starter control.
2 Subject of CoM Restart by Pinion-Shift-Type Starter
A conventional pinion-shift-type starter has one solenoid which moves the starter
pinion gear forward and also closes the contacts to energize the motor. Therefore,
the delay time from pinion movement to motor rotation is fixed, and the motor is
rotated just before the pinion engages into the vehicle ring gear completely. When
the ring gear is rotating, this fixed behaviour can prevent smooth engagement. This
is more notable if the motor is energizing at high engine speed when the relative
speed between pinion and ring gear is large. The impact of the pinion and ring gear
engaging with a large relative speed can cause a loud noise during engagement.
In addition, engine oscillation can cause the engine to go in reverse direction just
before stopping. If the motor is energized during engine reverse rotation, a large
impact will occur during engagement, and this can cause serious damage to the
ring gear and starter.
To prevent these undesirable phenomena described the above, it is important to
control the pinion engagement with the ring gear when the relative speed is in the
desired range as shown in Fig. 2. The desired operation at different condition is
described below:
Starting System for Stop/Start with Change of Mind 211
Table 1 Simulation results of fuel consumption improvement ratio

Conventional New
System function Engine stop during Engine stop during deceleration
vehicle stop vehicle speed: 20 km/h
Fuel consumption improvement by NEDC NEDC
simulation (2 L Gasoline) Automatic Automatic transmission
transmission
4.5 % 7.5 %
Fig. 1 Necessity of change of mind (CoM)
a. At high engine speed: Motor rotation before pinion touch

At first, energize the motor to increase pinion speed, then move the pinion when
the speed difference between the pinion and the ring gear is within the desired
range. When the pinion contacts the ring gear, a relative speed difference of 0–
200 rpm will ensure smooth and stable engagement.
b. At low engine speed: Motor rotation after pinion touch
At first, move the pinion, then energize the motor after complete engagement.
c. At engine reverse rotation: Pinion pre-engagement
Even though engine restart may not be required, move the pinion just before
engine rotation direction changes to reverse, then engage completely. Then if a
CoM restart is required during engine reverse rotation, the pinion is already
engaged, and so the starter can crank the engine by just energizing its motor.
To realize the above operation, the following two are required.
Range of Change of Mind
Self start High speed Low speed Oscillation
at engine deceleration at engine oscillation

(normal rotation) (reverse rotation)
a) High speed b) Low speed c) With pre-engagement
Action Restart signal Restart signal Restart signal
Engine speed
Pinion Pinion Pinion shift

shift shift
Motor ON time
Motor ON time Motor ON time
before reaching engine speed=0
Decrease relative speed between Engage by ring gear rotation
pinion and ring gear (completion of engagement before
reverse rotation)
Restart signal Restart signal Pinion shift
Motor ON Pinion shift Restart signal
Pinion shift Motor ON Motor ON
Starting time No delay
Fig. 2 Operation of CoM
• a pinion-shift-type starter which can move the pinion and energize the motor
independently
• a starter operation control which can operates the starter with accurate timing
To operate the starter at accurate timing, it is necessary to accurately determine
the engine speed when the pinion engages into the ring gear. However, the pinion-
shift-type starter always has some clearance between the pinion and the ring gear
to avoid interference during engine running. Therefore, there is a time delay from
when the pinion starts moving to contact with the ring gear. In addition, the engine
speed determined by crank angle sensor has a greater error at lower speed. This
error may increase during the time delay between start of pinion movement and
pinion contact with the ring gear. Therefore, the starter operation control needs to
have the following function:
• Predict the future engine speed accurately.
• Start moving the pinion at the correct timing to ensure that the relative speed at
contact of the pinion and the ring gear is within the desired range.
Conventional Starter Advanced Starter

One Solenoid for pinion engagement Solenoid for motor control (on/off)
and motor rotation
Solenoid for Pinion engagement
Core
Replace Solenoid
Motor Same Motor as

Conventional
Pinion Gear Separate solenoid functions for

pinion engagement and motor control
Starter can not operate whilst Starter can operate whilst

engine decelerates Advancement engine run down
Fig. 3 Advanced starter corresponding to CoM
3 New Starter for CoM
3.1 Structure
The newly developed starter is shown in Fig. 3. To realize the operation shown in
Fig. 2, this starter has two independent solenoids: one to move the pinion gear, and
the other to energize the motor. These two solenoids are located along the same
axis, and share the same core since both plungers operate in opposite directions.
This arrangement helps to reduce the whole solenoid length. The rest of the
structure and components are the same as a conventional starter. As a result, the
change in starter packaging on the vehicle compared to a conventional starter is
minimized.
3.2 Engagement Mechanism into Rotating Ring Gear
The engagement mechanism of the pinion into the rotating ring gear (positive
direction) is shown in Fig. 4. The preconditions are that the relative speed between
the pinion and the ring gear is 0–200 rpm, and that the starter motor stars to apply
its torque only after complete engagement.
After the pinion moves and contacts with the ring gear, the pinion chamfer and
the ring gear chamfer are in contact. Even though the pinion contacts with the ring
gear at each edge surfaces first, the contact surface moves to the chamfer because
the ring gear is rotating and the pinion is pushed by the starter solenoid force.
Pinion touches Pinion accelerates Pinion synchronizes Pinion engages

ring gear chamfer by ring gear with ring gear into ring gear
Starter internal clutch
Pinion allows pinion rotating synchronized Complete engagement
Accelerated
Ring gear (Rotating)
Fig. 4 Mechanism of starter pinion engagement with rotating ring gear
The ring gear rotating force is transferred to the pinion through the chamfer, then
the pinion starts rotating and accelerating. The starter contains an overruning clutch,
therefore, it allows the pinion to rotate with little friction. Since the ring gear speed is
also decelerating, its speed tends towards the pinion speed. When the pinion speed
matches with the ring gear speed, the pinion will engage completely into ring gear.
4 Starter Operation Control
4.1 Key Phenomenon for Engine Run Down Speed Prediction
After fuel cut, the engine speed runs down with oscillations due to the repeated intake
and compression of the engine cylinders. This engine run down behaviour is affected
by many factors such as coolant temperature, engine oil viscosity, engine friction
change due to aging and mechanical loads of auxiliaries, and so on. Therefore, the
engine speed prediction based on the actual engine condition is necessary to accu-
rately determine the engine speed.
The engine run down behaviour depends on mechanical losses, therefore the
kinetic energy change of the engine is considered. After fuel cut, the engine speed
decreases due to losses in rotational energy by pumping losses, friction losses, and
mechanical losses of auxiliaries as shown in Fig. 5. Each loss is assumed as almost
constant below idle speed [1]. Based on these phenomena, the future engine speed
can be predicted from rotational energy change from previous stroke. The details
of prediction method are described below.
4.2 Engine Run Down Speed Prediction
4.2.1 Mechanism of Engine Run Down
The energy change of crank angle change ðhi ! hiþ1 Þ at engine stroke number
(j) is calculated by the following equation.
Change in energy for one Δθ CA

Ei +j 1 = Ei j − Eloss (i →i +1) Calculation
Pumping Timing
Loss E p Eloss (i →i +1) = E p (i →i +1) + E f (i →i +1) + Ea (i →i +1)
Previous
Stroke Next Stroke
j− 1 ( j )
Kinetic energy
E=
1 2
Jω Ne i j −1 E loss ( i → i +1)
Friction 2
Loss E f = J ⋅ 2π 2 Ne 2 Ne i j
Engine speed
2 2 Eloss (i →i +1)
Auxiliary Neij+1 = Neij −
Loss Ea J ⋅ 2π 2
Estimation for energy loss Ne i j+−11
within the last stroke Ne i j+1
Kinetic energy E Eloss (i →i +1) 2 2 Δθ Δθ
Angular velocity ω − = Neij+1 − Neij
J ⋅ 2π 2 θi θi +1 θi θi +1
Inertia J 2 2
Engine Speed Ne = Neij+−11 − Neij −1 Time
Fig. 5 Mechanism of engine deceleration
j
Eiþ1 ¼ Eij Elossði!iþ1Þ ð1Þ
where, Eloss is the combined losses of pumping losses, friction losses, and
mechanical losses of auxiliaries. The rotational energy of engine E is defined by
the following equations:
1
E ¼ Jx2 ¼ J 2p2 Ne2 ð2Þ
2
where, J is engine inertia, x is angular speed, Ne is engine speed.
Equation (1) can be rearranged in terms engine speed Ne as below:
2 2 Elossði!iþ1Þ
Nejiþ1 ¼ Neji ð3Þ
J 2p2
Assuming each loss is constant against engine speed, the relationship between
the engine speed at engine stroke (j - 1) and the engine speed at the same crank
angle after one stroke (j) is given by the flowing equation:
Elossði!iþ1Þ 2 2 2
j12
¼ Nejiþ1 Neji ¼ Nej1
iþ1 Nei ð4Þ
J 2p2
Engine Run Down Speed Prediction
From Eq. (4), the difference of the squares of the engine speed at the last stroke
j
^ iþ1
(j - 1), and the engine speed at the calculation timing, the engine speed Ne and
time D^tiþ1 at next crank angle (after Dh) are given by the following equations:
Calculation
Timing
Previous Stroke ( j 1) Next Stroke ( j )
Ne i j −1 Ne j −1 Engine Speed based on

i +1
Crank sensor signal (Resolution : 30degCA)
Ne i j+−21 2 2 2
Nˆ eij+1 = Neij + Neij+−11 − Neij −1
Engine Speed
θi +1
θi Ne i j 2 2
θi+2 Nˆ eij+ 2 = Nˆ eij+1 + Neij+−21 − Neij+−11
θi +1
θ i +3 i θi+2
100 Predicted
θi +3 Engine Speed
rpm
θi+4 θ i +5 Δtî +1
Real Engine
Δtî + 2
Δθ Speed θi+4
Delay
0.01 sec Δθ Correction
Time
Fig. 6 Engine speed prediction
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
j 2 2 j12
^ iþ1
Ne ¼ Neji þ Nej1 iþ1 Nei
ð5Þ
D^tiþ1 ¼ a 13 ðNe j þDhNe
^ j Þ
i iþ1
where, a is the correction coefficient for time delay.

Typically, the engine speed is calculated from pulse output of the crank angle
sensor. Therefore, the time delay will be longer due to slower response at low
engine speed. It is possible to predict the engine speed more accurately by cor-
recting this delay. Repeating the calculation of the engine speed at next crank
angle based on Eq. (5) will give the predicted engine run down behaviour (Fig. 6).
Confirmation Results on Actual Vehicles
The relationship between predicted engine speed and measured engine speed is
shown in Fig. 7. The predicted engine speed is calculated from the engine speed
measured by crank angle signal with 30 degCA resolution (in order to avoid the
missing teeth). The measured engine speed is determined from an angle encoder
signal with 0.5 degCA resolution. One of the test vehicles is a 3 cylinder petrol
engine which has large oscillations during run down, and the other vehicle is the
diesel engine which has a high compression ratio. The predicted engine run down
Fig. 7 Test result of engine 600

Gasoline 660cc L3 Port Injection
speed prediction Diesel 2400cc L4 Direct Injection
500
Measured Speed [rpm]

400
300
200
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Predicted Speed [rpm]
speed is selected 50 ms later from calculation timing as time delay correction in

this case. As shown in Fig. 7, the predicted speed agrees closely with the measured
speed.
This prediction method improves the robustness of the predicted speed by using
the latest measured speed, and updating the predicted speed at each 30 degCA, so
preventing an accumulation of errors and adopting to changing conditions.
5 Merit of Developed Starting System
5.1 Engagement Noise
Figure 8 shows the relationship between the engine speed at restart and the
engagement noise measured at 1 m from the vehicle front. The test vehicle has a
three cylinder petrol engine which results in large oscillations during run down.
In the case of no speed prediction, the starter control logic has to include various
factors which affect engine run down behaviour variation. The starter trigger
timing is sometimes earlier than proper timing due to such variation. In addition,
the relative speed between the pinion and the ring gear are larger than expected.
The engagement noise depends on the relative speed between the pinion and the
ring gear. Therefore, the engagement noise is larger than normal engagement
noise. On the other hand, the engine speed prediction improves the relative speed
between the pinion and the ring gear as expected. As a result, the engagement
noise variation is equivalent to the noise level of normal starter engagement into a
stationary ring gear.

With speed prediction
Without speed prediction
2dB
P.O.A [dBA]
Conventional
Starter
Noise Level
Pinion Motor rotation Motor rotation

Pre Engagement after Pinion Touch before Pinion Touch
C.o.M. Timing [rpm]
Fig. 8 Noise level at engine start
Conventional
Improvement at Startup Time Ratio
Starter
- 65
With speed prediction
Waiting mode
Without speed prediction
Advanced
Starter
Pinion Motor rotation Motor rotation

Pre Engagement after Pinion Touch before Pinion Touch
C.o.M. Timing [rpm]
Fig. 9 Improvement at startup time ratio
5.2 Starting Response
The starting response improvement using the new advanced starter for different
engine speeds at CoM requirement is shown in Fig. 9. In the high engine speed
area, the start-up time is longer at higher CoM requirement speed because of the
acceleration time of the pinion speed by the motor. In the low engine speed area,
the start-up time is a minimum at the point that the engine speed is equivalent to
the starter cranking speed. This is because the starter does not need to crank the
engine against its rotational inertia. At lower speed, the starter needs to crank the
engine against its inertia, therefore, start-up time is longer.
Without speed prediction, the starter trigger timing cannot be optimised for all
situations and so sometimes enters a waiting mode until changing the starter
operation mode to ‘‘motor rotation after pinion touch’’ which impacts on system
response time. As a result of the speed prediction, the ratio of start-up time
improvement against conventional starter is approximately 65 %.
6 Conclusion
A new starting system for CoM has been developed with the following features: a
new pinion-shift-type starter with independently controllable pinion movement
and motor; starter operation control with engine speed prediction. With this
starting system, it is confirmed that the engagement noise at CoM is equivalent to
normal cranking noise with a conventional starter. In addition, the starting
response is better than current starting systems using a conventional starter on a
vehicle.
Reference
1. Hiroyuki H, Yukio H, Yoshishige O (1986) Internal combustion engine (Japanese). CORONA

Publishing Co., Ltd, pp 72–76
Distributed Diagnostic Monitoring
and Fault Tolerant Control of Vehicle
Electrical and Electronic Devices
Shanshan Fan, Diange Yang, Tao Zhang and Xiaomin Lian
Abstract To ensure the normal operation of the vehicle electrical and electronic
device system (VEEDS), this paper presented a distributed on-line fault diagnostic
method for the VEEDS, and also designed the fault tolerant control (FTC) system
for it. All the vehicle electrical and electronic devices (VEEDs) are divided into
two classes: backbone device and subnet device, which are connected by the CAN/
LIN bus, forming a distributed network. The electrical devices have the function of
self-diagnosis, and can feedback the diagnostic information through the bus in real
time. There is a central coordinator to receive the state information of all the
devices and carry out the fault tolerant control of VEEDS. The distributed fault
diagnostic and tolerant control method was implemented on an automotive elec-
trical system, and the test results show that this method is available for the
monitoring of the vehicle electrical system in real time, and can obviously improve
the performance of the VEEDS whenever faults occur.
Keywords Diagnostic monitoring Fault tolerant control Electrical and elec-

tronic devices
F2012-D02-012
S. Fan D. Yang (&) T. Zhang X. Lian

State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Department of Automotive
Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
e-mail: ydg@tsinghua.edu.cn
222 S. Fan et al.
1 Introduction
Early fault detection and diagnostic (FDD) methods mainly dependent on artificial
observation, reasoning analysis and logistic estimation. Later on some measuring
instruments were introduced in fault diagnosis, leading it to transfer from quali-
tative analysis to quantitative analysis, but the diagnostic methods still remain in a
passive position [1]. Now the FDD methods involve three major paradigms:
model-based, signal-based and knowledge-based approaches [2].
In [3] an ABS model was developed for fault diagnosis of automotive antilock
braking system, which can isolate faults accurately and make fault-severity esti-
mation. However, the model-based diagnosis demands an accurate mathematic
model of the system. Usually it is difficult to achieve in practical and it is more
difficult for vehicles which are in a changeable exterior environment and have
complex dynamics.
Several researchers have applied signal-based approaches to automotive diag-
nosis [4, 5]: analyses the amplitude, phase and frequency of the object signal as
well as their relationship with the fault symptom to extract the fault reason. This
method avoids the difficulty of establishing mathematic model and has strong
practicability. But its application is limited to certain mechanical components for
single signal source.
Knowledge-based diagnosis makes comprehensive analysis and reasoning of
the object based on a range of knowledge of the object (known as system structure
and function, fault reason and symptom, etc.), to detect and diagnose the system
fault. Fault tree analysis (FTA) is one kind of effective knowledge-based diagnosis
[6]. But for intricate systems like the vehicle, the complexity of the structure and
function, and the coupling relationship between the internal and external parts
make the system fault knowledge still relatively limited at present.
With the rapid development and wide application of electronic, intelligentized
and networked technology, vehicle fault diagnosis is gradually transformed from
off-line to on-line diagnosis. On one hand, modern vehicle has equipped micro-
processor or microcomputer to detect all subsystem data for control and diagnosis
[7]. On the other hand, with the use of bus technology in-vehicle network system
has come forth, aimed at solving the problem of multi-node information collection;
also made it possible for controllers to share information resources and realized the
distributed control of the system [8].
This paper presents a distributed fault diagnosis and tolerant control mechanism
suitable for vehicle electrical and electronic system. All the VEEDs are classified
as backbone node and subnet node, which have unified connection interfaces with
the network, forming the completely distributed electric and electronic system
architecture. The basic functionality and diagnosis of all the in-vehicle electric
devices are implemented as digitalized and networked nodes, which can share
information in the network. Each VEED has a certain degree of coupling with one
another when working. Based on the coordinated knowledge of VEEDS, the
central coordinator establishes FTC algorithm when it receives all the state
Distributed Diagnostic Monitoring and Fault Tolerant Control 223
Pre Switch Washer Door Door

RM WS3 WS4
Lamp Lock
Right L5
HeadLight TailLight
Front Fog
L4 TailLight
Light Gateway Gateway Gateway License
5 Switch Generater AC ABS
6 4 Light
Horn RearFog
Light
CAN-H
CAN-L Cab Light
Horn Cab
Brake
Daytime Gateway Gateway IC Gateway
Starter EMS ACU IC Light
Light 1 2 Switch 3
Rear
Left Defrost
HeadLight
L2 Horn
Speed
Sensor
L1
L3
Door Door Fuel
Brake WS1 RM Wnd WS2
Wiper Backup Lamp Lock Pump
fluid
CAN Node LIN Node Gateway CAN Bus LIN Bus
Fig. 1 Distributed fault diagnosis network
information of the nodes. The research will reduce potential and hidden risks in
VEEDS to a level that is deemed to be safe, and increase the accuracy and
efficiency of fault diagnosis, meanwhile, lay the foundation of vehicle safe design.
2 Distributed Fault Diagnosis Network
In this section, we briefly describe the distributed fault diagnosis network of

VEEDS. It is composed of two classes: backbone network and sub-network.
According to the importance and the position of electric apparatus in automotives,
all the VEEDs are divided into backbone device and subnet device, separately
networked by the backbone network and sub-network. A fully distributed and
hierarchical automotive fault diagnosis network is shown in Fig. 1.
As shown in the figure, the backbone devices are essential components of a
vehicle, which play an indispensable role for the car running system, such as the
engine, starter, ABS, etc. They are connected by the CAN bus and digitalized as
CAN nodes. While the rest devices are subnet devices. Taking their different
spatial position and power supply into consideration, they are divided into several
sub-networks. Devices are connected by the LIN bus and digitalized as LIN nodes
in the subnets. In the architecture, the gateways need to be configured to link the
sub-networks to the backbone network.
In the distributed fault diagnosis network of VEEDS, each node is intelligen-
tized by adding an electronic control unit, where the independent logical function
and self diagnosis are performed. Because of the self governed network node,
VEEDS can realize distributed Networked Control. There is also an in-vehicle
224 S. Fan et al.
Fig. 2 Circuit diagram of 12V/24V

actuator driver module
3
IN RD10 2
IN
2K 5 OUT
AD 4 UD10
ST
BTS6143 DD10
RD11
1K SS14
1
GND GND
computer equipped with the touch screen interface to control the VEEDs and
display the diagnostic information of them. In addition, the central coordinator, a
backbone node in the architecture, can receive all the state data of devices and
realize the FTC of the system.
3 Self-Diagnosis of Veed
3.1 Self Diagnosis of Devices
A large variety of electrical devices are involved in an automobile. For the fault
diagnostic method, we need to make a classification design for each type of device
to increase the reusability of the method, meanwhile decrease the design and
commissioning work. There are three types of devices in the VEEDS: sensor,
switch and actuator. Each type of device has a special fault diagnostic method.
3.1.1 Actuator
Actuators are such kind of electrical devices, whose main function is to open and
close the devices through controllers, and transmit the diagnostic information
(such as normal, short circuit and open circuit) to the network. They adopt the load
feedback diagnostic method in this thesis. The figure below is the circuit diagram
of an actuator: (Fig. 2)
The chip, BTS6143, in the figure above is used to drive the actuator. And the
load feedback current (Iout) has a mathematics ratio relation with the load current
(Iad):
Iad ¼ Iout =K ð1Þ
In the equation above, K is a constant, which is determined by the resistance in
the circuit diagram, while Iad is obtained by AD sample. So Iout can be calculated
by the equation. When Iout is greater than 1.5 times of the normal value of itself,
we regard it as short circuit; when it is close to 0, regard as open circuit.
3.1.2 Sensor
Sensors adopt the limit value method for fault diagnosis. The upper limit and lower
limit are determined by the characteristics of the sensors. When the value collected
by sensor exceeds the threshold, the sensor is considered broken-down.
smin s smax ð2Þ
In (2), smin is the lower limit of the sensor, smax is the upper limit, and s is the
sample result of the sensor. When s is in normal state, it meets the formula
requirements. Once it is off upper or lower limit, it is out of order.
3.1.3 Switch
Switches need to use the human–machine interface for fault diagnosis. For every
electrical device has a state display in the in-vehicle computer. For example, when
driver open the ignition switch, the screen will show ‘‘open’’. So in this method,
once the real state of a switch does not match with the state displayed in screen, the
switch is considered as fault.
3.2 Fusion of Diagnostic Information
In the VEEDS network, all the state information especially the diagnostic infor-
mation, transfers and shares across devices via the CAN and LIN bus. The
backbone network adopts the Controller Area Network (CAN) protocol, while the
sub-network adopts the Local Interconnect Network (LIN) protocol. The backbone
devices directly transfer their information via the CAN bus, but the information of
subnet devices is transmitted by the gateways. When the central coordinator
receives all the state information of the VEEDs, it will make a judgment about
whether the state-jump needs a response or not. After the control logical operation
in coordinator, it sends out the control command to each VEED. It is in this way
that all VEEDs exchange information data and work commands, and realize the
FTC of the system. In addition, the diagnostic information of the devices will be
displayed in the screen of the in-vehicle computer.
In Fig. 3, C refers to the backbone network, Lj refers to the sub-network, cj is
the gateway which combines the C and Lj. di(i = 1,2,…N) is backbone
node,djk(k = 1,2,…,m(j)) is the subnet node. From the graph, we can perceive
where the information is going, just as the arrow points to.
226 S. Fan et al.
Backbone Network
In-vehicle Central Sub-network
Computer Coordinator State Information
Response Command
d1 dN
1 j M
Lj
L1 LM
j1 jk jm
Fig. 3 Fusion of diagnostic information in the network
4 Fault Tolerant Control of Central Coordinator
In the fully distributed VEEDS network, when a certain device has malfunction,
the devices associated with it will take action to respond to the fault. We adopt the
central coordinator to process the diagnostic data and carry out FTC for the VE-
EDS. Devices, which have association, are sub-divided in a coordinated
sub-system. The central coordinator makes state response respectively for every
sub-system.
A coordinated subsystem can be expressed as A, including the initiative devices
DT, constraint devices DC and target devices DY.
A ¼ ðDT ; DC ; DY Þ ð3Þ
The initiative devices are generally switches, those who provoke the coordi-
nated event. The state set for DT is ST:
ST ¼ ðSTi ji ¼ 1; 2; ; NÞ ð4Þ
The state set for constraint devices DC is SC:
SC ¼ ðSCj jj ¼ 1; 2; ; NÞ ð5Þ
The state set for target devices DY is SY:
SY ¼ ðSYk jk ¼ 1; 2; ; NÞ ð6Þ
All the state of devices in a coordinated subsystem can be described as S:
S = fST ; SC ; SY g ð7Þ
Fig. 4 State transition

diagram of a target device ST1
…
c1
…
c2
…
ST2 STN
…
Once there are abrupt changes of parameters in S, the target devices will take
action to prevent dangers. So the central coordinator is like a computer brain,
which has stored a state response mechanism for the target devices. The following
is the state machine of a target device, which is determined by the state change in S
(Fig. 4).
In the figure, ci(i = 1,2,…,m) is the logical calculation of S.
ci ¼ fi ðS) ði ¼ 1; 2; . . .mÞ ð8Þ
After the control logical operation in coordinator, it sends out the control
command. The command of target device DY is defined as ZY.
ZY ¼ ðZYi ji ¼ 1; 2; ; NÞ ð9Þ
ZY corresponds to the state set of target device SY, and determined by the
equation below.
Zi ¼ gi ðCi Þ ð10Þ
The formula(3–10)is known as the state response equation of target device.
From(4–8) and (3–10),we can see that the FTC is actually the state response to
the fault of devices in the subsystem. The central coordinator receives diagnostic
information and sends out control commands, and the VEEDs execute commands.
The advantages of the central coordinator are as following: (1) devices have no
direct message relationship; (2) algorithm of each electronic controller has become
simpler; (3) the reliability of system has been improved.
5 Results of Experiment
5.1 Test for the Distributed Diagnosis of VEEDS
To illustrate the distributed diagnostic method, we established a distributed

vehicular network via the CAN/LIN bus. This test platform features the following
settings:
(1) All the electrical devices are connected to the network through standard
interface.
(2) 13 backbone devices, including engine, ABS, air-condition, dashboard, etc.
228 S. Fan et al.
Fig. 5 Fault monitoring in screen of the in-vehicle computer a All devices’ self-diagnosis. b On-
line fault monitoring
(3) 52 local devices and 6 gateways, forming 6 sub-networks.

(4) All the devices can realize the function of self-diagnosis.
(5) The collected diagnostic information can be displayed by the in-vehicle
computer.
As for fault monitoring, the in-vehicle computer has two ways to show the
diagnostic result, as follows.
The automobile once power on, all devices in it are being self-diagnosed. Then
the diagnostic information is fed back automatically to the in-vehicle computer.
Figure 5a is the display screen of the in-vehicle computer, it shows the total
number of devices to be diagnosed and the number of fault devices. Meanwhile, it
creates a display list directly showing the fault devices.
Furthermore, the in-vehicle computer can monitor the state of devices in real
time. Every device matches with a button in the screen. Once the button is pressed,
it will send a diagnostic request to the device. As Fig. 5b shown, if the device has
malfunction, the button will become red; if it is normal, the button remains green.
Experiments show that in the distributed VEEDS network, devices can realize
the function of self-detection, and feed back the diagnostic data to the network.
The in-vehicle computer can monitor the state of the system devices in real time
and make early fault warning for them.
5.2 Test for FTC
As to the FTC, we take the turn lamp for example. When ignition switch is ‘‘ON’’
and turn light switch is shifted to left, left turning lights flash at about 85 cyc./min;
when turn light switch is shifted to right, right turning lights flash at about 85 cyc./
min. In this section, we create a coordinated subsystem for the devices mentioned
above. That is to say, the devices in the subsystem are categorized into three types.
Fig. 6 Right turn lamps flash

at double frequency
(1) Initiative device: turn light switch;

(2) Constraint device: ignition switch;
(3) Target device: turn lamps.
During flashing mode, if a turn lamp is failed, the central coordinator will figure
out the FTC command, which is to let the other turn lamps in the same side flash at
about double frequency of normal operation mode. As shown in Fig. 6, when one
of the right side turn lights is failed, the others flash at double frequency.
We carried out a road test for the vehicle. In the process of test, when devices’
failure occurs, the system can make fault tolerant response timely.
6 Conclusion
In this thesis, a distributed fault diagnostic method is implemented. It can realize

self-diagnosis of VEEDs, and can share diagnostic information based on CAN and
LIN bus. Furthermore, attribute to the in-vehicle computer, it realized the on-line
fault monitoring and early warning for devices. The central coordinator, which can
take all the state information of associated devices into account and make accurate
response to the state jump, solved the problem of fault tolerant control of the
system. It increases the level of safety, and has important realistic meaning.
However, the degree of fault tolerance and problem of reliability in the fault
tolerant control system remained to be analyzed in the future.
230 S. Fan et al.
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data-driven approach to real-time fault diagnosis in automotive engines. aerospace conference
IEEE
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and data-driven diagnosis of automotive antilock braking systems. Systems, man and
cybernetics, Part A: systems and humans, IEEE Transactions on March 2010
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analysis. Veh Syst Dyn 47(4):403–418
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in failure analysis of systems. IEEE Trans on syst man cybern 17(2):274–288
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early warning system for vehicles. Sensors for industry conference, 8-10 Feb. 2005
8. Zhang B (2009) Research on automobile fault diagnosis and forecast system based on CAN-
bus information [D]. Harbin Institute of Technology, Heilongjiang
Synthesis and Nox Gas Sensing Properties
of In1.82 ni0.18o3 Electrospun Nanofibers
Jinxing Wang, Kejin Zhang, Dan Wang, Dechao Xu,

Bin Zhang and Zhongling Zhao
Abstract The detection and control of nitrogen oxides (NOX) in exhaust gases
emitted by combustion engines has been an important subject in the last decades.
Regulations of vehicle emissions focus on the minimization of NOX in automotive
exhaust gases, particularly in lean combustion exhaust gases. Fast response times
and high sensitivity of NOX sensor in lean combustion environments are necessary
to meet those regulations. In this paper a new sensing material (In1.82Ni0.18O3
nanofibers) was synthesized via a simple and effective electrospinning method. The
morphology and crystal structure of the as-prepared samples were characterized by
X-ray diffraction (XRD), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM),
transmission electron microscopy (TEM), high-resolution transmission electron
microscopy (HRTEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS). Potentiometric-type
NOX sensor based on yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) with In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofi-
bers sensing electrode was prepared and its gas sensing properties were also tested.
The results show that large-scale In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers with diameters ranging
from 40 to 80 nm and lengths of several tens of micrometers were successfully
synthesized by this technique. A loose reticular porous non-woven lap structure was
formed by many fibers. The results of sensing tests show that the sensitivity DEMF
of sensor prepared can reach 85 mV for 500 ppm NO, and the DEMF is stable.
Moreover, the sensor also exhibited fast response time and good selectivity.
Keywords NOX Gas sensor Electrospinning In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers

Sensitivity
F2012-D02-016
J. Wang (&) K. Zhang D. Wang D. Xu B. Zhang Z. Zhao

FAW Group Corporation R&D Center, Changchun, China
e-mail: mixinyan@rdc.faw.com.cn
232 J. Wang et al.
1 Introduction
Lean-burn gasoline and direct-injection diesel engines offer the possibility of

significant improvements in automotive fuel efficiency. Their developments,
however, also induce high NOX emissions [1, 2]. NOX gas has caused serious
damage to human health and the surrounding environment. In order to reduce the
emission of nitrogen oxide and implementation of stringent regulations of NOX
emission require the development of new technologies for NOX gas sensor which
can work steady in cruel combustion gas environment. Several publications have
described a method of NOX sensing based on the electrochemical oxygen pump
cell using yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ). According to the introduction of Patent
EP1942338A1, the NOX sensor consists of two internal cavities and three oxygen
pumping cells [3]. Its measuring concept consists of lowing an oxygen concen-
tration of a measuring gas to a predetermined level in the first internal cavity, in
which NOX does not decompose, and further lowing the oxygen concentration of
the measuring gas to a predetermined level in the second internal cavity. The
second cavity also contains a NOX detection cell (the third oxygen pumping cells)
with a rhodium catalytic electrode which has NOX reduction catalytic activity.
Therefore, NOX decomposes on the measuring electrode and the oxygen generated
is detected as an oxygen pumping current which is in proportion to NOX
concentrations.
Patent 97117135.1[4] has also reported a new method by measuring the elec-
tromotive force (EMF) between measuring electrode and reference electrode. This
new method works as potentiometric sensor. It should be noted that, regardless of
the pump current or electromotive force (EMF), the catalytic electrode materials
was very critical, because it direct effects the sensitivity and response time of the
NOX sensor.
At present, the catalytic electrode usually using noble metals, such as Pt, Rh
et al., as Patent US2010/0243447 A1, EP 2107366A2, US 2008/0156644 A1
reported[5–7]. However, the noble metal will lose its catalytic activity after
undergoing long-term high temperature aging and exposure to toxic gases (such as
SO2 and Pb). The failure of noble metal seriously affects the life and sensitivity of
gas sensor.
Therefore, it is urgent to develop non noble metal catalyst electrode materials.
In2O3 with wide band-gap, good catalysis and high electric conductance has
aroused significant interests in recent years. It has been proven to be an excellent
sensing material for detection of many toxic and combustible gases after doped
with metal ions in its crystal lattice. Because the dopant metal ions could be
introduced into the structure of host material to change its lattice parameters,
leading to a larger lattice distortion. The larger lattice distortion is beneficial for
interaction between gas and material surface.
In addition, as a result of indium oxide gas-sensitive mechanism is based on the
tested gas adsorption and surface reaction, therefore, higher specific surface area of
gas sensitive material is beneficial for gas sensing performance improvement.
Synthesis and Nox Gas Sensing Properties 233
Fig. 1 Schematic image of the sensor
Recently, interest in one-dimensional (1D) has been greatly stimulated because of

its increased surface-to-volume ratio and high density of surface sites. Consider-
able efforts have been made to fabricate 1D sensing nanomaterials via thermal
oxidation, thermal evaporation, self-catalytic growth, molten salt synthesis, and
electrospinning [8]. Electrosping, as a simple and versatile method, has gained
great interest because it can produce 1D nanofibers with high long-diameter ratio,
which makes the electron transport more effective and improves the performance
of gas sensors [9].
In this paper, a new type gas sensitive material (In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofiber
material) was prepared by a relatively simple electrospinning technique at the first
time. Potentiometric-type NOx sensor based on yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ)
with In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers sensing electrode was prepared and its gas sensing
properties were also tested.
2 Experimental
To prepare In1.82Ni0.18O3 solid solution nanofibers, 0.38 g In(NO3)34.5H2O and

0.025 g Ni(CH3COO)24H2O powders were added to 8.8 g mixed solvent con-
tained DMF/EtOH with the weight ratio of 1:1 and stirred for 2 h. Then 0.8 g PVP
was added to the above solution with stirring for 6 h. The obtained solution was
then loaded into a plastic syringe and connected to a high-voltage power supply.
20 kV was provided between the cathode (a flat aluminum foil) and the anode
(syringe) at a distance of 25 cm. In order to remove PVP completely, the com-
posite nanofibers were calcined in air at 600 °C for 4 h. Then, 10 at. %
In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers were obtained.
Details of the design and fabrication of the potentiometric gas sensors are given
in [10]. Figure 1 shows a schematic image of the as-fabricated sensor. Figure 2
shows an image of a real sensor.
Gas sensing properties were measured using a dynamic test system. The sensors
were tested in a Micro reactor which was connected to several gas reservoirs. Gas
mixtures were regulated by mass flow controllers and computer control. Available
gases were NO, NO2, CO2, CO. A temperature sensor was installed near the gas
sensor. Temperature in the gas chamber was stabilized at 600 C. The sensitivity
234 J. Wang et al.
Fig. 2 An image of a real

sensor
of the sensor is defined as the DEMF. The time taken by the sensor to achieve
90 % of the total EMF change was defined as the response time or the recovery
time.
The samples were characterized by X-ray diffractometer (XRD) (Shimadzu
XD-3AX), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) (JEOL JSM-
6700F at 3 kV), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (HITACHI H-8100
using an acceleration voltage of 200 keV), high–resolution transmission electron
microscopy (HRTEM JEM–3010), X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS) (ESCALAB
Mark II spectrometer with Al Ka radiation).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Materials Characterizatics
In order to confirm that the Ni ions were incorporated into the lattice structure,
XRD was performed. The crystalline structures of In2O3 nanofibers and
In1.82Ni0.18O3 solid solution nanofibers were characterized by X-ray diffraction
(XRD) patterns, as shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen that a slight shift of XRD peak
to higher angle for the In1.82Ni0.18O3 samples (Fig. 3b) compared with that of pure
In2O3 (Fig. 3a). For each samples, all the observed diffraction peaks can be
indexed to cubic indium oxide (JCPDS file NO. 06-0416), and no additional peaks
for other phases have been found. The lattice parameters of In1.82Ni0.18O3 samples
(a = 10.091 Å) is slightly less than that of pure In2O3 (a = 10.118 Å), which is
consistent with the formation of a substitution solid solution (In1.82Ni0.18O3) [11].
It should be noted that although the ionic radius of Ni2+ (r = 0.78 Å) is bigger than
that of In3+ (r = 0.72 Å), the lattice parameters decrease after substitution. This
phenomenon can be explained by considering the change of Ni ions state as
follow.
In order to maintain the charge neutrality, an electron exchange process takes
place in In1.82Ni0.18O3 solid solution structure. It leads to a partial transition of
Ni2+ ions into Ni3+ which has smaller ionic radius (0.56 Å).
Ni2þ þ In3þ $ Ni3þ þ In2þ ð1Þ

The presence of Ni3+ was confirmed by the next XPS.
Fig. 3 XRD patterns of

a pure In2O3 and
b In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers
Fig. 4 XPS spectrum of Ni

2p3/2 peak of In1.82Ni0.18O3
nanofibers
Determination of the state of the Ni ions was carried out by measuring Ni 2p3/2
binging energy (BE) with XPS and shown in Fig. 4. The BE 855.6 eV is assigned
to Ni3+ [12] which comes from the process of an electron exchange (formula 1),
and in an octahedral oxygen neighbourhood in the In2O3 crystal lattice [12]. The
appearance of Ni3+ ions is further confirmed the formation of In1.82Ni0.18O3 sub-
stitution solid solution. The BE 854.1 eV is assigned to Ni2+ which also in the
In2O3 crystal lattice, and created more vacant oxygen which leading more oxygen
species absorbed on the surface of In1.82Ni0.18O3 solid solution nanofibers.
The general morphologies of the In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers were studied with
field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron
microscopy (TEM), and high–resolution transmission electron microscopy
(HRTEM). Large-scale nanofibers with diameters ranging from 40 to 80 nm and
lengths of several tens of micrometers can be found in the FE-SEM images
236 J. Wang et al.
Fig. 5 FE-SEM images of In1.82Ni0.18O3 solid solution nanofibers at different magnifications
(Fig. 5) at different magnifications. A loose reticular porous non-woven lap

structure was formed by many fibers and the average diameter of these nanofibers
is about 50 nm. From the TEM image (Fig. 6a), it can be seen that each nanofiber
consists of many ultrafine particles with an average diameter of 20 nm. Lattice
images are clearly observed from the HRTEM image (Fig. 6b), indicating the
In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers are highly crystalline. The interplaner spacing of 0.41 nm
are corresponds to the (211) planes of cubic In2O3.
4 Sensing Characteristics
Figure 7 shows the correlation between the sensitivity DEMF and the NO con-
centration for the sensor using In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers-measuring electrode. It is
seen that the sensitivity DEMF can reach 85 mV for 500 ppm NO. The sensitivity
of the sensor as a function of stepwise increasing the NO concentration from 0 to
500 ppm was shown in Fig. 8. At an NO concentration of 40 ppm, the response
time was very fast (about 1 s). After purging of NH3 from the gas phase, the
sensitivity was quickly recovered to the initial level. In addition, at each NO
concentration, a stable DEMF value was observed. The quick response and
recovery characteristics of our sample are based on its structures. The large surface
of the nanofibers makes the absorption of target gas molecules on the surface of
the sensor easily. Simultaneously, the high long-diameter ratio of the nanofibers
makes the electron transport more effective.
To further understand the practicability of our fibers, the sensor was exposed to
various 400 ppm gases at 600 °C. Most of the tested gas mixtures were similar to
typical exhaust gases from lean burn engines. The selectivity shown in Fig. 9
indicates that the In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers are less sensitive to NO2, totally
insensitive to CO2, and negative sensitivity to CO. Thus the obtained nanofibers
exhibit prominent and good selectivity.
Fig. 6 a TEM and b HRTEM images of In1.82Ni0.18O3 solid solution nanofibers
Fig. 7 Dependence of
DEMF on the NO
concentrations for the sensor
Fig. 8 The response and

recovery characteristics of the
sensor at different NO
concentrations
238 J. Wang et al.
Fig. 9 The selectivity of the

sensor at different gases
5 Conclusion
In summary, large-scale In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers with diameters ranging from 40

to 80 nm and lengths of several tens of micrometers were successfully synthesized
through an electrospinning method. A loose reticular porous non-woven lap
structure was formed by many fibers. Potentiometric-type NOx sensor based on
yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) with In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers sensing electrode
was prepared. The results of sensing tests show that the sensor exhibited high and
stable sensitivity DEMF, fast response time and good selectivity. The results
demonstrate that In1.82Ni0.18O3 nanofibers have excellent potential applications for
fabrication high performance NOX sensors.
References
1. Brogan M, Brisley R, Walker A, Webster D et al. (1995) Evaluation of NOx storage catalysts
as an effective system for NOx removal from the exhaust gas of lean burn gasoline engines
SAE 1995, 1995/952490
2. Mello J, Mellor A (1999) NOx emissions from direct injection diesel engines with water/
steam dilution SAE 1999, 1999/1999-01-0836
3. Suzuki Y, Nakagaki K, Suzuki H NOX-decomposing electrode and method for producing
NOX sensor EP 1942338A1
4. Nobuhide K NOX sensor and method of measuring NOX, US 005948964A
5. Shinji F, Aya S, Yukimasa M, Sumiko H Pumping electrode of gas sensor, method of
manufacturing conductive paste, and gas sensor US 2010/0243447 A1
6. Horisaka S, Lee SJ NOX sensor EP 2107366A2
7. Suzuki Y, Suzuki H NOX-decomposing electrode and method for producing NOX sensor US
2008/0156644 A1
8. Xia Y, Yang P, Sun Y et al (2003) One-dimensional nanostructures: synthesis,
characterization, and applications. Adv Mater 15(5):353–389
9. Ding B, Wang M, Yu JY et al (2009) Gas sensor based on electrospun nanofibers. Sensors
9(3):1609–1624
10. Carlos LG, Ramos FM, Albert C et al (2011) Role of nanostructured WO3 in ion-conducting
sensors for the detection of NOx in exhaust gases from lean combustion engines. Solid State
Ionics 184(1):83–87
11. Bogdanov P, Ivanovskaya M, Comini E et al (1999) Effect of nickel ions on sensitivity of
In2O3 thin film sensors to NO2. Sens Actuators, B 57:153–158
12. Ivanovskaya M, Bogdanov P (1998) Effect of NiIII ions on the properties of In2O3-based
ceramic sensors. Sens Actuators, B 53:44–53
A Novel Concept of High Voltage
Auxiliaries and its Feasibility Study
on Blower Motors
Satoshi Shiraki, Hiroyasu Kudo, Masakazu Tago, Akira Yamada,

Shigeki Takahashi and Atsuyuki Hiruma
Abstract Hybrid/Electric Vehicles are expected to be one of the solutions for energy
and environmental problems. Up to Now, low power automotive electronics have
operated under a battery voltage of 12 V and a large current of more than 10 A.
Because of this high current, the power electronic circuits cause substantial losses of
power through wire harnesses, a DC/DC converter, semiconductors, and so on. In this
paper, we have proposed a novel concept of high voltage auxiliaries, which replaces the
12 V loads with the high voltage loads driven directly by the high voltage battery. It is
assured that the power efficiency of the high voltage test system is as high as 94 %,
which is at least 10 % higher than that of conventional 12 V blower motor systems.

Keywords Blower motor Fuel Economy High Voltage Auxiliary Inverter

Efficiency Micro-Inverter IC
1 Introduction
Hybrid/Electric Vehicles are expected to be one of the solutions for energy and
environmental problems [1]. The power supply system equipped on Hybrid/
Electric Vehicle has a dual voltage battery, which consists of a high voltage battery
(100–430 V) [2] and a 12 V battery connected through the step down DC/DC
converter charged from the high voltage battery. Up to Now, low power auto-
motive electronics have operated under a battery voltage of 12 V and a large
F2012-D02-018
S. Shiraki (&) H. Kudo M. Tago A. Yamada S. Takahashi A. Hiruma

Denso Corporation, Kariya, Japan
e-mail: SATOSHI_SHIRAKI@denso.co.jp
242 S. Shiraki et al.
current of more than 10 A. Because of this high current, the power electronic
circuits cause substantial losses of power through wire harnesses, a DC/DC con-
verter, semiconductors, and so on. In this paper, we have proposed a novel concept
of high voltage auxiliaries, which replaces the 12 V loads with the high voltage
loads driven directly by the high voltage battery.
The purpose of replacing the 12 V loads with the high voltage loads is to
achieve higher efficiency using fewer electric parts, for better fuel economy.
Therefore the most important points of the concept are as follows.
1. High power automotive electronics are generally controlled with a sinusoidal
waveform current. Typically, they are controlled by vector controlled sinu-
soidal drives, which require a high performance Central Processing Unit (CPU).
A sensor less sinusoidal wave drive technology has been developed for low
power electronics, which maximizes the power by controlling the phase dif-
ference between the motor voltage and the motor current without using a high
performance CPU.
2. Low power automotive electronics, blower motors for example, operate under a
battery voltage of 12 V and a large current of 30 A. By elevating the battery
voltage, a drastic reduction in motor current (0.5 * 2A) becomes possible and
permits a shift from six high current discrete power Metal Oxide Semicon-
ductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) to single chip micro-inverter ICs.
We have successfully developed the record high blocking voltage of 750 V and
the largest current capability of 4.5 A micro-inverter IC [3].
Firstly, the concept of high voltage auxiliaries is shown. Then, it is shown the
most important technologies in the concept, which are the sensorless sinusoidal
wave drive technology and the single chip micro-inverter IC technology. Finally, a
test system of high voltage blower motor is driven by using these technologies.
It is experimentally assured that the power efficiency of the high voltage test
system is higher than that of conventional 12 V system.
2 Concept of High Voltage Auxiliaries
Figure 1 shows a circuit diagram of voltage system. A step down DC/DC con-
verter is used to charge supply currents from the high voltage battery. Up to now,
automotive low power electronics operate under a battery voltage of 12 V. By
means of elevating supply voltage using high voltage battery, we can achieve
better efficiency and reduction of electronic parts.
Figure 2 shows a block diagram of high voltage blower motors. For example,
blower fan motors are driven by a large current of 30 A under a 12 V battery. And
the electronic circuits are assembled from many electronic parts. On the other
hand, under a high voltage of 300 V battery, a drastic reduction using motor
current * 2 A becomes possible and permits a one-chip high voltage micro-
inverter IC.
A Novel Concept of High Voltage Auxiliaries 243
300V 12V
High Voltage DCDC 6 MOSFETs
DCDC
Battery Converter
Converter Load1 Load2
Load2
12V, 30Amax
Driver IC Regulator Resistance
Oscilator Capacitor Resistance
300V 12V
DCDC
DCDC Micro-inverter IC
300V, 1~ 2Amax
Load1 Converter
Conver Load2
Load2
10mm
ter
(a) A circuit diagram of voltage system. (b) Electronic parts of inverter in blower
motor system.
Fig. 1 Concept of high voltage auxiliaries. a A circuit diagram of voltage system. b Electronic
parts of inverter in blower motor system
CPU Inverter Motor
Rotation Gain Command voltage PWM

frequency Signal SPM
V/f Generator
Polarity detection
Calculation circuit of current Current detector
PLL of phase
difference
Polarity detection
circuit of induced
voltage
Fig. 2 A block diagram of blower motor system
3 Sensorless Sinusoidal Wave Drive Technology
High power automotive electronics are generally controlled with a sinusoidal

waveform current. Typically, they are controlled by vector controlled sinusoidal
drives, which require a high performance CPU. In this system, it is not necessary
to detect or estimate the rotor position. Figure 3 shows a sensorless sinusoidal
wave drive technology. The technology does not require current sensors but can be
used to estimate the phase difference between the motor voltage and the motor
current by sampling the voltage of shunt resistors. It can maximize the power by
controlling the phase difference.
The features of this technology are the simplified control algorithm and the
novel detection method of the induced voltage. Figure 4 shows a detection method
of induced voltage and motor current at zero vector.
(a)
Inverter
Motor P ; Output Power
U
e ; Induced Voltage
(Motor Voltage)
W
V i ; Motor Current
5
(b) eu iu
e i 0
[V] [A]
-5
10
P ( = eu·iu + ev·iv + ew·iw )
5
P
[W] 0
eu·iu ev·iv ew·iw
-5
Phase angle [degree]
(c) 5
eu iu
e i 0
[V] [A]
-5
10
P ( = eu·iu + ev·iv + ew·iw )
P 5
[W] 0
eu·iu ev·iv ew·iw
-5
Phase angle [degree]
Fig. 3 A sensorless sinusoidal wave drive technology. a A blower motor and a inverter system.
b Output Power in case that a phase angle of e is equivalent to that of i. c Output Power in case
that a phase angle of e is NOT equivalent to that of i
4 Micro Inverter IC
In the consumer electronics field, micro-inverter ICs up to 500 V 3 A ratings have

been developed and widely used [4, 5]. On the other hand in the automotive
electronics of HEV/EV, micro-inverter ICs have not yet been used because of the
severe requirements related to blocking voltage (BV), current capability, effi-
ciency, temperature, and so on. Even if it takes a BV for example, more than
700 V in all temperature range is required for a HEV application.
Yasuhara et al. reported that his SOI lateral diode achieved the high BV of
650 V by means of introducing interface-N-layer (INL) with 1.3 9 1012 cm-2
arsenic ion dose on a 3 lm-thick buried oxide (BOX) [6]. Akiyama et al. reported
that the higher BV of 1050 V was achieved in his lateral diode fabricated in
silicon-on-double-insulator (SODI) structure, which was formed by backside sil-
icon etching of SOI wafer followed by dielectric layer deposition and metal
electrode formation [7]. Endo et al. reported that his lateral insulated gate bipolar
transistor (LIGBT) with SRFP fabricated in SOI with 2 lm-thick BOX achieved
good characteristics not only in the high BV of 580 V, but also in the fast
switching of 280 ns [8]. However, there are no reports that a SOI micro-inverter IC
(a) Inverter
Motor
e = Esin ( )
L
E R
(b) R L e
(c) Target : NOT detected
Zero Vector Period
i(t )
i(t+ Δ t)
Δ t
di
L
dt time
= -e
Fig. 4 A detection method of induced voltage and motor current at zero vector. a A switching
state at zero vector. b Equivalent circuit at zero vector. c Link between e and i at zero vector
Fig. 5 Schematic cross- 1000

Breakdown Voltage (V)
section of SOI micro-inverter BOX 8µm

BOX 5µm
IC 800
600
400 Simulation Experiment
200
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
12 2
Impurity dose of INL (x10 / cm )
achieved a higher BV than 700 V and a larger current capability than 3 A

simultaneously.
We have developed the record high BV of 750 V and the largest current
capability of 4.5 A SOI micro-inverter IC, which is made possible by the newly
developed high voltage reliability technology and high-speed and low-dissipation
E2LIGBT [9] based on reproducible device design and process sequence.
L-IGBT L-Diode CMOS LDMOS

E G C A K S G D S G D
N+ P+P P+ N+ N+ N+ N+ N+
P P N P P N
N
N-
N
BOX
Substrate
lightly doped interface-N-layer (INL)
Fig. 6 Breakdown voltage of SOI lateral devices as a function of impurity dose of INL
Fig. 7 Schematic electric 900

Simulation
Breakdown Voltage (V)
field reduction structure of

SRFP integrated into high- 800 (This work) Thickness INL
Experiment Si BOX
side LIGBT
This work 15 5 applied
700
(µm)
180V Nakagawa 15 3 not
600 et al (µ m) applied
500
Nakagawa et al.
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Spacing of SRFP (µm)
4.1 High Voltage and High Reliability Technology
4.1.1 Thinner BOX SOI with Lightly Doped INL
Figure 5 shows schematic cross-section of SOI micro-inverter IC consisting of LIG-

BT, lateral diode (LDiode), lateral-diffused metal–oxide–semiconductor (LDMOS),
and complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS). By introducing a lightly
doped INL on the BOX film, BV of lateral power devices is considerably improved.
Figure 6 shows simulated and measured blocking characteristics of SOI lateral
devices. Thickness of the BOX is selected as 5 lm which is the practical limit of
bonded SOI wafer. Applying the INL on the BOX, the highest BV is experimentally
obtained as 780 V (INL dose: 1.7 9 1012 cm-2) which is comparable to 800 V of
8 lm BOX SOI without INL. The optimized INL dose of 1.7 9 1012 cm-2 is
somewhat larger than 1.3 9 1012 cm-2 which was previously reported.
4.1.2 High reliability SOI Technology Over 750 V
Figure 7 shows schematic electric field reduction structure using poly silicon
based SRFP. The BV of LIGBTs is influenced by the high voltage metal wiring
Fig. 8 Breakdown voltage High voltage metal wiring line

of SOI LIGBTs as a function
of SRFP spacing
Emitter Collector
P P+
N- N
N
BOX
Spacing SRFP
Fig. 9 Long-term endurance 900

test of blocking voltage under SRFP Spacing= 1.2µm
bias and temperature stress BOX=5 µm, Si=15 µm
800
BT stress: 600V, 175 º C
V CE (V)
700 Sheet resistance of SRFP

=92.8k /square
600
Compliance:
500
Voltage=600V
Current=1 µA 2.1M /square
400
1 10 100 1000
Time (hr)
line over the SRFP. It was found that the BV greatly depends on the spacing of the
poly-silicon of SRFP.
Figure 8 shows the simulated and measured BV of SOI LIGBT with the poly-Si
spacing as a parameter. The highest BV of 760 V is experimentally obtained when
the narrow 1.2 lm spacing is adopted. The BV of 760 V is increased by 180 V,
compared with the previously reported data. The optimized spacing of 1.2 lm
shows that a turbulence of electric field at the silicon surface caused by overlaid
high voltage metal wiring can be effectively relaxed by narrowing the spacing of
SRFP.
The critical importance in the automotive application is the reliability issue. It
has been found, for the first time, that the stable and reliable high blocking voltage
of 760 V is assured by controlling the sheet-resistance of the poly-Si layer of the
SRFP.
Figure 9 shows the long-term endurance test of blocking voltage under bias
(600 V) and temperature (175 °C) stress. Two cases of SRFP poly-silicon sheet
resistances, RS,—92.8 kX/square (impurity dose: 2.5 9 1013 cm-2) and 2.1 MX/
square (1.2 9 1013 cm-2)—were evaluated. 92.8 kX/square of RS is low enough
to ensure 1000 h endurance. It has been found that the stability of BV strongly
(a) 5
V G =10V (b) 8 R G=150
4
VG (V)
VG
4V 4
3
IC (A)
0
2
VCE (V)
4 400
IC
IC (A)
2 V CE 200
1
2V
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
52ns
V CE (V) Time, 200ns/div
Fig. 10 Measured electrical characteristics of fabricated SOI E2LIGBT. a Static characteristics.

b transient characteristics
Fig. 11 Photo of the 750 V

4.5 A SOI micro-inverter IC
LDiode
LDiode
2
E 2 LIGBT
E LIGBT
Control
Control
circuit
circuit
depends on RS. The relationship between RS of poly-Si and long-term stability of

BV is seemed to be related to interface trapped charge density and current through
the SRFP.
4.2 High-Speed and Low-Dissipation E2LIGBT
We have developed and re-optimized the high speed E2LIGBT for the high current
4.5 A micro-inverter application [8]. Figure 10 shows measured electrical char-
acteristics of the high current E2LIGBT. In Fig. 10a and b, VON is considerably as
low as 3.1 V at 4.5 A (170 A/cm2) and the fall time, tF, is remarkably as short as
52 ns.
Fig. 12 Output current 1.2

IU IV IW
waveforms of the micro-
inverter IC driving three- 0.6
I U, IV, I W ( A )
phase brush-less motor
-0.6
-1.2
Time, 500µs/div
4.2.1 Fabricated IC and Control Circuits
Figure 11 shows photo of the fabricated 750 V 4.5 A SOI micro-inverter IC,
which is composed of E2LIGBTs, free-wheeling LDiodes, and the control circuits.
The control circuits consist of pulse width modulation (PWM) controller,
gate drivers, voltage regulators, bootstrap diodes, and so on. The chip size is
6.2 9 9.3 mm2. In contrast to conventional micro-inverters, which use 30 V 2 lm
CMOS, we employed 5 V 0.6 lm CMOS circuits, which make it possible to
integrate high level intelligent functions
5 Demonstration of Inverter Operation
The test system of a blower motor (250 W 290 V ratings) is successfully driven by
the sensorless sinusoidal wave drive technology and the micro-inverter IC as shown
in Fig. 12. The experimental conditions are motor speed = 3000 rpm (maximum
rating), VBATTERY = 290 V, IBATTERY = 0.90 A, PWM frequency = 20 kHz.
Measured input power and power loss in the micro-inverter IC are 261 W and
16 W, respectively. The power efficiency has achieved as high as 94 %, which is at
least 10 % higher than that of conventional 12 V blower motor systems. The
printed circuit board size reduction has been realized by 40 % by elevating supply
voltage from the 12 V voltage battery to the high voltage battery (290 V).
6 Conclusions
We have proposed a novel concept of high voltage auxiliaries, which replaces the
current 12 V loads with the high voltage loads driven directly by the high voltage
battery. And it is assured that the power efficiency of the new test system is as high
as 94 %, which is at least 10 % higher than that of conventional 12 V blower
motor system.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Akio Nakagawa, Norihito Tokura, and
Takashi Suzuki for useful discussion, Takeshi Sakai, Shinya Sakurai, and Shogo Ikeura for
sample preparation, Yoshitomo Takeuchi and Kazutoshi Shiomi for inverter evaluation. The
authors also wish to thank Yasushi Tanaka, Noriyuki Iwamori, and Masahiro Sou for their
support throughout this study.
References
1. Kawahashi A (2004) In: Proceedings of International Symposium. Power Semiconductor

Devices and ICs, p 23
2. Rahman K, Anwar M, Schulz S, Kaiser E, Turnbull P, Gleason S, Given B, Grimmer M (2011)
SAE Tech Pap Ser, 2011-01-0355
3. Shiraki S, Takahashi S, Yamada A, Yamamoto M, Senda K, Ashida Y, Hiruma A, Tokura N
(2012). Jpn J Appl Phys 51(04DP03):1–4
4. Nakagawa A, Funaki H, Yamaguchi Y, Suzuki F (1991) In: Proceedings of international
symposium. Power semiconductor devices and ICs, p 321
5. Sakurai K, Maeda D, Hasegawa H (2008) In: Proceedings of international symposium. Power
semiconductor devices and ICs, p 323
6. Yasuhara N, Nakagawa A, Furukawa K (1991) IEDM Tech Dig, p 141
7. Akiyama H, Yasuda N, Moritani J, Takanashi K, Majumdar G (2004). In: Proceedings of the
international symposium. Power semiconductor devices and ICs, p 375
8. Endo K, Baba Y, Udo Y, Yasui M, Sano Y (1994).In: Proceedings of the international
symposium. Power semiconductor devices and ICs, p 379
9. Ashida Y, Takahashi S, Shiraki S, Tokura N, Nakagawa A (2012) Jpn. J Appl Phys
51(04DP02):1–5
Small Lights Power Distribution System
Improvement of a Heavy-Duty Truck
Leigang Ma and Fadong Yan
Abstract This paper mainly introduces a harness automobile design case, about a
heavy truck small lights power system and the distribution about the improvement
of the specific case. Detailed description of the small lights system load power,
loop wire diameter, the status quo power distribution structure survey, data cal-
culation and analysis to identify the problems and then propose a variety of
improvement programs, through the production process costs, resource require-
ments, the process of using the logic implementation, security, reliability, design
concerns in five trade-off for the program to determine, by experimental verifi-
cation to ensure that the program improved results. Elaborate on their under-
standing of the automotive wiring harness design, harness design aim for other
vehicles to provide references. Specific theoretical calculations about each loop of
wire did not begin due to the relationship of the papers focus.
Keywords Power distribution Æ Wiring harness design Æ Small lights system
1 Introduction
Automation, intelligence is a tendency of the development of the car, in this

tendency, the us car appliances also more and more. If the car compared to the
human body, so the line is the “blood vessels + nerve”, carrying energy feeding,
F2012-D02-022
L. Ma (&) Æ F. Yan
Anhui Jianghuai Automobile Co. Ltd, R & D Centre, Hefei, China
e-mail: kj_jszx@jac.com.cn
252 L. Ma and F. Yan
the signal transmission and the realization of the function of the electrical.
And how well each module and reduce energy distribution of each blood vessels
carrying pressure becomes very important. Can say power distribution is the
most important car circuit design, also is in the design of the core part of the
vehicle [1, 2]. We in the power supply distribution design work mainly follow
the following several principles:
(1) Must provide sufficient capacity to fuse to ensure that all electrical appliances
to correct functionality;
(2) The capacity of the fuse should be small enough so that a short circuit to fuse
to protect conductors and connected systems;
(3) Should pay attention to electrical box fuse decorate, in order to ensure that the
heat dissipation good;
(4) don’t over design (using a large cross section of the wire), over-design will
bring a lot of pressure to the cost and layout of the vehicle;
(5) Electrical equipment must be a single set the fuse, if it affects vehicle safety
performance or interfere with other electrical appliances
(6) Resistance type load and inductance type load, should avoid sharing a fuse.
Small light system is a huge system, lighting system and the external light is
poor, open the system to provide backlighting for the instrument, cassette players,
the key switch, but also for the external contour of the vehicle to identify indi-
cators. Not only that, it’s open or fog lights system to open a prerequisite. It can
be said that the small light system is an important part in the vehicle electrical
system and do an important work of the small lamp power distribution system is
our vehicle harness design.
This paper mainly introduces a heavy trucks small lights power system and the
distribution of the optimization of the structure improvement process, through the
analysis of the specific case, to elaborate on my understanding of the automotive
wiring harness design.
2 A Heavy Card Light System Present Situation and Analysis
2.1 Small Lights System Present Situation
A heavy truck (24 V power supply system) of small lights system include two
door-side lamps, four front-side lamps, eight rear-side lamps, two up-side lamps,
three speed-lamps, six other side-lamps, eight switch lamps, instrument back-
lighting, air conditioning panel backlighting, radio-lamp, ashtray-lamp, cigar
lighter-lamp, clock-lamp, the total load power is 182 W, most loop using a wire
line sectional area of 0.5 or 0.85 mm2. Fog lamps system include two front fog
lamps loop wire line sectional area of 0.5 mm2 and one rear fog lamp loop wire
line sectional area of 0.85 mm2, the total load power is 131 W (Table 1 and 2.)
Small Lights Power Distribution System 253
Table 1 Small lights system load list

Code number Equipment name Power (W) Quantity Sectional area Total power
of wire (mm2) (W)
1 Door-side lamb 5 2 0.5 10
2 Front-side lamb 5 4 0.5 20
3 Rear-side lamb 5 8 1.25 40
4 Up-side lamb 5 2 0.5 10
5 Speed-lamb 5 3 0.5 15
6 Other-side lamb 10 6 0.85 60
7 Switch-lamb 1 8 0.5 8
8 Instrument-lamb 9 1 0.5 9
9 AC panel-lamb 2 1 0.5 2
10 Ashtray-lamb 2 1 0.5 2
11 Cigar lighter-lamb 2 1 0.5 2
12 Radio-lamb 2 1 0.5 2
13 Clock-lamb 2 1 0.5 2
Total power (W) 182
Table 2 Fog lamps system load list

Code number Equipment name Power (W) Quantity Sectional area Total power
of wire (mm2) (W)
1 Front fog lamb 55 2 0.5 110
2 Rear fog lamb 21 1 0.5 21
Total power (W) 131
The original state power distribution and control principle diagram shown as
shown in Fig. 1.
2.2 Current Calculation Analysis
After the start of the output voltage generator can be up to 28 V, we first to the
system current calculation:
The current of small lights system with Voltage of 28 V: ð182 W=24 VÞ
ð28 V=24 VÞ ¼ 8:85 A
The current of fog lamps system with Voltage of 28 V: ð131 W=24 VÞ
ð28 V=24 VÞ ¼ 6:37 A
Second, the fuse chooses calculation:
The small lights system, fog lamps system total fuse calculated
Fig. 1 The original state

power distribution and
control principle diagram
(1) Capacity of the fuse required on normal temperature: ð8:85 þ 6:37Þ

A=70 % ¼ 21:7 A
(2) Capacity of the fuse required on 40 : 21:74 A=f100 % þ ð40 C 24 CÞ
ð0:15 %= CÞg ¼ 22:5 A
Needs to choose a fuse its nominal capacity is 25 A more appropriate.
Fog lamps system around 40 temperature in the computation capacity
required the fuse
(1) Capacity of the fuse required on normal temperature: 6:37 A=70 % ¼ 9:2 A
(2) Capacity of the fuse required on 40 : 9:2 A=f100 % þ ð40 C
24 CÞ ð0:15 %= CÞg ¼ 9:5 A

Needs to choose a fuse its nominal capacity is 10 A more appropriate.

In order to meet our design principles article 2 “The capacity of the fuse
should be small enough so that a short circuit to fuse to protect conductors and
connected systems” based on experience choice, 25 A fuse downstream all small
lights back to route shall be not less than 2.0 mm2 was the sectional area, 10 A fuse
downstream of the fog lamps back to route not less than 0.5 mm2 was the sectional
area, to ensure the safety of the two system loop. Thus found that fog lamps system
without problems, small lights system, there are some problems: (1) the total fuse
capacity slightly small; (2) the relative 20 A fuse capacity requirements, small
lights system back to their line diameter is fine. Face the second question, solution
has two kinds: one idea: structure remains, bold line diameter; the other: change
distribution structure, reduce the fuse capacity.
3 Question Analysis Solutions
3.1 Scheme i
According to first idea, we can put small lights system of dozens of circuit are for
2.0 was the specification of the wires. The result is: (1) our problem solved; (2)
part of our connectors for not pressure the specification of the wire was 2.0 should
to choose again; (3) our costs more; (4) our wire for coarsens and the difficulty to
assembly.
3.2 Scheme ii
According to thinking two, changes the structure reduces fuse capacity. We in the
small lights each function before a small loop increase the capacity of the fuse also
is very good method.
The little lamp system around 40 temperature in the computation capacity
required the fuse
(1) Capacity of the fuse required on normal temperature: 8:85 A=70 % ¼
12:65 A
(2) Capacity of the fuse required on 40 : 12:65 A=f100 % þ ð40 CÞ
ð0:15 %= CÞg ¼ 13:0 A

Suitable for choose nominal capacity of 15 A fuse. Thus gain power distribution
and control principle diagram as shown in Fig. 2. Although increased a insurance,
but little light system loop conductor of the specification is reduced to not less than
0.85 was, so the result is: (1) our problem solved; (2) our connectors do not need to
change; (3) our cost slightly increase; (4) our wire slightly coarsen.
3.3 Plan 3
Since the fog lamps system in a small lights system purpose is to do only in small
lights open under the conditions of the fog lamps to open, so as long as do fog
lamps relay of the client in small lights system control under also think meet the
design requirements. We can design into another structure (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2 The power

distribution and control
principle diagram 1
Fig. 3 The power

principle diagram 2
Fig. 4 The power

principle diagram 3
This plan is to load the total insurance from fog lamps load of separation of the
direct fuse connected to often power supply, total fuse become small lights system
fuse, because of the fog lamps relay control power still needs to provide little lamp
system, so the control effect remains the same. Compared with the scheme ii,
achieve the result is same, but because do not need to provide power for fog lamps
load small light relay burden reduced greatly, and save a fuse its nominal capacity
is 25 A.
3.4 Plan 4
In the scheme based on the three will be modified, let little light load is divided
into two parts; each one has a fuse its nominal capacity is 10 A, as shown in Fig. 4.
Using this distribution structure can make sectional area of little lights sys-
tem’s wire line requirement was dropped to 0.5 mm2, greatly reduced the cost of
wire, and when one of small lights get a fault, the loop road in the upper reaches of
the points blow out, another part can still work, the fog lamps can still work.
Improve the reliability of the system, but its demand total four fuses position.
Based on the above mentioned four schemes can be concluded that scheme for
four compared the lowest cost, the highest of the reliability of the system, but should
be increased to 2 fuse position. We electrical boxes fuse position is limited, and the
specific choose plan 4 or scheme will depend on the three of the whole system
resources situation and decide. According to the physical state, we have 2 or more
reserved fuse position. This improvement chose the implementation play 4.
Fig. 5 The power

principle diagram in test
4 Effect Validation
As shown in Fig. 5 shows, the fuse Numbers were F21, F39, F40 and F8, of which
F21 for small lights the system total fuse, F39 is fuse for branch 1 of small lights
system, and F40 is fuse for branch 2, F8 is fuse for fog lamps system. Whether the
Improvement has a good effect? Let’s give an experiment to the improve system.
Experimental requirements: the system improved vehicle a car, one wire length
of 100 mm sectional area of 0.5 mm2, one timer wire;
The experiment steps:
1. List the test circuit experiment form;
2. Remove the need to test system with electric equipment of connectors;
3. Closed switch, directly in the wires into the harness provide connectors short
sub test loop;
4. Check the protection of the circuit in 3 S whether the fuse blow out;
5. Hand feels test loop wire is burning;
6. The test results in the experimental form.
For many circuit, the experiments of several representative loop only tested.
The test results to Table 3.
5 Conclusion
This paper mainly introduces a heavy trucks small lights system improvement of
the specific case, through the case of calculation and analysis process express my
opinion is that we do not only in design of performance requirements, the
Table 3 short circuit experiment record

Code number Equipment name Fuse number Fuses blowout in 3S Wire heat
1 Left door-side lamb F39 Yes No
2 Front left-side lamb F39 Yes No
3 Front left-side lamb2 F39 Yes No
4 Rear right-side lamb F40 Yes No
5 Body-side lamb F40 Yes No
6 Horn switch-lamb F39 Yes No
7 Fog lamb switch-lamb F39 Yes No
8 Fog lamb relay coil F39 Yes No
9 Front left fog lamb F8 Yes No
10 Rear fog lamb F8 Yes No
production, the assembly, the cost, can use the resources comprehensive consid-
eration, to fully diversify our thinking. A good play achieved only by constantly
thinking, validation, and continuous improvement. Do a good product also is same.
References
1. Huang M (2003) Automotive electrical equipment. The peking University publishing house
p 234–254
2. Wei C (2004) Automotive electronics.The Beijing Institute of Technology publishing house
p 21–33
Development Trend Analysis
of Automobile Electronic System
ZhiRong Fan, Ying Xie, Cheng Yang, Yipeng Zhang and Jian Chen
Abstract Research and/or Engineering Questions/Objective: This chapter, based

on the technology evolution theory, reviewed present situation of the automobile
electronic system technology, based on this prediction that the electronic system in
function, structure and new technology development trend. Methodology: Using
on the S curve and technology evolution method based on TRIZ analyzing theory,
also vehicle electronic system of china own brand passenger car, this chapter
analyze developing tendency of vehicle electronic system with lamps, instrument,
auxiliary parking, bus network. Results: Through a systematic analysis, the result
of developing tendency of all the electrical and electronic systems is developed.
Limitations of this study: As in short this chapter, development tendency of
complete vehicle electronic system and specification of china own brand passenger
car is not fully covered. What does the paper offer that is new in the field in
comparison to other works of the author: This chapter analyzes the development of
electrical and electronic system, by adopted S curve theory and technology evo-
lution method based on TRIZ theory. Conclusion: Through the analyzing S curve
of electrical and electronic system, a conclusion can be drawn that the electrical
and electronic system will evolved towards platform, intelligent, and integration.
The electronic specification of China own brand passenger car still has certain
distance behind the frontier, yet still has a huge opportunity of development.
Keywords Electronic system Technology evolution Developing tendency S

curve China own brand
F2012-D02-024
Z. Fan (&) Y. Xie C. Yang Y. Zhang J. Chen

Dongfeng Motor Corporation Technical Center, Wuhan, China
e-mail: fanzhir@dfmc.com.cn
262 Z Fan et al.
1 Introduction
As a combination of electronic industry and car industry, automotive electronic is

developing rapidly. At present, the western developed countries have account
15–20 % of electronic products manufacturing, when many characteristic func-
tions are realized by the dependent of automobile electronic technology [1].
Automobile electronic not only promoted the development of the car industry, it
also greatly promoted the electronic product market. Modern automobile elec-
tronic technology has shown an irreplaceable role in improving automobile power,
safety, reliability, driving stability and comfort.
At the same time, customers are more and more rational about function and
performance requirements, regulations show increasingly harshness on reliability
and quality, cost-down target is classified to design and development, manufacture,
as well as the after-sales service, and in order to preemption market opportunities,
the research and development time cycle is compressed. Based on the above
factors, every famous carmaker is studying the development tendency of electronic
system, to help research department developing electrical and electronic archi-
tecture platforms, at the purpose of reducing development cycle as well as
development costs.
2 Analysis Methods
2.1 The S Curve of Technology Evolution
The evolution of technology system is not random, but to follow certain objective
law, like the evolution of biological systems, technology system also is facing a
‘‘natural selection’’.
The S curve is developed by analyzing massive products. The product per-
formance parameter evolution over time in law of S form curve, any product
development process will experience the baby period, youth period, mature period
and decline period, as shown in Fig. 1. Each product has its own core technology,
in narrow sense the core technology is through the physical, chemical and
geometry. If ever a new core technology substitute appears, two kinds of situations
will appear as the following:
(1) The new product will top existing product performance limit in performance;
(2) The new products will exceed the original product at a higher rate and with
lower prices, therefore the substitution process of product is also the substi-
tution process of core technology, as shown in Fig. 2.
Development Trend Analysis 263
Fig. 1 S curve of technology evolution
Fig. 2 S curve of product substitution
2.2 Technology Evolution Rule
Technology system evolution theory is based on analyze historical data of a lot of

the world patent and other technical engineering system. It is concluded by
G. S. Altshuler the founder of TRIZ and other TRIZ experts. It mainly embodies in
the process of technical system corresponds functions, technology system
improvement and development tendency. In the classic technology evolution
theory of eight different kinds of technology system evolution rules [2]: com-
pleteness rule, energy transfer rule, improving ideal rule, dynamic evolution rule,
subsystem unbalanced evolution rule, micro level evolution rule, super system
evolution rule, using evolution rule.
264 Z Fan et al.
Fig. 3 S curve of automobile electronic system evolutions
3 Electronic System Evolution Analyses
3.1 Electronic System Overall Development Analyses
Automobile electrical system is an important part of the car, which has one of the
performances of a direct impact on the car of the power, economy, emission,
comfort and so on. Automobile electric development has three stages, first is
automobile electronic products build by division components and integrated cir-
cuit, which has been eliminated now. Electronic devices from the scale integrated
circuit to large scale integrated circuit, promote the rapid development of auto-
mobile electric product, which developed some special independent system, such
as electronic control gas injection, antilock brake systems, and each system is
linked through the hard wire, which is complex and inconvenience in maintenance.
In order to perform a variety of functions of the comprehensive system and cen-
tralized control of vehicle integral system, there was such centralized control
system as body control system and video entertainment system. Using one con-
troller to focus on the control, each system will communicate buy network bus.
As shown in Fig. 3.
3.2 Lighting System
The source of the light from the original system of tungsten lamp to improved
halogen lamp, then to xenon headlamp, until the fourth generation of LED light
source, new light source performance continues to improve, as shown in Fig. 4.
The lamps periphery system development is mainly in headlight intelligent and
China own brand
Fig. 4 S curve of light lamps system
China own brand
Fig. 5 S curve of the development of the peripheral lamps organization
energy conservation, especially the AFS system and other humanized design, the
headlamps controller work in different environment and conditions to control the
front combination lamp, so as to achieve the purpose of safe driving, as shown in
Fig. 5. From the Figs. 4 and 5 can be seen that the china own brand passenger car
brand is still in the HID xenon lamp and headlight cleaning device, the next step is
the development of the headlights with optical waveguide and AFS system.
266 Z Fan et al.
China own brand
Fig. 6 S curve of the parking assistant system development
3.3 Parking Auxiliary System
The most basic of parking auxiliary system form is single reverse radar, after that,
video system was also used as parking assist device. As the continuous
improvement of the car safety requirements of customers, parking assistant system
becomes more and more important, and move to the all-round, detection means
development, such as the front anti-collision radar, backing up dynamic auxiliary
line, video image, side video images and automatic parking, its development curve
as shown in Fig. 6. We can see from Fig. 6, at present the china own brand
passenger cars are still in reverse video image stage, the next step should be
reverse dynamic auxiliary line function.
3.4 Instrument System
Today, most of the car instrument used digital processing technology. Typical
applications are the stepping motor instrument, all kinds of digital instrument and
LCD display information. From 3 in dot matrix screen to 7 in TFT color LCD
screen, make meter visual tonal of drivers improved. Display information is more
intuitive and easy to read. Recently, two to three years, full LCD screen appeared
in the luxury car meter part and concept car, let instrument displays and interface
entered a new area that, through the display screen, driver can see reverse images,
map navigation, night vision displays, mobile TV etc. In the future, the meter will
become information processing and display center. Through the instrument
China own brand
Fig. 7 S curve of combination instrument system development
information platform, drivers can not only understand the state of the vehicle and
situation around the vehicle, but also through the intelligent Internet technology,
understand the traffic and driving with relevant information. The development
course is shown in Fig. 7. We can see from Fig. 7, the china own brand passenger
car uses color LCD screen, the next step will be equipped with full LCD
instrument.
3.5 Network Communication Technology
Currently popular car bus: CAN, LIN, MOST, FlexRay, Bluetooth etc. CAN/LIN
network is mature technology, low in cost; within the next 5 years, CAN/LIN
network is still the mainstream of network technology; Very few luxury cars will
use FlexRay bus; MOST are mainly applied in navigation, multimedia systems. As
shown in Fig. 8, we can see from Fig. 8, at present the china own brand passenger
car uses the combination of the network CAN/LIN, the next step may use FlexRay
bus technology.
The communication network topology is of two kinds: single segment and multi-
segment structure, with the improvement of car, electrical function increasing and
the interaction between controller signals increasing, from single segment to many
segment is an inevitable trend.
268 Z Fan et al.
China own brand
Fig. 8 S curve of the network communication technology
4 The Technology Evolution Analysis of Car

Electronic System
Along with the computer technology, information technology and electronic

technology, new materials and new technology advancing, automobile electric
appliances product is also developing rapidly. More humane and intelligent
automobile electric appliances will bring people more convenient and joy.
Using the technical system evolution theory to analyze the electronic tech-
nology using trend, in conclusion, automobile electronic system development
trend will mainly embodied in the following aspects:
(1) EEA platform
Based on the existing models, combined with the next 3–5 years electronic
technology development trend, construct the relatively complete electronic func-
tion architecture, which has good expansibility portability and terrace of electronic
structure foundation, makes different models design engineers to work under one
platform according to different demands, save the development cost, shorten the
development cycle, ensure the development of electric vehicle quality.
(2) Network
At present CAN/LIN network is a mature technology, low in cost. Within the next
5 years, CAN/LIN network will still be the mainstream of network technology,
very few luxury cars will use FlexRay bus, MOST are mainly applied in navi-
gation, multimedia systems.
CAN network has been widely used in the development of domestic and foreign
oem models, will still be the mainstream technology, and with the improvement of
car configuration, electrical function increasing, and the interaction between
controller signal increases, single segment to multi segment of the development is

an inevitable trend. At the same time the Internet technology, optical fiber,
Bluetooth technology and network technology will also be applied largely to cars,
and further improving the car networking.
(3) Intelligent
Smart sensors and actuators, car level micro-processing technology have devel-
oped rapidly, the new control theory and method of usage has made car electronic,
digital and intelligent become mainstream car engineering.
Intelligent main is the adaptation to the change of environment and. In this
state, oems need environment sampling information, such as AFS technology,
biological recognition technology, automatic parking technology, etc. In order to
meet the market growing demand, oems will improve the intelligent of future
products, using AFS, Telematics and other new technology.
(4) Modular/integration
Through the integration to add control system function, which also divide function
into several separate set function. Such as meter integrate gateway functions,
which can realize the combination of the display and message routing, will
combines the instrument panel and control module, make its have universal;
Distributed car body control system, using one BCM and multiple units module,
may provide more function, better meet body control function of humanity,
comfort and safety requirements.
5 Summary
With the rapid development of industry, automotive technology is developing

towards environmental protection, energy saving, sustainable development,
humanity, intelligent, high technology, function integration and other development
direction. Through S curve analysis of the electronic system, and technology
system evolution analysis, it can be concluded that the electronic system will
change towards the platform, network, intelligent, module/integration develop-
ment direction, China own brand passenger car still has certain distance behind the
frontier, yet still has a huge opportunity of development.
References
1. QianJuGen. Domestic and foreign automobile electric appliances development trend ‘‘jiangsu
electric’’ 2008 years we period
2. TianJie flowers. The S curve and technology system evolution law the library collections
Automotive ECUs Fault Diagnosis
Modeling Based on the Fault Database
Yanqiang Li, Yang Li, Zhixue Wang, Ruke Zhuang and Jianxin Li
Abstract The automotive ECUs is becoming more and more complicated, and so
is the fault diagnosis. In order to improve the maintenance quality and efficiency,
the paper proposes a fault diagnosis approach based on fault database. By making
full use of data stream, we firstly extract symptom vector by processing data steam
and pre-processing rules, and then we use the symptom vector to match the fault
pattern in fault database, we use the unmatched vector as the test case of C4.5
decision tree algorithm to create the link rules between fault symptom and fault
reason, and finally store the rules into the fault database. An example of ETCs is
showed to testify the fault diagnosis method. The test result confirm the reliability
and validity of this diagnosis method.

Keywords Fault diagnosis modeling Data pre-processing Decision tree Fault
database
1 Introduction
With the rapid development of automotive Electronic Control Unit (ECUs), the
fault diagnosis becomes more and more complicated. And the link between
fault and fault symptom becomes less obvious. Diagnostic Trouble Code (DTC)
and in-vehicle fast data snap-shop is very useful to diagnose an ECU, but the fault
F2012-D02-026
Y. Li (&) Y. Li Z. Wang R. Zhuang J. Li

Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Automotive Electronic Technology,
Institute of Automation Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, Shan dong, China
e-mail: lisim51@126.com
272 Y. Li et al.
Fig. 1 To-be-diagnosed
system
e(t )
u (t )
f (t )
system
h(t )
coverage of DTC is limited. For example, the DTCs of 2003 Accord only cover
37 % malfunctions. Additionally, sometime the faults indicated by DTCs cannot
demonstrate the actual fault [1]. Although more and more diagnosis technology
have been applied in this field, but those methods, such as [2–4], often boils down
to the use of heuristics, associative case memories, or expert systems. These
approaches are restricted with respect to the complexity of the diagnosed system
and the faults to be detected [5].
This paper proposes a fault diagnosis approach based on fault database tech-
nologies in contrast to the above traditional approaches. Firstly, abnormal data
stream is extracted from data stream and then a fault symptom vector is created by
utilizing the data preprocessing approach, then we put the symptom vector into the
fault database to match fault pattern, and we use the unmatched symptom vector as
test case of decision tree to set up connection between fault symptoms and its
failure reasons, and at last, we save to the fault database.
2 Description
Generally speaking, fault diagnosis modeling is a complex process. The to-be-

diagnosed object can be abstracted as a system [6]. The system contains its
hardware and software, and it has interaction with outside environment. The
outside environment contains human factor, EMC factor, working environment
factor etc. The system fault reason contains hardware fault, software fault or
mechanical fault etc. The system can be abstracted as follows Fig. 1.The system
has input information or input functions uðtÞ; such as driving command or data
from sensors; the output information contains actuator command and fault infor-
mation. In addition, the system has the other possible failure caused by environ-
ment factor eðtÞ and human factor hðtÞ.
Because diagnosis object structure is complex under the condition of many
interaction factors, it is difficult to implement the fault diagnosis. But through the
Automotive ECUs Fault Diagnosis Modeling Based on the Fault Database 273
Info &
data
System aim System modeling Analysis & conclusion

&design & simulation conclusion
Optimize the
parameters
Re-examine the
framework
Fig. 2 Framework of Fault Diagnosis
establishment of a reasonable framework and idea of fault diagnosis, it is not

complicated to solve this problem. The paper proposes fault diagnosis structure as
shown in Fig. 2.
Firstly to clear the operating mechanism and fault symptom of whole system
based on available theoretical knowledge and experience, and then to determine
the system framework and boundaries and parameters of the variable for solving
the problem.
Secondly to built the system modeling based on the first work. The input–output
relationship should be described based on the mathematical and logic models.
Based on those models, simulation should be implemented in order to adjust and
optimize the parameters of those models.
Thirdly to optimize the previous parameters and boundary parameters based on
the history data and simulation result several times.
Fourthly to re-examine the previous model framework and boundary definition
based on the quantitative analysis several times in order to satisfy accurate
requirements.
At last to store the modeling conclusion.
3 Diagnosis Modeling
3.1 Electrical Throttle Control-System
In this paper, we propose an example of Electrical Throttle Control-system (ETCs)

which is the system that allow the ECM to precisely control the opening and
closing of the throttle valve based on drivers input and is also interrelated with
Traction Control ECU and Vehicle Stability Control ECU. The topology of the
ETCs is as follows:
274 Y. Li et al.
The ETCs-I is composed of an accelerator pedal assembly, a throttle body

assembly, and an ECM. The ECM contains CPU, throttle motor control drive
circuitry, a power supply, and inputs from other functions. In addition, the ECM
electronic fuel injection and ignition functions provide fuel and spark in the correct
amounts and at the correct time to keep the engine running. All three (i.e., air
mass, fuel, and ignition) are needed in the correct proportion and sequence for the
engine to run otherwise power output is diminished and/or the engine stalls [7].
3.2 Diagnosis Modeling
Fault diagnosis modeling is the core of the diagnosis. The paper proposes such the
diagnosis process: picking up abnormal data flow from data stream and pre-pro-
cess those data to extract fault symptom vectors based on the data pre-processing
rules, putting vectors into the history fault database to match the same fault mode,
those unmatched vectors are deemed as test case for decision tree, the decision tree
creates diagnosis rules, and the rules are stored in the fault database. The working
process is as follows [4]:
1. Firstly, we need to know the working principles of ETCs, and to analysis the
possible fault reasons. The possible fault component concludes: Throttle
position Sensor, Idle speed Sensor, Accelerator pedal sensor, Transmission gear
Sensor, Throttle Motor, Cruise control System, Engine control System.
2. Secondly, we need to classify and check the data stream: the data stream is
mainly divided into value information, control information and the other
information. The premise of fault diagnosis is to judge whether the parameters
are in a reasonable range, are stable and are change unreasonable.
3. Thirdly, we need to pre-process those abnormal data stream. The aim of data
pre-processing is to extract useful information, and change data stream into
symptom vector based on pre-processing rules, and the vector is the input of the
fault database;
4. Finally, putting the symptom vectors into the history fault database which is the
core component of fault diagnosis. The fault database is used to store fault
symptom vector and its corresponding fault reason vector. If the input vector
can match the fault mode, the fault reason can be found based on the fault
reason vector; if it isn’t matched, the fault symptom vector is used as test case
of decision tree. Though decision tree algorithm, the fault reason rule is created.
With the accumulation of test cases, the fault database will become more
effective. Figure 3 shows the fault diagnosis process (Fig. 4).
Throttle
Accelerator Pedal Valve
Position Sensors
Idle Speed ECM

Control Sensor Throttle
Control
Throttle control Motor
Cruise Control
Transmission Fuel Injection

Shifting Control
Mass air flow Ignition Coil
Fig. 3 Topology of ETCs-I
start
Data pre-process
Database with
symptom & failure
Test cases
Decision tree
No
Matches or Cut set
not
Rule set
Yes
Diagnosis system
Failure match
Fig. 4 Fault Diagnosis Process

276 Y. Li et al.
3.2.1 Data Pre-processing
Based on the working principle of ETCs, we should analysis the possible failure
and link between the fault symptom and fault reason [8]. According to the
experience of domain expert knowledge, the fault symptom and fault reason of
every possible fault component are encoded, Table 1 shows the fault symptom
code of ETCs.
Fault database is used to store fault symptom vector and its corresponding fault
reason vector, the fault database needs to refer to a lot of experiment and test
result. The expert should set the initial value based on their experiment firstly,
however, the low accuracy of database should be modified constantly, thus, with
the increase of the test cases, the database becomes more and more accurate and
credible. Table 2 shows the relationship between fault symptom and its related
reason vector.
Fault occurs when abnormal data steam is generated. After extracting those
abnormal data stream, the fault symptom vector can be created based on the fault
component and its symptom, according to transacting rules of Table 2.
3.2.2 Decision Tree Algorithm Modeling
The most influential decision tree algorithm is ID3 and C4.5 proposed by Quinlan
in 1986. The core algorithm of ID3 is to take all unused attributes and count their
entropy concerning test samples, to choose attribute for which entropy is minimum
and make node containing that attribute. The C4.5 is the improved ID3 algorithm,
using information gain ratio as the attribute selection criteria, to make up for the
inadequacy of ID3 algorithm [9, 10]. The working process is as follows:
1. Calculate the exception information of set S: Suppose S is the data set of s
subset, suppose s1 ; s2 ; ; sm are m subsets belonging to E, the information
entropy is as follows:
X
m
si si
Iðs1 ; ; sm Þ ¼ log2 ð1Þ
i¼1
s s
2. Calculate the entropy of the subset S after a split over the A attribute:
X
k
EðAÞ ¼ ðsij þ þ smj Þ=s Iððsij þ þ smj Þ: ð2Þ
i¼1
Table 1 Data Pre-processing

Electronics Identifiers Failure symptom Possible failure reason
component
Throttle f1 Small openings \3–5 between Position sensor fail high, low,
Position normal sensor values and intermediate values.
Sensor DTC for sensors not within compromised power feed or
(TPS) the range. ground to both sensors
f2 Small openings \3between Incorrect learning of fully closed
normal sensor values and position, sensor voltage lower
DTC position does not match
commanded
Idle speed f3 DTC for sensors not within Temperature sensor fail high,
sensors operational zone low, intermediate values
f4 DTC for sensors not within Incorrect Sensing of Engine
operational zone, Engine stall Load, Gear, Power Steering,
A/C, Electric Load, Engine
Speed
f5 Small openings \3–5 between Incorrect learning of throttle
normal sensor values and angle for Idle speed
DTC limit
Transmission f6 DTC when selected Gear doesn’t Transmission shifting, torque
sensors match sensed gear ratio converter lockup throttle
modulation
Pedal sensors f7 DTC for high, low and outside Position sensor fail high, low,
lane. None, if Pedal sensors intermediate values
fail within operational lane
DTC
f8 Engineered Fault in operational Incorrect learning value, Dual
lane Valid pedal signal failures to specific voltages
escapes detection, not DTC. that result in voltages within
Electrical Failures should operational lane
leave trace
f9 Dual failures that result in voltage Engineered Fault in operational
within operational lane lane Valid pedal signal
escapes detection, no DTC.
Throttle f10 DTC high current, transitory Motor shorted to power or
motor small opening until DTC ground, h-bridge fail, lath-up
activates fail-safe or transistor short
mode \0.5 s
Cruise control f11 Short of power, ground, open Failure of Steering Column
disable function Switches or ECM input circuit
f12 DTC when both Brake Switch Failed Brake Switch
poles do not agree. Cannot
switch into Gear
f13 DTC for Speed Sensor, small Vehicle Speed indicate lower
throttle openings to maintain speed
0.06 g acceleration to set
speed
(continued)
278 Y. Li et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Electronics Identifiers Failure symptom Possible failure reason
component
Software of f14 Theoretical Fault Escapes Software unilaterally opens
ECU Detection throttle with Accelerator
released., Idle Fuel Cut not
active, Watchdog serviced, no
EDAC error
Table 2 Fault symptom vector

Num Fault symptom vector Fault reason vector (U)
f1 f2 f3 … f14
1 1 0 0 _ 0 U1
2 0 1 0 _ 0 U2
3 0 0 1 _ 0 U3
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
n 0 0 0 _ 1 Un
3. Calculate the gain of the attribute A is:

GainðAÞ ¼ Iðs1 ; s2 ; ; sm Þ EðAÞ ð3Þ
4. Calculate the gain of the subset S after a split over the A attribute:
Gain Ration ðA; SÞ ¼ Gain ðS; AÞ=SplitInfoðS; AÞ ð4Þ

X
c
SplitInfoðA; SÞ ¼ ðjSj j=jSj log2 jSj j=jSjÞ ð5Þ
i¼1
SplitInfo (S,A) expressing the breadth and uniformity of split set S according to
attribute A.
The highest attribute of the information gain ratio as the test attributes of set S
is used to create a node. To create branch according to A property of all value
or all intervals, so to divide the sample.
5. Cut Sets- the formal method are pre-pruning and post-pruning, and post-
pruning allows over fitting data, and then built the tree pruning; The pre-
pruning method is difficult to estimate when to stop tree growth accurately, so
the post-pruning method is more practical in the real problem. The paper use
the post-pruning method to avoid the tree over growing and to avoid data over
fitted, and using the test case itself to judging whether pruning or not.
" #
f q
Pr pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi [ z ¼ c ð6Þ
qð1 qÞ=N
N = quantity of test cases, f = E/N error rate (E is the N instances in the

number of classification errors), q = real error rate, c = degree of confidence
(C4.5 default value is 2.5), z is the corresponding standard deviation of the degree
of confidence c.
Suppose there 14 fault according to the current test samples. The fault reason is
as follows: U1 = sensors shorted to the ground or power, U2 = Sensor supply
voltage is too low resulting in the position value error, U3 = temperature value not
within the valid range; U4 = Error sensing data leading to data collection error;
U5 = incorrect learning of throttle opening, U6 = Torque conversion error;
U7 = position sensor’s voltage lower or higher, U8 = Position sensor output error
learning, U9 = Fault coverage for non-DTC torque, U10 = Electrical shorted to
power or ground, H-bridge failure, U11 = steering wheel key failure or ECM input
circuit failure, U12 = Brake switch failure, U13 = Speed error,U14 = watchdog
action or login errors.
According to the formula, we need to calculate exception information of all test
cases; Then, calculating the information gain ratio of each attribute. And con-
structing every brunch of decision tree according to the formula above. After
traversing the decision tree we get the following classification rules:
IF throttle opening increases AND DTC occurs for throttle sensor not within the
valid range THEN throttle sensor shorted to Power or Ground;
IF throttle opening increases AND DTC occurs for pedal sensor not within the
valid range THEN position sensor’s voltage lower or higher;
IF throttle opening increases AND cruise control system shorted to power or
ground THEN steering wheel key failure or ECM input circuit failure;
IF engine temperature is too low AND ECM fault escape detection THEN
watchdog action or login errors;
IF engine temperature is too low AND pedal sensor opening small openings\3–5
between normal sensor values THEN temperature value not within the valid range;
IF engine temperature is too low AND pedal sensor has no DTC and throttle small
opening \3 to 5 THEN incorrect learning of throttle opening;
IF engine temperature is too low AND throttle motor small-angle instantaneous
detecting large current DTC THEN Electrical shorted to power or ground,
H-bridge failure (Fig. 5).
280 Y. Li et al.
Fig. 5 Fault Decision Tree

Sudden unintended acceleration
Throttle opening Engine water temperature

increase lower
f14
f1 f11
f7 U14 2,5
U1 U11
U7
2 5
f3 f5 f10
U3 U5 U10
3.3 Experiment Result
Fault phenomena of one type electronic throttle system is that throttle

opening increases unexpected without any operation. After monitoring signals by
using CANoe, we find the abnormal data stream comes from pedal sensor.
Based on the data-preprocessing rules, we get the fault symptom vector f ¼
½0; 0; 0; 0; 0; 0; 1; ; 0 After put the vector into the fault database, the fault pat-
tern is matched and the fault reason is the output of position sensor is too high or
too low. The fault symptom disappeared after changing the position sensor.
4 Conclusion
This paper proposes a fault diagnosis modeling structure in the first place, then it
proposes a fault diagnosis algorithm based on fault database. The main process is
to extract the abnormal data stream and change the data stream into fault symptom
vector based on data pre-processing rule, and then put the vectors into database to
match fault pattern, and we use the unmatched symptom vector as test case of
decision tree to set up connection between fault symptoms and its failure reasons.
At last, we store the rules in the fault database. The paper proposes ETCs as an
example to test the fault diagnosis model, and the test result confirm the reliability
and validity of the modeling method.
Acknowledgments This work has been supported by Natural Science Foundation of Shandong
Province, China (ZR2011FQ034).
References
1. Ya D (2009) Data analysis in automotive fault diagnosis. Machinery Industry Press, Beijing,
pp 2–4
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3. Choi K (2006) Data reduction techniques for intelligent fault diagnosis in automotive
systems. Autotestcon, pp 66–72
4. Namburu SM (2006) Application of signal analysis and data-driven approaches to fault
detection and diagnosis in automotive engines. Systems, Man and ybernetics, pp 3665–3670
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6. Xuesen Q (2005) A new discipline of science-The study of open complex giant system and its
methnology. Urban Stud 12(5):1–8
7. Technical support to the national highway traffic safety administration on the reported toyota
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Comput Eng Des 2010(16):3708–3711
Secure Microprocessor Architectures:
Solutions from the Semi-Conductor
Industry
Klaus Scheibert and Björn Steurich
Abstract Even if the question of manipulation protection is not always widely

understood to date among some non-European vehicle manufacturers, this topic
plays a particularly critical role among German premium vehicle manufacturers.
As soon as the ignition key is turned, a number of electronic controllers (ECUs)
start performing authentication queries by means of a challenge-response method
(based among other things on the 128-bit AES standard). Both the necessary
security keys and the process of data evaluation and processing must be protected
from possible attacks. Based on the Secure Hardware Extension (SHE) of the latest
90 nm 32-bit TriCoreTM microcontroller generations, the future extension to the
Hardware Security Module (HSM) is described for components based on the
incoming 65 nm technology. The concept for this enhancement is based on work
carried out in the framework of the European research project EVITA
(www.evitaproject.org). The implementation is being performed by Infineon in
close cooperation of its Automotive and Chip Card and Security divisions.
Keywords Cryptography IP protection Component protection SHE HSM
F2012-D02-029
K. Scheibert B. Steurich (&)

Infineon Technologies AG, Neubiberg, Germany
e-mail: bjoern.steurich@infineon.com
284 K. Scheibert and B. Steurich
1 Motivation
According to a publication by the MEMA Brand Protection Council [1], the global
financial losses owing to forgeries amounted to 600 billion US Dollars in 2008.
MEMA highlighted losses by the automobile industry of some 12 billion US
Dollars (USA: 3 billion US Dollars, Europe: 9 billion US Dollars).
The forecast (Frost and Sullivan) for 2011 predicted an increase to over 44.7
billion US Dollars. While mechanical plagiarism (from windscreen wipers to oil
filters to brake pads) has accounted for the majority of this to date, the number of
cases involving falsified electronic components is on the increase and, apart from
theft and replacement of controllers as well as chip tuning, is resulting in signif-
icant losses in the automobile industry.
Such offenses surely cannot be regarded as trivial if one considers that falsified
or modified vehicle components:
• Represent a not inconsiderable security risk both for the passengers and also for
service personnel. The risk increases disproportionately with the complexity of
the components.
• Can result in the loss of valuable jobs.
• Can endanger the image of established brands and lead to spurious liability
claims.
• Involve organized criminals.
It must also be considered that the intellectual property both of the vehicle
manufacturers and the suppliers lies to a large extent in the software and therefore
can in the case of inadequate protection represent easy prey for fraudsters.
The excerpt below is structured as follows:
Following an overview of the current implementation and application of the
SHE module, a detailed comparison with the future HSM module is performed. In
addition, other security measures implemented by Infineon are explained in rela-
tion to hardware interfaces, storage protection and chip ID. The article concludes
with an appraisal of other possible application areas, a summary and a projection
of future developments.
2 Secure Hardware Extension
The Secure Hardware Extension (SHE) is based on the Hersteller (manufacturer)

Initiative Software (HIS) to which the OEMs Volkswagen, BMW, Audi and
Daimler belong [2]. Infineon’s SHE implementation is based on the specification
Version 1.1 dated April 01, 2009 of the HIS consortium (AK Security). The Secure
Hardware Extension (SHE) is an on-chip extension for microcontrollers in the
automobile area. The intention is to move the control of cryptographic keys from
the application domain to the hardware domain and in so doing protect the secret
Secure Microprocessor Architectures 285
keys from software attacks. In contrast to more robust solutions such as Trusted
Platform Module (TPM) chips or smartcards, the specification declares that no
resistance is needed in the face of physical attacks (such as differential power
analysis (DPA), electromagnetic analysis (EMA), attacks with interference
pulses). The priority is more so to reduce the risk of an attack to a commercially
acceptable level. This means that the costs of a physical attack must be higher in
any case than the possible financial gains that can be hoped to be achieved with a
successful attack (e.g. through avoidance of global keys or series-specific
passwords). Therefore, if a costly successful attack on a security system in a car
only leads for example to the obtaining of a vehicle-specific crypto key, which
cannot be transferred to the next automobile, then the effort required for a chip
tuner for example is not in proportion to the effort invested in terms of the benefit
gained.
The primary declared objectives of HIS can be summarized as follows
according to [3]:
• Protection of cryptographic keys against software attacks
• Provision of an authentic software and hardware environment (referred to below
as a ‘‘secure boot’’)
• Exclusive dependency of the target security level on the strength of the
underlying computational algorithm and the confidentiality of the cryptographic
keys
• Distribution of ownership of keys to a number of electronic components
(controllers)
• Optimum flexibility with respect to provision and lower add-on costs (for
example the possibility to exchange the key in the workshop)
2.1 Overview on Current Implementation
The SHE module has thus far been implemented by Infineon on the TC1798,
TC1793 and TC1791 microcontrollers in 90 nm flash technology. These micro-
controllers are the three premium components of the AUDO MAX family [4].
With an internal clock frequency of up to 300 MHz, the components are based on
the TriCoreTM CPU and were designed especially for powertrain and chassis
applications. Apart from excellent real-time capability, development focused on
the aspects of functional safety and data protection.
Figure 1 shows the arrangement of SHE within the AUDO MAX architecture.
The module comprises the following four main hardware components [3]:
• A hardware accelerator for symmetrical block ciphers based on the encryption
standard AES-128 [5]
• A true random number generator (TRNG) for generating 128-bit random
numbers
• A memory for storing cryptographic keys and data
Fig. 1 SHE architecture
• Control logic for managing the arithmetic operations and memory access within
SHE.
SHE (as well as HSM) relates to a hardware software co-design. The entire
security concept only takes effect if the hardware is supported by corresponding
application software and processes. The hardware components are described in
detail below before their application is discussed in greater detail.
2.1.1 AES-128 Hardware Accelerator
All cryptographic operations of SHE are performed based on AES-128. The

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a symmetrical encryption algorithm that
was published as a successor to DES and 3DES in October 2000 by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The AES-128 variant has a fixed
block and key length of 128-bits each. A hardware accelerator was implemented
for the AES-128 block ciphers in order to speed up the cryptographic operations.
The main cryptographic operations supported by SHE include the secure
encryption and decryption of messages as well as the authentication of messages
and data of various communication partners (external and internal hardware
components):
• The AES-128 hardware accelerator supports the two operating modes ECB
(Electronic Cipher Codebook) for individual 128-bit data blocks and CBC
(Cipher Block Chaining) for larger data volumes (n 9 128-bit blocks) for
encrypting and decrypting messages. Encryption and decryption of an individual
128-bit block is performed in both operating modes within \1 ls.
• In cryptography, Message Authentication Code (MAC) refers to the generation of

a digital fingerprint for authenticating a sent (unencrypted) message. It therefore
provides protection against undetected manipulation of the sent message. A secret
key issued to the sender and recipient is required beforehand. The sender
generates the MAC based on the secret key and the message being transmitted
(plain text). The message and MAC are transmitted. The recipient likewise
generates the MAC from the message received and compares it with the MAC sent
by the sender. The SHE module uses hash functions to create the MACs. ‘‘A hash
function h can be defined here as a mapping h : A ! A00 , which can be used to
convert character strings of any length (character block) x 2 A to character
strings hðxÞ 2 A00 of a constant length n [5]’’. The function value h(x) is called the
hash value, hash code or also message digest of x. An iterative hash function is
also referred to as a compression function. SHE uses the method based on Miy-
aguchi-Preneel as the compression function in order to generate hash values by
means of AES-128 block ciphers and secret keys. A MAC based on block
encryption is also referred to as CMAC (Cipher-based MAC).
2.1.2 Random Number Generator
The SHE module uses a pseudo random number generator (PRNG) to generate
128-bit random numbers for challenge-response authentication (see Sect. 3.2.2).
The start value is generated by means of a true random number generator (TRNG).
The task of a pseudo random number generator is to generate a bit sequence that
cannot if possible be differentiated by means of statistical analysis from a real,
random bit sequence. This means that:
• The bits are distributed uniformly, therefore the same number of zeros occur as
ones.
• A specific bit in the sequence cannot be derived from the others, therefore is
independent of the preceding and subsequent bits.
The TRNG implemented corresponds in all operating modes to at least the
classification ‘‘P1 medium’’ under [6]. The pseudo random generator uses the
AES-128 hardware accelerator in the ECB operating mode with PRNG_KEY as
the key for calculating the feedback function. The random number generator is
used for challenge-response authentication and for generating the initialization
vector for CBC coding.
2.1.3 SHE Memory Area
The SHE module is attached to the peripheral bus and as the bus master can
therefore initiate data transfer from and to other peripherals as well as memory
areas. 48 Mbytes of RAM and a 2 9 8 kByte data flash have been implemented
for storing confidential keys, MACs and temporary data. Access to this memory
area is blocked for all other bus masters. SHE has write or read access to the
separate flash area.
2.2 Application of the SHE Module
2.2.1 Secure Boot
A main requirement with respect to SHE is the enabling of a secure boot process,
i.e. the checking of authenticity of the internal flash memory content each time the
microcontroller boots. A short software routine is executed for this purpose
immediately after the reset (part of the Boot ROM code of the application
processor) and before the actual application software. This routine checks a
memory area, which is referred to as the SHE boot loader, by calculating a CMAC
(Miyaguchi-Preneel process with BOOT_MAC_KEY as the secret key—see
3.1.1). The result is compared with the expected value (BOOT_MAC) stored in the
secure flash area. If the calculation does not arrive at the expected result (e.g.
through prior manipulation of the memory content or by booting from external
memory), the keys can be locked explicitly in the flash memory (see 3.1.3). As
soon as the initialization of the microcontroller has concluded, the SHE boot
loader is first executed. This can in turn initialize the checking of the other
memory areas. The concept is based on the idea of ‘‘core root of trust for mea-
surement’’ (CRTM) as proposed by the Trusted Computing Group [7].
The size of the tested memory area can be freely selected. The AES hardware
accelerator used allows checking of 128 kBytes of the integrated flash memory in
\10 ms. A further variety of the ‘‘Secure Boot’’ operating mode is the checking of
certain security critical software sequences in the background following the start-
up of the application. Delays while powering-up the controller can be avoided in
this way and thus appropriately short response times can be achieved in the
controller network cluster. Following authentication or unsuccessful authentication
of a software sequence, it can then still be decided how a controller will react (for
example because of an error entry in the error memory).
2.2.2 Challenge-Response Authentication
The challenge-response method is a secure authentication procedure used by a

communication partner based on shared knowledge. One partner presents a question
(‘‘challenge’’) and another partner must provide a valid answer (‘‘response’’) to
prove s/he knows certain information. Depending on the encryption method used, a
variety of different methods can be used, all of which are based however, on the same
basic principle. If one partner (generally referred to as Alice in cryptography) wants
to authenticate him/herself to another partner (generally referred to as Bob), Bob for
example sends a random number N (Nonce) to Alice (Bob therefore presents the
challenge). Alice encrypts this number N with her password and sends the result
back to Bob (and therefore delivers the response). Bob has meanwhile encrypted the
same random number with the password known to him for Alice and compares the
result of this encryption with the response that he gets from Alice. If the two
encrypted messages are identical, Alice has successfully authenticated herself. What
is important here is that the partners do not transmit the password, rather simply have
to prove that they know it. Such a security request can take place, for example,
during start-up and can recur periodically or for predefined events.
A series of application cases arise of which three will be depicted below by way
of example:
• Electronic immobilizer: The immobilizer is activated automatically when the
ignition is turned off. An RFID chip (radio frequency identification) is generally
used to disable it again when switching on the ignition. In the case of the current
third generation immobilizers, both the communication between the RFID
transponder and the immobilizer (authentication of the approved driver) and the
communication between the immobilizer and the engine control unit (release of
vehicle/starting of engine) are secured cryptographically by means of challenge-
response authentication.
• Component protection: Following conclusion of the secure boot process, the
domain controller (gateway ECU) for example checks the authenticity of the
controllers of the associated system domain. According to the manufacturer’s
guidelines, a variety of controllers meanwhile participate in the authentication
queries. In the case of stolen or exchanged controllers, the cryptographic keys do
not match and the component protection prevents the actual application software
from booting for example (incl. air conditioning, CD changer, dashboard dis-
plays, body gateway).
• Protection against chip tuning: Chip tuning, i.e. the subsequent modification
of application software supplied ex works or calibration data, seems at first
glance to be a temptingly easy way to increase driving dynamics and improve
performance. Increasing the performance by chip tuning general produces
results that vehicle manufacturers would prefer to avoid. Such results include
shorter lifespan, deteriorating exhaust emission values or higher wear and tear.
This gives rise to quite a significant risk potential. The chip internal flash
memory (embedded flash) in the microcontroller is used almost exclusively
today for storing the application software and calibration data. This gives rise to
two potential attack scenarios—replacement of the microcontroller by a copy or
manipulation of the memory data by means of a programming device via
external memory or debug interfaces. The first procedure can generally be
eliminated owing solely to the complexity of the chip package used (and can
moreover be suppressed by the component protection described above). Chal-
lenge-response authentication therefore reliably prevents replacement of the
microcontroller for a newly programmed off-the-shelf device. Furthermore, a
series of additional measures are provided in the microcontroller hardware that
protect against unauthorized reading of the memory content and also prevent the
code in the internal program flash (PFLASH) area from being modified in an
unauthorized manner by third parties for the purpose of engine tuning. Some of
these additional measures are described in greater detail in the next section.
2.3 Additional Protection Mechanism
Among the additional protection mechanisms of the TriCoreTM microcontroller

family is the possibility to block read and write access to the internal flash memory
(Read and Write Protection), as well as the option to lock the external debug
interfaces (depending on the respective boot mode and selected memory protec-
tion). The primary goal is to protect both the IP of the vehicle manufacturer and
the supplier against ‘‘Reverse Engineering’’.
If the entire memory area is blocked with respect to read access, this auto-
matically protects the entire memory against write access also (this protection can
be disabled separately for the data memory). Furthermore, a choice can be made
between write and OTP (One Time Programmable) protection for each individual
sector of the program memory. OTP protected sectors are locked in this case to
prevent further deletion and from this point on offer ROM functionality. Readout
protection as well as sector-specific write protection can be disabled temporarily
for a driving cycle via password protection. If read protection is activated and the
program boots from the internal flash memory, the external debug interfaces are
locked automatically.
Read protection can be canceled temporarily by means of a 64-bit password in
order for example to change access rights or perform a programming action. Since
only one (correct) attempt is permitted per boot cycle, up to 264 attempts are
required in order to hack the password (with 2 ms per boot cycle, this could take
theoretically up to 1.17 billion years, which corresponds to approx. 26 % of the
estimated scientific Earth age).
3 EVITA
3.1 Project Overview
The Hardware Security Module (HSM) presented below is a specific implemen-

tation of the hardware security extension presented in the framework of the
European Research Project EVITA [8]. The aim is to create a secure system
architecture for exchanging data within the vehicle as well as for external com-
munication (vehicle to vehicle and vehicle to infrastructure). The objective here, as
with SHE, is to protect the platform integrity, provide secure communication
channels, access control, and detect and prevent infiltrations. In contrast to SHE,
HSM is multi-tasking capable however and also offers programmability of addi-
tional cryptographic functions.
3.2 Overview of the Different HSM Variants
In order to enable optimally cost-effective hardware solutions for the various

application scenarios in the automobile industry, three different HSM variants have
been specified [9, 10]:
• The HSM full version for protecting the vehicle’s board net from external
attacks in the case of V2X communication. The variety of communication
partners requires continuous creation and checking of electronic signatures. By
using asymmetrical rather than symmetrical encryption, the key distribution
problem, i.e. the distribution of keys via an unsecure channel, is simplified
considerably. The total number of required keys is also comparatively small (2
keys per party). These are two criteria that favor the use of asymmetrical
encryption owing to the variety of communication partners involved in V2X
communication. However, this goes hand in hand with significantly increased
computational effort (100–100 times slower than equivalent symmetrical
encryption) and relatively large key length. To fulfill these performance
requirements, a highly efficient asymmetrical cryptographic processing unit is
required for the full version. In addition, the AES-128 hardware accelerator
is extended by additional operating modes in comparison with SHE.
• The medium HSM variant for protecting on-board communication. Owing to
the limited number of communication partners (approximately 50 controllers for
a medium class vehicle) and the possibility to exchange the key, for example,
during end-of-line programming, asymmetrical cryptography can be foregone
with the medium variant. With the exception of the missing asymmetrical
cryptographic module, the medium HSM variant is similar to the full version.
Depending on the processing performance of the CPU used, there is also the
possibility to execute fewer time-critical asymmetrical encryption operations in
software.
• The HSM light version for secure communication between controllers, sensors
and actuators. Only a symmetrical cryptographic processing unit is required in
this case and a hardware interface reduced by the corresponding range of
functions.
4 Extension to the Hardware Security Module
A detailed explanation was given in the last section which security applications are
candidates for the various HSM variants (Light/Medium/Full) in the framework of
the EVITA project. The current implementation of the SHE module within the
Infineon 90 nm AUDO MAX Premium Controller TC179x assumes a mixed form
when classified in the existing EVITA nomenclature, which fits in somewhere
between Light HSM and Medium HSM.
When defining the next 65 nm powertrain microcontroller, Infineon took into
account the customer’s requirements to develop some security functions in the
direction of the Medium HSM hardware approach of EVITA.
4.1 Objective of Infineon
Having committed itself in the case of the automotive microcontroller applications

mainly to application areas such as Powertrain (PT), Hybrid and Electrical Vehicle
(HEV and EV) as well as active and passive Safety, it stood to reason to use the
security hardware classification described in the EVITA project as a basis and to
align it to the customer’s requirements. The result was clear and excludes the use of a
special asymmetric hardware extension as described in the Full HSM approach. In
concrete terms, this refers in particular to future driving operation-related com-
munication services for vehicle to vehicle communication, which by preference use
asymmetrical cryptographical methods based on hardware accelerator algorithms
such as ECC-256 (Elliptic Curve Cryptography) or special symmetrical AES hash
methods such as WHIRLPOOL for ensuring a secure communication channel.
The HSM implementation selected by Infineon will therefore focus on secure
vehicle-internal communication. Compared with the already established SHE
architecture, the HSM module is equipped however with a flexible, multi-tasking
capable 32-bit processor. Furthermore, the 128-bit AES hardware accelerator is
extended beyond ECB (Electronic Code Book) and CBC (Cipher Block Chaining),
to include additional, higher-performance symmetrical processing modes such as
CFB (Cipher Feedback), CTR (Counter Mode), OFB (Output Feedback for PRNG
functions), GCM (Galois Counter Mode) and XTS (XEX-TCB-CTS).
4.2 Overview of the Implementation of the HSM
The aim of the HSM implementation (Fig. 2) is to develop an optimally flexible

and high performance freely programmable microcontroller security subsystem,
which can perform its tasks autonomously in the background completely inde-
pendently of the primary application.
Fig. 2 HSM architecture
The implemented HSM IP essentially comprises the following IP blocks:

• 32-bit processor with up to 100 MHz CPU processor speed
• MPU (Memory Protection Unit)
• Dedicated, local 24-40 kByte SRAM area (ECC protected)
• Local ROM for autonomously booting the HSM
• HSM password or OTP protected PLASH code sectors (2 9 64 and 1 9 16 KB)
• Separate data flash (DFLASH) as key memory (non-readable and non-writeable
for application software)
• High-performance 128-bit AES hardware extension:
– Supported modes: ECB, CBC, CTR, OFB, CFB, GCM and XTS
– Data throughput:
Minimum 25 MByte/s @ 100 MHz for secure boot (Hashing for SHE: At
least 10 MByte/s)
– AES pipelining with separate, associated contexts for processing five data
streams in time multiplexing mode
– Context, operating modes and up to eight keys can be combined arbitrarily
• True Random Number Generator (TRNG) based on AIS 31 ‘‘class P2 High’’
classification
• Defined bus interface with firewall to the application software
• Register for defined interrupt generation in both directions
• 2 9 16-bit general purpose timer.
The HSM subsystem is started following a cold start (e.g. driving cycle with
terminal 15 on) by means of an integrated local boot ROM and can start working
in the background without any knowledge of the main application software.
Nevertheless, communication is possible at all times with the software tasks

implemented in the controller via the integrated defined application interface with
firewall functionality. For example, all SHE functions can, as described in the
specification Version 1.1 of the HIS Consortium (AK Security) [3], be emulated
from a combination of software and hardware functions. Discussion in the
AUTOSAR Consortium is likewise already focusing heavily on AUTOSAR
compatible security extensions, which ultimately will communicate in the future
with the HSM module via a security framework API layer that is yet to be defined.
4.3 Comparison with SHE
As already mentioned in the last section, emulation of the complete SHE func-
tionality with the accordingly specified features by means of the HSM hardware
including a corresponding SHE software layer is possible at any time.
In addition, the following functions are also offered in the HSM extension:
• The 128-bit AES hardware accelerator unit was extended beyond the ECB and
CBC modes already required in the SHE specification to include the CTR, OFB,
CFB, GCM and XTS modes.
• With five free contexts in the AES unit and up to eight different keys and in
conjunction with a flexible processor software layer, the system is now multi-
tasking capable in contrast to the existing SHE implementation.
• 2 9 16-bit general purpose timers extend the flexibility of the system.
• The freely programmable 32-bit CPU enables the implementation of asym-
metrical cryptographic algorithms in software (e.g. ECC-256) if these can get by
with a lower performance. This should suffice at least for less time-critical
asymmetrical cryptography, which for example could come into question for
secure communication between the electric vehicle and charging station or
control unit and the workshop tester.
4.4 Applications of the HSM Module
Further potential applications of the HSM extension compared with those already
outlined in SHE Sect. 3.2 are:
• Secure sensor communication e.g. on PSI5 bus in conjunction with an EVITA
light module on a pressure senor
• Secure communication to a workshop tester by starting with an asymmetric
challenge-response authentication followed by a Deffi-Hellman to establish a
session and then continued symmetrically. The necessary routines can thereby
run on the freely programmable 32-bit CPU of the HSM module
• Secure communication between electric vehicle (EV) and the charging station
(implemented in a similar manner than the communication to the workshop
tester)
• Secure mileage storage to prevent tachometer turning
5 Summary and Outlook
Based on the Secure Hardware Extension (SHE), the 90 nm TC179x powertrain

microcontrollers already support a modular hardware and software security con-
cept for automotive use. Thanks to the subsequent extension to the Hardware
Security Module (HSM) of the 65 nm generation, new applications are opening up
both in the area of engine and transmission control and in areas such as eMobility
and active and passive safety.
At this point we would like to thank the Hersteller Initiative Software (HIS)
Consortium as well as our partners from the EVITA project for their consistently
good and constructive cooperation.
References
1. MEMA Brand Protection Council (2008) Intellectual property: protecting valuable assets in a
global market, Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association (MEMA), USA, January
2. Hersteller Initiative Software (HIS), http://portal.automotive-his.de
3. Escherich R, Ledendecker I, Schmal C, Kuhls B, Grothe C, Scharberth F (2009) SHE: Secure
Hardware Extension—Functional Specification, Version 1.1. Hersteller Initiative Software
(HIS) AK Security, April
4. Hank G (2010) Mehr Leistung, weniger C02- Mikrocontroller-Architekturkonzept für
Anwendungen mit hohen Sicherheitsanforderungen. Elektronik Automotive, Deutschland
5. Haenni R (2006) Kryptographie in Theorie und Praxis, 1st edn. Hochschule für Technik und
Informatik Biel, Schweiz
6. Schindler W (2001) A proposal for: functionality classes and evaluation methodology for true
(physical) random number generators, Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik
(BSI), Bonn, Version 3.1, September
7. Trusted Computing Group, https://www.trustedcomputinggroup.org/
8. E-safety Vehicle Intrusion Protected Applications (EVITA) project, www.evita-project.org
9. Weyl B, Wolf M, Zweers F, Gendrullis T, Idrees MS, Roudier Y, Schweppe H, Platzdasch H,
El Khayari R, Henniger O, Scheuermann D, Fuchs A, Apvrille L, Pedroza G, Seudié H,
Shokrollahi J, Keil A (2010) Secure on-board architecture specification, EVITA Deliverable
D3.2
10. Apvrille L, El Khayari R, Henniger O, Roudier Y, Schweppe H, Seudié H, Weyl B, Wolf M
(2010) Secure automotive on-board electronics network architecture, In FISITA 2010 World
Automotive Congress, Budapest, Hungary
Research on CAN BUS-Based Electronic
and Electric Platform of Automobile
Gouqing Tong, Lei Chen, Anzhi Yang, Fangwu Ma and Fuquan Zhao
Abstract Through research on Chinese and European regulations and the appli-
cation trends of new electronic and electric technology of automobiles worldwide,
combined with the current technology and high cost performance a Chinese domestic
brand pursues, the feasible and reasonable electronic and electric appliances con-
figuration and reasonable CAN BUS system are researched and designed. In addi-
tion, a set of automotive electronic and electric appliances configuration and the
theoretical foundation platform system of CAN BUS application is established.
Therefore, the above results shall serve as guideline and reference for the develop-
ment of new models. Based on development of a new vehicle for Europe market,
analysis and research were conducted on the worldwide new technology of auto-
motive electronic and electric system and the regulations and markets in China and
Europe; therefore it is understood as to how to apply the advanced automotive
electronic and electric system in the world. Furthermore, the reasonable electronic
and electric system configuration and CAN BUS technology application were
implemented. Thirdly, with test equipment of the OEMs, suppliers and certification
authorities, product research, test development, optimization and improvement of
electronic and electric system were performed. Therefore, development and design
of a certain model shall meet related requirements. Meanwhile, an automotive
electronic and electric platform system based on CAN BUS and appropriate for a
Chinese domestic brand was established. Currently, a vehicle electronic and electric
platform system based on the development of this model has been established, which
is used to guide the development of this model at the same time. The system
development was completed and put into mass production. Its electronics and
F2012-D02-031
G. Tong (&) L. Chen A. Yang F. Ma F. Zhao

Zhejiang Geely Automobile Research Institute CO. LTD, Hangzhou, China
e-mail: tonggq@rd.geely.com
298 G. Tong et al.
electrics meet European regulations, and the vehicle has passed European certifi-
cation and acquired overseas certificate. Furthermore, the electronic and electric
platform established out of the development of the vehicle has been gradually applied
in the subsequent development of new models, which will be deepened and opti-
mized in the future. Since it is the first time to discuss, study and set up the vehicle
electronic and electric platform in this paper, inconsiderateness and faultiness may
be inevitable. The AUTOSAR application on vehicle is also taken into account,
while no actual operation or test is conducted due to limited conditions. Thus, further
research shall be conducted once conditions are completed. And continuous sup-
plementation and perfection for the platform system shall be implemented in the
future. The vehicle electronic and electric platform is firstly established with a
Chinese domestic brand, which will tremendously improve the efficiency and quality
of the vehicle development. The vehicle electronic and electric platform of a Chinese
domestic brand, which is applied in new models, proves feasible. With the expansion
of new models and continuous application of new technologies, this platform will
need continuous supplementation and improvement.
Keywords Automotive electronic and electric platform CAN BUS Real-time

performance Reliability Electronic control unit
1 Introduction
Since the 1960s, with the development of the electronic industry, automotive
electronic control technology is widely used. The new automobile electronic
systems grow rapidly, especially the application of large-scale integrated circuit
and microcomputer control technology, which bring the epoch-making change.
The CAN bus is first put forward by Germany BOSCH, which is a field bus for
automobile application. The CAN is ‘‘Controller Area Network’’, which is mainly
to solve the problems of the increasing automobile electronic system communi-
cation. The CAN bus is welcome by car manufacturers.
Since the domestic brand has entered the vehicle industry, an early new car is
developed based on this car market target, technical target of individual develop-
ment. The many parts are different among different cars. Developing a new car needs
a long life cycle and high cost. Without CAN BUS and other network systems, each
electronic system is independent, which has itself all sensors. And when the domestic
batch production cars are exported abroad, the adaptability development must be
performed according to different regional’s and countries [1, 2].
Regarding the communization and internationalization, the laws and regulations
in China and Europe, market demands and automotive platform should be con-
sidered when the automotive development is performed.
Research on CAN BUS-Based Electronic 299
2 The Electronic and Electric Configuration Settings

to Adapt to the Regulations and Markets in China
and Europe
To realize the platform of the technologies and the markets, this paper analyzes the
regulations and markets in China and Europe. The automobile electronic and
electric system configurations are established as follows: (1) electronic control gas
jet EGI with variable valve timing system; (2) four spokes steering wheel with
audio switch; (3) ABS; (4) parking aid system; (5) driver and passenger seats with
heating system; (6) HVAC with air purification function; (7) airbag; (8) audio or
navigation: 2-Din sound + CD player or GPS; (9) central clock controller: remote
control + voice alarm; (10) the voice alarm device actuates when speed is more
than 100 km/h. (11) instrument cluster which has display and sound reminders;
(12) visible alarm device: shows the driver or passenger didn’t fasten seat belt;
(13) BCM device; (14) TPMS; (15) electric sunroof; (16) headlamps and other car
lamps; (17) all kinds of switches; (18) vehicle wire harnesses; (19) all kinds of
sensors; (20) windscreen wiper and washer; (21) all kinds of motor devices [3–6].
3 Vehicle CAN Network Analysis and Design
3.1 The Vehicle CAN Network System Structure
The topological structure design is to realize all kinds of field bus foundation, which
is also the first step of establishing car network. The topological structure is directly
related to the performance of the network, real-time, reliability and cost, etc.
The vehicle CAN and LIN topology structure solution:
1. The modules with CAN communications are: ABS, airbag, body function
control module-BCM, instrument cluster, engine management system-EMS.
The blue lines are CAN communication lines shown in Fig. 1.
2. The modules with LIN communications are: BCM, window regulator controller,
sunroof. The red lines are LIN communication lines shown in Fig. 1 [7–10].
3.2 Communication Physical Interface
3.2.1 Transceiver Circuit
A high speed transceiver in the CAN system is used at 500 kbs. An integrated
circuit provides the interface between the CAN protocol controller and the
physical bus. This device provides differential transmission capability to the bus
300 G. Tong et al.
Fig. 1 The vehicle CANS, LIN topological structure
and differential receiving capability to the CAN controller. Due to excellent EMC
performance and ideal passive behavior in un-powered state, this interface also
provides a low-power management, and supports remote wake-up. The ECU
supplier has to design the PCB with space for optional loads for EMC and ESD
protection. See Fig. 2 [11].
Transceiver Working Modes
1. NORMAL: In this mode, the transceiver is able to transmit and receive data via
the bus lines CANH and CANL.
2. STANDBY: In this mode, the transmitter and receiver of the transceiver shall
be switched off, and the low-power differential receiver shall keep monitoring
the CAN bus line to identify a wake-up event (Dominant) on the bus.
Fault Tolerant Function
The software and hardware layers combination for the CAN interface provides
protection for: CAN HIGH wire interruption, CAN LOW wire interruption, CAN
HIGH short-circuit to battery, CAN HIGH short-circuit to ground, CAN LOW
short-circuit to battery, CAN LOW short-circuit to ground, CAN HIGH and CAN
LOW mutually shorted.
Fig. 2 Transceiver circuit
Table 1 CAN bus termination resistor

Notation Unit Min. Nom. Max. Condition
RL X 100 120 130 Min. power dissipation: 220 mW
Notice Based on the topology, the bit rate, and the slew rate, deviations from 120 X are possible.
It is, however, necessary to check the applicability of other resistor values in each case
Remark: The lower the termination resistor value is, the smaller the number of nodes in the
network is
Termination Resistor
See Table 1.
Provision for terminal resistors can exist in all control units connected to the
CAN network. However, only two control units are provided with resistor terminal
after system design release. The location of the terminal loads will be defined
according to the actual layout of the wiring harness as mounted in the car. In the
HS-CAN Bus network, the terminal loads are BCM and EMS.
3.2.2 CAN BUS Voltage Level (High Speed CAN)
See Fig. 3 and Table 2.
3.2.3 CAN Controller
Compliance of Controller: It is up to the ECU supplier to decide which CAN

controller will be used to connect to the CAN Bus system. However, the design of
CAN controller shall fully comply with ISO-11898-1 and ISO-16845.
302 G. Tong et al.
Fig. 3 CAN BUS voltage level
Bit Time Setting: The CAN network system Baud Rate is 500 kbps +/-1 %.
3.2.4 CAN BUS Harness Wiring Parameters
Physical Bus Cable Medium: The twisted pair of shielded wires shall be used for
the CAN Bus backbone cable, max cable length is less than 4,000 mm (between 2
terminal loads) and length of untwisted parts of cable near connector side shall be
less than 30 mm.
Physical Bus Network Topology: The wiring topology of the CAN bus network
shall comply with ISO-11898-2. The CAN bus cable stubs length shall be kept as
short as possible.
3.3 Can Protocol Specification
3.3.1 General Protocol
See Table 3.
3.3.2 Standard Frame Format
CAN network frame format shall comply with CAN2.0a. See Fig. 4.
3.3.3 Error Handling
1. BIT ERROR: A unit sending the data on the bus also monitors the bus. A bit
error has to be detected at that bit time, when the bit value which is monitored
is different from the sent value.
Table 2 HS-CAN bus voltage level measurement

Item Notation Min. Nom. Max. Condition
Common mode V can-h-r 2V5 7V0 Measure according to reference
recessive state V can-l-r -2V0 2V5 ground for each ECU
Common mode V can-h–d 3V5 7V0
dominant state V can-l-d -2V0 1V5
Differential volt V diff-r -0V120 0V0 0V012 Measure between CAN-H
recessive state and CAN-L
Differential volt V diff-d 1V2 2V0 3V0
dominant state
Table 3 Genernal protocol

Layer Specification
Physical NETWORK Type High speed CAN BUS
Layer Bus wire medium TWISTED PAIR WIRES-CAN-H, CAN-L
Data band rate 500 kbps
Bit encoding type NRZ
Synchronization Bit-stuffing
Data Layer BUS ACCESS CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access/collision
Type detection)
Arbitration NDA (non-destructive arbitration)
ACK field Acknowledge (ACK SLOT)
CRC field 15 BIT CRC
DATA length Max 8 bytes/64 bits
DATA frame Refer to follow chapter
Fig. 4 Standard frame format
2. STUFF ERROR: In CAN communication protocol, synchronization is done by

STUFF BIT. The transmission node must insert an opposite bit level after fifth
consecutive equal bit level. So the receiving node must detect stuff error when
receiving sixth consecutive equal bit level.
3. CRC ERROR: A CRC error must be recognized if the calculated result is not
same as that received in the CRC sequence.
4. FORM ERROR: A FRAME error must be detected when a fixed-form bit field
contains one or more illegal bits.
5. ACKNOWLEDGE ERROR: An acknowledgement error must be detected by a
transmitter whenever it does monitor a recessive bit at ACK SLOT.
304 G. Tong et al.
Table 4 CAN message data byte

CAN message data byte
Byte order MSBYTE LSBYTE
Bits order MS bits LS bits MS bits LS bits MS bits LS bits MS bits LS bits
Identifier size 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
11 Bits 0–7 8–15 16–23 24–31 32–39 40–47 48–55 56–63
6. ERROR SIGNALLING: A node detects an error condition signals ERROR by

transmitting ERROR FLAG.
3.3.4 Transmission and Reception of Basic Frame
1. Basic Frame Reception Rule: DLC observation (messages that are longer than
expected are tolerated, shorter ones are discarded). Signal De-bounce treatment
must be added for critical signals (e.g. airbag ECU-ACU Fuel Cut off Req. for
Crash fuel cutting off in EMS and Crash unlock in BCM).
2. Basic Frame Transmission: In The HS-CAN bus, at least following frame
transmission types shall be supported: Fixed Periodic, Event, Fixed Periodic
and Event.
3.3.5 Communication Frame Format
Overview of CAN Frame Format: In the HS-CAN BUS network, CAN frames
Data Bytes shall comply with Motorola formats. See Table 4.
3.3.6 CAN Identifier Design
CAN Identifier design—Identifier Range and Classification, as shown in Fig. 5.
3.4 CAN Bus Node Management
The CAN NM is designed to provide services for application operation on the HS-
CAN bus. These services contain: control the transmission to Bus-Sleep Mode for
power saving purpose, Bus-Off handling and recovery, failure mode operations
[12].
Fig. 5 Identifier range and classification
ECUs connecting to The HS-CAN bus can be classified as 2 types:

1. Ignition switched nodes: The ignition switch-related nodes (ECUs) will stop all
CAN bus communication as long as ignition is switched off and CAN com-
munication will begin only after ignition is switched on.
2. Non-Ignition switched nodes: The none-ignition switched nodes will still
require CAN bus communication after ignition is switched off. The NM Bus-
Sleep Mode management is valid only for none-ignition switched nodes on the
HS-CAN bus. However, Bus-Off handling/recovery and Failure mode opera-
tions shall apply to all kinds of nodes connecting to the HS-CAN.
For the CAN NM state transition diagram, see Fig. 6, Tables 5 and 6.
3.5 Failure Mode Operations
General Failure Mode Operations Requirements: After Node ECU reset, all CAN
communication of this node shall be disabled until CAN related data initialization
is completed (e.g. driver initialization OK).
CAN Application Frame Transmission—Default Value: Critical ECUs shall
keep the values of its application tx frames in secured RAM in order to not
transmit bad data after ECU is reset or when CAN is switched off due to voltage
supply failure. If the secured RAM data is corrupted (e.g. after code reset) a ROM
initial data shall be transmitted for detailed information of default value of signals
using secured RAM as storage.
CAN Application Frame Transmission—Lost Signal Detection: A periodic
CAN frame is detected as LOST with following situations: (1) It is not received
since CAN is started and T-Rx-TIMEOUT elapses. (2) When it is received, the T-
Rx-TIMEOUT time period is not effective.
CAN Application Frame Transmission and Reception-Under/Over voltage: Full
functionality of the HS-CAN bus shall be guaranteed from 8 to 15 V. If voltage
supply is below 7 V, all CAN transmission shall be stopped. If voltage supply is
above 18 V, all CAN transmission shall be stopped. In case voltage is between 15–
18 V and 7–8 V, all CAN data frames transmission shall be stopped while ECU
shall be able to still receive data frames from CAN bus. In the case of voltage
306 G. Tong et al.
Fig. 6 CAN NM state transition diagram
Table 5 NM state transition condition

Condition Description
No.
Condition 1 Dominant detection on CAN bus/CAN controller interrupt
Condition 2 Local NODE-sleep condition = WAKEUP (node application needs CAN bus
communication)
Condition 3 T-WAEUP-WAIT elapse
Condition 4 T-WAKEUP-SYNC elapse
Condition 5 Local NODE-sleep condition = SLEEP (node application needs no more CAN
bus communication)
Condition 6 ALL master nodes, SLEEP frames received
Condition 7 Any application frame received
Condition 8 T-SLEEP-WAIT elapse
Condition 9 T-KEEP-NORMAL-MIN-TIMEOUT elapse
Condition 10 Master notes, WAKEUP frames received
between 15–18 V and 7–8 V, CAN control frames transmission and reception
shall be kept as normal.
CAN Application Frame Transmission-Bus-Off: In case of Bus-Off, no periodic
and event frame shall be able to transmit on HS-CAN bus. Any waiting periodic
and event frame waiting in Tx buffer shall be cleared. After Bus-Off recovery,
periodic and event frame transmission shall be processed again with latest state of
the signal.
Table 6 NM state transition actions

Action Description
No.
Action 0 Initialize CAN controller
Action 1 Start T-WAKEUP-WAIT
Action 2 Start T-WAKEUP-SYNC
Action 3 Master node transmit WAKUP control frames. WAKUP control frame shall be
transmit periodically (T-WAKUPTX) within T-WAKEUP-SYNC to ensure
whole bus is awake
Action 4 Start T-SLEEP-WAIT
Action 5 Master node transmit SLEEP control frame
Action 6 Start T-KEEP-NORMAL-MIN-TIME OUT
Action 7 Transmit ACTIVE control frame with periodically
Action 8 Stop transmit ACTIVE control frame
CAN BUS-OFF Handling and Recovery: All nodes connecting to the HS-CAN
bus shall implement Bus-off recovery starting after Bus-off detection by node’s
CAN controller. In case of the fatal BUS-off detection, any node shall restart the
CAN controller initialization for a BUS recovery.
3.6 Self-Diagnosis Control Relating to Communication
Lost Communication: ECUs connecting to the HS-CAN bus shall have self-
diagnosis control in case communication is broken: DTC shall be stored in ECUs
EEPROM.
Bus-Off: ECUs connecting to the HS-CAN bus shall have self-diagnosis control
in case HS-CAN Bus-Off state is detected by ECU. The DTC shall be stored in
ECUs EEPROM under following conditions: IGN from OFF ? ON transition has
actually happened more than 6 s; Voltage supply is in the normal range for CAN
bus communication (8 * 15 V); Bus-Off state lasts at least 6 s.
Communication DTC Definition: Communication DTC definition should be
defined according to the practice.
3.7 Diagnostic Control via CAN BUS
Five ECUs connecting to the HS-BUS shall have ability to have diagnosis by a
CAN based OBD tester connecting to the same bus. The five ECUs are BCM,
ACU, ABS, Instrument Cluster and EMS.
308 G. Tong et al.
3.8 BCM CAN/LIN Bus Gateway
BCM acts as a CAN/LIN Bus Gateway in the platform.
4 Prototype Car Trial-Produce and Test
4.1 Prototype Car CAN Function Validation Test
Testing purpose: to check completeness and correctness of the prototype car ECU
CAN signals on the validation car. The test result meets the design requirements.
4.2 The Vehicle CAN Bus Load Test
(1) Testing purpose: The CANOE simulator is used to check whether the high
speed CAN load factor meets the requirements. (2) Test equipment: Vector
CANOE 5.1. (3) With ABS, ACU, BCM, EMS, instrument cluster. The test result
is as follows Table 7.
The test result shows that the bus average load rate is 9.13 %, the peak load rate
is 9.33 %, sending 400 unit of data per second. The load rate \20 %, which
belongs to the normal situation.
4.3 The Vehicle Electronic System Development Result
At present, the vehicle electronic and electrical systems have been developed. This
model car is put into massive production. This car complies with Chinese and
European regulations, and can be sold in China and Europe, which verifies the
feasibility of the passenger vehicle electronic and electric platform.
5 Summarize and Prospect
To advance the internationalization strategy of a domestic national brand, it is

necessary to build an automotive electronic and electric platform so as to reduce
development cost and improve the development speed.
This paper puts forward the platform of internationalization strategy for
domestic brand to solve the problem of much data exchange in a vehicle. What this
paper mainly has done is as follows:
Table 7 CAN bus load rate
1. This paper has built an electronic and electric system configuration to comply
with the regulations in China and Europe.
2. This paper has analyzed the vehicle CAN network system structure. And it has
established the vehicle CAN and LIN topology structure, and a CAN tech-
nology platform. The fault diagnosis of the control modules has been
researched.
3. The sample car CAN functions are tested, and the prototype car network
management is tested, of which test result meets the design requirements. This
model car is put into massive production. This car meets Chinese and European
regulations, and can be sold in China and in Europe.
4. The establishment of the passenger car electronic and electric platform provides
the platform basis for later automotive development, which can significantly
shorten the development cycle, and to save development cost.
5. With the further development of automobile electronic and electric system, it is
necessary to seek more advanced technology and more perfect passenger
vehicle electronic and electric platform. The introduction of AUTOSAR
technology will improve the car electronic and electric platform technology
level. The next step is to optimize and deepen the passenger car electronic and
electric platform.
References
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2. Germany BOSCH company, with Wei Chun Yuan translation (2004) Robert BOSCH GmbH
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Beijing
On the Application Development of 3G
Technology in Automobiles
Ying Lu, Wenqiang Chen, Xingmin Wei and Fuquan Zhao
Abstract Advances in wireless mobile communication and cloud computing, the

technological development of remote information services of vehicles has evolved
rapidly and almost everything in a vehicle is controlled by electronic systems in
network, it is possible to provide new kind of Telematics services. This paper
provides the current application of 3G technology in automobiles, explores the
frontier and prospect of 3G application from the viewpoint of the vehicle OEM.
With 3G technology, automobile will develop itself from a simple vehicle to a real-
time information receiver and entertainment experience centre, and provide more
intelligent, safe, environment-friendly and economical driving experience for the
driver. Besides, it will be more easily to be diagnosed and maintained.
Keywords 3G technology Telematics Vehicle terminal Mobile communi-

cation Automobile
1 Introduction
Reconstructing of telecom industry in May 2008 has made a rapid development of

telecom in China, as well as 3G even 4G technologies. It makes the application of
3G technology in automobiles like Telematics as a typical representative of the
Internet of Things that large scale effect and industry leading role in the auto-
motive industry, it ushered in a lot of attention and support of others industry.
F2012-D02-032
Y. Lu (&) W. Chen X. Wei F. Zhao

Zhejiang Geely Automobile Research Institute Co., Ltd, Zhejiang, China
e-mail: luying@rd.geely.com
312 Y. Lu et al.
There is no precise definition of the industry on the Telematics, China Science

Lab Director of Shanghai General Motors Corporation Limited John Du thinks that
Telematics consists of the network in automobiles that provide services for drivers
and passengers, such as safety, GPS navigation, Traffic Information, POIs and
infotainment and the Internet of Things in automobiles that integrate mobile
vehicles and other smart devices [1].
Telematics is growing rapidly in Chinese market in recent 2 years, Apart from
GM, BMW, Toyota and other joint ventures, many Chinese car manufactures have
launched or are researching on self-made Telematics system to expand domestic
market. More associated industries are also focus on Telematics research but less
on the perspective of vehicle OEM. This paper presents the contrastive study of
function settings and application status of main vehicle OEMs in China about their
own Telematics system, and explores the frontier and prospect of 3G application in
automobiles form vehicle OEM perspective.
2 Concept and Development of 3G Technology
2.1 Concept of 3G Technology
3G technology refers to 3rd generation mobile telecommunication, the main

feature is to support higher speed data transfer, its’ current rate is range from
several 100 Kbps to dozens of Mbps. It also combines mobile communication
network with Internet, aims to achieve wireless roaming on a global scale, process
and transmit sounds, images, audio/video streams, control data and other multi-
media data, to achieve web surfing, video conferencing, e-commerce, online
games and other applications.
3G applied to automobile gains a breakthrough on its original concept of
communication, which refers to a new type of Telematics service mode, but the 3G
technology also has been expanded that generally means the high-speed mobile
communication technology, combining with in-vehicle networks, vehicle short-
aware networks, wireless mobile networks and the Internet to be a flexible com-
munication system, providing a perception of people-vehicle, road-vehicle, vehi-
cle–vehicle and builds up a service system with information processing centre.
From the standing of vehicle OEM, 3G is Telematics.
2.2 Development of Mobile Communication
Mobile communication has grown rapidly, and there were three generations in
short dozens of years with three waves. The first generation was analog mode, just
provided voice telephony, and 1st wave of mobile was connecting people, the
On the Application Development of 3G Technology in Automobiles 313
Fig. 1 Advance line of mobile communication [3]
strength of 1st mobile communication was its ubiquity, underpinned by its global
interoperability. 2nd generation mobile communication could transfer few of
multimedia data, and connecting the world’s population to the Internet, its strength
was the exponentially increasing power of its networks. Now 3rd mobile com-
munication is connecting everything in our lives, supporting higher speed data
transfer like videos, audios etc. The next generation of mobile such as LTE and
LTE-Advanced (4G) was also launched and constructed in several markets. All
telecom carriers will adopt LTE in future of 5–7 years by forecast, the peak rate of
LTE will be 170 Mbps and LTE-Advanced 1 Gbps [2]. Figure 1 shows the
development stages of mobile communication.
A few tries of mobile communication in automobiles were made in 2G era and
more adopted in 3G era, it was clear that the quality and rate of 3G communication
was fit for auto life which required high real-time driving and no distraction. It will be
widely deployed when 4G or higher technology (e.g. LTE-Advanced) is in market.
3 Major Telematics Systems in China
3.1 Launch Opportunity and Service Providing
Telematics is not a new technology, it was launched and commercialized in past

10 years in Europe and American, but bourgeoned and developed in past 2 years in
China, then attracted many industries to pay attention and invest with its rapid growth.
There were a few Telematics systems, their ecosystems were working in domestic
314 Y. Lu et al.
market and navigation, safety, infotainment and convenience were provided. These
systems mainly are On-Star, G-Book, InKaNet and Carwings. Former two were
respectively working many years in North America and Japan, they were mature and
consummate, especially in navigation and safety has formed unique character and
system. The Telematics system of SAIC Roewe named InKaNet with speech recog-
nition as part of its features and highlights with ahead of the design and quite imag-
inative, now has been introduced the latest version named iVoka. In addition,
Dongfeng Nissan’s Carwings is a sort of personality revelation, because it provides a
range of services to support eco-driving and ease congestion, thus enabling more fuel-
efficient driving, and has been fitted on its pure electric car LEAF, electric vehicles
equipped with Telematics products bring a new Exciting situation to pollution and oil
shortage era.
With the General Motors’ joint venture business expansion and the improve-
ment of car sales in China, Shanghai On-Star Telematics Co., Ltd was established
by On-Star, LLC, Shanghai Automotive Industry Sales Co, Ltd and SGM in 2009,
Shanghai On-Star provides safety and security services for select SGM models
manufactured and sold in China [4].
G-Book was first introduced on Lexus RX350 models in China in 2009, and then
was also equipped on Camry, G-Book consists of network communication, data
processing centre and smart vehicle terminal, and provides base driver assistance
and navigation for drivers, and brings great extension and expansion to traditional
navigation, and it also provides news, rescue and attendant service. The G-Book
service in the country is not operated directly by Toyota, but rather outsourced to the
Beijing 95190 IT Co., Ltd. to manage and to operate; we can see the Toyota’s
management thinking of the G-Book in China.
The unique Roewe 350 InKaNet Intelligent Network Travel System becomes a
window to connect with the wonderful Internet world, to achieve information
retrieval, real-time traffic navigation and electronic road book, stock trading and
community interaction, to meet with fashion technology and connectivity demand
for consumers.
Carwings first go to high-end Dongfeng-Nissan Teana vehicles in late November
2010 and given a Chinese name of ‘‘ZhiXing+’’. The major functions of the system
could be divided into three categories by the official: Safety & security, which
provides ‘‘fully monitored’’ accident rescue services. Automatic diagnostics and
record of driving conditions to help car owners better understand and improve
driving habits. There is abundant information including traffic information, news
reports, and other information. Nissan launched its fuel-efficient systems based
choice in the domestic market when the car sales is hot and sense of energy is clear.
This will enable it to have a share in the market place.
3.2 Models and Market Positioning
As an advanced vehicle Telematics service system in China, On-Star is applied to

each main model manufactured by SGM by the end of year of 2009. Currently,
On-Star is equipped to the new Cadillac Seville SLS. On-Star is applied to Buick
Regal, LaCrosse since 2010, Chevrolet Cruze 1.6T and 2011 models is also
equipped. It is different from American market that On-Star Telematics service is
just adopted on all of Cadillac models and some high-equipped models of Buick
and Chevrolet.
All new SGM models include a 1 year On-Star service plan, then charge by
service packages with abundant combination forms which users chose, prince
range from RMB480 to 3980, it can be seen from Equipped model and package
cost that On-Star in China is still a high-end consumer, can’t do the civilians.
The new Lexus RX350 is the first model with the G-Book system outside of
Japanese market, Camry, the new Crown and other models are also equipped with
this system. When the RX350 is listed, the deluxe edition sells 792,000 yuan, the
premium version is priced at 858,000 yuan, and the new Crown price of more than
200,000 the Camry over 100,000 so the G-book is also equipped with high-end
models. The G-book is free after 2 years to start charging, package year 1200, the
same is not a cheap service. So G-book is also just equipped to the advanced
configuration models. G-Book provides service for free first 2 years and
RMB1200 yuan a year, it is not cheap.
Carrying 3G Intelligent Network Travel System, ‘‘full-time online compact
car’’—Roewe 350 global launched and announced the price of 5 models the same
time. InkaNet. Intelligent Network Travel System is an optional package for all
series. But Roewe is attractive in price, the charging method is also free for
2 years, and then charge for service according to package.
When a new car is purchased at Nissan dealers, the navigation service is
optional; registration for the service was free for 3 years. After the free period
ends, the service is charge for by year. The new Teana is divided into Teana and
Teana Duke of two series, a total of eight levels, the official guide price of
190,800–371,800 yuan, were equipped Carwings [5]. In addition, the highest
models of Qashqai and March were also equipped. The Carwings is also as suction
gold weapon of high-end models (Table 1).
Through the above analysis and comparison about domestic Telematics prod-
ucts can be drawn, whether application models or charging scheme are both facing
with top customers, new products come out, not mature enough and can’t be
generally recognized by the public, small sales and customer traffic unable to bring
the income of the scale, However, with its own brand depot, Telematics services to
low-end extension to be income to the scale should be a trend.
316 Y. Lu et al.
Table 1 Contrasts of Telematics systems in China

System Major function Merit and Equipped models
shortcoming
On-Star Automatic crash response, Enough safety Cadillac new seville SLS,
emergency rescue service Buick new Regal,
assistance, vehicle Lack of LaCrosse, Chevrolet Cruze
condition detection report, entertainment 1.6T and 2011 models
stolen vehicle location, function
turn-by-turn navigation, Lack of information
hands-free calling service
G-book Emergency report service Great extension and Lexus, Camry, new Crown
Remote maintenance services, expansion to
probe communications traditional
traffic information, navigation
reading-out and Convenient
recognition, e-commerce, elephonist service
operator support service Just equipped to
high-equipped
models
InkaNet Information retrieval, real- Fully intelligence Roewe350, MG5
time traffic, navigation, GPS navigation,
electronic road book, stock abundance
trading and community infotainment
interaction service
Lack of safety
service
Carwings Eco-driving, ease congestion, Perfect Eco-driving Teana and Teana Dukehe,
fuel-efficient driving, function highest models of
safety and security, Abundance Qashqaik march
automatic diagnostics, infotainment
abundance infotainment service
service
4 The Technical Implementation and Vision
4.1 System Architecture
Reference to the International Telecommunication Union ITU-T recommendations

of Things architecture, Telematics can also be divided into 5 layers: data-aware,
network access, network traffic control, information services support and infor-
mation services open platform:
1. Data–aware layer is related to the intelligent information exchange of the
vehicles and their operating environment, the vehicles and the passengers form
a mobile node, the driving and entertainment needs of the passengers is per-
ceived by car terminal, and driving environment is perceived by car camera,
gyroscope and reversing radar, and social information such as points of interest,
accidents, incident is collected by the occupant, all of this information as a basis
for accessing to services at the same time composed of the data resources of
Telematics services.
2. Network access and network traffic control can be combined, provided condi-
tion for fusion of vehicle and network via infrastructure of GPRS, 3G mobile
and wireless broadband, these kind of access is ultimately unified into the IP
core network to be process transmission control, and then complete the infor-
mation exchange of each node in the Telematics system.
3. Information services support layer contains many cloud computing centres,
pushing, collecting, processing, and storage information, providing computing
power and data resources for information services open platform, complete the
open services of intelligent transportation, remote monitoring, vehicle infor-
mation services.
From the Telematics concepts and analysis of the above layers, as well as
existing domestic system, it is more than one industry chain composed of the
ecosystems, and needed to be based on the ‘‘Network’’ and ‘‘service’’, therefore, to
be a member of the ecosystem will have to grasp the ‘‘node’’ attribute. Each node
in the Industrial ecological chain or the ecosystem, regardless of industry giants
such as General motor or monopoly authority like Google, can only play a specific
role in the corresponding node, to earn their own interests.
In this system, the manufacturers, suppliers, operators, TSP should find their
own level of node locations and concentrate on doing their own products or
services in order to ensure healthy and sustainable development of Telematics, an
overview of the people concept is ‘‘large and comprehensive’’, they like the
‘‘through-train’’ service. This idea does not work in the Telematics industry
indeed, no company have enough capacity or financial resources to run their own
Telematics system independently.
Based on the analysis above, the architecture of Telematics system from
viewpoint of vehicle OEM should be concern as follows Fig. 2.
Vehicle plant play a leading role in constructing Telematics system that related
to its own brand, organizing and co-ordination suppliers inside system, operating
vehicle OEM private cloud at the same time, OEM private cloud is isolated from
other systems through the firewall, and mainly engaged in 4S services, remote
diagnosis, anti-theft tracking which relies on the vehicle network, OEM technol-
ogy and sales network services. For the service outside of private clouds, with the
above mentioned node point of view as the guidance, select suppliers to cooper-
ation, and strive for professional spirit and ability.
For users, no matter how complex car networking architecture and how
advanced the technology system it is, the user needs is the final service, everything
else can be transparent to the user, the owner will not because of the vehicle
equipped with Telematics system and are willing to pay for, but which services can
gain through the system. Therefore, the Telematics construction should be based
on services, ecological system of Telematics should be a service ecosystem con-
sisting of a number of nodes.
318 Y. Lu et al.
Fig. 2 Telematics system reference architecture
Fig. 3 Vehicle terminal

hardware block diagram
4.2 The Vehicle Terminal Hardware Platform
It can be knew from the Telematics network architecture, a complete Telematics

platform is essentially a solution of system level, it is too big to comprehensively
discuss the hardware needed, and it is hard to finish. Therefore, take OEM which
the most care Telematics hardware as discuss object, discusses hardware frame-
work and hardware cost performance contradiction.
As shows in Fig. 3, the vehicle terminal hardware is composed of CPU,
peripheral circuit and all kinds of interface circuit and Combining I/O system
(screen, button, etc.). Terminal design development, it is restrained by choice of
CPU decision, development way, development cost, performance.
On the whole, the car terminal hardware is equivalent to a general-purpose
computer, and has big difference to the traditional embedded processing system. It
can be seen by the Fig. 3, the hardware of car terminal including many processing
chip and peripheral circuit, the connection of all kinds of chips involves in various
bus and interface, for instance: CAN, LIN, UART, GPIO, USB, MOST, I2S,
BT656 and so on. Complex systems like this scale, if the hardware of all used the
track-level devices, then you should not be overlooked its cost, for the car plants
which earn a large proportion of the brand value can’t be overemphasized, but for
domestic independent brand car plants, it brings some limits for comprehensive
retrofitting. Forced by the pressure of cost, only with a way to drop and not to
bring performance degradation, you can only reduce the device specifications, and
from the track level down to the industrial level. Therefore, the contradiction
between cost and performance at this stage is very sharp.
4.3 The Vehicle Terminal Software Platform
Because of functional complexity and real-time computing of Vehicle terminal, the

system has the function of process management, storage management, file man-
agement and network communication, tradition embedded program no longer meet
the requirements of modern embedded operating system, there are many vehicle
terminal operating system such as Meego, QNX, Android and so on are working in
home market.
Meego and Android use Linux kernel, only the upper layer to do their own
personalized packaging. Microsoft Auto is the system used in the MyFord Touch
system, and QNX is known for being the operating system in the floundering
BlackBerry PlayBook Tablet. Linux is a robust and versatile computer operating
system, which is used in popular mobile devices like those powered by Android.
Additionally, it’s open-source, and will be coming to a car’s infotainment system
soon.
The development of software system using a layered architecture, generally
divided into three layers, respectively, for the system layer, middleware service
layer, application layer, system layer includes a variety of traditional drivers such
as display drivers, I/O drivers, sound drivers and other drivers, while as automotive
systems, need to integrate specific drivers, such as GPS-driven, CAN bus driver
etc., there are some system libraries on these drivers, such as SQLite structured
storage database, SSL security, OPENGL/ES graphics library, Web browser kernel
of webKit, map and vector fonts, the FreeType functions, then the above, it is the
services and applications, such as car navigation, entertainment, security, etc.
Figure 4 is a typical automotive software architecture frame.
The M (model) V (views) C (controller) architecture is a popular trend that use
to do develop the software of application layer, M refers to the database and its
operating model, V refers to the interface of UI, C refers to the service control
logic layer, the MVC framework has become the mainstream model of software
development framework.
It is worth that the domestic software development giants, such as Yonyou,
Neusoft, Kingdee, hovering in the edge of the Telematics industry, mainly due to
the vehicle hardware terminal providers not only committed to the design and
development of the hardware platform, but also software, HMI and application
program from its bundled. Even brought a hardware terminal, visual hardware
320 Y. Lu et al.
Fig. 4 Software architecture
design can be found unreasonable, the CPU is not designed wide space in the
machine box, but crowded together in the narrow front end of the panel and power
supply module of TFT screen and CPU is not designed heat sink, while idling the
architecture and development experience of many years of professional software
developers and hinder the development of the industry.
4.4 Development Status and Trends
4.4.1 Development Status
Since Telematics’ introduction into China, for the large scale effect and huge
market vacancy in domestic auto industry, it attracts many manufacturers and
organizations to participate in. whether the telecom carriers, Telematics service
providers, terminal providers or car makers, has been put massive manpower and
physical resources to research and develop, though the future is bright, the
development status looks very cloudy. Main status as follows:
(1) Different standing points
Efficient communication is the foundation of the entire Telematics, while the
mobile communication technology and resource are still in the hands of the
telecom operators. Seeing the big picture, the three largest domestic operators do
not only provide high quality communication service, but also encroach on TSP
market space taking advantage of the construction of 3G networks, and this leads
to a not specialize in one subject situation.
The car makers make profits from cars, but not from the car services and the car
services are only value-added services and own low attention, but, the car makers
have the leading rights to choose TSP, map and other services providers, while
these providers’ directed clients are the ultimate users, not the car makers, this
results in the leading rights of choosing products and services are in the hands of
the clients who don’t care about the product, and the ultimate users who really care
about these don’t have the rights to choose, and these certainly are unfavourable
for positive market competition.
(2) Small users scale
In the past few decades, the domestic automotive industry has developed greatly,
especially some independent brands have grown up and great effort have been
made to let more people can afford the car, but compare to the citizen’s income
level, buying a car still is not easy, add the domestic oil price stays at a high level,
coupled with the extra expenses of the loading and opening Telematics systems,
the users scale is rather small which is the current condition, the small user group
cannot develop many applications and make the industry that depend on user scale
cannot enter, for example Baidu, Google and some other internet company are
wasting opportunities of the Telematics development in wandering, waiting and
observing, the qualitative leap is waiting for the development of the quantity.
(3) Less willingness to pay of users
Every car makers provide comprehensive, various services to absorb customers
which make the industry be grand and complete, but not expert and excellent
enough, and this result in the less willingness of the customers to pay. On the other
hand, the society is in critical period of transformation, the construction of social
honesty is far from perfect, the insurance services are not universally accepted, bill
package and one time pay are both not accepted. The users don’t believe that they
can get the corresponding service after paying, and they tend to pay on times and
demand. Totally speaking, chance and challenge coexist in current situation, well,
this is a normal stage in every new thing’s emerging and developing, this need
every relevant professions’ jointly contribute capitals and co-take risks to push
development and run to make profits.
(4) No successful experience in the field to learn
Though Telematics has been developing for decades overseas and has mature
model, it is not kind of technology that bring and ready to use. For example, there
are more than 600 private rescue centres in German, and they have accumulated
rich operational experiences under the competition, while, there are very little this
kind of institutions in China, whether the car makers or the government, don’t
show excess attentions. Or take another example, in the sparsely-populated
America; the traffic is developed, while in Japan, the government supports plan-
ning. We don’t have these premise conditions, so we can take and directly use their
322 Y. Lu et al.
products, and the industry at home need to learn their inner operating pattern.
According to the reality of our country, carrying out ‘take’ rightly is needed, and
this is not that easy to fulfill and is a challenge to ‘‘made in China’’ model.
(5) High cost of 3G
Up to now, the construction of 3G network doesn’t finish, the popularity of 3G
technology is low, and the speed of communication is not ideal, all these leads to
the high cost of operation, the services results is not recommended and the higher
cost compared to the aboard. On the other hand, the amount of data of Telematics
is quoted in M/s. The data amount is several M/s to download a song, and several
hundred M/s to refresh the map, most of the 3G users could not afford these kinds
of large amount of data transfer.
(6) Infrastructure lags behinds the development
The greatest needs applications at home are security and navigation. The fast-
growing economy and urbanization process make the urban topographic, infra-
structure and road construction change fast, while, the relevant information and
services could not keep pace with the development, for example, the rescue centres
and the map data collection. Without the matching systems, the relevant Tele-
matics services could not provide.
On the other hand, people used to the bigger and more comprehensive man-
agement method, for example, the map providers are all dedicating to provide the
national map, and do not deepen division and collaboration to accelerate coordi-
nated development, these all limit the development of Telematics.
4.4.2 Development Tendency and New Application Area
By analyzing the existing Telematics products and the relevant technology, we can
conclude some useful conclusion.
(1) Application trends of cloud computing
For any car terminal hardware system, ether On-Star or G-book, the data operation
and transfer speed are very limited, and the data storing is not optimistic. Geely G-
NetLink that has excellent terminal computational capability, are based on Intel
Atom processor and can dual-display, it only reaches the level of Netbook. The
property of Telematics is: the more meticulousness and more humanization of the
services, the more computationally expensive. The application like the annual oil
consumption information, intelligent route planning, which need to store and
process a large amount of history data to get results, and this need a great deal of
memory space and considerable computational capability. Another example like
intelligent traffic, real-time road condition, also needs a great amount of process
and collect data. These all can only completed by cloud computing.
The properties of the cloud computing is that taking IT as service, providing it
to users and run on a ‘pay-as-you-go’ basis. The new emerging TSP which has
Fig. 5 Illustration of
SoLoMo
prosperous market prospects services but has not ability to run data centre, renting
some IT resources to lower the cost and devoting to provide services is a way to
solve this problem.
In summary, the development tendency of the cloud computing is very obvious,
and there emerging various relevant service layers, in the future, the Telematics
will not able to provide services without the supporting of cloud computing
(Fig. 5).
(2) SoLoMo informationization life
SoLoMo is the main method of the future informationization life; it is the com-
pound word of Social, Local and Mobile. With no doubt, so is the social devel-
opment trend. Facebook, Twitter, RenRen and the recent Google ? all can prove
that the life and communication is being community network. Lo means that the
living space of people is rather large, but still limited. The local services covers a
large part of the services, the application of 3G network is an indubitable fact with
the popularity of the intelligent mobile phones and the development of the vehicle
terminal. The development trend of SoLoMo points out direction for the design
plan of the Telematics service products, except the security service, accessing and
using community network, the localization navigation, intelligent traffic, interests
searching and the interactive of the mobile devices such as intelligent mobile
phones, PDA and U disk becoming the important point.
(3) Smartphone auto impact
The consumer electronics products have several weeks developing period and two
or 3 years life cycle time, compared to the yearly developing period and decades
life cycle time of cars, the cars developing cannot keep pace with the consumer
electronics products, so using intelligent mobile phones in automobile platform or
make the car be the attachment of the phones is a good solution.
Toyota and Fort are good at the integration and application of Telematics
system and intelligent phones. BMW, General Motors and Hyundai Motors also
have phone products, the functions of this kinds of products are relative simple,
mainly focus on the internet radio and social network. It can be predicted that more
324 Y. Lu et al.
Fig. 6 The development

orientation of speech
recognition [6]
and more applications of the phones and integration of Telematics system and
intelligent phones will emerge with the development of the technology.
Mobile phone is a really convenience payment tool; it has many added values,
and the development of its application is very fast, the integrated of mobile phones
and cars will provide each diver his own environment according his phone. The
integrated of cars and phones are the most economical way and an important
develop tendency.
(4) Speech recognition technology
The interactive of the driver and the car while the car is in motion is a serious
security hidden danger, how to avoid the danger to the drivers becomes an
important research project. Once the iPhone 4S SIRI emerge, it brings a great
shock to everyone, its core technology contains Natural language recognition,
artificial intelligence and database technology, perfect experience of intelligent
speech recognition need powerful cloud computing centre to support, application
in vehicle have to consider antinoise character, dialect recognition etc., Fig. 6 is
the key point and development orientation of speech recognition There is a great
achievement of domestic speech recognition, e.g. SAIC Roewe launched its new
edition of InkaNet iVoka which is absorbed in speech recognition and has a
commercial accidence achievement, the speech recognition will be the most great
role in the human-vehicle interactive.
(5) Telematics of Electric Vehicle
The history of electric vehicle can be cast back from 1810 to 1820, came through
from flourish to stagnant and flourish again. With lack of oil, polluting environ-
ment, electric vehicle attracts attention again. Carwings was equipped to Nissan
LEAF which is a full electric vehicle, from inside Nissan LEAF, it’s easy to see
the vehicle and battery status, as well as charging station locations and when we
need them. Set the timer once to charge each night during off-peak hours if we
like. Connect and communicate with Nissan LEAF remotely through the
smartphone or laptop. Pre-set A/C functions from any web-enabled phone or

computer. Electric vehicles and electric vehicle Telematics exist, try to run the car
as a concept car and a small amount of focus on battery charging, use, and
monitoring services, mainly to find the charging station, power management,
energy saving, It is precisely because the electric car service facilities extremely
lacking, but with electric cars and car networking, taking advantage of environ-
mental and energy voices will certainly return to the stage of history.
5 Conclusion
Through analyzing and comparing the mainstream products like On-Star, G-book,
InkaNet etc., we have drawn the conclusion of the main functions, emergence
timing, application models, market positioning, current development status,
development tendency and existing problems. Analyse the actual development
situation of Geely and the practical problems encountered during the development
process, such as the tariff issue, TSP problem, the collocation of software system
and hardware platform, we have come to a conclusion that the 3G technology
application on the automobile has a broad prospect and the application of multiple
modes, such as better application of cloud computing technology, which will
effectively realize the sharing of the resources and information, enabling a more
effective mixture among the car, office and home, breaking the traditional vehicle
definition, and will obviously guide the direction and lay the foundation of 3G
application in automobiles.
References
1. Du J (2011) Che Lian Wang and its industry implication. Shanghai. Telematics@China2011,
12.8 GM China Science Lab
2. Ton Brand. Network Technology Overview. Shanghai GSMA 2011.12.8
3. Cao Z (2010) Modern communication technology overview. TsingHua University, Beijing
4. http://www.onstar.com.cn/index.html, SGM On-Star official site
5. http://www.carwings-nissan.com.cn, DongFeng Nissan Carwings official site
6. http://www.vcyber.cn
A Typical Application of FlexRay Bus
in the Vehicle
Yandong Dong and Wanrong Wang
Abstract Objective. FlexRay is a new and high-powered bus which is designed to

achieve the purpose of ‘‘X-by-Wire’’, may be one day, the CAN bus will be
replaced by FlexRay bus. Although this is a high speed and reliable bus, but it is
very difficult to apply this bus in the vehicle. The cost is too high, by now on, only
a few top grade cars like Audi A8 and BMW X7 use the FlexRay bus. We are
doing the research about how to apply the FlexRay in a low cost and feasible way.
Methodology. FlexRay is a high cost bus: 1. The FlexRay controller and the MCU
which support FlexRay communication is very costly. 2. The software design is
very difficult, and there are no uniform guidelines to develop the system. Our
research focus on the vehicle network’s strategy, the uniform FlexRay develop
standards as well as the tool chain, the uniform diagnostic strategy and software
reprogram strategy. We can use the FlexRay bus as a subnet of the vehicle. The
important module like ECM, TCM, ABS module use FlexRay, other module like
BCM, SDM, IPC use CAN, there will be a central gateway to transmit the signals
between the FlexRay bus and CAN bus. If more and more module suppliers can
follow our standards, the cost will be low and the system development will be
easy. Results. Based on the ISO and FlexRay Union’s documents, we have
developed some standards for the FlexRay, these standards contains the FlexRay
Physical layer standard, the Protocol layer standard, the net management standard,
the Communication layer standard and the Diagnostic layer standard. These
standards have established main parameter and many other important schemes for
the FlexRay bus. The modules which are developed based on these standards can
communicate on the same FlexRay bus with no error. We are developing the
F2012-D02-033
Y. Dong (&) W. Wang

Pan Asia Technical Automotive Center Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
e-mail: yandong_dong@patac.com.cn
328 Y. Dong and W. Wang
central gateway module which can transmit the signals from CAN bus to FlexRay
bus, these signals contain the cycle signals the diagnostic signals and the pro-
gramming signals. Use the gateway, we can diagnostic and programming the
FlexRay modules through the CAN bus. Limitations of this study. We are now
designing the entire system and the central gateway module, we have not enough
FlexRay modules to do the network testing. We have to use the diagnostic
equipment to simulate the entire network. What does the paper offer that is new in
the field in comparison to other works of the author: Only few vehicles use
FlexRay bus. We will develop a low cost and feasible architecture and network
strategy to apply the FlexRay bus in the vehicle. Conclusion: Although the
FlexRay bus is complex bus, we still can find a low cost and feasible way to apply
the bus in the vehicle.
Keywords Flexray Network Gateway CAN UDS
1 Overview
FlexRay is the high-powered bus in the future. It is Time Division Multiple

Address (TDMA) to ensure the FlexRay communication precision, compared with
CAN, it has much higher speed (more than 10 Mbps), more flexible topology,
higher bus load (more than 90 %), and more safety (support two channel redun-
dancy communication).
The technical standard about FlexRay:
• The speed is more than 10 Mbps;
• Dual channel, high speed, deterministic, fault tolerant;
• The bus length can reach 72 m;
• Deterministic communication (Time Division Multiple Address);
• Distributed clock synchronization;
• Flexible topology;
As a new network technology, FlexRay is more complicated, require high
qualified communication wire. On the standard of communication, Flexray union
has made a detailed definition of physical layer and data link layer, but FlexRay
union did not define the communication layer and diagnose layer of FlexRay [1].
Because FlexRay’s agreement is far complicated than CAN and it has many
communication parameters, every factory has not form the unified and applied
agreement standard, which is not good for the promotion of FlexRay.
This article schemes out a more detailed FlexRay agreement standard on basis
of the existed FlexRay standards. The article has a much detailed definition of
physical layer, data link layer, communication layer, diagnostic and key param-
eters. The aim of this article is to make FlexRay more convenient for the use of
engineering.
A Typical Application of FlexRay Bus in the Vehicle 329
Fig. 1 FlexRay topology
On the basis of this standard, the article puts up with a typical FlexRay scheme,
defines the topology. Here this topology needs a central gateway to link CAN and
FlexRay. Because the working style and message format of CAN and FlexRay has
a big difference, the article puts up with a transition way between CAN and
FlexRay. The way can solve the problem of message route, reprogram, network
management and diagnostic.
2 The Specifically FlexRay Protocol for the System
2.1 Physical Layer
FlexRay topology is shown in Fig. 1, the parameter is shown in Table 1.
2.2 Data Link Layer
2.2.1 Parameters
All ECU use dual channel, fault tolerant, all ECU baud rate is 10 Mbit/s. When the
baud rate is 10 Mbit/s, The global sample clock period gdSampleClockPeriod is
0.0125us [2].
2.2.2 Period
As shown in Fig. 2, except the startup stage, the period is continuous and contain
fixed time slot. gMacroPperCycle and gdMacrotick are defined in Table 1;
Communication period counts is from 0 to cCycleCountMax = 63 (Table 2).
Table 1 FlexRay topology parameters

Parameter Symbol Min Median Max Unit Comments
Wire length L1 0.1 – 24 m Tow ECU’s distance
ECU number n 0 – 22 Count The max ECU number
Communication cycle N-1 Communication cycle N Communication cycle N+1
gdMacrotick
Macrotick level 1 n n+1
gMacroPerCycle-1
Microtick level
pdMicrotick pMicroPerMacroNom
Fig. 2 FlexRay communication cycle
Table 2 The communication cycle parameters

Parameter Min Median Max Unit Comment
gdCycle - 5,000 16,000 us Cycle time
gMacroPerCycle - 3,636 16,000 MT The MT number in a cycle
gdMacrotick 1 1.375 6 us The general MT time
gdMaxMicrotick 0.0125 0.025 0.1 us The max time of uT
Time
Communication cycle N-1 Communication cycle N Communication cycle N+1
Communication Static Dynamic Symbol Network

cycle level segment segment Window idel time
Fig. 3 FlexRay communication cycle structure
The communication cycle contain Static segment, Dynamic segment, Symbol

Window, Network idle time (Fig. 3).
2.2.3 Static Segment
In static segment, ECU use static Time Division Multiple Address to adapt to the
communication.

Static slot gNumberOfStaticSlots

Arbitration
grid level Slot counter 1 Slot counter 2 Slot counter n
gdStaticSlot
Macrotick
level t
Fig. 4 Static segment
Table 3 Static segment time parameters

Parameters Min Median Max Unit Comment
gNumberOfStaticSlots 2 91 1,023 - The number of static slot in the static
segment
gdStaticSlot 4 24 661 MT The static slot length
gdTSSTransmitter 6 9 15 gbBit
gdActionPointOffset 1 2 63 MT
As shown in Fig. 4, all the static slots are equal. Static segment contain some
static slots which can be configured. All the static slots can be constituted by some
MT [3] (Table 3).
2.2.4 Dynamic Segment
As shown in Fig. 5, dynamic segment is constructed by some mini slots. Each mini
slot can be divided into some MT. The number of mini slot in dynamic segment is
given the name dNumberOfMinislots, this parameter is a global variable. The
parameter gdMiniSlot which shows the length of mini slot, is a global variable, all
these parameter should be given the value as Table 4.
2.3 Communication and Diagnostic
2.3.1 Addressing Mode of Diagnostic
The addressing mode show the target address and source address in FlexRay
network. The format is shown in Table 5.
The diagnostic message is in dynamic segment, the message ID is target
address, the addressing mode in data link layer is shown in Fig. 6.

Mini slot gNumberOfMiniSlots

Arbitration
grid level MiniSlot 1 MiniSlot 1 MiniSlot n
gdMiniSlot
Macrotick
level t
Fig. 5 Dynamic segment
Table 4 Dynamic segment parameters

Parameters Min Median Max Unit Comments
gNumberOfMiniSlot 0 289 7,986 - The number of Mini Slot
gdMiniSlot 2 5 63 MT The length of Mini Slot
Table 5 The Addressing Byte1 Byte2 Byte3 Byte4

mode format
15 0 15 0
C_TA C_SA
Fig. 6 Target address in

FlexRay Communication Layer PDU
dynamic segment
TargetAddress SourceAddress PCI Data
MessageID
Payload Preamble
Indicator Data
Header Payload Data
Slot-ID
t
Dynamic Segment-Slot
All the ECU should support function addressing and physical addressing.
Physical addressing is used in the condition that tester diagnose only one ECU
(1:1).Function addressing is used in the condition that tester diagnoses many ECUs
at the same time (1:n). Function addressing mode can only support single diag-
nostic frame. All the diagnostic messages should be transmitted in channel A.
Fig. 7 Un segmented CL DL DL CL
unacknowledged message
(known message length)
C_Data.req
StartF
rame
C_Data.con C_Data.ind
CL…Communication Layer
DL…Data Link Layer
2.3.2 Communication Layer
The communication layer should follow ISO10681-2 and the standard bellow. OSI
transport layer and network layer together constitute the communication layer.
The ECU should support the communication mode as bellow:
1. Un segmented unacknowledged message (known message length), as shown in
Fig. 7;
2. Segmented unacknowledged message (known message length), as shown in
Fig. 8;
When tester communication with ECU in FlexRay network, the message must
be routed by the Gateway, only PCI need to be changed, this must follow the
standard bellow:
1. When the data is less than 7 bytes, use single frame to transmit;
2. When the data is more than 7 bytes, use multi frame to transmit, and must
follow the standards bellow [4]:
• STF (Start Frame) should transmit 6 payload bytes, FPL is 6;
• CF (Consecutive Frame) should transmit 7 payload bytes, FPL is 7;
• CFEOB (Consecutive Frame EOB) should transmit 7 payload bytes, FPL is 7;
• LF (Last Frame) should transmit less or equal to 7 payload bytes, FPL is less
or equal to 7;
• The max length of the multi frame transmission is 4,095 bytes (ML is 4,095
bytes);
• If the number of payload data length is odd, 0 9 00 must to be used to fill the
data to reach even number.
2.3.3 Diagnostic Services
Overview of enhanced diagnostic services shown in Table 6.

Fig. 8 Segmented CL DL DL CL
unacknowledged message
(known message length) C_Data.req
StartF
rame
C_DataSTF.ind
CTS
ontrol_
FlowC
Cons
ecutiv
eFram
e
Cons
ecutiv
eFram
e
Cons
ecutiv
eFram
e_EO
B
S
ontr ol_CT
FlowC
Cons
ecutiv
eFram
e
Cons
ecutiv
eFram
e
Cons
ecutiv
eFram
e_EO
B
CTS
ontrol_
FlowC
Cons
ecutiv
eFram
e
LastF
rame
C_Data.con C_Data.ind
CL Communication Layer
DL Data Link Layer
3 FlexRay Typical Application
3.1 FlexRay Architecture Scheme
Now most of vehicles have CAN network, for FlexRay network, the most con-
venient way is change the existent CAN network into FlexRay network, the
communication speed and quality will be improved, the system performance will
be improved. As shown in Fig. 9, the architecture contains the Gateway, the
diagnostic interface, the Chassis CAN network and the Chassis FlexRay network.
The CAN network and the FlexRay network contain the same electronic modules.
Only one network can work at the same time, the other is the backup network,
vehicle can either use the CAN network or use the FlexRay network. Only upgrade
these electronic modules to support FlexRay, the vehicle will use FlexRay to
replace CAN.
This Gateway can support 4 CAN network, the Body CAN network, the Chassis
CAN network, the Power train CAN network and the diagnostic CAN network.
Table 6 Enhanced diagnostic service [5]

SID Service Session Supported Cvt Dependence
(Hex)
Default Other Fun Phy
Diagnostic and communication management
0 9 10 DiagnosticSessionControl 0 0 H H M –
0 9 11 ECUReset 0 0 H H M –
0 9 27 SecurityAccess – 0 – H U –
0 9 28 CommunicationControl – 0 H H U –
0 9 3E TesterPresent 0 0 H H M –
0 9 85 ControlDTCSetting – 0 H H U –
Data transmit
0 9 22 ReadDataByIndetifier 0 0 H H M –
0 9 23 ReadMemoryByAddress 0 1 – H U –
0 9 2A ReadDataByPeriodicIdentifier 0 0 – H U –
0 9 2E WriteDataByIdentifier – 1 – H U 0 9 22
0 9 3D WriteMemoryByAddress – 1 – H U 0 9 23
DTC
0 9 14 ClearDiagnosticInformation 0 0 H H M –
0 9 19 ReadDTCInformation 0 0 H H M –
Input output control
0 9 2F InputOutputControlByIdentifier – 1 – H U –
Up load/down load
0 9 34 RequestDownload – 1 – H U 0 9 36, 0 9 37
0 9 36 TransferData – 1 – H U 0 9 34, 0 9 37
0 9 37 RequestTransferExit – 1 – H U 0 9 34, 0 9 36
RoutineControl
0 9 31 RoutineControl – 1 – H U –
Fig. 9 Architecture
The Gateway can also support 1 FlexRay network which can fulfill the function of
the Chassis CAN network.
3.2 FlexRay Protocol and CAN Protocol Exchange
3.2.1 Gateway
The Gateway is the kernel module of the whole network, it can connect 4 CAN
network and FlexRay network together, to fulfill the signal routing between dif-
ferent network. The Gateway support not only CAN protocol but also FlexRay
protocol, it can route the period message and diagnostic message.
3.2.2 Period Message Routing Between CAN and FlexRay
CAN protocol is simple, each CAN message contain 8 bytes, each CAN message
has the only CAN ID, all the CAN ID is different; The FlexRay is different from
CAN, FlexRay contain static segment and dynamic segment. The message in static
segment is cycle message; the message in dynamic segment is usually diagnostic
message. The max data length of FlexRay message is 254 bytes [6].
When route the FlexRay message of static segment to CAN network, there are
many ways. If the payload data length is 32, this message can be split into 4
different CAN message, if the payload data length is 80, this message can be split
into 10 different CAN message. In static segment, all the message data length
should be the same.
When route the cycle CAN message to FlexRay network, if the FlexRay
payload data length is 32 bytes, then 4 CAN message should be packed into one
FlexRay static message. When the period time of the 4 CAN message is different,
the shortest period time should be used as the FlexRay message’s period. For this
system, the FlexRay static message’s payload data length is 16 bytes.
FlexRay is different from CAN, CAN is based on event, FlexRay is based on
time, the CAN message period time is not very precise, but the FlexRay message
period time is very precise. Use CAN id, each CAN message can be exactly
identified, but the FlexRay Frame ID cannot exactly identify the message, now the
FlexRay schedule is needed. Based on the schedule, use FlexRay frame ID and
FlexRay cycle count, tester can distinguish which module the message is come
from. FlexRay cycle count is from 0 to 63, so the static message period time
should be the multiple of one cycle time.
In this system the single cycle time is 5 ms, the entire communication cycle
time is 5 ms*64 = 320 ms. Thus, the static message period time should be the
multiple of 5 ms, such as 5, 10, 20 ms, and so on. If the CAN message period time
is 12 ms, when route this message to FlexRay network, the period time should use
10 ms, less than 12 ms.
Fig. 10 Communication
between Tester and ECU
3.2.3 Diagnostic Message Routing Between CAN and FlexRay
The CAN diagnostic transport protocol should follow ISO15765-2, the application
protocol should follow ISO14229-1. The FlexRay diagnostic transport protocol
will follow ISO10681-2, the application protocol should follow ISO14229-1.
For this system, tester can only diagnostic the network through CAN bus, the
diagnostic message must be routed to the FlexRay bus by Gateway, one CAN
diagnostic message versus one FlexRay diagnostic message. The CAN diagnostic
message contain 8 bytes data, the FlexRay diagnostic message contain 16 bytes
payload data. The following example will show how the CAN diagnostic message
converted to the FlexRay diagnostic message by Gateway.
Condition:
Such as UDS $22 service, read PID, tester send the CAN message: 241 03 22
C0 00. ($241 is the ABS module which is on FlexRay bus, $03 is the data length).
Response from CAN: 641 10 0A 62 C0 00 00 00 00. Tester send: 241 30 00 00
(flow control). Response from CAN: 641 21 01 03 FF FF 00 00 00 [7, 8].
Process:
$241 is ECU ID, the ECU is on FlexRay bus, $641 is tester ID, the dataflow can
be shown in Fig. 10 and Table 7.
• Red data in Table 7: for transport layer, red data is available data
• Blue data in Table 7: transport layer protocol control message
• Black data in Table 7: filling data (follow ISO10681-2)
Message 1 and message 2 are single frame request for PID, $02 41 is ECU
address, $06 41 is tester address, $40 is FlexRay STF (Start Frame) communi-
cation control message, $03 is the frame payload length (FPL), $00 03 is single
frame or multi-frame max data length (ML). Message 2 is single frame
transmission.
Message 3 is a multi-frame transmission, this is multi-frame response to tester.
$06 41 is tester address, $02 41 is ECU address, $40 is STF, $06 is FPL, $00 0A is
ML, the other 6 bytes is payload data.
Table 7 Data flow example

Message ID Data Flow
1 03 22 C0 00 00 00 00 00
2 02 41 06 41 40 03 00 03 22 C0 00 00
3 06 41 02 41 40 06 00 0A 62 C0 00 05 00 00
4 10 0A 62 C0 00 05 00 00
5 30 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
6 02 41 06 41 83 00 0F FF
7 06 41 02 41 90 04 00 0A 01 03 FF FF
8 21 01 03 FF FF 00 00 00
Message 5 is the flow control message sent by tester, message 6 is the flow
control message for FlexRay which is converted from Message 5. $02 41 is ECU
address, $06 41 is tester address, $83 is flow control message which means con-
tinue to send (CTS), $00 is BC (Bandwidth Control), $0F FF is communication
layer buffer which is only used in FlexRay communication layer.
Message 7 is continue frame sent by ECU, $06 41 is tester address, $02 41 is
ECU address, $90 is last frame (LF), 04 is payload data length (FPL), $00 0A is
max data length (ML), the other 4 bytes is payload data.
4 Conclusions
This article advances the FlexRay standards which have been proved to be all right
in simulation test. If more company can unite to use the same standards, the cost
will be low, this is very important for the cosmically application of FlexRay.
The scheme that based on the Gateway, use FlexRay to replace the CAN
network, is very efficiency for the development of FlexRay. This scheme can save
time for developing and is very convenient for the FlexRay generalization.
The conversion scheme between CAN and FlexRay proposed by this article,
can realize the CAN protocol transfer to FlexRay protocol with no error. This
conversion scheme can resolve the diagnostic problem, the net management
problem and the reprogramming problem between CAN and FlexRay.
References
1. FlexRay communications system protocol specification version 2.1

2. FlexRay Consortium (2009), FlexRay communication systems protocol specification, Version
2.1 Revision D
3. FlexRay_ EPL-Specification_ V2.1_Rev_D2_N010 http://www.flexray.com/FlexRay_ EPL-
Specification_ V2.1_Rev_D2_N010.pdf
4. ISO10681-2, Road vehicles—communication on flexray—Part 2: communication layer
services
5. ISO14229-1 Unified diagnostic services (UDS)—Part 1: specification and requirements

(Release 2006 12-01)
6. FlexRay_ EPL-Application Notes_ V2.1_Rev_D_N009 http://www.flexray.com/FlexRay_
EPL-Application Notes_ V2.1_Rev_D_N009.pdf
7. ISO15765-2: Road vehicles—diagnostics on controller area networks (CAN)—Part 2: network
layer services
8. ISO15765-3: Diagnostics on controller area network (CAN)—Part 3: implementation of
unified diagnostic services (UDS on CAN) (Release 2004 10-06)
Development of Controller Diagnostic
System Based on ODX
Li Li and Shanzheng Tang
Abstract OBD is an important technology for insurance of automotive safety and

emission. The requirement for automotive safety and emission is getting higher, so
more attention has been paid on OBD technology. The paper presents an
instruction to the development of controller diagnostic system based on ODX
(Open Diagnostic Data Exchange). According to the property of ECU I/O signals,
using this method to build a diagnostic model of BCM (Body Control Module) in a
certain automotive. The test results show the diagnostic model based on ODX is
easy to embed, and will help OEM or after-sales tool supplier to explore their
diagnostic tools.
Keywords ODX Diagnostic system Emission OBD Controller
1 Foreword
OBD is On Board Diagnostic System, at first legislated from CARB in 1985, then
carry out from 1988. SAE draw up the standard of OBD-I in 1988 [1]. From 1980s
the United States, Japan, Europe, and other major auto makers start to use OBD
system in their production of automotive.
The reason for more attention on OBD is the high requirement for emission.
The OBD systems monitor the devices in automotive that related to the emission,
and through the connector (SAE J1962) to exchange data from diagnostic tool.
F2012-D02-036
L. Li (&) S. Tang
SAICMOTOR Commercial Vehicle Technical Center, Shanghai, China
e-mail: lili_cv@saicmotor.com
342 L. Li and S. Tang
ASAM MCD-2D
2001 1.2.2
ASAM MCD-2D Basic
Working Draft
(ODX 1.1.4)
2002 MCD
Harmonization
2003
ASAM MCD-2D
2004 ODX 2.0
2005 ODX 2.0.1

ISO CD 22901-1
2006 ODX 2.1.0

ISO DIS 22901-1
ODX 2.1.1 in progress
Fig. 1 Development process of ODX
ECU in every phase of automotive design-manufacture-aftersale, it may exchange

data with different tools through OBD connector [2]. The data formats in different
tools are obviously very important. This paper presents an instruction to the
development of controller diagnostic system based on ODX (Open Diagnostic
Data Exchange), and build BCM database for a certain automotive in ODX,
through the validation to prove the consistency.
2 Open Diagnostic Data Exchange
ODX (Open diagnostic data exchange) at first raised by ASAM (Association for
Standardization of Automation and Measuring Systems), and released by ISO
(International Standards Organization) in March 4th, 2009 as standard ISO22901-
1:2008, according to ODX 2.2.0 as the standard of diagnostic data exchange.
ODX data format release process as the Fig. 1. ODX standard consists of all the
diagnostic data model from automotive and ECU, for example, DTC (diagnostic
trouble code), data parameters, identification data, input–output parameters, ECU
coding; ECU diagnostic communication protocol; Data-link layer communication
parameters; ECU flash data format; related connector description etc. Using the
database of ODX standard can make sure the database from every major auto
makers independent on the diagnostic tool that from any tool supplier. Ensure the
consistency of the database in the line of automotive design-manufacture-aftersale.
Currently there are many automotive makers, as BMW, GM; there are many ECU
suppliers, as Bosch, Siemens-VDO; and many diagnostic tool suppliers, as Vector,
Softing, ESG, ETAS etc. support the ODX.
Development of Controller Diagnostic System Based on ODX 343
Fig. 2 ECU surrounding Switch Light

components
ECU
M
Sensor Motor
3 Design and Application of OBD System
3.1 Legislated On-Board Diagnostics
The OBD system that related to emission is monitoring the signals and devices that
belong to engine in automotive. This function is implemented by ECU (Electronic
Control Unit). Any components or subsystems’ fault that may course the emission
exceed the legislation limit, the ECU will exactly diagnostic the failed components
or subsystems, and then do the failure reminder. In the standard of OBD-II, the
main diagnostic systems that related to emission are monitoring subsystems as
three-way catalytic converter, lambda sensor, engine knock and fuel oil system [3].
3.2 Vehicle Manufacturer Enhanced Diagnostics
Besides the legislated On-Board Diagnostic, the electronic monitoring system

defined as enhanced diagnostic. Normally use the ECU in body to achieve the
function. The body ECU monitors the surrounding components and devices, include
input outputs, then analysis the signals based on the diagnostic software, in order to
identify whether the surrounding components have fault. Then to judgment the
reason of the fault, record the corresponding diagnostic trouble code (DTC).
ECU surrounding components can be divided into input component, such as
switch, sensor; output component, such as engine, actuator etc. Different sur-
rounding components considering use different monitoring strategies. Figure 2 is
the example of the surrounding components.
3.3 Input Component Monitoring
When the input monitoring component is switch, the fault monitoring flow is
showed in Fig. 3.
The switch divided into self-locking and non self-locking, the status of self-
locking switch cannot judgment the fault condition, so generally do not do the fault
detection. The non self-locking switch after the execution of a signal, will recovery
the signal. If the signal can’t recovery to the initial status after the conversion, then
consider the switch has fault.
Fig. 3 The monitoring flow

of switch Switch Status
Yes
High Voltage 1s, then
Normal
Low Voltage
No
Fault
Record the Locked

Rotor Fault (DTC)
When the input component is sensor, the MCU collect the voltage and current
of the sensor. In initial ECU have defined the valid range of each sensor, when
ECU monitor the signal exceed the specified valid range, can be judged one of the
following faults: sensor cable is loose or damaged, the wiring is short to ground or
short battery, the sensor is failure.
3.3.1 Output Component Monitoring
The output component means the actuator connected to the ECU. ECU monitor the
signal of the actuator, read back to the MCU, then judgment whether the actuator
or the actuator loop have the fault. Because the majority of the electrical actuators
are electromagnetic coil, such as motor, so detect the actuator can measuring the
resistance of the coil. The abnormal resistance will cause the voltage read back to
the MCU in abnormal status.
4 Diagnostic Application Design in Body ECU
The OBD function of body ECU is focus on the enhance diagnostic, each vehicle
manufacturer always design the system based on the feature of the vehicle elec-
trical system. This session, will engage in the diagnostic system design for the
body controller of a vehicle platform. At first, according to the feature of the BCM
(Body Controller Module) surrounding component, distinguish the types of sig-
nals. Confirm the signal resources that need to detect. Figure 4 list some signal
resources of the BCM.
12V
Hazard Switch Hazard Light

A/D IS1
Door Contact Pin A/D
HSD
A/D Chip Rear Compartment
IS2 Light
5V A/D
Wiper Intermit
Switch
MCU
A/D 12V
IS1 LSD
A/D Chip
12V Motor
M
Fig. 4 Some signal resources of the BCM
1. Hazard Switch, it is a non self-locking switch, when detect the signal always in
the high voltage, and then can consider the switch is in the fault. The door
contact switch is self-locking switch, so cannot judge the fault condition.
2. Wiper Intermit Switch, it is analog input signal, when MCU monitor the signal
exceed the specified valid range, can be judged in fault. The input signal of the
wiper intermit switch is the resistance value, through the internal pull-up
resistor voltage divider, the resistance value invert to voltage value. The valid
signal of the wiper intermit switch have two ranges 0 10KX and
20 50 KX(its just for example, normally the ranges are more than two), the
valid value that read by MCU also have two ranges, assume as 0.1 * 1 and
2 * 4.9 V, when exceed the different range, judged as different fault, the
detailed type of the fault listed in Table 1.
3. The output component of the BCM is controlled by the LSD and HSD that have
the function of read back function. The chip of LSD or HSD according to the
read back value of IS1 IS2, feedback to the A/D of MCU, MCU judge whether
the actuator have fault.
Based on the above design program, the BCM may have the following failures.
5 Verification and Validation
Based on the ODX model, build up the ODX database of the BCM diagnostic
function model. Then do the verification and validation.
Table 1 List of BCM DTC

DTC Failure description Failure detect method Failure Fault maintenance
type method
B1062 Wiper intermit input Input signal out of 0*1 or Invalid Replace the switch
out of range 2*5 V signal
B1063 Wiper intermit switch Input signal always 0 V Short to ground
short to ground
Check wiring of switch
the
B1064 Wiper intermit switch Input signal always 5 V Short to battery
short to battery
Check wiring of switch
the
B1071 Hazard light open Output signal read back Open Check the wiring or
current is 0 A signal replace the light
B1072 Hazard light short to Output signal read back Short to ground
ground voltage is 0 V
Check wiring
the
B1090 Compartment light Output signal read back Open Check the wiring or
open current is 0 A signal replace the light
B1091 Compartment light Output signal read back Short to ground
short to ground voltage is 0 V
Check wiring
the
B1092 Motor loop open Output signal read back Open Check the wiring or
current is 0 A signal replace the motor
B1093 Motor loop short to Output signal read back Short to battery
battery voltage is 5 V
Check wiring
the
B1094 Hazard light switch Input signal of switch Invalid Check the switch
stuck always high voltage signal
Table 2 The format of K line

Fmt Tgt Src Len SID Data CS
Max.4 byte Max.255 byte 1 byte
Fmt frame byte, Tgt target address, Src source address, Len length, SID diagnostic service id,
Data data byte, CS Checksum
5.1 Definition of the Communication Parameters
The tester and ECU need define the same communication speed (baud rate),
address ID and message format. Then the message can be received successfully in
K line and have been analyzed. These communication parameters are defined as
basis parameter. It has been set up in the COMPARAM-SPEC model of the ODX
data structure. The baud rate of K line normally set up as 10.4 Kbps. According to
the protocol of ISO 14230, the format of K line is defined as the Table 2.
The first four bytes of the message can use different formats, according to
different manufacturers’ definition. This BCM define the message length in bit5-
bit0 of Fmt.
The address and other signal is defined as follow:
1. Address separate to target address and source address, ODX database is mainly
used in diagnostic tool, so for the tool, the target address is ECU, defined as
35H(hex), the source address is diagnostic tool, defined as F1H(hex).
2. The header of the message has three bytes, and only support physical
addressing(point to point), define the Fmt as 80+ data length(include SID) in
the database.
3. Data byte area is composed of SID and its corresponding data, not exceed
255 bytes.
4. Checksum and byte satisfy the following formula: \CS [ i ¼ \CS [ ði1Þ þ
\BYTEi [ g mod 256; i 1. Among, \CS [ 0 ¼ \BYTE0 [ .
Before the diagnostic SID request, the ECU has been fast initialized by the
tester. Using the 25 ms high and low voltage signal as the wake signal, inform the
target node the tester want to communication. Through the start communication
request SID 81, build the consistency between the tester and tool with tester
address, ECU address and message header etc. After the initialization, the com-
munication will maintain, until exceed the certain time, and the tester have not
send any request, the communication will stop. If the tester want to communica-
tion again, it need to send wake signal again.
5.2 Definition of Service Request ID
According to the definition, clarify the services that supported by ECU. Build these
parameters in DIAG-LAYER model in ODX, then inherit the COMPARAM-
SPEC, make communication parameters consistency with the vehicle parameters.
Each diagnostic service ID includes request service and response service, and the
response service includes positive response and negative response. Response service
and request service have certain regularity. Such as, RespSID ¼ ReqSID þ xxH,
ReqSID is request service, RespSID is response service, xxH is a fixed Hex value. In
protocol KWP2000 xxH is40H.
Request message: ReqSID+request information
Positive response message: RespSID+positive response information
Negative response message: 7F þ ReqSID þ NRC, NRC is negative response
code.
Fig. 5 Interface of the diagnostic test
Different service contain different meaning and length, each service also have
different NRC. After build the relationship between the request message with the
positive response and with the negative response message, add all these definition
to the ECU’s diagnostic parameters. Then the finished diagnostic database can be
exported as an ODX format, the format of ODX has the following eight types:
1. odx-c (COMPARAM-SPEC)
2. odx-d (DIAG-LAYER-CONTAINER)
3. odx-f (FLASH)
4. odx-m (MULTIPLE-ECU-JOB)
5. odx-v (VEHICLE-INFO-SPEC)
6. odx-e (ECU-CONFIG)
7. odx-fd (FUNCTION-DICTIONARY)
8. odx-p (Contains One, or Multiple ODX Files and Other Files/Data).
According to the definition of the database, it can be export the corresponding
ODX file.
5.3 Verification and Validation
Using of Company Softing’s tool DTS Monaco, import the ODX database. Carry
out the diagnostic testing for a real ECU. In tester have defined the K-Line
communication manner, after the faster initialization between the tester and the
ECU, the communication has set up, and then can do the verification. Figure 5 is
the picture of the test.
Choose the request service, click transmit, the interface show the request
message and the response message from ECU. It has showed the request message
and response message of the TesterPresent service after the communication set up.
And show the request and response of readDTCByStatus.
Req 3E
Resp 7E
Req 18 00 FF 00
Resp 58 06 90 62 24 90 71 64 90 90 48 90 93 48 90 94 48 90 95 48.
Translate it is DTC B1062 B1071 B1090 B1093 B1094 B1095.
On the basis of this database, in development phase it can realize test of
application diagnostic service, the test of communication time parameters in data
link layer, the test of ECU DTC and the test of DTC status etc. The database
exchange to the supplier of the manufactory tester, it can realize the function of
EOL test, ECU coding etc. The database exchange to the dealer of the manufac-
tory, it can realize function of repair auxiliary, read the DTC code and change
ECU etc. Also the supplier of ECU can use this database in diagnostic software
integration; it can save the cost of the development. And it is benefit for the
software developer, they can deal with the ODX database directly, do not need
master more ODX professional knowledge.
References
1. Zechang S (2006) Vehicle network and electric drive control. Tongji Univesity Doctoral
Programmes, Shanghai
2. ISO 22901-1, International Organization for Standardization (2008) Road vehicles—open
diagnostic data exchange (ODX)—part1: data model specification
3. Wang X, Wang S (2006) The theory of on-board diagnostic and employment. Automobile
Electric
Magnetic Circuit Design for Improving
Performance of In-Wheel Type IPMSM
Byeong-Hwa Lee, Jae-Woo Jung, Kyu-Seob Kim and Jung-Pyo Hong
Abstract This paper presents rib design in the rotor of IPMSM to increase maxi-
mum power in the field weakening region without variation of PM usage, conductor
and size. Rib design is critical issue in the design of IPMSM due to leakage flux of
permanent magnet and dominated by mechanical strength, therefore structural
analysis should be conducted and minimum thickness should be selected. Rib design
also affects to the inductance and saliency ratio and results in the variation of the field
weakening performance and output power. With determined rib thickness, motor
parameters and other motor characteristics according to rib length are presented in
this paper. By redesigning rotor ribs, 6.2 % of increased maximum power in the field
weakening region is achieved. Finite element analysis (FEA) and equivalent circuit
analysis (ECA) are used for parameter and performance estimation.
Keywords Characteristic current

Interior permanent magnet synchronous

machine In-Wheel type motor Magnetic circuit design
1 Introduction
Recently as the interest about the energy savings in the various industrial fields is
increasingly raised, the high efficient electric motors have been demanded. The
field of interior permanent magnet synchronous machine (IPMSM) is especially
F2012-D02-041
B.-H. Lee (&) J.-W. Jung K.-S. Kim J.-P. Hong

Department of Automotive Engineering, Hanyang University 222, Wangsimni-ro,
Seongdong-gu, Seoul 133-791, Korea
e-mail: lbhwa@nate.com
352 B.-H. Lee et al.
getting larger because both magnetic torque and reluctance torque can be used
simultaneously. Due to possibility of field weakening operation through current
vector control, IPMSM is suitable for In-Wheel type motor which demands high
power density and high efficiency [1, 2].
When IPMSM is applied to the In-Wheel type motor, two-problems occurs.
First, the price of permanent magnet that occupied 30 % of price of one IPMSM is
the most serious problem. Due to this problem, hybrid traction motor has recently a
tendency that reluctance torque occurred by d, q-axis inductance difference is
considered to be more crucial than magnetic torque generated by permanent
magnetic flux. Second, EMF increases linearly in proportion to the angular
velocity of rotor and then reaches the limit which is IGBT breakdown voltage. The
problem occurs in obtaining the maximum power in field weakening region due to
limit in usage of permanent magnet. In the field weakening region, if the voltage
ellipse moves to the left, the voltage ellipse will cross the upper constant torque
locus. Finally, the maximum power is increased in the field weakening region.
In order to move the voltage ellipse, a characteristic current should be changed.
There are two kinds of alternatives for this purpose. First of all, increasing no-load
linkage flux is one of the methods by using more permanent magnet. Secondly, by
reducing d-axis inductance, the voltage ellipse is shifted to the left. Reducing the
d-axis inductance is easily achieved by rib redesign.
This paper presents rib design in the rotor of IPMSM to increase maximum power
in the field weakening region without variation of PM usage, conductor and size. Rib
design is critical issue in the design of IPMSM due to leakage flux of permanent
magnet and dominated by mechanical strength, therefore structural analysis should
be conducted and minimum thickness should be selected. Rib design also affects to
the inductance and saliency ratio and results in the variation of the field weakening
performance and output power. With determined rib thickness, motor parameters
and other motor characteristics according to rib length are presented in this paper.
By redesigning rotor ribs, increased maximum power in the field weakening region
is achieved. Finite element analysis (FEA) and equivalent circuit analysis (ECA) are
used for parameter and performance estimation [3].
2 Calculation of Voltage Ellipse in IPMSM
The IPMSM is commonly analyzed using two axis theory. The d-axis is defined
in the direction of the rotor permanent magnet flux linkage phasor so that
the orthogonal q-axis is aligned in with the open circuit EMF phasor [4, 5].
The equivalent circuits for IPMSM based on a synchronous reference frame
including iron losses are presented in Fig. 1. The mathematical model of the
equivalent circuit is given in the following equations. The d, q-axis voltages and
currents are given by (1, 2, and 3).
Magnetic Circuit Design for Improving Performance 353
Fig. 1 Equivalent circuit of Ra

the IPMSM model in the d- id iod
ωLqioq
q reference frame, (a) d-axis
icd
equivalent circuit, (b) q-axis
equivalent circuit Rc vod
vd
Ld
(a) d-axis equivalent circuit

iq Ra ioq
ωLd iod
icq
vq Rc voq ω a
Lq
(b) q-axis equivalent circuit
Fig. 2 Voltage ellipses and

constant torque locus
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Va ¼ v2d þ v2q ; Ia ¼ i2d þ i2q ð1Þ

vd iod Ra vod Ld 0 iod
¼ Ra þ 1þ þp ð2Þ
vq ioq Rc v oq 0 Lq ioq

vod 0 xLq iod 0
¼ þ ð3Þ
voq xLd 0 ioq xwa
Start
Current PM
Load analysis with i d , iq
On On
FEM
Calculation of L d , L q profile Calculation of extra parameters

Rc (FEM), Ra
FEM
Current PM
Calculation of Ψ a profile
Off On
End
Fig. 3 Overall process of equivalent circuit analysis
where, id and iq are the d, q-axis component of the armature current, icd and icq are
the d, q-axis component of iron loss current, vd and vq are the d, q-axis component
of terminal voltage, Ra is the armature winding resistance per phase, Rc is the
iron-loss resistance, Wa is the flux linkage of PM per phase root mean square
(rms), Ld and Lq are d, q-axis inductance.
The Eqs. (2.1, 3.1) can be obtained by applying the assumptions that the state is
steady and the terms of resistive voltage drop are small at high speeds in Eqs. (2, 3).
vd ¼ xLq ioq ð2:1Þ
vq ¼ xðLd iod þ wa Þ ð3:1Þ

When the Eqs. (2.1, 3.1) are applied at Eq. (1), the voltage ellipse equation is
obtained like (4).
! 2 0 12
id þ wLda iq
w
þ @w A ¼ 1 ð4Þ
o o
Ld Lq
3 Shift of the Center of Voltage Ellipse
The voltage ellipse and current circle trajectories from inverter and motor establish
operating limits of the drive system. The control strategy must select these com-
mands that satisfy both trajectories [6].
Fig. 4 Different rib thickness of two IPMSM model, (a) base model, (b) rib-redesign model
Table 1 Specification of Values

base model
Number of pole and slots 8/48
Winding method Distributed winding
DC link voltage 240 VDC
Input current 220 Arms
Max speed 11000 rpm
Max power 35 kW
The center of voltage ellipse is called a characteristic current that is the ratio of
No-load linkage flux to the d-axis inductance. The characteristic current is given
by (5).
wa
Ich ¼ ð5Þ
Ld
When the characteristic current is placed within current circle, it is possible to use
the field weakening control. Figure 2 is shows voltage ellipses and constant torque
loci. If the characteristic current is shifted from A to B, the voltage ellipse will cross
the upper constant torque locus. Finally, the maximum power is increased in the
field weakening region. The characteristic current is shifted to left side by two-
conditions. First condition is the increase of no-load linkage flux by more usage of
PM. However the usage of PM is limited in IPMSM due to some problems. Second
condition is the decrease of d-axis inductance by increase of d-axis reluctance. This
is useful for improving maximum power by simple redesigning rotor ribs.
In this paper, the method improving the maximum power without more usage of
permanent magnet is suggested. The suggested method is the shifted of the
characteristic current through the rib redesign of IPMSM. The detailed analysis
results of using the finite element analysis (FEA) and equivalent circuit analysis
(ECA) will be presented.
(a) 80
Phase back EMF : 21.8 [Vrms]
Back EMF [ V ] @1000rpm

60 Line-line back EMF : 37.7 [Vrms]
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Electrical angle [ o ]
(b) 80
Phase back EMF : 22.1 [ Vrms ]
Back EMF [ V ] @1000rpm
60 Line-line back EMF : 38.2 [ Vrms ]

40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Fig. 5 The back EMF of two IPMSM, (a) base model, (b) rib-redesign model
4 Calculation of Parameters in IPMSM
4.1 Overall Process of Equivalent Circuit Analysis
Overall process of equivalent circuit analysis (ECA) is shown in Fig. 3. The dif-
ference according to current intensity is considered calculating the flux linkage.
Profile of d, q-axis inductance and current, current phase angle are calculated to
consider nonlinearity [6]. The d, q-axis inductance can be computed by relation
between intensity of flux linkage and status under no-loaded and loaded condition
through Eq. (6).
wa wo cos a w sin a
Ld ¼ ; Lq ¼ o ð6Þ
id iq
(a) 2.0
d-axis inductance
1.8 q-axis inductance
d,q-axis inductance [mH]

1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
Current Increase
0.8
Direction
0.6
0.4
0.2
30 40 50 60 70 80
(b) 2.0
d-axis inductance
1.8 q-axis inductance
d,q-axis inductance [mH]
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
Current Increase
0.8 Direction
0.6
0.4
0.2
30 40 50 60 70 80
Fig. 6 d, q-axis inductance of Two IPMSM, (a) base model, (b) rib-redesign model
4.2 Different Rib Thickness of Two IPMSM Model
Two IPMSM models which have different rib thickness are shown by Fig. 4.
IPMSM model which has a specification as Table 1 is shown by first figure. The
model which has reduced rib thickness by redesigning is shown by second figure.
The maximum output which increased in weakening region can be confirmed and
the characteristic of IPMSM which is changing can be observed by FEA and ECA
reducing rib thickness.
(a) 4.0
Saliency ratio
3.5
Saliency ratio (Lq/Ld)

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5 Current Increase

Direction
1.0
30 40 50 60 70 80
(b) 4.0
Saliency ratio
3.5
Saliency ratio (Lq/Ld)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5 Current Increase

Direction
1.0
30 40 50 60 70 80
Fig. 7 Saliency ratio of Two IPMSM, (a) base model, (b) rib-redesign model
Table 2 Compared of the Parameters of Two IPMSM

Parameter Base model Rib-redesign model
Flux linkage 0.090 Wb (0 %) 0.0912 Wb (1.4 %)
d-axis inductance 0.453 mH (0 %) 0.424 mH (-6.4 %)
Characteristic current 198.7 Arms (0 %) 215 Arms (8.2 %)
Max power 34 kW (0 %) 36.1 kW (6.2 %)
4.3 Overall Process of Equivalent Circuit Analysis
The characteristic current which is moved by redesigning rib lastly can be con-
firmed. The back EMF which is calculated by flux linkage under no-load condition
Fig. 8 Shift of the Current Limit Circle

characteristic current within iq 245A rms
the current limit circle
Characteristic Current
of Base Model
id
Characteristic Current
of Rib-Redesign Model
is shown by Fig. 5. 1.3 % of increase in back EMF can be known by reduction of

magnetic flux leakage decreasing rib thickness.
The d, q-axis inductance and saliency ratio are shown by Figs. 6 and 7. Q-axis
inductance increased in small quantity, but d-axis inductance decreased. The
components of reluctance torque increase as saliency ratio which is calculated by
the ratio of q-axis inductance and d-axis inductance. The larger maximum power
can be obtained by reducing rib thickness eventually.
5 Result
Parameters of two IPMSM which have different rib thickness are confirmed by
FEA and ECA. D-axis inductance which is one of the IPMSM parameter is most
influenced by reduction of rib thickness therefore it decreases sharply.
Characteristic current moves to the left with same size of voltage ellipse. As a
result maximum power increases owing to the intersection of the voltage ellipse
and constant torque locus. Flux linkage, d-axis inductance and characteristic
current calculated by FEA and ECA are shown by Table 2 The result that
increased characteristic current moved to the left can be known within the current
limit circle by Fig. 8.
6 Conclusion
In this paper, the method improving the maximum power without more usage of
permanent magnet is suggested. The suggested method is the shifted of the
characteristic current through the rib redesign of IPMSM. As the rib is redesigned,
d-axis inductance is largely decreased. The analysis results of using the FEA and
ECA is shown. As a result, by redesigning the rotor rib, maximum power increased
by 6.2 %. Due to reduction of rib thickness, the stress concentration can increase at
the rotor rib. Therefore structure analysis is sometimes demanded.
References
1. Lee J-Y, Lee S-H, Lee G-H, Hong J-P, Hur J (2006) Determination of parameters considering
magnetic nonlinearity in an interior permanent magnet synchronous motor. IEEE Trans Magn
42(4):1303–1306
2. Hur J, Km B-W (2010) Rotor shape design of an interior PM type BLDC motor for improving
mechanical vibration and EMI characteristics. JEET 5(3):462–467
3. Lee B-H, Kwon S-O, Sun T, Hong J-P, Lee G-H (2011) Modeling of core resistance for d-q
equivalent circuit analysis of IPMSM considering harmonic linkage flux. IEEE Trans Magn
47(5):1066–1069
4. Jung J-W, Lee J-J, Kwon S-O, Hong J-P (2009) Equivalent circuit analysis of interior
permanent magnet synchronous motor considering magnetic saturation. Electric Vehicle
Symposium 24 (EVS)
5. Dutta R, Rahman MF (2004) Investigation of suitable vector control techiques for low voltage
IPM machine in 42 V system. In: Proceedings IEEE Industrial Electronics Society 30th
Annual Conference Paper, vol 3. pp 2724–2728
6. Fu ZX (2003) Pseudo constant power times speed operation in the field weakening region of
IPM synchronous machines. In: Proceedings IAS Industrial Application 38th Annual
Conference paper, vol 1. pp 373–379
A Study on the Noise Reduction
of Electrical Power Steering in Surface
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
Do-Jin Kim, Hyeon-Jin Park and Jung-Pyo Hong
Abstract Electrical Power Steering (EPS) is designed to use an electric motor to

reduce effort by providing steering assist to the driver. EPS have advantages which
are economical and eco-friendly compare with hydraulic power steering, because
the power steering oil is not used and efficiency of vehicle increased to 3*5 %.
Since EPS is connected to handle of vehicle, acoustic noise and vibration have an
effect on the driver directly. So study on the acoustic noise and vibration reduction
of EPS is proceeding. In this paper, acoustic noise and vibration reduction of motor
are generated by electro-magnetic exciting forces between stator and rotor. The
magnetic noise is defined as noise generated from vibrations due to electro-
magnetic exciting force. The electro-magnetic exciting force affect on stator yoke,
and the acoustic noise and vibration of motor generated by deformation of stator
yoke. In order to consider mechanical characteristic, the natural frequency mode of
stator is calculated using FEA to avoid resonance. In order to verify proposed
method, the proto and improved model are manufactured and experimented.
Keywords Acoustic noise

Electrical power steering
Surface permanent

magnet synchronous motor Electromagnetic exciting force Deformation
F2012-D02-043
D.-J. Kim (&) H.-J. Park J.-P. Hong

Department of Automotive Engineering, Hanyang University,
222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu,
Seoul 133-791, Korea
e-mail: k641170@hanyang.ac.kr
362 D.-J. Kim et al.
1 Introduction
Acoustic noise of motor can be classified into three sections. First of all, there are
higher space and time harmonics eccentricity, phase unbalance, slot opening,
magnetic saturation, and magnetostrictive expansion of the core laminations on
electrical noise. Secondly, there are mechanical noises associated with the
mechanical assembly. Thirdly, there are aerodynamic noises associated with flow
of ventilating air through or over the motor.
The electro-magnetic exciting forces affect on stator yoke, and the noise and
vibration are generated by deformation of stator yoke. Therefore, the normal and
tangential forces are calculated using air gap flux density, and the effect is analyzed
by calculating deformation of stator yoke. In order to calculate electro-magnetic
exciting forces which affect on the acoustic noise, the FEA simulation is conducted.
Numerous analyses have been developed in this field over years. Harmonic
fluxes, for instance, have been investigated through search coils and the FEA.
From these harmonic fluxes, it is possible to calculate electro-magnetic exciting
forces using Maxwell’s stress equations. Most papers deal with electro-magnetic
exciting forces and their modes. Kako analyzed modes of electro-magnetic
exciting forces and modes of natural frequency in induction machines [1, 2]. The
electro-magnetic exciting force and vibration have been studied numerically in
synchronous machines and SRM [3–5].
The acoustic noise is caused by electro-magnetic exciting force such as radial
and tangential forces which deform the stator core [6].
In order to calculate electro-magnetic exciting forces which affect on the
acoustic noise, the 2-D simulation is operated using sinusoidal current considering
load condition.
The exciting forces are put in the surface of tooth of stator and the quantity of
deformation of stator yoke is calculated. In order to reduce acoustic noise, the
diameter of rotor and width of tooth are decreased in this paper. The characteristic
of motor is satisfactory and the deformation of stator yoke is reduced. To satisfy
characteristic of motor, the permanent magnet decreased by 20 % compared with
proto model, series turns per phase increased to satisfy no load back EMF, when
the rated speed is 1,500 rpm, the rated torque is 2.6 Nm. In order to verify sug-
gested method, designed motor is manufactured and experimented. Between initial
and improved model which is designed by decreasing the usage of permanent
magnet. The motor is 6 pole 9 slot and surface permanent magnet type motor.
2 Design Process
2.1 Specification of Motor
The specifications of analysis model are shown as Table 1. The analysis model
which consists of 6 pole/9 slots and concentrated windings is driven by BLAC
A Study on the Noise Reduction 363
Table 1 Specifications of List Values

tested motor
Number of pole slots 6/9
Rated current (Arms) 45
Series turns number per phase (turns) 16
Rated speed (rpm) 1,500
Rated torque (Nm) 2.6
operation and rated speed and rated torque are 1,500 rpm and 2.6 Nm, respectively.
The initial and improved models which have the same characteristics but different
stator and rotor structures are studied by this process. Finally, the calculated results
are verified by an experiment. The cross-section of motors is shown in Fig. 1.
2.2 FEA Simulation
In order to reduce acoustic noise, the rotor decreased to 17 % in comparison with

proto model. The series turns per phase increased to satisfy no load back Electro
Motive Force (EMF), torque. When the rated current is injected, the characteristic
of motor is satisfied under the load condition 1,500 rpm and 2.6 Nm are shown as
Fig. 2. In case of M2 model, the copper loss decreased because the torque is lager
than other models.
2.3 Spectrum Analysis
The electromagnetic exciting force which causes the noise and vibration of motor
is analyzed in this paper. First of all, the flux density in the air gap is calculated by
result of FEA. Secondly, the radial force and tangential force are calculated by
using Maxwell Stress Tensor. The tangential force is ignored because it is smaller
than radial force. Accordingly, the radial force is used to analyze acoustic noise
and vibration. Temporal and spatial harmonic components of electro-magnetic
exciting force which is calculated can be analyzed by applying Fourier transform.
In the harmonic analysis using the electromagnetic force F as an example, first
of all, the k-th space harmonic component is separated from the field analysis
result as a function of the circumferential position xs of the stator coordinate at
each time t in the field analysis. The separated electromagnetic force Ft ðxs Þ can be
expressed as follows [7, 8].
X
Ft ðxs Þ ¼ Fk sinðkxs þ ak Þ ð1Þ
k
where Fk is the amplitude of the k-th space harmonic components, and ak is the phase
angle. Equation (6) means only space harmonic components at each time-step.
(a) Proto model (b)M1 model (c) M2 model
Fig. 1 Cross-section view of analysis models, a Proto model, b M1 modell, c M2 model
Fig. 2 Torque according to Proro M1 M2

3.0
the models @ 45 Arms, 20°
2.5
Torque [ Nm ]
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Next, the v-th time harmonic component is separated from the k-th space
harmonic component at every circumferential position xs of the stator coordinate.
The separated harmonic component Fks1 is presented as follows.
X
Fkx ðtÞ ¼ Fkv sinðvxt þ akv Þ ð2Þ
k
Where, x is the electrical angular frequency, Fkv is the amplitude of the v-th
time for the k-th space harmonic components, and are the phase angle. In the
proposed method, each harmonic component is separated into positive-phase-
sequence and negative-phase-sequence harmonic waves which are functions of the
circumferential position xs and time t.
At the two circumferential positions xs1 and xs2 of the stator coordinate, the v-th
time, for the k-th space harmonic electromagnetic force Fkv1 and Fkv2 are given as
follows.
Fkv1 sinðvxt þ akv1 Þ ¼ Fkvp sinðvxt kxs1 þ akvp Þ þ Fkvn sinðvxt þ kxs1 þ akvn Þ
Fkv2 sinðvxt þ akv2 Þ ¼ Fkvp sinðvxt kxs2 þ akvp Þ þ Fkvn sinðvxt þ kxs2 þ akvn Þ
ð3Þ
where akv1 and akv2 are the phase angles of Fkv1 and Fkv2 ; respectively; Fkvp and
Fkvn are the amplitudes of the positive-phase-sequence and negative-phase-
sequence v-th time for the k-th space harmonic components, respectively; akvp and
akvn are the phase angles of the positive-phase-sequence and negative-phase-

sequence v-th time for the k-th space harmonic components, respectively. By
solving (3) simultaneously, the amplitudes and the phase angles of the positive-
phase-sequence and negative-phase-sequence harmonic components can be
obtained. In this process, the circumferential positions xs1 and xs2 are chosen where
each absolute value of the harmonic amplitude by (3) is the maximum or mini-
mum, though any position can be chosen freely.
Consequently, the electromagnetic force F ðxs ; tÞ by the above FEM analysis
can be expressed as (4).
XX
F ðxs ; tÞ ¼ ½ Fkvp sinðkxs vxt þ akvp Þ þ Fkvn sinðkxs þ vxt þ akvn Þ ð4Þ
k v
2.4 Modal Analysis
In order to consider mechanical characteristics and resonance, the natural fre-

quency and mode of each component of motor assembly are calculated using FEA
with material and geometry. Te designed model can avoid a resonance of motor by
mismatching frequency of electromagnetic excitation force to the mechanical
natural frequency (Fig. 3).
Based on the principle of Hamilton, the modal analysis can be described in (5)
with considering the un-damping system and external force free (Fig. 4).
½Mf€xg þ ½Kfxg ¼ 0 ð5Þ
where x is the vector of the displacement, ½M is the mass matrix, and ½K is the
stiffness matrix. As the vibration is estimated, the deformation analysis requires
consideration of damping and applied force vector. Thus, the mechanical system is
expressed as (6).
½Mf€xg þ ½Cf_xg þ ½Kfxg ¼ fFðtÞg ð6Þ
where ½C is the damping matrix and fFðtÞg is the applied force vector [9]. In this
study, the vector FðtÞ only consists of the harmonic components of the calculated
local force, because the DC component has no effect on the vibration.
2.5 Simulation of Deformation
The deformation analysis is calculated using commercial tool ANSYS. The radial
force is applied on the stator tooth surface and shown in Fig. 5a. The deformation
of stator is calculated by radial forces which are generated in the air gap and is
shown in Fig. 5b. The deformation of proto model is larger than other models. The
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3 Natural frequency mode of stator @ proto model, a 1110 Hz @ 2mode, b 2835 Hz @
3mode, c 4587 Hz @ 4mode
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4 Natural frequency mode of stator @ M2 model Modal analysis @ M2 model, a 978 Hz @
2mode, b 2395 Hz @ 3mode, c 3625 Hz @ 4mode
measured point
Proto M1 M2
15.0n
Deformation [m]
10.0n
5.0n
Y
Z X
0.0
-5.0n
-10.0n
-15.0n
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time [s]
(a) (b)
Fig. 5 Deformation according to the radial force, a Radial force distribution, b deformation
according to rotor position
Proto M1 M2
10n
deformation [ m ]
1n
100p
10p
1p
1 6 11 16 21
harmonic order
Fig. 6 Harmonic analysis @ measured deformation
(a) (b)
Fig. 7 Experimental results of motors, a proto model, b M2 model
acoustic noise reduction is predicted using compare the deformation according to

the harmonic analysis. The deformation quantity of M2 model is smaller than other
models is shown in Fig. 6.
3 Experimental Results
In order to verify calculation method, the experiment for measurement of noise is

conducted. The motor which is with the wheel is experimented according to the
change speed and measured 1 m away from the configuration of experiment by
microphone.
Figure 7 shows the noise experiment results measurement by 1/3 octave band.
The motor which has 6 pole 9 slot is generated by 18th harmonic noise and
compared initial and improved model. The noise of improved model is less than
initial model with down 5 dB.
4 Result
In this paper, the deformation is related to the deformation of stator. In order to

reduce acoustic noise, the deformation of stator is calculated using radial forces
which are generated from the air gap. The acoustic noise of motor decreased
through the deformation reduction of stator core. The deformation of improved M2
model is smaller than other models using harmonic analysis. This proposed
method is conducted to reduce acoustic noise.
References
1. Ishibashi F, Kobayashi K (1990) Experimental study of harmonic magnetic flux of small

squirrel cage induction motor. Electr Eng Jpn 110(6):118–127
2. Ishibashi F, Noda S, Mochizuki M (1998) Numerical simulation of electromagnetic vibration
of small induction motors. IEE Proc Power Appl 145(6):528–534
3. Ha K-H, Kim Y-K, Lee G-H, Hong J-P (2004) Vibration reduction of switched reluctance
motor by experimental transfer function and response surface methodology. IEEE Trans Magn
40(2):577–580
4. Hong J-P, Ha K-H, Lee J (2002) Stator pole and yoke design for vibration reduction of
switched reluctance motor. IEEE Trans Magn 38(3):1295–1309
5. Jung J-W, Lee S-H, Lee G-H, Hong J-P, Lee D-H, Kim K-N (2010) Reduction design of
vibration and noise in IPMSM type integrated starter and generator for HEV. IEEE Trans
Magn 46(6):2454–2457
6. Lee S, Park I, Lee K (2000) Comparison of mechanical deformations due to different force
distributions of two equivalent magnetization models. IEEE Trans Magn 34(4):1368–1372
7. Hirotsuka I, Tsuboi K (1989) Experimental study on the electromagnetic vibration caused by
the slot combination of a squirrel-cage induction motor. T IEE Japan 109-D(5):347–354
8. Goeras JF, Wang C, Lai JC (2006) Noise of polyphase electric motors. CRC Press Taylor and
Francis Publishing Co, UK
9. Mikami H, Ide K, Arai K, Takahashi M, Kajiwara K (1999) Dynamic harmonic field analysis
of an inverter-fed induction motor considering all harmonic components in the secondary
current. IEEE Trans Energy Conver 14(3):464–470
Power Distribution Design of Passenger
Vehicle
Xianming Wang
Abstract The chapter discussed the method of power distribution of passenger

vehicle, and indicated the key points of power distribution. Via analyzing the
property of electronic and electrical parts in vehicle, we ascertain the load charac-
teristics of electronic and electrical parts, define the load types of different electronic
and electrical parts, define the application strategy of fuses and the original power
distribution draft. According to the numbers and power of load, calculate the capa-
bility of fuse and choose the type of fuse. Then, via the capability of fuse, calculate the
diameter of wire connecting with the fuse. Finally, summarize all the information to
design the particular power distribution drawing. The process method and key points
of power distribution discussed in the chapter are based on an economical car of
FAW R&D Center, and the design result is validated by the economical car. The
chapter mainly discussed common fuse and wire diameter selection, did not contain
some special fuse such as main fuse selection principle or contain the layout and
number of fuse. Nowadays, there’re few articles about the power distribution study.
However, this chapter discussed the power distribution systematically in order to
assist the design of power distribution and guide the engineering design of power
distribution of passenger vehicle. Power distribution is the key point of electrical
system design. The chapter discussed the process, method and key points of power
distribution. It is verified by an Economic car. This chapter discussed the power
distribution in order to assist the design of power distribution and be helpful of the
engineering design of power distribution about passenger vehicle.
Keywords Power distribution Fuse Wire diameter
F2012-D02-045
X. Wang (&)
China FAW Co., Ltd. R&D Center, Changchun, China
e-mail: wangxianming@rdc.faw.com.cn
370 X. Wang
1 Introduction
The object protected by fuse is harness, not electronic and electrical parts con-
nected by wires. The principles of circuit protection are: Each circuit must be
protected; Key circuit and common circuit must be protected separately; Noise
circuit and clean circuit must be protected separately; Fuse should be shared
according to above requirements, but not to increase the capacity of fuses.
2 Content and Process
Figure 1 indicates the content process of power distribution design:

Three key points of power distribution: (1) combine products which can share
fuses; (2) choose fuse type and calculate the capacity of fuse; (3) choose wire type
and calculate wire diameter.
3 Electronic and Electric Parts Classification
All electronic and electrical parts are usually classified as three types before the
power distribution design, they are safety components; important components and
comfort components. Safety components refer to the parts which influence the
safety of vehicle directly. Important components refer to the parts which influence
the driving of vehicle and the safety of vehicle partially. Comfort components refer
to the parts which improve driving comfort, do not influence important
performance.
According to the purpose of parts, they can be divided into common load and
temporary load. Common load refers to the electronic and electrical parts which
working current lasts long time in work condition; Temporary load refers to the
electronic and electrical parts which working current lasts short time in work
condition, and wire harness does not generate heat in long time. According to
characteristics of parts, it can be divided into resistance load, inductance load and
controller load. Resistance load refers to the parts which working current is smooth
in whole work condition, including starting and turning-off moment; Inductance
load refers to the parts which working current has a peak value in whole work
condition, including starting and turning-off moment, this peak value differs
greatly from stable working current; Controller load refers to the electronic and
electric parts which have complex PCB (Table 1).
Power Distribution Design of Passenger Vehicle 371
Fig. 1 Content and process ascertain electric function and

of power distribution requirement of whole vehicle
ascertain all the loads and

special requirements of
Electronic and Electrical
Products
Classify all the Electronic and

Electrical Products
analyse function and

characteristic of Products
combine products can share
fuses
define power mode of products

sketch power distribution
drawing.
choose the type of fuse and

calculate the capacity of fuse
choose wire type and calculate

diameter
improve power distribution

drawing and check it
electric principle design of

vehicle
4 Combine Products
According to the classification above, we have the principles of fuse strategy:

Safety components must have own fuse; Important components can share fuse, but
the fuse can’t be shared by load with different purpose and characteristics.
Although the purpose and characteristic are same, the fuse can’t be shared by the
parts that have different functions; Comfort components can share fuse if neces-
sary. If the parts have different purposes, characteristics, and there is wide gap
among their working current, we should avoid combining these parts in one fuse.
The fuse also can’t be shared by the parts that have different characteristics and
high working current. After the combination, we can design the fuse application
strategy and obtain the strategy table.
Table 1 Electronic and electrical parts classification of an economic car
372
Parts name Types Purpose Characteristic

Safety Important Comfort Common Temporary Resistance Inductance Controller
components components components load load load load load
Engine ECU • • •
ABS ECU • • •
Brake lamp • • •
Reversing light • • •
Trunk light • • •
Room lamp • • •
Throttle sensor • • •
Cooling fan • • •
Lambda sensor • • •
Fuel pump • • •
Canister solenoid valve • • •
Injector • • •
Ignition coil • • •
Horn • • •
Door lock motor • • •
Starter • • •
Wiper motor • • •
Generator • • •
Audio system • • •
Reserve power supply • • •
Cigar lighter • • •
Rearview mirror • • •
AC controller • • •
Air bag ECU • • •
(continued)
X. Wang
Table 1 (continued)
Parts name Types Purpose Characteristic
Safety Important Comfort Common Temporary Resistance Inductance Controller
components components components load load load load load
Windshield washing • • •
motor
TCU • • •
Head light • • •
Steering lamp • • •
Fog lamp • • •
AC compressor • • •
Reversing radar • • •
Window regulator • • •
motor
IMMO • • •
Power Distribution Design of Passenger Vehicle
Roof window controller • • •

Instrument • • •
Defrost • • •
Blower • • •
Window regulator • • •
controller
373
374 X. Wang
Table 2 Fuse application strategy of an economic car

Fuse Parts connected
Rank Serial Name
number
1 1 Main fuse Generator
1 2 Electronic ECU
throttle
1 3 Main relay
2 5 Canister Canister valve
2 6 Lambda Front and rear oxygen sensor
sensor
2 7 Injector Injector
2 9 ECU ECU
1 4 ECU ECU, main relay coil
1 8 Cooling fan Cooling fan motor
1 10 Brake lamp Break lamp, high braking light, shifter
1 11 Left head light Head light, light adjust motor
1 12 Right head Head light, light adjust motor
light
1 13 TCM TCM
1 14 Starter Starter drawing switch
1 15 ABS1 ABS ECU
1 16 ABS2 ABS ECU
1 17 Reserve
1 18 Front fog Left/right fog lamp
lamp
1 19 Rear fog Rear fog lamp/horn
lamp/horn
1 21 Blower Blower
2 34 Window Window regulator controller
regulator
2 35 Roof window Roof window controller
1 24 IG. KEY1
1 25 IG. KEY2
1 39 Air bag Air bag ECU
1 40 Reversing Reversing lamp, reversing radar controller, gear sensor
lamp/TCM
1 41 Start Starter relay coil
1 42 Ignition signal Blower relay, fuel pump relay
1 43 Wiper Wiper motor, washer motor
1 44 AC AC controller, AC compressor relay
1 45 Ignition coil Ignition coil
1 46 Cigar lighter Cigar lighter
1 47 Reserve Reserve power supply
power
supply
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Fuse Parts connected
Rank Serial Name
number
1 50 Rearview Rearview mirror, audio
mirror
1 51 Shifter Shifter
1 36 Defrost signal BCM
2 26 AC pressure AC pressure switch
switch
1 22 ROOM1
2 28 Room lamp BCM
2 29 Rear Rear windshield defrosting
defrosting
2 30 Door lock BCM
2 31 Steering lamp BCM
1 23 ROOM2
2 32 Audio Audio
2 33 Instrument Instrument cluster, IMMO, Window regulator, auto AC
cluster controller
1 37 Instrument Sport mode switch, snow mode switch, instrument cluster,
cluster 2 headlight level adjusting switch, AC compressor relay
1 38 IG.(S) IMMO controller, roof window controller, BCM, ABS ECU,
Window regulator controller
5 Define Power Mode and Draft Power Distribution Drawing
The power mode of passenger car has four types: B+\ACC\IG (IG1 and IG2)\ST.
Before defining the power mode of electronic/electrical parts, there are three points
to be confirmed: The part’s own requirement for the power mode; Some parts
don’t have requirement for power mode, but we should define their power mode by
function and experience; The use of relay. After defining the power mode of parts,
according to the fuse strategy, we can draft the power distribution drawing, the
draft include the following information: Plan of wires connecting among power
related products, such as battery, starter, generator and so on; Position of fuses in
wire harnesses; Definition of power mode of each part and the using of relay;
Combination of parts (Table 2).
6 Type of Fuse
As for power distribution design, fuses are often divided into two types: fast fusing
fuse and slow fusing fuse (Figs. 2, 3, and 4).
376 X. Wang
Fig. 2 PEC fast fusing fuse [1]
Fig. 3 PEC slow fusing fuse [1]
Fig. 4 Fast fusing fuse operating characteristics and slow fusing fuse operating characteristics [1]
Circuit design usually includes main circuit and secondary circuit. Main circuit
is connected by many parts, so in working condition, the frequent change of
function causes frequent change of working current; secondary circuit is connected
by less products and the working current is changed slowly. So we have the
principle of fuse-choosing as follows: Slow fusing fuses are used in circuits that
have high impact current and lock rotor current; Slow fusing fuses are used to
protect main circuit; Fast fusing fuses are used to protect secondary circuit.
Fig. 5 Fuse I2t characteristics drawing [1]
Fig. 6 The changes of rated current of fast fusing fuse and slow fusing fuse with temperature [2]
Table 3 Reference value of life correction factor and temperature correction factor of fuse [2]
Fuse Life correction factor (%) Temperature correction factor (%/C)
Fast fusing 70 0.15
Slow fusing 50 0.18
378 X. Wang
Fig. 7 AV wire smoking and temperature characteristics [3]
7 Determination of Fuse Capacity
Formula for working current calculation:

P VV
I¼ : ð1Þ
V V
where I is working current; P is rated power of load; V is rated voltage of load; VV
is working voltage, value is 14 V.
In theoretical condition, fuse can last infinite time by rated current, but in
practice, fuse will be fused by limited times even it is loaded by rated current after
being impacted by certain time of rated current, so fuse capacity calculation should
consider the life of fuse and use life correction factor to calculate accurately fuse
capacity. We must make sure the life of fuse is longer than vehicle life when
choose the fuse. Fuse I2t characteristics show the life of fuse (Fig. 5).
With the raise of temperature, the rated current will be changed. Each fuse has
its characteristic curve in which its rated current changes with temperature
(Fig. 6).
By considering the environment temperature and adding temperature correction
factor, we can calculate the fuse capacity:
I 1
IF ¼ ð2Þ
d 1 ð TV TF Þ g
where: IF is fuse capacity; d is life correction factor of fuse; TV is environment

temperature of fusion; TF is rated temperature, normally is 23 C; g is temperature
correction factor of fuse. Table 3 shows the life correction factor and temperature
correction factor of fast fusing fuse and slow fusing fuse. In our design process, the
value is reference.
wire smoking
time(s)
characteristics
fuse operating
characteristics
current(A)
Fig. 8 Relationship of fuse and wire characteristics
Fig. 9 Relationship of fuse

and wire characteristics
time(s)
wire smoking
characteristics
fuse operating
A
characteristics
current(A)
Fig. 10 AVX wire smoking and temperature characteristics [3]

380 X. Wang
Fig. 11 Example of power distribution
8 Determination of Wire Diameter and Wire Type
An important characteristics of wire is smoking characteristics. Wire with different

diameter can withstand different current, and smoke emission time is different
(Fig. 7).
After definition of fuse, we should calculate the wire diameter by fuse capacity.
We must make sure that before fuses are fused, the wires can’t be burnt due to
overheat. Therefore when we define wire diameter, we shall compare fuse oper-
ating characteristics with wire smoking characteristics, to must make sure wire
smoking characteristics is above the fuse operating characteristics in the figure
under the same current.
In Fig. 8, the choosing of wire diameter is suitable, for the fuse is fused before the
wire smokes, which ensures safety of the wire. In Fig. 9, the choosing is bad, for in A
area, the fuse can’t protect wire harness, the wire is smoking, but fuse is not fused.
The raising of environment temperature also leads to deterioration of current
withstanding capacity of wire. After wire diameter is calculated by wire smoking
characteristics, we must check if the diameter is suitable at the working temperature
to make sure wire safe. If the result is not suitable for high environment temperature,
we should increase the diameter. If the environment temperature is too high to choose
a suitable diameter, we must choose high temperature resistant wire (Fig. 10).
Before power distribution design, we should measure the environment of wire
harness, and the measurement result is used as reference of design.
9 Improve Power Distribution Drawing
The final power distribution drawing should include the following contents: Load
characteristics of all electronic and electrical parts to distribute power supply, such
as maximal power, maximal current, peak current and lock rotor current; Plan of
wires connecting among power related parts, such as battery, starter, generator and
other electrical parts; Position of fuses in wire harnesses, type and capacity of fuse;
Power supply mode of each electronic and electrical parts and use of relay;
Combination of parts; Wire type and wire diameter that connect all parts (Fig. 11).
10 Conclusion
This chapter shows the way to calculate fuse capacity, define fuse type, calculate
wire diameter and define wire type. It is verified by an Economic car. This chapter
discussed the power distribution in order to assist the design of power distribution
and be helpful of the engineering design of power distribution about passenger
vehicle.
References
1. PEC Automotive fuse catalogue

2. JASO D 610-93, Selection of fuse-links for automobile wiring
3. JASO D 609-2001, Automotive parts-Current capacity of low tension cables
Part III
Software and Hardware Development
Study on the Performance Modeling
Approach for Automotive Embedded
Control Software
Xiaofeng Yin, Jingxing Tan, Xiuting Wu and Qichang Yang
Abstract With the ever increasing complexity of automotive E/E (Electrical and
Electronic) systems, model-based development techniques have been more and more
widely used in the current development process of automotive embedded control
software. Regarding the safety–critical automotive control systems with hard real-
time characteristics, modeling timing and resource related performance and carrying
out timing analysis for the control software at an early design stage play a crucial role
to guarantee the quality of software as well as improve the cost-efficiency.

Keywords Meta-model Performance Modeling language Embedded real-

time system Automotive control software
The motivation of this study is to investigate an appropriate performance modeling

and timing analysis approach that can be integrated into the currently used model-
based development tool chain. A performance modeling language for automotive
embedded control systems (PMOLACS) at high level of abstraction was put forward
using meta-modeling technique, which consists of three different meta-models
corresponding to software structure (SWS), target platform system (TPS), and run
time system (RTS), respectively. The SWS meta-model defines the modeling par-
adigm of the constituent, interactive behaviors, timing characteristics and resource
requirements of software components, the TPS meta-model defines the modeling
F2012-D03-004
X. Yin (&) X. Wu Q. Yang

Institute of Automotive Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu, China
e-mail: xiaofengyin@vip.sina.com
J. Tan
Department of Science and Technology, Xihua University, Chengdu, China
386 X. Yin et al.
paradigm of the constituent, timing characteristics and resource constraint of the

hardware and real-time operating system (RTOS) of the target platform, and the RTS
meta-model defines the modeling paradigm of executable software system. The
algorithms regarding translating existing functional model with timing and resource
requirements together into the SWS model, building TPS model, mapping the
components of the SWS model to the processors of the TPS model to form the tasks of
the RTS model, and timing analysis, will also be discussed.
1 Introduction
To meet the increasing demands on vehicle performance, such as drivability, safety,

power, fuel economy, emission, as well as comfort, etc., a large number of embedded
control units have been applied to the vehicle and the architecture of automotive E/E
(Electrical and Electronic) systems has being become more and more complex. How
to manage these complex E/E systems and ensure their performance requirements
such as timing and resource constraints while their functional requirements are
implemented and verified is a big issue in the current model-based development
process, since the current automotive embedded software development process pays
little attention to the non-functional requirements, especially the timing constraints,
until the end of the development process—testing code on the target platform,
although the algorithms related to the function of the system under development can
be tested early through rapid control prototyping (RCP). If the system’s ability to
meet timing constraints could be analyzed formally in the early design process, it is
possible to avoid the hidden errors to be left in the final product software due to
lacking of direct timing analysis that may hurt the driver and passengers and/or
destroy the vehicle, and to avoid costly late-stage redesign of the software that may
postpone the delivery of the product software.
With respect to the complexity management of automotive E/E systems,
AUTOSAR (AUTomotive Open System ARchitecture) provides a set of software
infrastructure to enable the reuse and exchangeability of software modules
between OEMs and suppliers through standardization of the software architecture
of ECUs (electronic control unit) [1]. However, the main attention of AUTOSAR
at present is focused on the implementation of software function.
Some other model-based design tools are also widely used in the development
of automotive embedded control software. For instance, MATLAB Simulink/
Stateflow [2] is used to design the control algorithms and then corresponding
source codes are generated by a specific code generator such as Real-Time
Workshop (RTW). As mentioned above, since the control algorithms can be
optimized using RCP technique, the functionality of the controller can be tested at
an early design stage. However, the direct formal verification of timing-related
performance for embedded control software still can not be conducted in the
current model-based development tool chain.
Study on the Performance Modeling Approach 387
In this investigation, the meta-modeling technique was used to construct a

performance modeling language for automotive embedded control systems
(PMOLACS) that could model the timing constraints and resource requirements of
software components, the resource constraints of the hardware that will be the
target platform for the product software, as well as the virtual runtime system that
could be used as a basis to analyze the schedulability of each task. In addition, a
number of software modules (also called interpreters) implementing the algorithms
of functional model reuse, component assignment, task forming, priority assign-
ment and timing analysis were integrated into the modeling environment config-
ured by the PMOLACS paradigm.
2 Modeling Requirements Related to Timing and Resource
In order to model the performance of automotive embedded control software, two

main factors must be taken into consideration, i.e., timing and resource. Since most
automotive embedded control systems (especially safety–critical system) are hard
real-time systems, which means the completion of each task must meet its dead-
line, otherwise disastrous accident may occurs. On the other hand, the hardware
resource of embedded controller is usually limited for the purpose of cost
reduction. Therefore, the timing properties, resource requirements, and resource
constraints must be described by the PMOLACS paradigm.
3 Performance Modeling for Automotive Embedded

Control System
3.1 Modeling Approach
In this study, the automotive embedded control domain specific performance

modeling language PMOLACS has been defined by a UML-based meta meta-
model which defines a set of generic meta-modeling concepts including Folders,
Models, Atoms, References, Connections, Sets, etc. [3]. These generic modeling
concepts have been used to define the PMOLACS paradigm which is specified by
a set of meta-models that can be further used to configure the modeling envi-
ronment for automotive embedded control systems. In other words, we use the
UML-based generic meta meta-model to define the meta-models of PMOLACS
language, and the latter is then used to configure the generic modeling environ-
ment, and finally the configured modeling environment can be used to construct
the models of automotive embedded control systems.
388 X. Yin et al.
3.2 Performance Modeling for Automotive Embedded

Control System
PMOLACS paradigm defines three meta-models for automotive embedded control

system, i.e., (1) the software structure (SWS) meta-model that defines the mod-
eling paradigm for software components, interaction between software compo-
nents, timing properties and resource requirements of software components, (2) the
target platform (TP) meta-model that defines the modeling paradigm for the
constituent of hardware environment and real-time operating system (RTOS),
timing features, and resource constraints of the target system, and (3) the runtime
system (RTS) meta-model.
As specified in the SWS meta-model, the software system consists of a number of
sub-systems that further consist of a number of software components. The execution
time, priority, and required memory are captured by the attributes of the modeling
element of software component. While the system deadline and execution period are
captured by the attributes of the modeling element of sub-system. And the connection
between sub-systems, between software components, or between subsystem and
software component are described by association classes that can be divided into data
connection and event connection, which have attributes describing the size of data
passed and the size of data communicated, respectively.
As specified in the TP meta-model, the target platform system consists of a
number of real-time operating systems (RTOS), central processing units (CPU)
and networks which are further classified into CAN, LIN and FlexRay. Each CPU
only has a unique RTOS associated with it. The hardware resource constraints such
as the maximum memory, the minimum size of assignable memory, and the upper
bound of utilization are captured by the attributes of the modeling element of CPU,
which the speed (baud rate) and utilization bound of network are captured by the
attributes of the modeling element of CAN, LIN and FlexRay. And the timing
features such as the context switching overhead, scheduling overhead, timer
overhead, timer resolution, etc., are described by the attributes of the modeling
element of RTOS.
As specified in the RTS meta-model, the runtime system consists of a number
of logical tasks that are used to group a number of tasks together, and the task
further consists of a number of actions which are corresponding to the software
components defined in the SWS meta-model. The execution time and required
memory of software component are captured by the attributes of the modeling
element of action. And the scheduling policy that may be preemptive, non-pre-
emptive, or mix-preemptive (a policy defined by OSEK specification [4]), the
response delay, the deadline, and priority of each task are described by the attri-
butes of the modeling element of task. In addition, the logical task may have one or
more triggers (corresponding to timer) which are used to periodically invocating
tasks. The timing properties such as deadline and minimum period are captured by
the attributes of the modeling element of timer.
4 Integration Algorithms with PMOLACS Towards

Timing Analysis
4.1 Functional Model Importation
After the PMOLACS paradigm is defined, it is used to configure the generic

modeling environment to build automotive domain specific performance modeling
environment (PMOLACS modeling environment). The modeler can either build
the SWS model for a specific automotive embedded control application and input
performance parameters manually or reuse the existing functional model built by
Simulink and add performance parameters automatically.
To reuse the existing Simulink model, a software module has been devel-
oped, which translates the atomic level functions of Simulink model into an
equivalent model by replacing the mutex, busses, and goto blocks in Simulink
with their equivalent connections in PMOLACS. The timing constraints and
resource requirements such as required memory, execution time, and execution
rate for each function is also input simultaneously. And the models with a
number of hierarchical levels in Simulink are translated into a flatten model in
PMOLACS.
4.2 Component Assignment
Once the SWS model is built either manually or automatically, the modeler could
construct the TP model using TP meta-model to define the architecture of the
target platform, such as how many processors will be used for the specific
application, what kinds of networks will be used for each processor, and what kind
of RTOS will be worked on each processor. During the process of target platform
modeling, the modeler also needs to define the parameters of resource constraints
and timing features manually in the PMOLACS modeling environment.
A software module has been developed to implement software component
assignment based on the built the SWS model and the TP model, which maps each
software component in the SWS model to one of the processors defined in the TP
model on condition that the resource constraints can all be satisfied. Two different
algorithms have been implemented in the component assignment module: one is
load balancing that tries to balance the loads of different processors, the other is
communication minimizing that tries to minimize the amount of communication
across different processors.
390 X. Yin et al.
4.3 Task Forming
Regarding grouping the software components together to form RTOS tasks, there
exist conflicting strategies. If the task contains many components, the overhead of
context switches will be reduced. If the task contains few components, the overall
response time may be reduced. In the implementation of task forming in this
investigation, the components having same execution rate, being assigned on a
same processor, and not forming dependency loop are grouped together to form a
task, for the purpose of reducing the overhead of context switches.
4.4 Priority Assignment
Three different algorithms have been implemented to assign the priorities for each
task including: (1) the deadline-monotonic (DM) policy that assigns the task with
the shortest deadline the highest priority [5], (2) the rate-monotonic (RM) policy
that the task with the shortest cycle duration the highest priority, and (3) a com-
bined policy that first assigns priorities according to the RM policy and then the
DM policy is used to assign priorities to the tasks that have the same priority
assigned by the RM policy. In addition, the modeler still can define the priority for
each task in the PMOLACS modeling environment manually. Once all tasks have
priorities assigned, the process of transforming the SWS model into the RTS
model is completed and then the timing analysis can be performed based on the
resulting RTS model to determine if each task meets its timing constraint.
4.5 Timing Analysis
The timing analysis algorithm consists of the following three main steps:
(1) constructing task timing graph according to the priority, scheduling policy, and
interactive relation of the task; (2) calculating the response time for each task, with
regard to a specific task, this is done by summing up the response time of the direct
predecessor of that task, the execution time of all tasks that preempt that task, the
execution time of that task, the overhead used by task scheduling and context
switching from the commencement to the completion of that task, via traversing all
of the input concurrent links of that task on the task timing graph; (3) evaluating
the schedulability for each task, if the response time of each task is not greater than
the deadline of that task, the RTS is schedulable, otherwise, the design of the
specific automotive control software needs to be refined such as re-assigning
priority, modifying the architecture of target platform, or adjusting component
mapping algorithms.
4.6 Algorithms Integration
The algorithms of functional model importation, component assignment, task

forming, priority assignment, and timing analysis have been developed and
implemented using Visual C++. The software modules corresponding to these
algorithms have been built as dynamic link library and then registered as com-
ponents in the PMOLACS modeling environment to work together with the
PMOLACS paradigm.
5 Conclusions and Future Work
Aiming at performance modeling and timing analysis for automotive embedded

control software at an early design stage, a performance modeling language
PMOLACS is constructed using meta-modeling technique via the generic mod-
eling environment, which is further used to configure an automotive embedded
control domain specific modeling environment. With the implementation of a
number of algorithms related to model reuse, model transformation, and timing
analysis, the resulting PMOLACS modeling environment can be integrated into
the current mainstream development tool chain for automotive embedded control
system as an performance modeling, timing analysis as well as design automation
or recommendation tool.
As part of our future work, integration of the output of RTS model with the
source code generated from Simulink model in compliance with the state-of-the-
art standards such as AUTOSAR still needs to be further investigated.
Acknowledgments The work reported in this paper was supported in part by the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 60970072), the Scientific Research Fund of
Sichuan Provincial Education Department (Grant No. 10ZA100, KYTD201003), and the
Research Fund of Key Laboratory of Automotive Engineering of Sichuan Province (Grant No.
SGXZD9902-10-1).
References
1. Bunzel S (2010) Overview on AUTOSAR cooperation. In: 2nd AUTOSAR open conference,
Tokyo, Japan, May 13
2. Mathworks Website: http://www.mathworks.com
3. Ledeczi A, Maroti M, Bakay A, Karsai G, Garrett J, Thomason C, Nordstrom G, Sprinkle J,
Volgyesi P (2001) The generic modeling environment. In: IEEE international workshop on
intelligent signal processing (WISP’2001)
4. OSEK/VDX. OS 2.2.3. 2005. http://www.osek-vdx.org
5. Burns A, Wellings A (2001) Real-time systems and programming languages, 3rd edn. Addison
Wesley, New Jersey
Knowledge Based Engineering to Support
Automotive Conceptual Design
and Automatic Control Software
Development
Fengnian Tian and Mark Voskuijl

Keywords Multi-model generator Knowledge based engineering E/E system

integration Conceptual design Electric vehicle
1 Background
The global motor vehicle production is rising steadily year by year. These vehicles
have an increasing amount of electronic components and associated control soft-
ware. As a result, the control software development becomes a key aspect and time
consuming part of the design. In contrast to the rising production numbers, the
number of safety recalls is in fact decreasing steadily [1]. However, it should be
noticed that the number of vehicles being recalled because of failures in the
electronics, either software or hardware, was in fact increasing significantly in
the period 2000–2010, which is shown in Fig. 1.
To some degree, the increasing electronic malfunctions on automobiles can be
explained by the fact that the development processes of vehicle and the development
process of the related Electric and Electronic Systems (E/E systems) is not integrated.
In other words, because almost all functions on the vehicles are electronically con-
trolled nowadays, the complexity of overall E/E systems rise sharply along with the
increasing number of vehicle variants. The established vehicle development pro-
cesses which toward to efficiently create high quality mechanical systems cannot
deal with the problem of high complexity of the E/E systems [3]. Moreover, the
analysis and specification for the architecture of the logical system, the technical
system and the software itself includes many repetitive processes in conventional
F2012-D03-005
F. Tian (&) M. Voskuijl

Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
e-mail: f.tian@tudelft.nl
394 F. Tian and M. Voskuijl
Fig. 1 Comparison of the global vehicle production, the potential number of vehicles recalled
and the number of units affected due to electronics [1, 2]
automotive software development [4]. Those repetitive processes are time con-
suming and are prone to errors.
System engineering is introduced by the Original Equipment Manufacturers
(OEMs) as a sustainable approach to the development of reliable E/E systems.
Nevertheless, although it is well known that the logical system architectures,
technical system architectures as well as software functions of the vehicle E/E
systems should be integrated into the complete vehicle development [3], a number
of issues have still to be solved in order to release the full system engineering
potential.
Firstly, Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools, which are widely used by the
conventional mechanical dominated vehicle development processes, are not suitable
for developing the logical and technical system architecture of the E/E systems. For
example, the logical system architecture is usually described by graphical notations,
such as block diagrams and state machines [4], which is not available in the CAD
tools. Moreover, after the specification of the logical system architecture, the tech-
nical system architecture must consider all constraints of a technical and economic
nature, as well as those concerned with organizational structure and manufacturing
technology [4]. Only a few of those constraints are related to about geometry. Most of
them are engineering disciplines, which are difficult to capture by CAD software.
Secondly, the software had to be tuned several times due to any changes from the
logical or technical system architecture, which is also difficultly supported by the
CAD tools. Usually, the inputs of software functions are parameters and variables
which describe the physical nature of a component or an assembly. For instance, it is
well known that the axle load distribution has effects on the handing stability, Anti-
Knowledge Based Engineering to Support Automotive Conceptual Design 395
lock Braking System (ABS), etc. Nevertheless, such information cannot be read
directly from the geometry model but requires computational analysis.
Therefore, the objective of the current research study is the development of new
design methods and tools that allows the designer to take the development of the E/E
systems including logical system architecture, technical system architecture and
control software, into account already in the conceptual design stage of novel vehicles.
The aim of these new methods and tools is to reduce the development time of these
novel more electric vehicles and to create more consistent control software. The
proposed design methods and tools can in principle be applied to any dynamic system
with a high level of software integration, such as e.g., unmanned aerial vehicles.
2 Methodology
The methodology used in this research is based on the Design and Engineering Engine
(DEE) concept, which has been developed by La Rocca [5]. The DEE is a modular
computational design system to support distributed multidisciplinary design and
optimization. It can support the design process of complex products and accelerate the
process through the automation of non-creative and repetitive design activates [6].
Previously, the DEE is developed mainly for aircraft design. In this research, we
expand the border of DEE to the automotive conceptual design, including E/E
systems. A schematic representation of the proposed DEE is shown in Fig. 2.
As can be seen, the DEE is composed of several software modules. The first
module is the Initiator, which is responsible for the initialization of the values of
input parameters for the subsequent modules, such as wheelbase, track, weight,
engine type, etc. It can work both in knowledge mode or custom mode. Under the
knowledge mode, the user inputs general product planning, like vehicle type or
number of passengers, and then the Initiator searches the design database to find
similar existing designs, and produces the parameters automatically. The user
could also directly select available assemblies from the component database to
build a prototype vehicle under the custom mode.
The next element of the system, named Multi-Model Generator (MMG) is the
heart of the DEE. The MMG is a Knowledge Based Engineering (KBE) appli-
cation, which is able to model different automobile configurations and configu-
rations’ variants. Besides modeling high fidelity geometric models, the MMG can
also output specific data for various analysis tools directly and automatically.
For example, the MMG can generate the complex surface model of the car body,
and then translates that model into clouds of points or panels which are required by
the aerodynamic analysis tool.
The model abstractions produced by the MMG are analyzed by corresponding
analysis tools. If the results meet the requirements in each disciplinary area, the
process is stopped and the output is a final design for the detailed design stage;
otherwise, the DEE will generate a new vehicle configuration or variant and
perform iteration again. An optimization process can be included in the iteration.
Fig. 2 Overview of the DEE
However, that is not the focus of the current study. It should also be noticed that
there is an agent based communication model [5] connecting the MMG and the
multidisciplinary analysis tools in Fig. 2. The communication model not only
exchanges the data and information between various DEE models, but also con-
trols the overall process. In this paper, a communication model is established
between the MMG and MATLAB for the purposes of dynamic and control system
simulation, which is shown in test case section. The communication model makes
it possible to have elements of the DEE on different computers, which can be
located even in different companies/institutes. Thus it also allows collaborative
design efforts.
The DEE for automotive conceptual design is developed in the Genworks’
General-Purpose, Declarative, Language (GDL), which is based on the ANSI
Fig. 3 Correspondence between source code and web-centric user interface for the MMG
standard version of Common LISP. GDL is particularly effective at representing

complex systems, including three-dimensional geometric models and design pro-
cess [7].
3 Integration Automotive E/E Systems Development

into Vehicle Conceptual Design
3.1 A Brief Introduction of MMG for Automotive

Conceptual Design
A Multi-Model Generator (MMG) for automotive conceptual design has been

developed in this work. Besides complex geometry modeling, the MMG is able to
capture the methods, process as well as various engineering disciplines. It can not
only provide various models for multidisciplinary analysis but also support the
automation of repetitive processes. In general, the MMG which is a tree structure
is composed of a component library and a rule base.
All the components necessary to complete a vehicle conceptual design are
defined as objects in the component library. Every object is a parametric model
with required inputs. The user can specify those inputs to get an object variant.
Objects can be fitted together with designed methods to create a component.
Several components can be put together to generate an assembly. For example, as
one can see in Fig. 3, the manikin template included in the accessories (indicated
by red arrow) is an assembly of head, torso and leg. The head contour is a
component. The user can specify the length of the X, Y, and Z axes of the head
contour in the custom input interface. The position and the reclined angle of the
head contour are defined by the attributes: center and :orientation (marked by
purple box) relative to the vehicle grid.
The rule base is designed to contain the requirements from various scientific
areas. Those requirements are abstracted as one or a combination of the rules in
terms of logic, math, geometry, configuration selection and communication. As
mentioned before, besides geometry objects, there are also several rules integrated
in the manikin template, such as hip angle check (pointed by green arrow). If we
change the back angle A40 (displayed as manikin-1st-A40 in the red dash line box)
from -25 to -27°, the ‘angle’ in the green dash line will increase from about
98.57 over 100° immediately, which exceeds the range of recommended comfort
hip angle from 86 to 100° [8]. The value of ‘violated?’ will change from current
‘nil’ to ‘t’ automatically in the interface, which means this rule is violated.
A part of the source code of the MMG and corresponding web-centric user
interface is shown in Fig. 3. The GENWORKS GDL also provides the bottom layer
connections from the source code compiler to the web-centric user interface. Such an
interface can be loaded in any internet browser and keep updating with the compiler.
As a KBE application, components and rules in the MMG are tightly integrated. If an
input to the component is changed in the user interface, any rules and components
which directly or indirectly depend on that input will automatically re-evaluate
themselves and show results in the interface immediately. Rules and objects which
are not affected by a modification will avoid the re-evaluation [9].
3.2 Integration Logical and Technical System Architecture

of E/E Systems into the MMG
In general, the logical system architecture determines the performance the system
will deliver but avoid the specific manner of its implementation [4]. In this study, the
logical system architecture is summarized as a design discipline and included into the
rule base of the MMG. Similarly, the physical parts of the technical system archi-
tecture are modeled as combination of objects included in the component library. The
various constraints which have to be fulfilled by the technical system architecture are
also defined as disciplines comprised by the rule base of the MMG.
3.3 MMG Supports for Software Function Development
Besides geometry, the MMG can also output specific data for various analysis
tools, which is capable of supporting the validation of software functions. The
MMG can save the properties of the objects or pre-processing results in a common
data format such as XML or ASCII, which can be used to set the values of
parameters and variables needed by the software functions. For example, once a
modification happens on the main assemblies, the MMG will re-calculate the axle
load distribution immediately and send the data to the software functions. Then the
results from the software validation could feedback to the MMG again to check
whether some rules are violated. With the communication model of the DEE, such
processes can be automatically finished repeatedly, which is suitable for getting
the optimized solutions.
4 Test Case
4.1 A Novel Electric Vehicle Configuration
It is well known that the driving range of electric vehicles is always a critical
technical specification for the designer, car manufacture and consumer. Nowadays,
the driving range is limited by the battery pack equipped on the vehicle. If the
aerodynamic drag and the curb weight can be lowered simultaneously, the driving
range can be increased significantly, especially at high speeds. In the current
research study, a novel electric vehicle configuration named A-line, where pas-
sengers are seated in line, is proposed. Compared with a conventional vehicle
configuration, the advantages of this novel configuration are threefold. First of all,
the vehicle will have a significantly lower aerodynamic drag due to a small frontal
area. Second, the curb weight can be decreased because it is designed for two or
three person seated in line. Finally, it will require a much smaller parking space
because of its narrow track. In principle, several A-line vehicles can drive on the
road side by side at the same time, which has the potential to alleviate traffic
congestion. Besides all the advantages mentioned above, the vehicle is an excel-
lent test-case for the novel design system proposed in this research study because;
(1) it requires the integrated design of a novel E/E system, and (2) the concept is
new, so one cannot rely on existing designs.
Two A-line models have been generated by the MMG, which is shown in Fig. 4.
Their technical specifications are list in Table 1. It can be seen that both models have
a smaller frontal area and curb weight than conventional configurations.
4.2 A Communication Model of the DEE
In order to validate handing stability and range of the A-line models above, a
communication model has been established in this paper, as depicted in Fig. 5.
Firstly, the MMG generate a xxx.csv file which includes the all the values of the
Fig. 4 The geometry of A-line generated by the MMG (1—electronic control unit (ECU),
2-DC–DC—converter, 3—battery pack, 4–charger, 5—cargo, 6—seat assembly, 7—passenger
manikin template, 8—driver manikin template, 9—steer wheel, 10—electric motor)
Table 1 Specifications of the A-line vehicles with two or three passengers

A-line Model Two passengers Three passengers
Dimensions Wheelbase [mm] 2,400 2,700
Track F/R [mm] 1,050 1,050
Overall length/width/ 3,250/1,250/1,455 3,700/1,250/1,485
height [mm]
Ground clearance [mm] 150 150
Frontal area ½m2 1.54 1.57
Weight Curb weight [kg] 855 1,110
Axle load distribution 59 % (empty) 52 % 60 % (empty) 48 %
(full) (full)
Performance Pemax [kW] 80 100
Temax [Nm] 220 240
Vmax [km/h] 120 120
Battery Type LiFePO4 Lithium LiFePO4 Lithium
Number of cells 80 80
Nominal capacity [Ah] 70 70
Nominal voltage [V] 3.2 3.2
Mass [kg] 200 200
Capacities Seat capacity 2 3
Cargo volume [L] 220 200 (rear seat up)
Accessories Tire 205/55 R16 205/55 R16
parameters and variables required by MATLAB simulation. Then a server is

opened in MATLAB, establishing a local host for the MMG (Our server is
established based on a common lisp interface to MATLAB [10]). At this moment,
MATLAB commands can be written in the source code compiler of the MMG to
Fig. 5 Communication model between the MMG and MATLAB
control the objects in MATLAB, such as an M-file or a SimMechanics (multibody

dynamics) model. After the execution of the M-files or MATLAB simulations, the
results can be saved in any structure data type and read by the MMG. In the next
step, the rule base will be re-evaluated again to check whether some rules are
violated. If all the rules are satisfied, the whole process is finished. Otherwise, the
MMG can start a new iteration.
4.3 Validation of Handing Stability
Because of the narrow front and rear track as well as a short wheelbase, the
handing stability of the A-line vehicles needs validation. Usually, the roll angle of
vehicle body should be around 3 degrees, no more than 7 degrees when the vehicle
is turning at 0.4 g centripetal acceleration with a constant speed and turning radius.
Furthermore, the pitch angle should be smaller than 3 degrees when the vehicle is
braking at 0.4 g [11]. Therefore, those two rules are set as requirements included
in the rule base of the MMG. We build a dynamic model of the A-line in Sim-
Mechanics of the MATLAB. Through the communication model in Fig. 5, all the
values of parameters and variables needed by the dynamic simulations are pro-
vided by the MMG according to Table 1.
4.3.1 Roll Angle Validation
The initial condition of the roll angle validation simulation is the equilibrium
position at standstill. After one second, the vehicle is accelerated and a turn is
Fig. 6 Roll angle inspection for A-line vehicles
initiated until the desired condition (velocity 6 m/s and turn radius 10 m) is
obtained. The resulting roll angle simulation for the A-line vehicles, with different
loading conditions is shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen that both A-line configura-
tions comply with the roll angle requirement for all loading or empty conditions.
4.3.2 Pitch Angle Validation
The validation of the pitch angle requirement is related to the vehicle braking. In
order to show the integration of the E/E systems and the MMG, an ABS module is
built both in the MMG and SimMechanics. Because the focus of the current study is
the integration of the two systems, the controller of the ABS module in the Sim-
Mechanics is simply set up based on the error between actual slip and desired slip. As
described in Sect. 4.1, first, the logical system architecture of the ABS is defined as
several rules in the MMG, like maximum braking distance and pitch angle of vehicle
body. Second, the physical plant representations of the technical system architecture
of the ABS are generated by the MMG, which includes wheel brakes, hydraulic
modulator, sensors, etc. Third, together with the entire parameters list in Table 1,
some physical plant attributes needed for the tuning of software functions are also
transferred from the MMG to the SimMechanical plant through the communication
model. For example, as one can see in Fig. 7, the pressure of hydraulic modulator set
in the web-centric user interface is sent to the model in MATLAB by the .csv file.
The dynamic model starts to brake at 2 s with the initial speed 100 km/h. The
results of the ABS simulations are shown in Fig. 8. Similar to the roll angle
validation, all the configurations of the A-line vehicles satisfy to the pitch angle
requirements.
Fig. 7 The ABS module in the MMG
Fig. 8 Pitch angle inspection for A-line vehicles
4.4 Validation of Range
The main advantage of the A-line configuration is its large driving range. In order
to demonstrate this, the driving range of the A-line vehicles is compared with the
General Motors EV1, whose batteries were rated at 60 amp-hours (18.7 kWh) at
312 V [12]. To give a fair comparison with current batteries for which data is
available, we use 70 amp-hour (17.9 kWh) Li batteries at 256 V. The range cal-
culation method is based on the work of Larminie [13]. Both EV1 and A-line
vehicles are tested in a simplified federal urban driving scenario. It is supposed that
most electronic accessories are switched on, such as headlights, radio and heater.
Fig. 9 A comparison of the distance travelled between the A-line vehicles and General Motors
EV1
The drag coefficient is estimated 0.33 for A-line vehicles. Both two A-line models
above are compared with the General Motors EV1, which is shown in Fig. 9.
It is apparent that when 80 % discharge is reached, the A-line model with two
passengers has already travelled for 169.4 km, followed by the three passengers’
model (155.9 km). The General Motors EV1 reaches 121.3 km, which is in agree-
ment with the official driving range published for the EV1 [11].Thus, a 28 % driving
range improvement is obtained by a change in the vehicle configuration whilst
keeping other design parameters such as the type of batteries, motor, etc. identical.
5 Conclusion
The concept of DEE for automotive conceptual design has been proposed in this
paper. The MMG which is a KBE application has been developed in this work.
It has been proven that the MMG can generate models both for conventional and
novel electric vehicle configurations and variants. Moreover, the MMG is able to
support the development of automotive E/E systems from the logical, technical
system architectures to the software functions, integrating the E/E systems into the
automotive conceptual design. Finally, a novel electric vehicle configuration
named A-line has been tested for handing stability and range. It has been validated
that the A-line can drive much longer range than conventional electric vehicles.
References
1. OICA (2011) World Motor Vehicle Production[EB/OL]. [2012-02-01]. http://oica.net/wp-

content/uploads/total-2011.pdf
2. safercar.gov (2011) Flat File Copies of NHTSA/ODI Databases[EB/OL]. [2012-02-01].
http://www-odi.nhtsa.dot.gov/downloads/.
3. Weber J (2009) Automotive development processes. Springer, Berlin, p 64
4. Schäuffele J, Zurawka T (2005) Automotive software engineering. SAE International,
Warrendale, p 167
5. La Rocca G, van Tooren MJL (2007) Enabling distributed multi-disciplinary design of
complex products: a knowledge based engineering approach. Design Res 5(3):341
6. van Tooren MJL, Nawijn M, Berends J et al (2005) Aircraft design support using knowledge
engineering and optimisation techniques. In: 46th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures,
structural dynamics and materials conference, Austin, Texas
7. GENWORKS. Genworks International[EB/OL]. [2011-09-20]. http://www.genworks.com
8. Fenton J (1998) Handbook of automotive body and systems design. Redwood Books, Great
Britain, p 41
9. Cooper J (2004) Knowledge base techniques in web applications: a tutorial for genworks’
GDL/GWL, p 46
10. Fenton J (1998) Handbook of automotive body and systems design. Wiley, London, p 41
11. Liu YX (2001) Automotive design. Tsinghua University Press, Beijing, p 40
12. Wikipedia. General Motors EV1[EB/OL]. [2011-09-01]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
General_Motors_EV1
13. Larminie J, Lowry J (2003) Electric vehicle technology explained. Wiley, West Sussex,
pp 203–204
Development of an AUTOSAR Software
Component Based on the V-Model
Dieter Nazareth and Robert Siwy
Abstract The number of software supported systems in vehicles is constantly

growing. All carmakers have more or less problems to handle the high number of
software functions. Because, traditionally, each function is implemented by a
separate control unit, also the number of control units has reached a tremendous
level. The key points to master this situation are reusing und integration of func-
tions. The AUTOSAR standard supports both approaches by defining standardized
interfaces for software components. This chapter describes the approach to develop
software components along the well-known V-Model. All process phases, from the
analysis phase to the test phase of the function oriented development process are
shown. Furthermore, all tools supporting the different phases are demonstrated.
Keywords Automotive software engineering AUTOSAR V-Model Reuse

Function oriented development
1 Introduction
The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in the number of electronic in-
vehicle functions. This increase mainly occurred because of new safety and driver
assistance functions. Also the introduction of hybrid power trains led to a bunch of
F2012-D03-009
D. Nazareth
Landshut University, Landshut, Germany
R. Siwy (&)
BMW Group, Munich, Germany
e-mail: dieter.nazareth@fh-landshut.de
408 D. Nazareth and R. Siwy
new functions, e.g., battery management function. As a consequence, the number

of control units of a modern car has reached a dimension which can be hardly
managed anymore.
To stop this growth of control units today’s automakers need to integrate a
multitude of electronic functions into one control unit. Integration, however,
means that we shift the complexity from the network level to the control unit level.
The former simple relationship, that one control unit implements one driver
function is not valid anymore. Nowadays one control unit has to host several
unrelated functions and the operating system has to ensure that all functions are
executed at the right time and without interference.
Besides integration of functions also the reuse of functions is getting more and
more important. Many functions can be used across several model series. This
does not only save development time and costs, but also makes the function more
mature and reliable. However, reusing a function does not mean to reuse the
control unit. The same function can be used in different control units from different
suppliers. And it has to be ensured that individual functions, perceived by the
driver, remain unchanged in their behaviour across several model series.
2 AUTOSAR
AUTOSAR is a partnership of the automotive industry with the goal to standardize

the development of automotive software [1, 2]. One goal of the partnership is the
increased scalability and flexibility to integrate, transfer and reuse functions. This
is achieved by the new AUTOSAR architecture shown in Fig. 1. In the center is
the Runtime Environment (RTE) separating the basic software from the applica-
tion software. The application software consists of Software Components (SWCs)
with a well-defined communication interface. Any communication to the outside
can only be made via this interface. This ensures the transferability and reusability
of the components. However, it is essential that a user function is decomposed into
a number of software components in the right way to achieve that goal.
3 From ECU Oriented Development to Function

Oriented Development
To handle the never ending increase of electronic functions in a vehicle on the one
hand it is essential to reuse software for as many car models as possible. Software,
however, can only be reused if it is disembedded from the hardware and it has a well-
defined interface. On the other hand, to handle future vehicle networks the still
growing number of control units has to be stopped. The only way to achieve this is to
integrate more functions into one physical control unit. Hence, we have to shift our
Development of an AUTOSAR Software Component Based on the V-Model 409
Fig. 1 AUTOSAR architecture
methodology from hardware oriented development to function oriented develop-

ment. The AUTOSAR framework was developed to support this new methodology.
However, AUTOSAR does not care about the behaviour of a software component,
i.e., the functionality inside the component. Here a model based development using
ASCET [3] from ETAS is performed. Furthermore the whole development had to be
embedded in the V-Model development process used at BMW.
The combination of AUTOSAR and model based development is very suc-
cessful in the body area. Here we have many matured functions that can be reused
across different vehicle platforms, like e.g., the rear view mirror function or the
central locking function. Furthermore, in the body area most functions are dis-
tributed over several control units. At BMW all those models are nowadays
managed in a central database and reused for many platforms [4]. The AUTOSAR
software components are then given to the different suppliers who have to integrate
them into different control units. Because the behaviour was developed in model
based way it is easy to implement the components on different hardware platforms.
The reuse of software components does not only save money. It also increases the
quality of the functions because in software development matured software means
that all problems already have been detected and eliminated.
The reuse of functions is very effective if the function is quite stable and
matured. For new and innovative functions that will change quickly in the future,
the aspect of reuse is not so important. However, in this case the possibility to
Fig. 2 V-Model
separate the hardware independent functionality from the hardware dependent

enables the OEM to focus on the customer relevant development and to have
control over his intellectual property.
4 Development Process of AUTOSAR Software

Components Along the V-Model
The V-Model is a well-known and relatively simple process model for the
development of software. In this chapter we take the classical V-Model shown in
Fig. 2 and adopt it the needs of AUTOSAR.
In the next sections the four phases are explained in more detail with their input
and output artefacts, and the tools used to create the artefacts.
4.1 Analysis
In the analysis phase (see Fig. 3) usually the requirements are specified, i.e., what
the function should do. This is now done in the context of software development.
Here we have two documents as input. One is the functional requirement
specification from the driver’s point of view. The other one is the requirement
specification for the intended control unit of that function. This document, e.g.,
contains requirements for the sensors and actuators.
In the analysis we extract all functionalities that can be developed independently
of the hardware and reused for further car series. Usually this is the functionality that
can be experienced by the driver. It is important that those customer relevant parts of
the function are designed and implemented by BMW. In this phase the interface
of this functionality is already specified in a logical way by the signals going in and
out. Here the tool Doors [5] (see screen shot in Fig. 4) is used.
Fig. 3 Analysis phase
Fig. 4 Doors screen shot
4.2 Design
Based on the informal specification in the requirement specification, in the design

phase the software components with their interfaces have to be defined (see
Fig. 5). Usually the whole customer relevant functionality of a body function is
modeled by one AUTOSAR atomic software component only. The decomposition
into subfunctions is not handled in the AUTOSAR approach, but later in the
implementation phase using modules.
The result is written to some ARXML file called Software Component
Description. This is an AUTOSAR standardized file based on an XML file format.
In general an XML file can be written by a simple text editor. However, it is much
more convenient to use an AUTOSAR authoring tool. Such a tool helps to stick to
the fixed syntax and supports the user by offering plausibility checks. At BMW the
tool Vehicle Systems Architect (VSA) [6] from Mentor Graphics is used as an
authoring tool. Figure 6 shows a screen shot of the VSA Editor.
In the design phase the incoming and outgoing signals specified in the
requirement specification are formally defined and grouped together to so-called
AUTOSAR interfaces.
Fig. 5 Design phase
In general, AUTOSAR offers two kinds of communication interfaces:

• Sender/Receiver Interface. This interface offers an asynchronous communication
with other components. The sender does not know the number of receivers and
does not get any receipt. It is quite similar what usually is used on the CAN bus.
• Client/Server Interface. This can be compared to a remote function call. Usually
the call is synchronous, i.e., the client waits until the server executes the service.
Besides the communication interfaces also the interfaces to the ‘‘internal
behaviors’’ are specified in this phase. These interfaces are called runnables in the
AUTOSAR approach. Behind the runnables are the behaviors which are later in
the implementation phase specified in a model based way. A software component
can have many runnables. The decision which behavior is modeled by which
runnable is an essential decision in this phase.
4.3 Implementation
In the implementation phase (see Fig. 7) the internal behavior of the software
component is implemented. This could be done by programming it in C with the
help of a traditional development tool. Nowadays, however, usually a model based
development is used in this step. Then the software component description has to
be imported into the designated modeling tool.
In our development process we are using the ASCET Tool family [7] which offers
an AUTOSAR Importer. This one extracts all necessary information, i.e., the soft-
ware component with its interfaces and runnables and makes it available in the model
editor. Now, in the model editor the behavior described informally in the require-
ments specification can be implemented by appropriate graphical descriptions, like
e.g., data flow diagrams or finite state machines. Figure 8 shows a screen shot of an
ASCET model with two AUTOSAR interfaces on the left hand side.
With ASCET-SE it is also possible to generate C-Code out of the model which
fits the needs of an AUTOSAR software component. However, the code comes
without the declaration of the RTE access functions because the prototypes of
these functions are included in the RTE code, which is a part of the integrating
control unit. As a consequence, it is not possible to build an executable program
for one software component. The further processing of the source code, i.e.,
Fig. 6 AUTOSAR editor
Fig. 7 Implementation Phase
compilation of the source code and linking of the object files is then done with a
conventional development environment.
4.4 Test
In the test phase (see Fig. 9) the software component has to be verified against the
requirement specification. Testing is done via the AUTOSAR interfaces of the
component.
Fig. 8 ASCET screen shot
Fig. 9 Test phase
In a first step test cases have to be implemented which have to stimulate and
monitor the AUTOSAR inputs and outputs. These test cases have to be created
according the requirement specification. The test cases have to stimulate the inputs
of the software component and check the outputs against given values. As the
software component is tested according to its requirement specification without
considering its internal structures this is a typical black box test.
Fig. 10 TcEd screen shot
Fig. 11 Messina screen shot
The test cases can be written with cUnit [8] for example. A more traceable
method instead is according to [9] to write the test cases with a special BMW
internal editor called TcEd in an XML format. The advantage of this editor is that
it is able to parse the software component description file and provide all interface
signals. Then the stimulation and monitoring of the interfaces can be easily
described with this editor. A screen shot of this editor can be seen in Fig. 10.
To execute the test cases, the test object has to be compiled and linked. But as
mentioned before, the C code of an AUTOSAR software component does not
contain the RTE access function definitions because the definitions are done in the
RTE. So for compiling the software component, all RTE access functions must be
implemented. Therefore, the compilation of the software component is done in a
special AUTOSAR test environment like Messina [10] or AUTOSAR Builder
[11]. These test tools generate a so-called Single Sided RTE which contains the
RTE access functions on the one side to connect to the software component and
conventional set/get-functions on the other side to facilitate the write and read
accesses to the AUTOSAR interface. In Fig. 11 you can see a screen shot of a test
run in Messina.
As the connection to software components can only be done thru the described
interfaces, it is not possible to monitor signals from the inside of the software
component. Therefore it is much more effort for performing white box tests by using a
mixture of a self-implemented RTE and a conventional test framework like Unit.
5 Conclusion
The growing complexity of vehicle software development can only be managed by

modern software engineering techniques. The AUTOSAR methodology together
with model based development is a proven combination at BMW to develop body
functions. In this paper the integration of this combination into the well-known
V-Model was shown. Each process step was explained in detail with all artifacts.
AUTOSAR has standardized the development of automotive software and
supports to disembedded the software from the hardware by offering software
components with well-defined interfaces. Separating the hardware independent
parts of a function from the hardware dependent helps to reuse software over many
vehicle platforms. Reusing software components helps to increase software quality
despite of the growing complexity of today’s car functions. The shift from control
unit oriented development to function oriented development is the future for
vehicle network development. Especially in the body area where reuse and dis-
tribution is more and more important this will decrease the development costs and
increase the quality of the functions.
References
1. AUTOSAR: www.autosar.org/
2. Kindel Olaf, Friedrich Mario (2009) Softwareentwicklung mit AUTOSAR—Grundlagen,
Engineering, Management in der Praxis, dpunkt.verlag
3. Escherle Thomas (2011) Development of an AUTOSAR Software Component for a
Convertible Top Control Based on a V-Model. Master Thesis, Landshut University
4. Siwy Robert (2005) Unterstützung der modellbasierten Funktionsentwicklung durch die
Modellbibliothek, 25. Tagung Elektronik im Kraftfahrzeug, Tagungsband, München, ISBN
3-8169-2499-9
5. DOORS: www.ibm.com/software/awdtools/doors/
6. Vehicle Systems Architect: http://www.mentor.com/products/vnd/autosar-products/volcano-
system-architect
7. ETAS GmbH: White Paper ASCET-SD, Stuttgart 2002
8. CUnit: cunit.sourceforge.net
9. Schiele Peter, Siwy Robert (2008) Test und Absicherung von Softwaremodulen mit
AUTOSAR konformen Schnittstellen in der Modellothek, Stuttgart
10. MESSINA: www.berner-mattner.com/en/berner-mattner-home/products/messina/ index.html
11. AUTOSAR Builder: www.3ds.com/de/products/catia/portfolio/geensoft/geensoft-product-
lines/autosar-builder
MDG1: The New, Scalable, and Powerful
ECU Platform from Bosch
Johannes-Joerg Rueger, Alexander Wernet, Hasan-Ferit Kececi

and Thomas Thiel
Abstract Bosch is developing an all new, scalable, and powerful platform of

electronic control units (ECU) for powertrain control; launch date will be end of
2014. With this, Bosch will introduce a new powerful microcontroller generation
from three different suppliers with multi-core technology which will fulfill future
demands with regard to computational power. Besides this and several other
innovations in hardware, Bosch will introduce a fully Autosar 4.0 compliant base
software and step-by-step an Autosar 4.0 compliant application software. Our
customers will have a chance to realize a seamless transition to the new ECU
platform and introduce Autosar on individual timescales. Other functional
enhancements will, for example, be in the field of vehicle-wide energy manage-
ment. With MDG1 not only innovations in hardware and software will be intro-
duced but in the area of processes as well. We will introduce IT standards in order
to improve efficiency particularly with the integration of customer software
(software sharing) and model-based development for the application software.
This will bring the development efficiency—particularly for the cooperation with
our customers—to a new level. With the new MDG1 Bosch will set a new standard
in the market.

Keywords Electronic control units Dual core microcontrollers AUTOSAR

Model based development Energy management
F2012-D03-011 Powertrain Control Unit Platform MDG1.
J.-J. Rueger (&) A. Wernet H.-F. Kececi T. Thiel

Robert Bosch GmbH, Diesel Gasoline Systems, Electronic Controls, Gerlingen, Germany
e-mail: Johannes-Joerg.Rueger2@de.bosch.com
418 J.-J. Rueger et al.
Fig. 1 MDG1 is the new scalable ECU platform for all powertrain applications. MDG1 is the
unified successor of former Bosch ECU generations EDC17 for Diesel engines and ME(D)17 for
gasoline engines
Bosch as not just the leading global automotive supplier but leading in the field of
electronic control units (ECU) as well has business with practically all customers and
in all segments around the globe. In order to support our customers also in the future,
to fulfil their functional requirements and to have cost-optimized solutions available
we will be introducing a new ECU platform called MDG1. With this, we will respond
to the following questions: How can a new ECU platform revolutionize the pow-
ertrain control business and satisfy the OEM demand of high degree of backward
compatibility to the current ECU generation at the same time? And how can an ECU
platform be realized that allows a perfect functional fit and an cost-optimized solu-
tion for any powertrain application, from 1 to 12 cylinders, from 2-wheelers via all
kinds of passenger cars to heavy commercial and off-highway vehicles, and from
internal combustion engines to hybrid and electric vehicles? (Fig. 1).
Bosch’s answer to these requirements is the all new, scalable, and powerful
ECU platform MDG1.
MDG1 is the unified successor of former Bosch ECU generations EDC17 for
Diesel engines and ME(D)17 for Gasoline engines. With the MDG1 platform, a
nearly completely unified chipset can be used to manage Diesel or a Gasoline
engines. Even the powerstage to drive solenoid injection valves could be unified
by using a new programmable device.
The core novelty of the new MDG1, however, is the new microcontroller
family and the corresponding software architecture.
1 MDG1 Microcontrollers
For the new MDG1 Bosch requested from its suppliers the most powerful and most
scalable microcontrollers that have ever been used in powertrain applications,
delivering the computational resources for today’s and future innovative control
functionalities.
MDG1: The New, Scalable, and Powerful ECU Platform from Bosch 419
Fig. 2 Schematic
description of the MDG1
microcontroller architecture
on the basis of the high-end
device 4
MDG1 is the first generation of Bosch powertrain electronic control units that
uses microcontrollers from different suppliers which are completely interchange-
able between the suppliers. This results in a multi-supplier strategy that ensures a
maximum level of supply reliability. With microcontrollers in 65 and 55 nm
technology from Infineon, Freescale and ST Microelectronics, Bosch is cooper-
ating with three suppliers who reliably delivered parts for Bosch’s last three
successful ECU generations.
Across all three suppliers there will be 4 performance classes of microcontrollers
available. Bosch calls them uniformly Device 1 to Device 4, while Device 1 is for the
low-end segment and Device 4 is the high-end controller ready to support even most
demanding applications. Figure 2 shows a schematic description of the Device 4
microcontroller.
Similarly to the development of CPUs in personal computers some years ago,
the necessity to increase of computational power can not be fulfilled any more by
increasing the clock speed only as we are hitting the technological limits regarding
power dissipation and memory bandwidth. Consequently, we need to introduce
multi-core microcontrollers also in embedded systems. For the MDG1, Bosch has
chosen a configuration as depicted in Fig. 2 with a dual application core (Core 0,
Core 1), a safety core (Core 2), and a peripheral core.
This architecture does not only have benefits for the computational power but
also fulfils state of the art requirements for functional safety which becomes more
and more important in automotive applications by introduction of high standards,
such as the ISO26262 standard. The safety core included in MDG1 microcon-
trollers (core 2 redundant to core 1 in Fig. 2) is a basic precondition for allowing
building up an ISO26262-compliant ASIL-D system.
Access security has been a hot topic for automotive electronic control units for
years. Illegally tempered units can cause damage and may drastically reduce the
engines lifetime. In order to set a new milestone in the history of access security,
MDG1 is the first ECU generation that offers a dedicated microcontroller unit
called Hardware Security Module (HSM, see Fig. 2). While today’s security
mechanisms for tuning protection and immobilizer functionality are based on
software only, the programmable HSM introduces hardware implemented security
algorithms with a 2,048 bit encryption.
A special feature of all MDG1 microcontrollers is the all new General Timer
Module (GTM, see Fig. 2). This module, developed by Bosch is responsible for
the exact execution of time-critical operations, such as angle synchronous injection
or ignition in combustion engines. The absolutely identical GTM in the silicon of
all three suppliers is the basic precondition for the multi-supplier strategy of
MDG1 microcontrollers.
Furthermore, in addition to well established interfaces such as CAN, FlexRay,
SENT, LIN from former ECU generations, MDG1 offers innovative new interfaces
such as PSI5 and Ethernet which will be integral part in future powertrain com-
munication networks.
2 MDG1 Software
The requirements for the MDG1 software architecture are partly contradictory and
exhibit a special challenge to Bosch’s engineers. On one hand we want the soft-
ware to be backward compatible to Bosch’s previous ECU generations allowing an
easy and seamless migration to MDG1. On the other hand the software shall be
prepared to support future trends such as the increasingly important use of soft-
ware from different sources (called software sharing), the AUTOSAR standard and
functional enhancements like vehicle energy management.
Though the application software shall be as unchanged as possible, with the
introduction of a new microcontroller family the hardware-near so-called base-
software (BSW) needs to be adapted. Bosch decided to introduce a completely new
developed BSW which is fully compliant to the AUTOSAR standard 4.0. This BSW
comprises mainly the operating system, the microcontroller encapsulation and ser-
vice features. One important reason for choosing the AUTOSAR 4.0 standard and not
the co-existing 3.2 version is the multi-core support of the 4.0 standard. It was
important for us that we do not force all customers to adapt the AUTOSAR standard
in application software with the introduction of MDG1. With the help of an adapter
layer (see MEDC17 adapter in Fig. 3) application software (ASW) from previous
Bosch ECU generations ME(D)17 and EDC17 can be reused and combined with
AUTOSAR 4.0 compliant application software modules. This allows all customers
Fig. 3 MDG1 software

architecture with AUTOSAR
compliant base software
(BSW), backward compatible
application software (ASW)
and microcontroller adapted
complex device drivers
an individual decision if and how much AUTOSAR application software will be used
and offers a smooth migration scenario. In order to make legacy software usable in
the MDG1 generation it has to undergo some non-functional changes to eliminate
hardware or compiler dependencies and to ensure data consistency in a multi-core
environment. Without unwanted side effects like change of calibration data label
names, this so-called ‘‘MDG1-ready’’ application software can be used in MDG1 as
well as in legacy electronic control units.
Thank to the unified GTM in all microcontrollers also a single set of Complex
Device Drivers (CDD) will be used in the MDG1.
3 Openness and Transparency
One of the major trends in the development of powertrain application software is

the increase of software sharing between OEM, ECU supplier and sometimes even
3rd party software suppliers. The success factor for software sharing is efficient
cooperation between involved development partners. Off course, Bosch has a huge
experience in software sharing and is supporting this business model with many of
its customers in all kinds of different ways. The intention with MDG1 is to further
improve the efficiency of this process.
Despite the valid interest of each party to protect its intellectual property (IP),
the interfaces and the global structure need to be openly communicated. Bosch’s
strategy to enhance software sharing efficiency is to provide a stable software
architecture and reliable interfaces. The transparent and standardized interface
Fig. 4 The publication of Bosch software architecture VeMotionSARTM and its interface
specifications in internet in a simple and understandable way
descriptions and architecture guidelines of AUTOSAR 4.0 are the first key for
successful software sharing. To gain the full efficiency benefit, Bosch is going one
step beyond and publishes its own concretion of the AUTOSAR architecture for
the powertrain domain, called VeMotionSARTM (Fig. 4), free accessible for
anyone in the internet (www.bosch-vemotionsar.com) in a simple and under-
standable way (see Fig. 4).
In addition to that, Bosch is preparing a reference implementation of the
AUTOSAR Vehicle Network Communication (ComStack) and Memory Stack
(MemStack) as well as main parts of the System Services (SysSW, see Fig. 4) to
be available as source code for the AUTOSAR partners free of charge. Bosch will
do this as an approach to reduce variability of important but usually common
software parts which are not relevant for competitive differentiation. Furthermore,
this will strengthen AUTOSAR as a global standard in the market.
4 Innovative Software Development Mechanisms
Software development is a fast evolving technology and development efficiency is

key as the number of development engineers is limited and costs need to be
contained. Therefore, we analyze continuously methods and technologies from
Fig. 5 Innovative software

development mechanism:
model-based development in
close-loop system
other areas of software business regarding practicability and benefit for embedded
software development.
One important method is the model based development (MBD). Graphical
models already have a good representation in automotive control systems but this
will increase even further. Though MBD is not new in MDG1 we are convinced
that the full potential of this method is not utilized yet.
Based on the strong and open architecture of VeMotionSARTM there will be a
simplified model of the complete MDG1 application software that can easily be
used for rapid prototyping of new functionalities. Easy to integrate based on the
standardized interfaces new functionalities can be simulated on system level in a
modeled closed-loop environment in a very early state (see Fig. 5). This allows
verification, optimization and even pre-calibration of a new functionality without
the effort of coding and integration and without the availability of a real ECU
hardware, an engine or a vehicle. As soon as the functionality reaches a stable state
it can be processed to source code in order to being integrated into a real ECU for
final validation and calibration in real-life application. Integration will be a plug-
and-use procedure since the interfaces in simulation and real ECU are exactly
identical VeMotionSARTM interfaces.
In combination with the support of state-of-the-art tools for modeling MatlabTM/
SimulinkTM as well as ASCETTM MDG1 will offer various possibilities of software
sharing. Depending on the preferences of our customers and development partners
functionalities can be exchanged on model, source code or object code level.
With the combination of software mechanisms described above and the new
powerful microcontrollers of MDG1 we will fulfill the need for efficient and cost-
optimized cooperation models as well as the introduction of innovative software
functionalities. These innovations include besides enhancements of internal
combustion engines new electrification concepts.
Fig. 6 Vehicle-wide energy

management considers
multiple information
5 Innovative Software Functionalities
Over the lifetime of the MDG1 platform, new software features will be imple-
mented to cover future functional enhancements and customer requirements. This
will include, for example, a vehicle-wide energy management with the goal to
achieve an overall optimization of energy consumption on vehicle level (Fig. 6).
Since we see an increasing diversification of powertrain architectures with e.g.
numerous combinations of internal combustion engines and electric motors,
upcoming vehicles consist of a high number of energy sources, energy storages
and energy sinks. Such a complex and flexible system can only be mastered with
flexible vehicle-wide energy flow models.
And the system does not only include the vehicle itself but also its environment.
With information from sensors (e.g. radar, acceleration, gradient etc., called ‘‘near-
field data’’) as well as information from the distance (e.g. GPS, radio traffic ser-
vice, internet etc., called ‘‘far-field data’’) situation-depending operation strategies
to minimize energy consumption can be chosen. With the help of statistical
analysis of driving cycles even habits of the driver can be taken into consideration
in the optimization process over vehicle lifetime in the field.
6 Customer Benefit and Conclusion
With the latest, scalable microcontroller technology and the clear commitment to
AUTOSAR, Bosch’s new MDG1 generation offers customer-oriented and cost-
optimized solutions for all future powertrain control challenges. The main cus-
tomer benefits can be summarized as follows:
• Common platform for all powertrain applications, from Gasoline to Diesel and
to Electrification
• Top performance and scalability in hardware and software for current and future
customer requirements
• Reliability and stability of microcontroller supply
• Functional safety compliance with ISO26262 up to ASIL D if required
• Extremely high degree of backward compatibility of application software to
previous ECU generations
• Customer individual, highly efficient migration to the new platform and to full
AUTOSAR compliance
• Innovation in software development mechanisms to improve development
efficiency
• New cooperation models with customers and more efficient project specific
development and calibration
• Support of future Electronic/Electrical (E/E) architectures enabling on a vehicle
level increased energy efficiency, reduction of CO2, and toxic emissions
With the new ECU generation MDG1, Bosch will define a new standard in the
industry. Not only is this the most scalable ECU platform ever but it enables a
smooth transition from previous generations and will bring efficiency gains in for
the cooperation in software sharing. In addition, it will support the latest tech-
nology with AUTOSAR 4.0 and new software features such as vehicle energy
management.
With the publication of our basic software architecture in the web we want to
support all our customers in their own software development. No matter whether a
customer wants to use the complete Bosch software or integrate own or third-party
software modules—Bosch is the most experienced and best partner.
With the new MDG1 which will be launched end of 2014, Bosch will set a new
milestone and continue with its successful ECU business.
Context-Aware Middleware for Vehicular
Applications
Jian Wang, Weiwen Deng and Peng Zhou
Abstract Developing vehicular distributed applications faces many challenges

because most of them apply their specialized communication protocols and
technical standards. We propose Context-Aware Middleware for Vehicular
Applications (CAMVA), which can react to around environments adaptively and
timely. CAMVA uses components based design pattern, and is optimized a lot in
terms of vehicular complexity and special requirements of vehicular applications
on security and immediacy, by which software programmers can develop and
deploy vehicular applications quickly and reliably through assembling, plugging
and articulating the existing components even though they are not familiar with the
bottom details. CAMVA is located between application level and operation system
level, and is composed of collection layer, core layer, running layer, component
container, and component library. CAMVA realizes context-aware ability and
supports complex vehicular environments. CAMVA behaves better in immediacy,
expansibility, static configurability, and dynamic adaptability aspects, so it can
achieve strict requirements of intelligent vehicles on middleware.

Keywords Middleware Vehicular applications Context-aware Vehicular

communications Data collection
F2012-D03-012
J. Wang (&) P. Zhou

College of Computer Science and Technology, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
e-mail: wangjian591@gmail.com
W. Deng
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun
130012, China
428 J. Wang et al.
1 Introduction
With the quick development of vehicular electronic and vehicular communications,

the approach to efficiently develop and deploy the distributed applications in vehicle-
to-vehicle situation attracts more and more attention [1]. Middleware can realize the
interoperation between heterogeneous systems [2], abstract and encapsulate the
universal processes into a uniform supportive layer, such as network communication,
security and transaction services [3–5]. Vehicular networks have many different
characteristics from the wired works, such as limited bandwidth, frequently changed
topology and high requirements on security. Herein the middleware applied in
vehicular networks has to meet the following requirements: 1. Instantaneity. Most
the safety applications exert rigorous requirements on time delay. 2. Stability. The
quick moved and changed vehicular driving environment demands that middleware
should behave better stably and invulnerably. 3. Adaptivity. The frequently changed
driving situation also requires that middleware should dynamically change config-
urations in order to be adaptive to surround changes.
We design and implement a vehicular-network-oriented middleware CARMVE
(Context-Aware Reflective Middleware in Vehicular Environment). CARMVE
uses multi-component structure and markup language based synchronization
protocol, in order to improve real-time and stability, and then to achieve the
requirements of intelligent vehicles on middleware system.
2 System Architecture
Figure 1 gives the system architecture of CARMVE which locates between

application layer and operation system layer. It is composed of collection layer,
core layer, running layer, component container, and component library.
Collection layer is to collect and measure the current states and parameters,
such as network state, device running state, users’ profile, software state, and
surround environment state. It is composed of many separated collection
components.
Core layer is the key part of CARMVE. It is composed of script parser, adaptivity
management and context-aware management. Script parser initializes the applica-
tion configuration by parsing and analysing application configuration script defined
by XML language. The application configuration script is exampled in Fig. 2. The
label component lists all components used in applications, and the label rule gives all
the rules. Context-aware management is responsible for organizing and computing
the context information collected by collection layer, and then decide whether a
adaptivity action is launched or not. After a adaptivity action is launched, adaptivity
management searches the corresponding component instance or application in
running layer according to user-defined adaptivity rules, and attempts to finish
adaptivity process by modifying attribute values and changing behavioral structures.
Context-Aware Middleware for Vehicular Applications 429
Application Layer
App. 1 App. 2 … App. n
Component Container
Running Layer
Reconfiguration 1 Reconfiguration 2 … Reconfiguration n
Component Library
Adaptivity rules
Adaptivity management
布
Core Script
publish parser App. Conf.
Layer Script
Context-aware management
Subscribe
rules
search notification
Collection Layer
Network Device User Decision Engine
Running Environme
… …
state state profile state nt state
Operation System and Communications
Fig. 1 System architecture of CAEMVE
Fig. 2 The configuration <Components>

script <component> </component>
…
</Components>
<Rules>
<rule>
< Trigger ></ Trigger >
<Componentchain></Componentchain>
</rule>
…
</Rules>
Running layer provides a reconfiguration to every application. The reconfigu-

ration encapsulates the necessary component instances and some component
chains which correspond to adaptivity rules. Only one component chain stays in
active state at the same time. The reconfiguration realizes the adaptivity process by
430 J. Wang et al.
changing the attribute value of component instance or activating the proper

component chain.
Component container is a special part in CARMVE. All the applications based
on CARMVE are running as a component chain in the component container.
Component container provides running environment to other CARMVE compo-
nent, receives the registration and cancelation of components, publishes the
component services, and so on.
Component library records every registered component. The developers could
resemble the existing components and then generate a highly efficient and high-
quality vehicular distributed software system.
In practical, the subscribed adaptivity actions are always not provided only by a
single context-aware component, but by more than one context information.
For example, in automatic tracing system, when the velocity and distance meet a
certain relation, the system needs to adapt acceleration, deceleration, stop, launch,
and others. Herein, script parser generates a transaction tree for every application
configuration script. Figure 3 shows the example of transaction tree. Context-
aware management executes the realized subscribe and publish according to the
transaction tree.
3 System Instance
We explore the role of CARMVE in vehicular communications by using the case

showed in Fig. 4.
Vehicle A and vehicle B are driven in the same direction, vehicle A is in ahead,
and vehicle B is in behind. At one time, vehicle A finds some dangerous areas in
ahead, but because of blocked sight, vehicle B can’t detect the danger. So at this
time, vehicle B may discover the potential danger by using the image data
transmitted from vehicle A. However, the network environment between two
vehicles is dynamically changed, such as bandwidth, so the transmission process
needs to be changed in real time according to network situation, such as com-
pressing ratio for real-time and clarity during image transmission. The applications
based on CARMVE could solve this problem well.
Suppose the bandwidth between vehicles A and B is less than 2M, the image
compress is launched, and the compressing ratio is 50 %. The configuration script
of the application is as follows:
\Components[
\component[
\name[ GRAB \/name[
…
\/component[
\component[
\name [ COMPRESS \/name[ component[
Fig. 3 CARMVE context-aware model
Fig. 4 An example for

vehicular applications based
on CARMVE A B
…
432 J. Wang et al.
\/component[
\component[
\name[ DECOMPRESS \/name[
…
\/component[
\component[
\name[ DISPLAY \/name[
…
\/component[
\/Components[
\Rules[
\rule[
\Trigger[
\event[
\Operator[ LT \/Operator[
\LC[
\Output[ networkawareness.bw \/Output[
\/LC[
\RC[
\const[ 2 \/const[
\/RC[
\/event[
\/Trigger[
\Componentchain type=‘‘Send_Chain’’[
\SetParam[
COMPRESS.CompressQuality=50
\/SetParam[
\SetChain[
GRAB.PtrOutput -[ COMPRESS.PtrInput;
COMPRESS.StreamOutput -[ SEND;
Grab.Start
\/SetChain[
\/Componentchain[
\Componentchain type=‘‘Re_Chain’’[
\SetChain[
RECEIVE -[ DECOMPRESS.StreamInput;
DECOMPRESS.StreamOutput -[ DISPLAY.Input;
\/SetChain[
\/Componentchain[
\/rule[
…
\/Rules[
We declare four components in the script: WebCam video collector, JPEG-

Compress compress component, JPEGDeCompress decompress component, and
display component.
4 Conclusion
CARMVE decreases developing cost and complexity of vehicular applications,

and improves flexibility, adaptability, and portability. It brings theory and practical
effects on vehicular applications.
References
1. Wong KD, Tepe K, Chen W et al. (2006) Inter-vehicular communications. IEEE Wirel
Commun 13(5): 6–7
2. Yang DR, Luan J, Jun-zhong GU (2005) Comparative research on middleware techniques.
Appl Comput Syst (3):27–30
3. Ye F, Adams M, Roy S (2008) V2V wireless communication protocol for rear-end collision
avoidance on highways. In: Proceedings of the IEEE communications workshops. Piscataway,
IEEE, pp 375–379
4. Huan Z, Shou-zhi X, Cheng-xia L (2009) A V2V broadcast protocol for chain collision avoidance
on highways. In: Proceedings of 2009 IEEE International Conference on Communication
Technology and Applications, pp 2062–2067
5. Tang A, Yip A (2010) Collision avoidance timing analysis of DSRC-based vehicles. Accid
Anal Prev 42(1):182–195
Analysis of the Adaptation of a New
Method for Four-Wheel-Hub Electric
Vehicle Online-Mass Estimation
Jin Zhang, Zhuoping Yu, Lu Xiong and Yuan Feng
Abstract An accurate estimation of vehicle mass is important in automation of

vehicle, vehicle following manoeuvres and traditional power train control schemes.
It is easy for four-wheel-hub electric motor to get accurate speed signals and torque
signals. Based on this feature we introduce a new algorithm for electric vehicle
online-mass estimation by decoupling vehicle mass and road grade. In the Matlab/
Simulink simulation environment we establish the new estimation algorithm model
and an 18 degree; of freedom vehicle model. We analyze the accuracy of this
online-mass estimation method by changing the value of different parameters
respectively, for example, different masses, different rolling resistances… This new
mass estimation method is fast and reaches a high accuracy without extra sensors.
Keywords Mass estimation Longitudinal dynamic Decoupling Algorithm

Simulation
1 Introduction
Analysis of road accidents statistics show that the number of people killed
decreases for the last 6 years [1]. This is the consequence of several factors. One of
them is the improvement of driver assistance systems (ABS, ESP…). In vehicle
control, many control decisions can be improved if the unknown parameter of the
F2012-D03-014
J. Zhang (&) Z. Yu L. Xiong Y. Feng

Tongji University, Shanghai, China
e-mail: zhangjin13572468@sina.com
436 J. Zhang et al.
vehicle can be estimated. The more accurate the estimation is, the better performs
the driver assistance system. Moreover, accurate estimation is essential to the
engine control unit (ECU) for reduced emission.
The proposed schemes for direct estimation of vehicle parameters, particularly
vehicle mass and road grade can in general be classified into two categories:
sensor-based and model-based methods. Due to the high cost for extra sensors, the
model-based methods provide a cheap alternative in estimation. Model-based
methods use a model of the vehicle and data like engine torque, vehicle speed,
engine speed and gear ratio which are available through the Can Bus to estimate
the unknown parameters. Different model-based approaches in this area have been
proposed in the past few years: Since sharp longitudinal accelerations and
decelerations excite a vehicle’s mass significantly, in [2] a method based on this
idea is proposed. Similarly, one approach [3] which has been patented and has
been used in industry is estimation of mass based on the velocity drop during a
gearshift. However, based on a fair amount of trial, the velocity drop is normally
minor during a gearshift and this limits the accuracy of the method due to the small
signal-to-noise ratio [4]. Bae proposes an averaging recursive least square esti-
mator that utilizes longitudinal force, acceleration and GPS-based road grade
measurements to determine vehicle mass. But this method is not accurate because
it regards the road grade as a constant parameter, which actually is also a time
varying parameter. For estimating multiple parameters that vary with different
rates, recursive least square algorithm with multiple forgetting is proposed by
Vahidi and Stefanopoulou in [5], whose error for mass and grade estimation are
both below 4 %. However this method takes too long for estimation.
By analyzing and deforming the longitudinal function, we find that we could
decouple mass and grade these two time varying parameters under some conditions.
This provides us a new way for an accurate estimation method within a very short of
time. The following paper introduces the fundamental theory for decoupling esti-
mation and shows the performance of the new method based on this theory.
2 Vehicle Model
2.1 Vehicle Longitudinal Dynamics
The longitudinal dynamics can be presented in the following simple form:

Fa ¼ Ft Ff Fb Fw
P
4
ð1Þ
M v_ x ¼ ½Ti RJw x_ i lr Mg cos b Mg sin b 1:63
1
Cd Av2x
i¼1
In this equation Fa is the force of acceleration, Ft is the force of each wheel, Ff is

the rolling resistance, Fb is the climbing resistance, Fw is the aerodynamic resistance,
b is the road grade, Cd is the drag coefficient, A is the frontal area of the vehicle, Ti is
Analysis of the Adaptation of a New Method 437
the torque of each wheel, Te is total torque, Jw is the power train inertia of each wheel,
x_ i is the rotational engine speed, R is the radius of the wheel and lr is the rolling
resistance coefficient.
Equation (1) can be rearranged into:
X4
Ti Jw x_ i 1
Mð_vx þ g sin bÞ ¼ ½ lr Mg cos b Cd Av2x ð2Þ
i¼1
R 1:63
where
asensor;x ¼ v_ þ g sin b ð3Þ
Accelerometer can measure the component of gravity acceleration along the
measurement axis.
1
FR ¼ lr Mgcosb þ Cd Av2x ð4Þ
1:63
Equation (1) can be deformed into:
X4
Ti Jw x_
½ ¼ Masensor;x þ FR ð5Þ
i¼1
R
2.2 Estimation Method Based on Decoupling Theory
M and F
R are the true values, M
^ and F
^ R are the values to be estimated. When we
regard the value of mass as constant, then the equation can be translated into:
X4
Ti Jw x_ i
½ sensor;x þ F
¼ Ma ^R ð6Þ
i¼1
R
Similarly when we regard the value of force as constant, then the equation is
written as:
X4
Ti Jw x_ i
½ ^ sensor;x þ F
¼ Ma R ð7Þ
i¼1
R
According to recursive least square algorithm the minimum of the following

two functions need to be satisfied:
X
m
S1 ¼ ðFt;j Ma ^ R Þ2
sensor;x:j F ð8Þ
j¼1
438 J. Zhang et al.
X
n
S2 ¼ ðFt;j Ma R Þ2
^ sensor;x:j F ð9Þ
j¼1
In order to get the minimum of the functions, these are the derivative of the
functions:
8 Pm
>
> dS1 sensor;x:j F^R Þ ¼ 0
< dF^R ¼ 2 ðFt;j Ma
j¼1
Pn ð10Þ
>
> ^
: dS
dM^
2
¼ 2 ½ðF t;j Ma sensor;x:j F R Þ a sensor;x:j ¼ 0
j¼1
The solutions are as followings:

8 P P
m m
>
> FR ¼ m1 Ft;j M asensor;x:j
>
> m
>
< j¼1 j¼1
Pn Pn
Ft;j asensor;x:j FR asensor;x:j ð11Þ
>
>M ^
>
> ¼ j¼1
P P
j¼1
>
:
n
ðasensor;x:j Þ2
n
ðasensor;x:j Þ2
j¼1 j¼1
There must be a difference value between the true value and the estimated
value. For this little difference we use eM and eFR to stand for it.

M~ ¼M þ eM
~R ¼ F R þ eFR ð12Þ
F
Then equations can be rearranged as followings:
Xm X m
eM X
m
^ R0 ¼ 1
F Ft;j
M
asensor;x:j asensor;x:j ð13Þ
m j¼1 m j¼1 m j¼1
P
n P
n P
n
Ft;j asensor;x:j R
F asensor;x:j eFR asensor;x:j
j¼1 j¼1 j¼1
^0
M ¼ P P ð14Þ
Pn n n
ðasensor;x:j Þ2 ðasensor;x:j Þ2 ðasensor;x:j Þ2
j¼1 j¼1 j¼1
Compare F ^R; M
^ R0 with F ^ 0 with M:
^ There is an error term respectively:
eM X
m
e0FR ¼ asensor;x:j ð15Þ
m j¼1
,
X
n Xn
e0M ¼ eFR asensor;x:j ðasensor;x:j Þ2 ð16Þ
j¼1 j¼1
These two error terms stands for the difference between true value and esti-
mated value. The smaller these two terms are, the more accurate are the estima-
tions. Parameter asensor;x:j appears in both equations above. From the equations
above we can draw a conclusion:
When the value of asensor;x is small, then the value of e0FR is small. So it is more
accurate for the force estimation.
When the value of asensor;x is big, then the value of e0M is small. So it is accurate
for the mass estimation.
According to this conclusion we find a new method for mass and force esti-
mation, which is: when the acceleration is small, we estimate only force. When the
acceleration is big, then we estimate only mass. Since longitudinal dynamics of the
vehicle depends on both mass and force, for the first step (force estimation) we use
half load vehicle mass as the true value of mass. For the second step (mass
estimation) we use the estimated force from first step as the true value of force, to
estimate the final mass. That is the theory behind our method.
2.3 Suitable Working Condition for this Method
In order to apply this method into practical we need both small acceleration and
big acceleration. As we know during the vehicle starting the acceleration value is
usually increasing gradually from zero. Only few drivers step on the gas very hard
from the very beginning of starting driving. So this phase provides the ideal
working condition for our methods.
In order to estimate the value of mass and force we also need to define the
boundary value of acceleration. After many experiments and simulations we set
0.5 m/s2 as our boundary, which reaches the highest accuracy. Under this value we
estimate force. Above this value we estimate vehicle mass.
2.4 Introduction of the 18 degree of Freedom Model

for Simulation
We have built an 18 DOF (degree of freedom) vehicle model with Simulink in

Matlab, which consists of four models. They are wheel dynamic model, vehicle
body dynamic model, suspension dynamic model and aero dynamic model. This
18 DOF vehicle model has been validated with the experimental results of Smart
(Fig. 1).
440 J. Zhang et al.
Fig. 1 18 degree of freedom vehicle model
Fig. 2 Influence of different 5

Error in mass estimation (%)
vehicle masses on the 4 Error in mass estimation

accuracy of mass estimation 3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Vehicle Mass (kg)
3 Analysis of the Decoupling Estimation Method
3.1 Influence of Different Vehicle Masses on the Accuracy

of the Method
Figure 2 shows the absolute values of error in mass estimation of different masses
are all below 2 percent, which is quite satisfied. Moreover, the estimation process
lasts no more than 10 s.

rolling resistance coefficients

on the accuracy of mass 4
estimation
2
0
f0=0.015
-2 f0=0.02
f0=0.025
f0=0.03
-4 f0=0.035
f0=0.04
-6
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Vehicle mass (kg)

acceleration noises on the

-2 1% acceleration noises
2% acceleration noises
-4 4% acceleration noises
-6
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Vehicle mass (kg)
3.2 Influence of Different Rolling Resistance Coefficients

on the Accuracy of the Method
In Fig. 3 different rolling resistance coefficients f0 from 0.015 to 0.04 are simulated.
The influence of rolling resistance on the accuracy of mass estimation is small.
3.3 Influence of Different Acceleration Noises on the Accuracy

of the Method
It is not easy to get a stable acceleration data from the acceleration sensor,
especially during the starting. We simulate the acceleration noises from 0 to 4 %.
From Fig. 4 we can see the error is getting bigger as the noises increase. The
absolute values of error in estimation are below 5 %. Therefore a stable acceler-
ation data from the sensor is important for this method.
442 J. Zhang et al.

road class on the accuracy of

3
mass estimation
2
-1
A-class road
-2 B-class road
C-class road
-3
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Vehicle mass (kg)

torque noises on the accuracy
of mass estimation 0
-2
-4
-6 1% torque noises
2% torque noises
3% torque noises
-8 4% torque noises
0% torque noises
-10
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Vehicle mass (kg)
3.4 Influence of Different Road Class on the Accuracy

of the Method
Figure 5 shows that the influence of different road classes on the accuracy of
estimation is not significant. The absolute value of errors is below 3 %.
3.5 Influence of Different Torque Noises on the Accuracy

of the Method
We simulate the torque noises from 0 to 4 % in Fig. 6. The influence of torque

noises is similar as acceleration noises. In order to minimize the error of estimation
a stable torque sensor data is necessary.

wheel velocity noises on the

3
accuracy of mass estimation
2
0 no wheel velocity noises

1% wheel velocity noises
-1 2% wheel velocity noises
-2 4% wheel velocity noises
-3
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Vehicle mass (kg)
3.6 Influence of Different Wheel Velocity Noises on the Accuracy

of the Method
From Fig. 7 we can see the influence of wheel velocity noises is small.
3.7 Influence of Different Positions of Pedal on the Accuracy

of the Method
Figure 8 simulates the influence of different pedal positions on the mass estimation,
from 60 to 100 % of pedal position. The errors of mass estimation are below 6 %.
3.8 Influence of Different Wheel Radiuses on the Accuracy

of the Method
Different wheel radiuses are simulated in Fig. 9. The influence shows in Fig. 9
seems to be significant. But actually the wheel radius cannot change much by the
starting of the vehicle. So the error of estimation can be definitely controlled
within 4 %.
3.9 Influence of Different Starting Ways on the Accuracy

of the Method
Different staring ways are presented in Fig. 10. Each signal represents a way of
starting the auto. For example signal 1 shows a common way of starting a vehicle
444 J. Zhang et al.

positions of pedal on the 8
4
2
0
-2 100%Pedal position
-4 90% Pedal position
70% Pedal position
-10
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Vehicle mass (%)

wheel radiuses on the 8

4
2
0
-2
-4
-6 wheel radius 0.300
wheel radius 0.315
-8 wheel radius 0.330
-10
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Vehicle mass (kg)
by a new driver, who is lack of experience, with a little acceleration vibration.

Signal 2 represents the normal way of starting the vehicle for our estimation
method. It means the drivers step on the pedal gradually and meanwhile the
acceleration signal increases gradually from 0 to 1 m/s2. According to theory of
our method we can use the acceleration phase between 0 and 0.5 m/s2 for the force
estimation. Then we use the acceleration phase between 0.5 and 1 m/s2 together
with the estimated force for our mass estimation. Signal 3 stands for the most
improper way of starting. The drive steps hard on the pedal from the very
beginning, with the acceleration signal jumping from 0 to 1 m/s2 immediately.
Without the acceleration phase between 0 and 0.5 m/s2 we cannot collect enough
data for the force estimation. Therefore the accuracy of mass estimation will also
be low. Signal 4 shows the most suitable way for our estimation method. At the
beginning the acceleration is very small and of course under our boundary 0.5 m/
s2. Then the acceleration jumps immediately to 1 m/s2. From the introduction of
our decoupling method we know: the smaller the acceleration is in the first step,
the more accurate is our force estimation; the bigger the acceleration is in the
second step, the more accurate is our mass estimation. So with the signal 4 we can
get the most accurate estimation theoretically.
Fig. 10 Different acceleration signals stand for different starting ways respectively
Fig. 11 Influence of 14
different starting ways on the 12

accuracy of mass estimation
10 Signal 1
8 Signal 2
Signal 3
6 Signal 4
4
2
0
-2
-4
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Vehicle mass (kg)
As we predicted, in Fig. 11 signal 4 gets the most accurate and stable esti-
mation, better than signal 2. Also as we predicted, signal 3 gets the least accurate
estimation, worse than signal 1.
4 Conclusion
From the simulations we can see our decoupling mass estimation method can reach
a good accuracy, with estimation errors lower than 3 % in the most cases. This
method is also fast and don’t need extra sensors. But as we simulated there are still
some extreme situations that the accuracy of our estimation is not that satisfied, for
example, the starting way like signal 3 from the different starting way simulation.
Improvement will be done accordingly in the future.
446 J. Zhang et al.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by National Basic Research Program of China.
(No.2011CB711200)
References
1. ONISR, Les grandes donn’ees de laccidentologie (2005) In rapport ONISR.

www.securiteroutiere.gouv.fr/infosref/observatoire/accidentologie/
2. Breen MT (1996) System and method for determining relative vehicle mass. No. 5,482,359
3. Genise T (1994) Control method system including determination of an updated value
indicative of gross combination weight of vehicles. No. 5,490,063
4. Bae HS, Ryu J, Gerdes JC (2001) Road grade and vehicle parameter estimation for
longitudinal control using GPS. In: Proceedings of the IEEE intelligent transportation systems
conference
5. Vahidi A, Stefanopoulou A, Peng H (2005) Recursive least squares with forgetting for online
estimation of vehicle mass and road grade: theory and experiments. Veh Syst Dyn 43:1, 31–55
Design and Implementation of Bootloader
for Vehicle Control Unit Based
on Can Bus
Tingqing Tan, Hanhan Tang and Yaling Zhou
Abstract Considering the need for constantly updating user code during developing
Vehicle Control Unit (VCU), the special code update process (Bootloader) which
consults embedded system bootloader technology is designed in this chapter. The
chapter first introduces the basic principles and work process of Bootloader, and then
described the specific design and implementation of Bootloader software of the
VCU-side and host-side. Experimental results show that the Bootloader boots the
application accurately and implements application’s downloading and upgrading
exactly and easily.

Keywords Bootloader Vehicle control unit (VCU) CAN bus Boot assist

module (BAM) S-record format
Communications between the electronic control units in the pure electric vehicle
mainly rely on the CAN bus, as the nerve center of the entire electronic control
system, the vehicle control unit (VCU) is responsible for network communications
and information exchange of the electronic control units. With the increase in
automotive electronic control units, vehicle control strategies become more
complex, and thus a higher demand on the processing power of the vehicle con-
troller. 32-bit microcontrollers in computing speed and processing power is much
better than the 16-bit microcontrollers to meet the performance requirements of
VCU. VCU control strategy in the development process is continuously adjusted,
F2012-D03-016
T. Tan (&) H. Tang Y. Zhou

EV Research and Development Center, China Automotive Engineering Research Institute
Co., Ltd, Shanghai, China
e-mail: ttqing1986@126.com
448 T. Tan et al.
so you need to repeatedly update the VCU application. For Freescale 32-bit
microcontroller, you can usually use the P&E and other special download tools to
update the application, this need to VCU from the original car or bench to uninstall
and removed from the shell out, resulting in tedious work, seriously affecting the
efficiency and cycle of product development. This difficulty is overcome by using
Bootloader way, it downloads new applications using CAN bus which connected
to the VCU, no need to demolish VCU which has been packaged and installed.
CAN bus has a high-speed, real time, with error diagnostics and other advantages,
to meet the needs of communication between VCU and host in the Bootloader
process. CAN Bootloader used in Freescale’s 32-bit microcontroller based on a
custom communication protocol is designed in this chapter, it successfully
achieved the online update of the application.
1 The Basic Principle of Bootloader
Bootloader is called boot loader in embedded systems. The boot is a small program to
run after power up or reset the system, this program leads the hardware environment
of the system to an appropriate state to prepare a good fit for the final calling to the
application environment. The loader copied the software components in non-volatile
memory (NVM) to RAM, and ultimately guides the running of application. Boot-
loader in automotive ECU is the code update process: ECU was in a special mode,
connected by some kind of bus communication interface with the host, the host
downloaded the new object code to the ECU, the ECU’s code was updated, new
applications would be running after the next power up or reset [1]. Taking into account
the convenience and reliability of the CAN bus, it is often used as communication
interfaces of the Bootloader. In order to distinguish between the entire code update
system and the implementation program of microcontroller, Bootloader refers to the
entire system, and bootloader refers to program of microcontroller in this chapter.
Implementation loaded from the flash is a common way of the CAN Boot-
loader, bootloader and the application (object code) were stored in different flash
memory location of the microcontroller, updating the application through the
implementation of bootloader. Defects of this way is external interference (such as
power failure) may destroy the original bootloader program in the application
writing process, the result is that users can only re-programming bootloader pro-
gram through a special download tool.
Another way is loading bootloader directly from the communication interface to
the ram of microcontroller and then running it. The biggest benefit of this way is not
afraid of power outages in the implementation of the flash programming process. As
the bootloader itself without taking the microcontroller flash memory, there is no
need to change the underlying configuration file of application code. However,
because loading bootloader from ram needs to use the unique BAM module, which is
usually only owned by 32-bit microcontroller, the 16-bit microcontroller is generally
not used in this way. This chapter explains how to achieve this Bootloader [2].
Design and Implementation of Bootloader 449
Bootloader’s hardware is mainly composed by the host (PC) and VCU. The host
itself without the support of the CAN bus interface, and therefore required to the
USB-CAN adapter as a bridge of communication between the host computer and the
VCU. Work process of Bootloader is divided into two main stages: In the first stage,
the host firstly initializes the USB-CAN adapter to establish connection with the
CAN communication between host and VCU, and then downloads bootloader to the
SRAM of microcontroller; In the second stage, bootloader begins to run, bootloader
first preparations for the implementation of flash programming based on host
instructions, including the initialization of the flash, the corresponding flash address
space protection and erasing, then loop executes the target code receiving, calibration
and flash programming, until the object code writing is completed.
2 The Implementation of Downloading Bootloader

Through BAM
The BAM is a nonvolatile memory based software program. The BAM’s primary
function is to perform essential system initialization and to locate and execute the
application code. The BAM also supports serial download of user code. The
execution of the BAM is affected by the censorship status. BAM is executed when
reset is negated. BAM provides four kinds of boot mode, serial boot mode is used
for downloading bootloader.
2.1 The Entry of Serial Boot Mode
The BAM is accessed by the device core after the negation of RSTOUT, before
user code starts. First, the BAM program configures the core memory management
unit (MMU) to allow access to all device internal resources, This MMU setup
remains the same for internal flash boot mode. After the MMU configuration, the
BAM program checks the BOOTCFG field of the reset status registers (SIU_RSR)
and the appropriate boot sequence is started. The BOOTCFG pin needs to be
driven high through an external switch, selecting serial boot mode. Internal boot
mode is the normal selection if the BOOTCFG pin is not asserted. Serial boot
mode supports the SCI bus way and CAN bus way, depending on the first data
frame type received by microcontroller. CAN bus way is used in this chapter, a
message with 0 9 11 ID, containing 8 bytes, is received by CAN controller first.
The serial boot mode can run in either of two modes of operation: Standard serial
boot mode using fixed baud rates derived from the crystal oscillator used; Baud
Rate Detection serial boot mode, which allows communication with adaptable
speed, based on measured input signal. The design uses the fixed baud rates mode,
on the hardware configuration requires EVTO pin is set low, 8 MHz crystal cor-
responding to the CAN baud rates to be determined as 200 kHz.
450 T. Tan et al.
2.2 Work Flow of Downloading Bootloader
When the BAM switches to serial boot mode the watchdog is always enabled. The
watchdog is refreshed only after the correct flash/public password is accepted and
subsequently after each write to the internal SRAM. When BAM has initialized the
CAN module, host can follow the download protocol to send the appropriate data
and code. The download protocol follows four steps:
1. Host sends 64-bit password.
2. Host sends start address, size of download code in bytes, and VLE bit.
3. Host sends the application code data.
4. The device switches to the loaded code at the start address.
The communication is done in half-duplex manner, any transmission from host
is followed by the device transmission. The host computer should not send data
until it receives echo from the device. All multi byte data structures have to be sent
most significant byte (MSB) first. When the CAN is used for serial download, the
data is packed into standard CAN messages in the following manner:
1. A message with 0 9 11 ID and 8-byte length is used to send the password. The
device transmits the same data, but the message ID is set to 0 9 1.
2. A message with 0 9 12 ID and 8-byte length is used to send the start address,
length, and the VLE mode bit. The device transmits back the same data, but
with ID set to 0 9 2.
3. Messages with 0 9 13 ID are used to send the downloaded data. The device
transmits back received data with message ID of 0 9 3.
Figure 1 shows the simplified program flow of the serial boot mode.
3 Design of Bootloader of VCU-Side
The bootloader of VCU-side is written in Freescale codewarrior software envi-

ronment, the generated code files downloaded to SRAM of microcontroller
through serial boot way. Compared to traditional load from flash way, this way
don’t need to make any changes to the underlying configuration of the application,
but more on the bootloader itself.
3.1 Underlying Configuration of Bootloader
3.1.1 The Division of SRAM Memory Space
In serial boot mode bootloader is downloaded to the SRAM of microcontroller,

SRAM size of different types of microcontroller is often different, so the rational
Fig. 1 Serial boot mode flow Serial

diagram boot
Service
Watch dog
Enable Watch dog

Download:
·Store address
·Size of code
SCI/ CAN modules ·VLE bit
Initialisation ·User code
Password Check yes

VLE bit set ?
Program RAM,EBI
no and Flash TLB
Password yes
entries for VLE
Match? mode
no
STOP
Branch to code
Wait for reset
loaded into
or watch dog
Internal SRAM
time out
allocation of the storage address of the code to be based on the chip manual is
necessary. This chapter is optional Freescale’s 32-bit microcontroller MPC5634M,
its SRAM memory space is 94 KB, and the address range is from 0 9 4000_0000
to 0 9 4001_77FF. BAM protocol stipulated the starting address of code in
SRAM, program will jump to the start address to perform after the code has been
download, which requires the entry address of the program code stored in the
starting address. Works created by Codewarrior default program entry address is in
the init code segment, this address is usually not the starting address of the code
space. In this chapter, the way is to increase the ‘prestart’ segment in the Link File
and set the segment start address to be 0 9 4000_0000, and then put the ‘_start’
procedure into the ‘prestart’ segment, so that we achieve the entry address of the
program is the start address of code. Figure 2 shows the division of SRAM
Memory Space.
3.1.2 The Initialization of Variable Space
When loading code to internal RAM (using the BAM serial download or other-
wise) the user must be aware that error correction coding (ECC) is implemented
for all SRAM (SRAM). It is essential that the ECC parity bits are initialized after
power on. A 64-bit cache inhibited write to each location in SRAM must be used
to initialize the SRAM array. Code downloaded to SRAM by the serial download
mode of the BAM is loaded in 64-bit writes, initializing the SRAM as the code is
452 T. Tan et al.
Fig. 2 Division of SRAM memory space
downloaded. However care must be taken to ensure that SRAM areas allocated to
variables (Located in ‘internal_ram’ segment), heap and stack are also initialized.
There are several ways to handle this:
1. Assign all stack and variables to non-SRAM address space.
2. Develop code in assembler, which does not rely on a stack or any variables.
3. Initialize additional SRAM array space to accommodate variables/stack.
The third way is selected in this chapter.
By placing SRAM initialization code at the start of the download code (before
stack or heap is established), the entire SRAM array can be initialized before
executing any code that could make use of uninitialized SRAM. Consider the case
where 13,568 bytes of code is downloaded via CAN. This could occupy address
range 0 9 4000_0000 to 0 9 4000_3500. The remaining 82,688 bytes of RAM
from address 0 9 4000_3500 to 0 9 4001_7800 can be initialized by adding the
following code to the start of the download code. Figure 3 shows the SRAM
initialization code [3, 4].
3.2 Work Flow of Bootloader
Bootloader jumps to the main function to perform after underlying configuration

had been finished. As mentioned earlier, the watchdog will be opened automati-
cally when enter the BAM serial boot mode, BAM fed the watchdog until the end
of the download process. To prevent the watchdog timer overflow, the user must
either service the watchdog or disable it after serial download is complete. The
watchdog can be serviced in several ways. The simplest method is to increase the
timeout period to ensure that there is sufficient time for the downloaded code to
Fig. 3 SRAM initialization code
run. After that the main function initializes the system clock (set for 64 MHz), and
then initializes CAN module to complete the preparation of communication with
the host.
VCU firstly sends a connection request command to the host, after receiving the
instruction the host starts to implement the update process of the application code
in accordance with a custom protocol. CAN bus baud rate is 500 Kbps, standard
frame format, the ID of the host is 0 9 22a, and the ID of the VCU is 0 9 22b.
The max data length of a CAN frame is 8 byte, in addition to the data length of
sending application code for the 8-byte, the reset of the data are one byte. The
communication protocol between the host and the VCU is shown in Table 1.
During the data transfer process, the host based on VCU feedback response to
commands and data sent successfully or not, when a command fails, or data
validation fails, the host just resends the instruction or data in order to ensure the
correctness of data transmission. Figure 4 shows the work flow of flash
programming.
3.2.1 Object Code Interpretation
Format of the application code is Motorola S-Record file format, it is generated by

Freescale Codewarrior compiler and can be executed in the microcontroller, and
its suffix is ‘.S19’. To achieve the correct reception of the application code and
programming, the application code must be converted to address and data needed
for programming, this process is called object code interpretation. Object code is
explained either in the host or VCU, there is not much difference in practical
applications; this chapter uses the way of explaining object code in the VCU [5].
The S-record format is an ASCII hexadecimal (‘‘hex’’) text encoding for binary
data. It is also known as the SREC or S19 format. Each record contains a
454 T. Tan et al.
Table 1 Communication protocol of download application code

Frame ID Direction Command Meaning
0 9 22B VCU to Host 0 9 00 Request a connection
0 9 22A Host to VCU 0 9 01 Initialize flash
0 9 22B VCU to Host 0 9 02 Complete flash initialization
0 9 22B VCU to Host 0 9 03 Successfully received a record
0 9 22B VCU to Host 0 9 aa Receive failed
0 9 22B VCU to Host 0 9 04 Receive complete
Fig. 4 Flash programming

flow diagram start
Receive one line no

s-record
yes
Check no
successfully?
yes
no Accumulated 64
bytes data ?
yes
Flash
programming
no Has written
the last line of the
record ?
yes
End
checksum to detect data that has been corrupted during transmission. The first
record (S0) may include arbitrary comments such as a program name or version
number. The last (termination) record (S7, S8, or S9) may include a starting
address. The records have the following structure:
1. Start code, one character, an S.
2. Record type, one digit, 0–9, defining the type of the data field.
3. Byte count, two hex digits, indicating the number of bytes (hex digit pairs) that
follow in the rest of the record (in the address, data and checksum fields).
4. Address, four, six, or eight hex digits as determined by the record type for the
memory location of the first data byte. The address bytes are arranged in big
endian format.
5. Data, a sequence of 2n hex digits, for n bytes of the data.
6. Checksum, two hex digits—the least significant byte of ones’ complement of
the sum of the values represented by the two hex digit pairs for the byte count,
address and data fields [6].
Microcontroller will verify each row record received from host. When the
checksum calculated is equal to the checksum comes in the S-record, the program
will follow-up flash programming work, or else abandon the record, and return a
receive-error frame.
3.2.2 Flash Programming of Application
The flash programming of application is an important part of the whole bootloader.

Program of this part uses flash driver library C90LC_JDP provided by Freescale,
it contains all operation functions of flash. Sequence of operations is the first call
the initialization the function ‘flshinit’, then check the latch state of the concrete
blocks by using function ‘pGetLock’ and use function ‘pSetLock’ to set the latch
state; erase the programming blocks, and use ‘pBlankCheck’ function to verify the
erased blocks; finally, write the data to the blocks using function ‘pFlashProgram’,
and verify the written data using function ‘pProgramVerify’. User must be in strict
accordance with the above order to ensure that the code written correctly. It is
noteworthy that flash erasing is a block as a unit; the flash writing is 64 bytes as a
unit [7].
4 Design of Bootloader of Host-Side
The software of host-side is built in Visual C++ 6.0 development platform, the
interface is shown in Fig. 5. The software is generally no longer be modified after
successful commissioning, so make is as simple as possible for using. The soft-
ware interface contains four buttons: ‘Connect CAN’ button controls the con-
nection between the host and the USB-CAN adapter; ‘Start CAN’ button controls
the start of the USB-CAN transceiver module; ‘Read File’ button is used to specify
the application file; ‘Start Sending’ button controls the start of code update pro-
cess. User can complete the whole process of code updates, just follow the screen
prompts Click the four buttons. Code update process firstly downloads bootloader
to SRAM of microcontroller according to BAM protocol, since the bootloader is a
fixed file, so the host software will automatically get the file path; users only need
to specify the application file path.
456 T. Tan et al.
Fig. 5 Interface of host-side software
Sending and receiving procedures of CAN message are provided in the appli-
cation routine of the USB-CAN adapter, simply call these functions in the prep-
aration of software can achieve sending and receiving CAN message. It is
noteworthy that the dynamic link library file (ControlCAN.dll and USBCAN.dll)
must be contained in software folder; otherwise the error will be occurred [8]. The
main function uses a timer interrupt mechanism: program turns on the timer after
the execution of each movement (such as initializing instructions), timer time
length depends on the specific tasks; Interrupts are generated after the timer out,
relevant variables in the interrupt service routine, and then call the relevant
function to perform the next task. To ensure the real-time nature of the software,
the task update interval is set to 1 ms. In addition, the software also includes the
s-record file reading function, CAN sending and receiving functions, ASCII to
HEX function, progress tracking displaying functions, communication handshak-
ing function, not described in detail here [9].
5 Conclusions
This chapter discusses the implementation method of CAN bus-based Bootloader

with Freescale’s 32-bit microcontroller MPC5634M, the methods are equally
applicable to other microcontroller with BAM module. The entrance of Bootloader
is controlled through an external switch connected to the microcontroller’s
BOOTCFG pin. The host firstly downloads the bootloader program to the
microcontroller’s SRAM with serial boot mode of BAM. After the bootloader
running, the host communicates with VCU through the custom handshake protocol
to achieve the goals of download of application code in S-record format. Under
this method, bootloader code itself does not take space of flash, eliminating the
need to do any modifications to the underlying configuration of the application,
while also saving monolithic integrated circuit flash storage resources; because
BAM module is a microcontroller comes with a driver module, even if the brush to
write down and other failures will not affect the next application update. The
Bootloader has been successfully applied to the VCU code update, the operation
results show that: it is easy to operate and operating stably, effectively overcome
the tedious demolition process of application update with site download tools and
improve the efficiency of research and development of VCU.
References
1. Yan Z, Kejin B (2011) Design and implementation of BootLoader of vehicle control unit.
Comput Eng 37(12):232–235
2. Chu L, Feng L (2010) Implementation and application of the CAN Bootloader based on
freescale’s microcontroller. J Suzhou University (Engineer in Science Edition) 30(2):57–61
3. Freescale Semiconductor (2011) MPC563XMRM: MPC563XM Microcontroller Reference
Manual [DB/OL]. http://www.freescale.com/webapp/sps/site/prod_summary.jsp?code=MPC
563xM
4. Freescale Semiconductor (2008) AN2831: MPC5500 Boot Assist Module [DB/OL]. http://
cachefreescale.com/files/32bit/doc/app_note/AN2831.pdf?fsrch=1&sr=1
5. Aiyun Z, Xiaoming Z, Chen Y (2010) Development and implementation of Bootloader of the
diesel engine electronic control unit. Modern Veh Power 140:17–19
6. Wikipedia. SREC (file format) [DB/OL]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SREC_(file_format)
7. Freescale Semiconductor (2010) Standard Software Driver for C90LC Flash in xPC56xx [DB/
O L]. http://cache.freescale.com/files/soft_dev_tools/software/device_drivers/MPC56XX_v
8. ZhiYuan Electronics Co., Ltd (2007) USBCAN Data Handbook V2.0 [DB/OL]. http://
www.embedcontrol.com/products/PCI/USBCAN/USBCAN.pdf
9. Yongguo Y (2007) Visual C++ 6.0 practical course, 2nd edn. Tsinghua University Press,
Beijing
Automated Code Generation
for Development of Electric Vehicle
Controller
Peng Geng, Minggao Ouyang, Jianqiu Li and Liangfei Xu
Abstract Code generation for Simulink model is widely used in the development
of vehicle controller. In traditional way, only the code of vehicle control model can
be generated automatically by Real-Time Workshop. So programmers have to
handwrite code for peripheral device drivers. The objective of this study was to
develop a custom driver blocksets to support I/O devices on high performance
32-bit MPC5644A microcontroller. Furthermore, to fulfill modeling, code gener-
ation, compilation and downloading all accomplished ‘‘at the touch of a button’’.
This method is used and tested in the development of electric vehicle controller,
which saves time and money greatly.

Keywords Automated code generation Embedded target Matlab/Simulink

MPC5644A Electric vehicle controller
1 Introduction
In order to save time and cost, software engineers always focus on the length of
code but do not pay attention to the correctness, which makes code difficult to
maintain and transplant. Moreover, most software projects are completed in
collaboration. If programmers handwrite code separately and combine them
together at last, it is almost impossible to put into application directly because of
F2012-D03-019
P. Geng (&) M. Ouyang J. Li L. Xu

State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University,
Beijing, China
e-mail: gengp10@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
460 P. Geng et al.
all kinds of handwritten errors. Matlab/Simulink is a powerful tool which is widely

used in the ‘‘V-Model’’ development of Vehicle Control Unit (VCU). ‘‘V-Model’’
includes function design, Rapid Control Prototyping (RCP), code generation for
embedded target, Hardware-In-the-Loop Simulation (HILS) and test/calibration.
Thanks to the powerful functions in modelling, simulating and analyzing, Matlab/
Simulink becomes a basic tool in modelling the VCU algorithm as well as in code
generation. Although this ‘‘half’’ automated code generation method unifies code
style and increases efficiency, it still has weaknesses. In the development of VCU,
code generation includes model algorithm code and microchip driver code. The
later needs to be done through handwriting for the reason that Matlab/Simulink
provides very limited toolboxes which only include Motorola MPC555, Infineon
C166, TI’s C2000, C5000 and C6000 [1]. To solve the problem, Microchip
develops RCP toolbox, which supports dsPIC33 Controller [2]. D.Hercog develops
a self-made, DSP-based RCP system, which is used for motor control [3].
S.Rebeschiess launches an embedded toolbox, named ‘‘MIRCOS’’, for graphical
programming of 16-bit processor 80C166 [4]. R.Duma presents a RCP toolbox for
Renesas M32C87 microcontroller [5], and C.RUSU invented a toolbox for F24X
DSK Digital system in the purpose of education and industrial application [6].
R.Bartosinski gives a method of integrating Processor Expert Tool to Matlab
environment [7]. Luo devotes himself to the method of Real Time Workshop
(RTW) and developing a custom embedded target—MC9S08DZ60 [8].
This paper firstly introduces a method of developing device drivers for
embedded target—32-bit MPC5644A, using Matlab Real-Time Workshop
Embedded Coder (RTWEC). Then it applies this method to the development of
electric vehicle controller, focus on vehicle control algorithm, real-time scheduler
and generated code analysis. Verification and conclusion is given at last.
2 Developing Embedded Targets
2.1 Real-Time Workshop Embedded Coder
As a powerful tool of Matlab/Simulink, RTWEC is able to convert graphic model

into high level language code, which frees software engineers from all kinds of
datasheets and redundant handwriting code. Besides, this compact and fast code is
very important for MCU used in production and real-time embedded systems.
With RTWEC, Simulink model is translated into an intermediate RTW file first,
which contains all the model-specific information used in code generation. Target
Language Compiler (TLC) generates code according to this file using system
control files, block target files and so on. Though RTWEC increases efficiency
greatly, limitations exist. First, Matlab only supports several embedded target
platforms such as MPC5xx series. In addition, these toolboxs can only realize
simple hardware functions which hardly satisfy users’ need. So, it is necessary to
develop custom embedded target.
Automated Code Generation 461
Fig. 1 Automated C code

generation platform for
MPC5644A
Figure 1 introduces how to develop an embedded target MPC5644A used in

next-generation fuel cell vehicle control. Building a custom MPC5644A driver
library is the first step, using the method mentioned later. This library provides an
easy-to-use graphical user interface for device driver in the Simulink environment.
Then, RTWEC can generate high quality code according to vehicle control model
automatically. This method also integrates RTWEC with cross-development
environments—CodeWarrior IDE which makes code generation, compilation and
downloading all seamlessly accomplished ‘‘at the touch of a button’’.
2.2 Developing Target Directory Structure
Baseline target files include system target files, template make files, target block
library files, target block files and so on. These target files are readable and easy to
understand so the developer can customize the target for application needs. Initial
tasks in developing an embedded target are creating a series of organized directories
in Matlab path, and locating required target files in specific directories, see Fig. 2.
2.3 Modifying System Control Files
System control files includes system target files (STF), template make files (TMF),
hook files and so on. STF controls the presentation of target to end user. Developer
462 P. Geng et al.
Fig. 2 MPC5644A directory structure
Fig. 3 STF mpc5644a.tlc in system target file browser
can modify this file to display custom target information in the STF browser.
Moreover, STF also provides the main entry point to the top-level TLC, the definition
of target-specific code generation, inheriting options from another target, and so on.
‘‘mpc5644a.tlc’’ is an ERT-based STF created for processor MPC5644A, see Fig. 3.
Hook file can customize building process and invoke target-specific actions at
specified points. In order to compile, link, download the generated code automati-
cally, hook file needs to interface with development tool. Take MPC5644A for
example, solutions are given to support the complete build process which interfaces
with the Freescale CodeWarrior IDE. To implement this function, developer should
create an eXtensible Markup Language (XML) file, which indicates CodeWarrior
project to add the generated source/header files. Build process automation depends
Fig. 4 Dialog box for eQADC driver block
on Matlab COM automation functions. A series of CodeWarrior API functions such

as ‘‘CreateCWComObject’’, ‘‘OpenCW’’, ‘‘OpenMCP’’, and ‘‘BuildCW’’ are
invoked in hook file, after the code generation process is completed. Then Code-
warrior starts automatically, compiles and downloads the code into controller
through BDM. This example helps developers to deal with similar interfacing
problems with particular integrated development environment.
2.4 Developing Device Drivers for Embedded Target
To create device drivers for MPC5644A, a C MEX S-function is built primarily for
use in simulation, and a driver TLC is created for use in code generation. C MEX S-
Function is a C code file that implements specific functions, such as ‘‘mdlInitializ-
eSizes’’, ‘‘mdlOutputs’’, ‘‘mdlRTW’’, to initialize driver block structure, validate
block parameter data input by end users and pass these data to rtw file. Command
‘‘mex’’ is used to build a MEX-file from custom driver source code and designer can
add icons, dialog boxes, initialization commands to an S-Function block by masking
it, see Fig. 4.
Driver TLC is used to create hardware support files including header files,
macro definitions and driver code libraries. For example, the purpose of the ‘‘start’’
function in eQADC driver TLC ‘‘eqadc.tlc’’ is to generate code that initializes 32-
bit control registers of MPC5644A Analog-to-Digital driver; while the ‘‘output’’
464 P. Geng et al.
function generates code that repeats the ‘‘convert’’ operations for all selected AD
channels. Code related to hardware drivers are all generated to a source file named
‘‘MPC5644A_drivers.c’’
3 Simulink Fixed Point and Custom Storage Classes
3.1 Writing Fixed-Point S-Functions
Within microprocessor like MPC5644A, numbers are represented as either floating-

point or fixed-point data types. Floating-point data types contain three parts: sign bit,
fraction field, and exponent field; while fixed-point numbers are characterized by
word size in bits and binary point, whether signed or unsigned. If a MCU support
fixed-point, it always means the chip size can be smaller with less power con-
sumption. Furthermore, fixed-point calculation needs less time, memory and cost
compared with floating-point. So, when write C S-functions, how to support fixed-
point data types is an inevitable question.
User-written S-functions supports many kinds of fixed-point data types, such as
‘‘sfix16_En13’’, ‘‘ufix32_En11’’, and ‘‘sfix35_S3_B4’’, provided that ‘‘fixed-
point.h’’ and ‘‘fixedpoint.c’’ have been included at appropriate places in the S-
function. Each data type used in S-function has a unique data type ID, which pro-
grammers use to get and set information about data types. The assignment of data
type IDs follow ‘‘first come first served’’ rules. To set fixed-point data types,
developer should register a data type first using data type registration functions. And
then use the returned data type ID for input and output ports, run-time parameters.
3.2 Creating and Using Custom Storage Classes
Storage classes are widely used in the code generation process. They decide how
signals, parameters are declared and stored in generated files. There are four built-
in types that can satisfy users demand most of the time. For example, storage class
‘‘Auto’’ put all data into one single structure while ‘‘ExportedGlobal’’ variables are
declared and stored in unstructured way.
In the development of embedded system, programmers often need flexible
control over the representation of data. Thus, custom storage classes (CSC) are
provided as complement of built-in storage class to control the structure of gen-
erated data. Another advantage is that developer can create and edit memory
section definition using CSC.
Before creating CSC, a data object package should be built to support CSC
definition using data class designer, see Fig. 5. CSC designer is a tool for creating
and managing custom storage classes and memory sections. Developer can choose
Fig. 5 Data class designer
either inheriting properties from existing CSC or creating a new CSC. The former
choice configure CSC designer step by step, while the later choice requires
knowledge of TLC programming. To make it east, template TLC files are provided
to help developer writing custom TLC file for CSC. After having created the TLC
file, register this file CSC designer and apply CSCs to parameters and signals, so it
can generate data structures as the TLC file describes.
4 Code Analysis and Verification
4.1 Designing Real-Time Scheduler
Matlab code generation structure can be divided into three main parts—core
algorithm, hardware support and real-time scheduler. The core algorithm is
composed of self-carried Simulink blocks and TLC controls how to translate user’s
configuration into core algorithm code. Hardware support works in the similar way
but using custom GUI blocks and TLC files. Having developed driver blocks in
Simulink library, designer can build vehicle control algorithm and configure
peripheral device drivers all in one model without any handwritten work. The
middle block in Fig. 6 is a subsystem describing electric vehicle controller core
algorithm and the sideward blocks consist of MPC5644A CAN, AD, I/O blocks.
The eQADC blocks are used to collect analog signals, such as accelerator pedal
position, brake pedal position. I/O blocks gather digital signals like gear state,
warning level and so on. The CAN Receive block receives can messages from
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) controller, battery controller, motor controller. These
data are calculated in vehicle control algorithm and new control commands are
sent back to each controller through CAN Transmit block. Time Trigger Controller
Area Network (TTCAN) protocol plays an important role in this distributed
466 P. Geng et al.
Fig. 6 Model of electric vehicle control unit
communication network. TTCAN improves real-time and accuracy, but the design
of the network are always complicated projects, let alone automated code gener-
ation process.
In the application of electric vehicle controller, in order to guarantee TTCAN
transmission delay less than 100 ls, two Periodic Interrupt Timer (PIT) channels
are used in this model to fulfil this scheduling mechanism. The PIT with lower
priority is attached to model’s base sample time step function ‘‘rt_OneStep’’. ADs
or other drivers’ sample times are integral multiple of base sample time so they run
at each sub-rate. To do this, a function called ‘‘rate_scheduler’’ is created to
compute which sub-rates should run during the next base time step. Sub-rates are
an integer multiple of the base rate counter. Therefore, the subtask counter is reset
when it reaches its limit and subtask starts running. Sample time offsets are
handled by priming the counter with the appropriate non-zero value in the model’s
initialization function. For example, the electric vehicle algorithm here is executed
every 0.01 s, eQADC channel one samples every 0.04 s, and eQADC channel two
samples every 0.08 s after 0.3 s time delay. The PIT with higher is assigned to
CAN transmission blocks. It can interrupt model algorithm to transmit CAN
messages at once which guarantee network real-time. In this model, three mes-
sages ‘‘VCU_C_1’’, ‘‘VCU_D_1’’, ‘‘VCU_S_1’’ are transmitted at different rates
following TTCAN protocol, with transmission delay less than 10 ls.
Fig. 7 Model of electric vehicle control unit
4.2 Analyzing Generated Code
Click ‘‘generate code’’ button, RTWEC transforms electric vehicle model into
intermediate rtw file first and then generates several source files. [Model].c file is
closely related to the control algorithm and hardware drivers. Every segment code
is related to a block and controlled by block TLC. This modularity characteristic
makes the code easy to read and modify. In Simulink model, blocks are connected
through signal lines. Each block has input and output ports, so there are corre-
sponding block I/O variables’ definitions in the generated code. A local block I/O
variable can be an input to one block but an output to next block following the
signal line. Initialization function in this file initializes what the model needs at the
beginning and hardware registers as well. Step functions describe electric vehicle
control algorithm block by block and are generated according to block sample
times. Besides, there are special functions such as interpolation function because
this model supports fixed-point operation. [Model]_main.c file contains model
main function called ‘‘rt_OneStep’’. This key function runs base rate task and then
call ‘‘rate scheduler’’ function to judge which step function should be executed.
Generally, step zero function is attached to base rate sample time, while block
TLCs generate code into other step functions if their sample times are integral
multiple of base rate. Rate scheduler function is called by PIT interrupt every base
sample time to decide which sub-rate task should run. [Model]_data.c file is used
to store all blocks signals and parameters. How these data declared and stored are
controlled by custom storage classes mentioned above. MPC5644A_drivers.c file
includes hardware related functions such as ‘‘AD_convert’’, ‘‘CAN_transmit’’,
‘‘CAN_receive’’.
468 P. Geng et al.
5 Conclusion
This paper presents a technical route to develop an embedded target—MPC5644A

and use it in the development of electric vehicle controller, see Fig. 7. Automated
code generation frees programmers from handwriting driver code and lets them
focus on the design of vehicle control algorithm. Experimental results show that
the R&D time and cost can be drastically reduced. Besides, automated generated
codes are easy to maintain and transplant, but the memory space it takes is a little
bit bigger. The fuel economy and the vehicle dynamic performance of electric
vehicle are kept in the similar level compared to traditional methods because the
control algorithm does not change.
Acknowledgments Supported by the NSFC (National Natural Science Foundation) of China

under the contract of No. 61004075, the MOST (Ministry of Science and Technology) of China
under the contract of No. 2010DFA72760 and No. 2011AA11A269, and the Tsinghua University
Initiative Scientific Research Program (Grand No. 2010THZ08) is greatly acknowledged.
References
1. The Mathworks, Inc., Supported hardware, http://www.mathworks.org

2. Microchip Technology, Inc., MATLAB device blocks for MATLAB IDE, http://
www.microchip.com
3. Hercog D, Curkovic M, Jezernik K (2006) DSP based rapid control prototyping systems for
engineering education and research. In: Proceedings of IEEE international symposium on
computer aided control systems design, Munich, Germany
4. Rebeschiess S (1999) MIRCOS—microcontroller-based real time control system toolbox for
use with Matlab/Simulink. In: Proceedings of IEEE international symposium on computer
aided control system design, pp 267–272
5. Duma R, Petreus D, Sita VI, Dobra P, Rusu A (2010) Rapid control prototyping toolbox for
Renesas M32C87 microcontroller. In: Proceedings of IEEE international symposium on
automation quality and testing robotics (AQTR), pp 1–6
6. Rusu C, Radulesvu M, Balan H (2007) Embedded toolbox for F24X DSK. International
Aegean conference on electrical machines and power electronics, Aegean, Greek, pp 556–559
7. Bartosinski R, Hanzalek Z, Struzka P, Waszniowski L (2007) Integrated environment for
embedded control systems design. In: Proceedings of IEEE international symposium on
parallel and distributed processing (IPDPS), pp 1–8
8. Feng L, Zhihui H (2010) Embedded C code generation and embedded target development
based on RTW-EC. In: Proceedings of IEEE international symposium on computer science
and information technology (ICCSIT), vol 5, pp 532–536
Research on the Development Process
for the ECU Control Software of Vehicle
Powertrain
Xiaoyan Dai, Changlu Zhao, Ying Huang, Huan Li and Gang Li
Abstract The research and development status and the facing problems for
Powertrain ECU control software are analyzed in this chapter. By the study of the
characteristics of today’s mainstream software development process, a suitable
software development process has been proposed which fits the specific charac-
teristics of powertrain ECU control software. In this process, model-driven
development method, off-line simulation, rapid control prototype and hardware in
the loop simulation are integrated. The various stages in the process, the
requirements of software documentation and related activities are described in
details. And the chapter is also discussed the characteristics of this process from
the point of view: to improve controllability, maintainability and quality of soft-
ware products during the process of research and development.

Keywords Software development process Model-driven development Rapid

control prototype Off-line simulation Hardware in the loop
1 Introduction
Today, automotive application software becomes more and more complicated.

With the continuously improved requirements about product quality, safety and
the expansion of the system scale, the automotive software development is facing a
F2012-D03-020
X. Dai (&) C. Zhao Y. Huang H. Li G. Li

Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
e-mail: fionadxy@yahoo.com.cn
470 X. Dai et al.
Fig. 1 Traditional software

development process
Requirement Verification
Analysis test
System Design System test
Detailed Integrated
Design test
Code program Unit test
V-Model
huge challenge [1]. On one hand, more and more stringent requirements requires
less development time and lower cost for automotive electronics product. And due
to continuing advances in hardware technology, the electronic hardware life cycle
must be shortened; the standardization of software architecture has become an
inevitable trend. On the other hand, the function of automotive electronic control,
task management and the system scale is expanded and complicated. How to easily
integrate more features in an automotive system and the requirements of software
reusability and portability becomes an important issue faced by automotive
enterprises. The traditional software development methods are not suitable to meet
development needs any longer. To adopt a new system design methodology and
development process is an urgent need due to the above problem. This needs a
study on today’s powertrain ECU control software features, using software engi-
neering as a guide, to explore the software development process for the specific
application requirements.
2 Backgrounds
2.1 Traditional Software Development Method
Traditional automotive software usually adopts ‘V’ model development method,

shown in Fig. 1. The left side of the ‘V’-process is software analysis and design;
this can be called ‘implementation process’, the right side is a test and validation
process against the left side to determine whether it meets the needs of users [2].
Research on the Development Process 471
Most of the tools in the ‘V’-process lack of model reusability and compatibility
and can not achieve the results of the various stages automatically generated and
used in the next stage [3]. It constrains the efficiency of software development.
Meanwhile, the process lacks of feedback mechanism in the early stages of
development, making the error or change in the early stages identified only at last.
This has a serious impact on the quality and development efficiency of embedded
software, increases the software development cycle, cost and reduces the available
maintenance.
2.2 AUTOSAR Software Development Methodology
AUTOSAR [3] standard is a summary of the international advanced development

of automotive industry and proposes open, standardized software architecture for
the development of automotive electronics. Based on the standard, automotive
application software has good portability and scalability, and can achieve the reuse
of existing software effectively. It is conducive to the exchange and updating of
software. Using this standard can standardize interface characteristics in ECU with
different structures, reduce the software development cycle effectively, and
improve software quality. In recent years, it is gradually popularized in the
automotive industry. And a number of research results have been acquired.
AUTOSAR defines a methodology [4] for the automotive electronics software
development process, shown in Fig. 2. The first stage is the system configuration
phase: obtain the input of software components description, ECU resource
description and system constraints description, and then generate the system
configuration description file. The second stage is the ECU configuration: extract
each ECU system configuration description information from the system config-
uration description file, then configure ECU. Finally, according to the ECU con-
figuration description file the basic software configuration and integration with
application software components based on AUTOSAR has been completed, and
ultimately the executable code of the ECU has been generated. In order to achieve
optimal results, this process may take several iterations.
In recent years, model-driven development (MDD) [5] has been commonly
used in software development, mainly to solve the consistency problem of the
requirements and code, and can identify and solve problems at an early stage.
MDD has been widely used in the field of aerospace. Automotive electronics, such
as aerospace, belongs to the complex systems. The introduction of MDD in the
development process will be the trend of development in the future. In this chapter,
the method of MDD, ‘V’ model software development methods and AUTOSAR
software development methodology have been combined together and a new
software development process suitable for powertrain has been proposed.
472 X. Dai et al.
Fig. 2 AUTOSAR software

development process
3 The Software Development Process of Vehicle

Powertrain ECU
3.1 The Overview of the Development Process
Based on the characteristics of the powertrain ECU software, referred to the tra-
ditional software development method and AUTOSAR software development
process and combined with model-driven development approach and system
engineering theory [6], a new software development process has been proposed, as
shown in Fig. 3.This process rises software development to the level of system
development.
3.2 Details of Software Development Process
1. System requirements analysis and goals setting

In the new development process, requirements are described as models in the
form of use case diagrams, which represent the function that the powertrain ECU
control software should implement. As shown in Fig. 4, it includes several func-
tions, such as: acquisition, output drive and communication. The acquainted data
has been transmitted into the database, the operating modes judgment, calculation,
System requirements System test and

Acceptance
analysis and goals setting
check
Calibration
Logical structure analysis (Off-
line simulation)
System test
Physical structure definition
Integration of
System system
development
Software
Software requirements
development
analysis
Integration of software and
Establishment of application hardware ,test(HIL)
software architecture and
application software components Integration of
components and test
Design, implementation of
application Software
components(Rapid prototyping) Application software
components test
Design, implementation
of basic software Basic software
components components test
Fig. 3 The software development process of Vehicle powertrain ECU
communication and diagnosis use case reads the data from database and writes
new data to database, while actuator driver use case reads data from database and
drive the actuator. The software requirements specification document, UML use
case diagram can be formed at this stage.
2. System logical structure analysis and system physical structure definition
Widely used in the system logical structure analysis process is the gradually
decomposition of the system functions, which not only determine the system
components but also their interfaces and functionality. System logical structure is a
detailed definition of function network, functional interface and communication
between various functions in the entire powertrain system. The system logical
structure is the basis of the system’s physical structure. System logical structural
analysis and functional simulation has been implemented by object modeling via
offline simulation. And the result was supported by series of theory and methods of
interdisciplinary engineering. System physical structure includes the definition of
all the functions and sub-functions, which is also called as the software require-
ments, to assign different functions to different ECU. Documentation of system
function, class diagram, relationship of class diagram can be formed at this stage.
In series of cars, engine and drive system are often reused as different powertrain
system, which can be distinguished according to the program and data versions. The
474 X. Dai et al.
Other
systems
Pedal Communiation bus H

S A
pedal
O R
Other signals State DATA CAN F D
speed MAP Speed T W
judgement
Cam, Crank processing W A
Correction
sensor Engine Initial A R
parameters
status parameters R E
Fuel Fuel Target E
Fuel Basic Fuel correction
Quantity Timing Target Drivers Actuator
Basic Timing Intake system
Calculation control Intake Control
Accessory Other
signal Coolant Sensors’ Intake air Intake air
temperature signals temperature, temperature,
pressure pressure sensor
Coolant Other
Accessories sensor sensors
Fig. 4 Logic structure of ECU
Data Output Status

Calculation Diagnosis Control Communication Database
acquisition driver Judgment
Fig. 5 Software architecture
reuse of components is better than any other decomposition by functions. The same
components can be assigned to different ECU by different program version, such as:
for the powertrain control programs, gear box control software component can be
placed on the same ECU with engine control software component, or can be used
alone in another ECU and communication with other ECU via the bus.
3. Software requirements analysis
Design the detailed use case model and analyze the software requirements. The
use case diagram and software requirements specification will be formed at this
stage.
4. Establishment of the application software architecture and application software
components
Software components’ interfaces and properties, the operation mode and status of
the software is important to determine the software architecture. Referred to the
AUTOSAR standard, the software component description and software layers have
been formed, and software components have been detailed defined. The detailed
software architecture diagrams, class diagrams, and evaluation comment documents
should be formed at this stage. The control software of powertrain has been divided
into 8 software components, shown in Fig. 5: calculation, data acquisition, output
driver, communication, status judgment, database, fault diagnosis, control.
Fig. 6 Class diagram Data Acqusition

+ name
+ sample time
+ initial ()
+ read ()
+ write ()
5. The design, implementation and test of software components

The software component design phase is divided into the application software
design and the basic software design. For the application software, the software
components data, dynamic and real-time model had been implemented in detail.
And code has been generated automatically. For the basic software, drivers and the
operating system have been programmed. Rapid control prototype is used to verify
the application software in this stage. Software component model (class diagram,
state diagram, sequence diagram, activity diagram, component diagram), the code,
software version, software debugging report, error log should be formed at this
stage.
Take data acquisition component for example, this chapter gives out it’s class
diagram and sequence diagram (Figs. 6, 7).
For status judgment component, detailed state diagram has been given out,
shown in Fig. 8.
6. Integration of software components and software test
Once the software components have been developed and passed the test, all
components can be integrated into a software system for the final integration
testing. Test includes the interface specification or variable name check, as well as
memory allocation scheme which belonging to the static test. In this stage, the final
version of the software, data version, production and service description file and
the test report should be formed.
7. System integration and system test
After the testing of software components, software should be integrated with
the hardware as ECU. Then the ECU and other electronic components integrated,
such as set point generator, sensors and actuators. In the next, the interaction of all
system equipment should be tested. System test use the hardware in the loop
simulation tools to evaluate the behavior of ECU functions. In this stage, the
program version, data version should be updated and the review report should be
formed.
8. Calibration
The calibration of the ECU software functions always means the calibration of
the parameters which are eigenvalues, characteristic curves and the characteristic
diagrams. And these parameters have been set by calibration tools. The final
version of the data, calibration records should be formed in this stage.
476 X. Dai et al.
Hardware:ADC
Data Aqusition component Software: ADC driver
ADC configuration,enable
Finish configuration,enable
AD convert
Notification to begin the conversion
Query conversion state

{}
converting
Finish converting
Query conversion state
Finish converting
Fig. 7 Sequence diagram
Speed > A certain value

Start Idle
Start failure or
ignition switch
ignition off
switch Serious fault or ignition switch off
on
Pedal < Aim
Stop Normal
Serious fault or ignition switch off
Power on Power off
Close
Fig. 8 State diagram of status judgment component
9. System test and acceptance check

Finally, according to the system logical architecture, the system test and
acceptance check could be launched. The system test and acceptance report can be
formed in this stage.
Configuration, Import
design of
component
UML MODEL
UML MODEL
in Rhapsody Simulink
MODEL
Fig. 9 The process of model transmission from UML to Simulink
In the software development process, varieties of software development doc-

uments and models have been formed, which improve the progress of work and
product quality; ensure the controllability, sustainability and maintainability of
software.
4 Applications
Based on this development process, the ECU control system for a unit pump diesel
engine has been developed. The software component interfaces, ports, and data types
are configured in the UML model by using Rhapsody. Then the UML model has been
designed in Rhapsody according to AUTOSAR standard and automatically gener-
ated to arxml flie (XML language file) and can be imported into Simulink [7, 8] to
generate a skeleton model automatically. The whole process is shown in Fig. 9.
The skeleton model is shown in Fig. 10. The model contains the input, output
interfaces of the software components. This figure shows the structure of inject
timing control component, which is a part of the control component. The com-
ponent requires engine speed, fuel quantity calculated by calculation component as
input. The injection timing can be obtained through the detailed internal behavior.
The next step is to model the internal behavior in Simulink, refereed to the
requirements model and the dynamic models in UML, shown in Fig. 11. The
function of the injection timing model is to look up basic injection timing in a map
by using calculated fuel injection quantity (Fuelquantity) and the engine speed
(EngineSpeed). There is a certain delay angel (DelayAngle) between the fuel
supply signal is giving out and the injection is beginning. Therefore, the final fuel
supply advanced angle equals basic fuel inject timing add delay angle.
Other application software components of the whole ECU can be obtained by
using the same development process, shown in Fig. 12.
Due to the limitations of time and transmission tools, the model transformation
process is only carried out at a preliminary stage. The automatically conversion of
whole ECU software system structure and the internal specific behavioral models
will be realized in the future.
478 X. Dai et al.
Fig. 10 Skelton model of

inject timing control
component
Fuelquantity_Fuelquantity
Fig. 11 Internal behavior of

inject timing control
component
Fig. 12 Application software components in Simulink

Fig. 13 RCP and HIL
Fig. 14 Real-time
monitoring interface
Off-line simulation for verification the correctness of the full-range speed

governor control has been developed for powertrain ECU. The rapid control
prototype for unit pump diesel engine has been designed and directly connected to
HIL simulation system using the diesel mean value engine model through signal
interfaces, shown in Fig. 13.
Diesel engine mean value model was downloaded to the hardware platform and
monitoring interface was built by using ControlDesk. Figure 14 shows ECU
control software monitor interface, which includes diagram of the engine speed, air
charge pressure, air charge temperature, fuel injection timing, injection angle, the
circulating fuel quantity, the actual speed and the target speed. The dynamic
control process was shown by adjusting pedal and the PID parameters. Red curve
in the curve window in Fig. 14 represents the target speed, the green curve
represents the actual speed when drag the pedal bar (shown in the rectangle) to
change pedal continuously. The result shows that the actual speed followed the
target speed in timely.
480 X. Dai et al.
5 Conclusion
Based on the model-driven development method, traditional software development

method and rapid control prototyping technology, a new software development
process for powertrain has been proposed in this paper. Using this process, soft-
ware functions and software architecture can be verified in the early stage by
simulation and experiment through HIL. Complied with the AUTOSAR standard,
this process can improve system flexibility, configurability, code reusability and
the efficiency of the powertrain ECU development.
References
1. Broy M (2006) Challenges in automotive software engineering. In: Keynote, Proceedings of

the 28th international conference on software engineering (ICSE 2006), ACM Press
2. Schöuffeld J, Zurawka T (2005) Automotive software engineering principles, processes,
methods, and tools
3. AUTOSAR Partnership (2008) Technical overview V2.2.1 R3.0 Rev 0001. http://www.
autosar.org/
4. AUTOSAR Partnership (2008) AUTOSAR methodology V1.2.1 R3.0 Rev0001. http://www.
autosar.org/
5. Model Driven Solutions and Data Access Techonologies, Model Driven Architectrue. http://
www.modeldriven.com/MDA.shtml,2010
6. Broy M (2005) Automotive software and systems engineering (IEEE 2005)
7. Sandmann G, Thompson R (2008) Development of AUTOSAR software components within
model-based design. SAE 2008-01-0383
8. MathWorks, Key products for developing AUTOSAR applications, http://www.mathworks.cn/
automotive/standards/autosar.html
MCON: Automation Tool for MATLAB
Modeling Development Based on V-Model
Mingshi Xie and Wanrong Wang
Abstract The develop method of combining modeling together with the V-model
process has been the main stream of automotive electronics software development
internationally. This method is more effective and better for the complicated software.
In the practice of modeling development based on V–model process, for some non-
logic design process, such as the drawing offramework model, the connection to upper
layer, the build of simulation environment and integrating the model code will occupy
a lot of working hours. All these steps seem discrete but they are interdependent and
interact to each other. Analysis shows that the variable and software architecture are
the main thread running through the entire modeling process. So a unified database is
established to manage the main thread, and more, a tool named MCON is developed
for modeling process automation. Practice has proved that the MCON can improve
development efficiency a lot, and it can fully support the modeling process automation.

Keywords Matlab Modeling V-Model Automation MCON Model Framework
1 Introduction
With the rapid development of automotive electronics technology, more and more
advanced electronics technology and high-performance electronics systems are
applied to vehicles. The software development of automotive electronics
F2012-D03-021
M. Xie W. Wang (&)

Pan Asia Technical Automotive Center Co. Ltd, Shanghai, China
e-mail: fengg_zou@patac.com.cn
482 M. Xie and W. Wang
Requirements Acceptance Acceptance

Analysis Test Design Testing
System System System

Design Test Design Testing
Architecture Integration Integration

Module Uint Unit

Coding
Fig. 1 V-model software lifecycle
components is becoming more complicated rapidly. The traditional waterfall

software lifecycle model, and manual coding approach has been unable to meet the
development needs of the modern automotive electronics software quality and
efficiency. As a result, V-model and object-oriented modeling method are intro-
duced and they are becoming the mainstream method of the automotive electronics
software development internationally [1–5].
As the V-model showed in Fig. 1, design phase and the testing phase is asso-
ciated in parallel. This parallel has a lot of advantages such as rapid development,
quality issues found in advance, low cost of reworking and so on.
As the main tool for object-oriented modeling, Matlab also has a powerful data
analysis capability, ample and powerful simulation testing environment, multi-
langue support for code generation advantage. Above advantages gives the strong
support for the implementation of the V-model development procedure, especially
for following phases: architecture design, module development, coding integra-
tion, unit testing, integration test.
The combination of V-model and Matlab modeling will bring software engineer
a lot of benefit without doubt. However, in the exact process of development,
software engineering are found to spend many efforts on drawing the framework of
the model, parameter configuration, connection and models integration etc. jobs,
besides necessary software architecture design and logic development. And these
activities are occupying a large proportion of the working hours during the
modeling process. The analysis of these activities seems discrete but they are
MCON: Automation Tool for MATLAB Modeling 483
interdependent and interactive essentially. So, the possibility of developing a tool

for extraction and use of common core elements in the modeling process, and for
automate modeling is considered. Based on this goal, MCON is created. This tool
manages a core of common elements by the establishment of a unified database for
variables and software architecture. So, this tool can connect different phase of
V-Model and it also has the automatic test function. The use of MCON can
increase the modeling efficiency obviously in practice.
2 MCON Solution
2.1 Modeling Scope and Basic Concept
The automotive electronics embedded software is divided into three lays in Autosar:
application, the runtime environment and basic layer for software. In practice,
Matlab modeling is mainly adopted for Application layer development. As to phases
of V-model, architecture design, unit development, code integration, unit testing and
integration test are mainly implemented by Matlab.
SW-C: In AUTOSAR, application layer of software is consisted of SW-Cs
(software-components), and SW-C is the smallest software module unit.
SW-C Model: model for SW-C.
Subsystem: Function group of specific category in a system, such as body control
functions can be classified as exterior lighting, interior lighting, door locking etc.
subsystems. Each subsystem application is formed by a number of the SW-Cs.
Subsystem Model: Models created for subsystem.
Framework of Model: Model with architecture and interface info, but not
contains detailed logic and algorithm.
2.2 Establishment of the Model Database
In specific practicing process, the main task of modeling process (see Fig. 2)
contains designing and monitoring the behavior change of the variable in envi-
ronment. Variables in each stage are organized based on the architecture design,
for example in the Module Design stage, the modeling and the synthesis of SW-Cs
is based on the software architecture. In some sense, it can be said that the
modeling process is to complete organizing and monitoring the variables in
accordance with the architecture design. Variables and architecture design are the
common elements and main thread of the modeling process. If the architecture
design and variables can be managed in accordance with certain rules, with the
help of the tool chain, the discrete modeling steps can be automatically connected
with each other by this main thread. The establishment of model framework,
Architecture Create And Manage Integration

Design Database Testing
Generate Framework
Of Simulation Model
Module Unit
Design Testing
Generate Framework
Of Model
Coding
Configure Model And

Generate Model API
Note: V-Model Development Phase
Matlab Modeling Activities
Fig. 2 Matlab modeling process and the corresponding modeling activity
model synthesis, and test environment setup can be completed automatically. In

specific implementation, the establishment of database is in the architecture design
phase. The task of this database is to manage the architecture design and variable
attributes. The SW-Cs that define and use the variable as well as the division of
SW-Cs should be explicit in the database.
2.3 Implementation Plan
The building of MCON is based on the database analysis and the entire modeling
process. Figure 2 shows Matlab modeling process and the corresponding modeling
activity. The specific implementation plan of the modeling process will be intro-
duced step-by-step bellow:
1. Architecture Design stage: database creation and management. MCON creates
a unified database template. Programmers fill in each SW-C according to the
template (i.e. the variable information and SW-C scheduling approach). SW-Cs
are synthesized and create some information that contains: Subsystem path,
which SW-C defines the variable, which SW-Cs use the variable, etc.
According to the information above, MCON could analyze and summarize the
synthesized model of SW-Cs, the related information of Subsystem Model, and
the variable interface information which is used by model when automatically
generating the codes.
2. Module Design stage: creating and executing the matlab M Scripts, MCON can
generate SW-Cs Model framework and SW-Cs synthesized model or the
Subsystem Model framework on the basis of database information.
3. Unit Testing stage: base on the database information and matlab M script,
MCON builds the white box test simulation model automatically for the SW-Cs
Model, synthesized model or Subsystem Model which is built in Module
Design stage. The simulation environment is need to contain the corresponding
input and output variable controls, and some common testing programs which
are summed up through modeling practice.
4. Integration Testing stage: on the basis of database information and matlab, for
each Subsystem Model, MCON automatically builds dSPACE simulation test
model. It is need to set up the corresponding input and output variables for the
simulation environment. It can also introduce some common testing programs
which are summed up through modeling practice, and configure the model in
accordance with the dSPACE requirements.
5. Coding stage: on the basis of database information and matlab, MCON con-
figures the SW-C model or Subsystem Model to generate application code for
embedded code integration. It mainly uses the variable interface information of
the database to configure the variable interface of SW-C model automatically,
and set the model configuration. After this, compiling the model would gen-
erate the embedded code. Furthermore, through reading the variable attributes
of the database and variables information in SW-Cs, MCON supports to gen-
erate the RTE layer software automatically for code integration. Model API can
be generated with the interface of AutoSar or using manufacturer’s custom
method.
3 MCON Realization
MCON realizes standardization management of the database tables, automatic

generation of the model framework and the simulation environment. It also real-
izes the automatic model testing.
MCON uses EXCEL VBA to develop the main program, and makes use of the
Matlab M file to access the model objects. Moreover, the EXCEL is used as the
human machine interface.
The realization of the MCON is listed below:
3.1 Standardization Management of the Database Tables
MCON can automatically create the standard EXCEL template of SW-C. The
programmer fills in the corresponding SW-C and variable attributes in the template
sheet. The information to which subsystem or upper layer model the SW-C belong
Fig. 3 The completed SW-C sheet
should be also filled in. Figure 3 shows the completed SW-C sheet. Each SW-C
corresponds to a unique sheet. This sheet constitutes the core element of the
database. Then MCON does a series of operation to input the data information
during the whole modeling process.
Through analyzing each SW-C Sheet filled by the programmer, the MCON
integrates them into a data information set of the subsystem. It generates a sub-
system called Global Signal Sheet, a subsystem called Calibration Sheet and the
related.m Model Attachment, such as the *.m file contains the calibration variable
and the *.m file defines the enumerated variables, for compiling and simulation in
each modeling stage.
Besides, according to the variable attributes of SW-C sheet filled by the pro-
grammer, MCON could generate the variable interface information for the SW-C
Sheet automatically to support the variable port configuration during Matlab
Model Coding Generating. The variable interface information includes Storage
Class, Get Function(Function name corresponds to variable read), and Set Func-
tion (Function name corresponds to variable write). The variable interface infor-
mation can be generated with the interface of AutoSar or using manufacturer’s
custom method.
3.2 Model Framework and Simulation Environment Generation
The following content states how to generate the framework of model. Firstly, it
needs to establish the Model Template Document and finish the Matlab M Script
Document. Model Template is the prototype, and further target framework of
model is generated based on modification of this prototype.
With the database information, MCON could call the Model Template and
Matlab script to generate the calibration variable model, SW-Cs model framework
and subsystem model framework in the module design phase. It would also
Fig. 4 The generation process from the framework of SW-C model to framework of simulation
model
generate framework of packaged subsystem model, and framework of simulation

model for the unit testing as well as the integration testing. The variable attributes
and related configuration have been set. User just needs to use the State Flow
interface of the SW-C model framework to do the logic algorithm development.
The simulation environment model framework consists of testing controls and the
common testing program. This feature not only saves lots of manual operation, but
also provides a good foundation for the automatic testing. Figure 4 shows the
generation process from the framework of SW-C model to framework of simu-
lation model.
3.3 Automatic Testing
MCON supports automatic testing for the unit testing:

The ‘‘Framework of Simulation Model for Unit Testing’’ is generated automati-
cally. It contains an input control called ‘‘Signal Builder’’ and an output control
called ‘‘Scope’’ (see Fig. 5). With the tools of MCON, the signal line of ‘‘Signal
Builder’’ can be exported to *.MAT file, the output of ‘‘Scope’’ can also be exported
to *.MAT file. Besides, MCON supports to import the *.MAT file into ‘‘Signal
Builder’’. Thus, the signals of ‘‘Signal Builder’’ can be exchanged among multiple
Simulation Models. The output data can also be imported into ‘‘Signal Builder’’ as
the input data. It makes inputting testing signals easier. ‘‘Signal Builder’’ is selected
as the testing interface, because of its graphic user interface and its characteristics
that it can save the test case signals which is based on the time axis.
Besides, MCON realizes automatic comparison between the new and old
testing results (or between the new testing results and the expected testing results):
MCON can read both the new and old testing results from the.MAT file and show
them in the same graphical interface, see Fig. 6. Through calibrating the tolerance
range, it could also determine the correctness of the testing results, then generate
the testing report in HTML format.
Fig. 5 The I/O testing control introduced by MCON
The previous contents introduced that MCON uses Signal Builder to save the
Test Case signal. Then it presents that the MCON can determine the testing results
automatically. These contents constitute a complete automatic testing process.
Moreover, if filling in the test case in EXCEL with a certain format, MCON could
import the test case signals into the Matlab Signal Builder, and compare the testing
result with the expected value of test case. Then it determines the correctness, and
generates the testing report.
3.4 Model Configuration for Coding Generating
MCON supports to configure the model for codes generation: After the model
attributes and I/O attributes being configured by MCON, the model can be easily
compiled to generate the embedded codes. The variable interface information
automatically generated by the database should be used in setting the I/O
attributes.
3.5 Integration Model
Based on the analysis of the variables and software architecture in database,

MCON supports to generate the RTE layer software automatically for integration.
Thus saves lots of works for manual coding and the code is generated according to
the unified standard form.
Fig. 6 Comparison between

new and old testing results
The application of MCON makes the machine operation to replace a large

number of manual operation, and greatly improves the efficiency of modeling. If a
subsystem applies the full manual operation to build a Matlab simulation envi-
ronment by Module Design, Coding, Uint Testing and Integration Test, it usually
needs four weeks. However, Using MCON to assist in the development can save
about one week. As well as improving the efficiency of modeling, MCON also
helps to improve standardization of models and the modeling process.
4 Conclusion and Prospect
MCON tools have been formally put into use for more than one year, and have
completed modeling works for several projects. Facts have proved that: it effec-
tively supports V-model process. It improves the modeling efficiency, reliability
and team cooperation. Nowadays the Matlab model development is popular. And
this MCON thought does have a better popularization significance.
References
1. Li X-l, Liu H (2006) Software test analysis of the V model and the CMMI model. Comput Eng
Sci 12:107–109
2. XIAO L, XIE J (2006) On the testing method with automated tools based on V-model.
J Chongqing Inst Technol 08:83–86
3. Qiu B, Zuo W, Wang F (2011) Research of automotive electronic control system based on
Simulink/RTW. Comput Meas Control 2011(05): 1086–1088
4. Li Y, Zhao P (2009) Software’s development theory and model by stages. J Weifang

Educational College 4:85–86
5. Wang y-x, Qi X-j, Zhang J-z, SUN Y-t (2012) Development on automobile ABS controller
based on dSPACE. J Heilongjiang Inst Technol 2012(01): 28–31
A Model-Based Design for Electronic
Control Unit of Electric Motorcycle
Sung-Suk Jnug, Jin-Ho Kim and Jea-Wook Jeon
Abstract A model-based design for the electronic control unit of an electric

motorcycle is proposed. In recent years, in-vehicle systems have been distributed,
and embedded software for controlling these systems has been steadily increasing in
complexity and size [1]. Furthermore, because environmental pollution regulations
have become stricter, research on green cars like HEV(Hybrid Electronic Vehicle) or
EV(Electric Vehicle) are progressed actively in the automotive field. For these
reasons, it is essential to prepare for the increased use of electric motorcycles by
analyzing HW(Hardware) or SW(Software) platforms applied to vehicles, and
developing appropriate integrated ECUs (Electric Control Units) for electric
motorcycles. We have developed a system using MBD(Model-Based Design) in
MATLAB/Simulink on an integrated ECU. Each function is designed as graphic
blocks. Developers can easily design systems using modeling. Eventually, pre-
verification will be achieved through rapid prototyping and simulation, which will
have a decisive effect on reducing the time and cost of development.

Keywords Model-based design Electric motorcycle ECU (electronic control

unit) SW (software) platform HW (hardware) platform keyword
F2012-D03-022
S.-S. Jnug (&) J.-H. Kim J.-W. Jeon

School of Information and Communication Engineering,
Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea
e-mail: sungsuk4847@gmail.com
492 S.-S. Jnug et al.
1 Introduction
In the face of environment crisis and the exhaustion of natural resources, various
benefits and charge infrastructures are being forged for the growing supply of
electric motorcycles based on support by governments in various countries.
Electric motorcycles receive much attention as typical green transportation, and
appropriate electronic control techniques are necessary for high performance and
high reliability and for controlling the various electronic systems in such as
motors, batteries, etc. [2]. For these reasons, in a previous paper, we designed a
HW and SW platform and developed an integrated ECU for performance evalu-
ation through efficient and methodical development and simulation motorcycles.
The importance of embedded software is magnified due to increased use of
sensors, actuators and electronic control devices in motorcycles [3]. It is necessary
to have an easy way to check for errors and to recover systems using diagnosis and
network management functions. Opportunities for improving performance, safety,
and maintenance through the use of sophisticated, on-board, software-based
electronic controls can be provided by MBD in the automotive field [4].
We developed basic software using MBD. If a new system is developed for
commercial purposes, various applications can be designed readily using the
software. Consequentially, significant time and cost is saved because we can
implement, pre-verify and test several times before a whole system is developed
completely.
Figure 1 show the role of integrated ECU. The Integrated ECU applies to
monitoring system, simulation, BMS(batter management system) and motor
control and so on.
2 Platforms for Electronic Control Units
2.1 SW Platform
The SW platform for motorcycles is designed using the above SW modules. If a

developed SW platform is applied to motorcycle development, it development
time and cost can be reduced due to outstanding portability and reusability such as
OSEK and AUTOSAR [5, 6].
Figure 2 shows that a SW platform for electric motorcycle consists of five
layers: the device driver, abstraction, firmware, library and application.
• Device driver
– Various interfaces for Digital IO, analog IO, communication channel and
motor control
– This section connects directly to HW structure
A Model-Based Design for Electronic Control Unit of Electric Motorcycle 493
Fig. 1 Integrated development environment
Fig. 2 SW platform for

electric motorcycle
Table 1 Information for HW platform

MCU Infineon XC2000 family 144pin, 100pin
Serial 2 Ch RS-232
CAN 2 Ch CAN 2.0A/B
ADC 5 Ch 0*5V
DAC 4 Ch 0 * 10 V
PWM 4 Ch 0*5V
Digital Input 3 Ch 0*5V
3 Ch 0 * 10 V
Digital Output 3 Ch 0*5V
3 Ch 0 * 10 V
• Hardware abstraction layer

– Division between dependent and independent source code
– Connecting device driver layer and library layer
• Firmware based task management
– Real time multiprocessing
– Multitasking
– Task management based on interrupt and timer
• Library
– Proven library to connect application layer and low layer
– Application reuse based on standard
• Application
– Supporting Control algorithm and application program using library layer.
The SW platform developed for motorcycles connects high task management and
library layers with the low device driver layer. It is possible to reuse applications by
mapping the HW abstraction layer on the device driver layer [7, 8]. Firmware based
tasking management is done by the task-scheduling layer. As mentioned previously,
vehicles have quite a larger number of ECUs performing unique functions and SW
complexity. Therefore, tasks are managed by task priority. However, because
motorcycles have fewer ECUs and tasks than other vehicles, the system can be
controlled by using a multi-timer to manage tasks rather than task priority.
2.2 HW Platform
Table 1 and Fig. 3 show the overall HW platform composition [9, 10]. XC2265 N
was chosen as the most efficient MUC. RS-232 standardizes the interface con-
necting the DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and DCE (Data Communication
Equipment) that transmits serial binary data. RS-232 communication in this
Fig. 3 HW platform for electric motorcycle
embedded system plays a role in monitoring and debugging whether or not work is
complete for each function. CAN communication is the most frequently used for
in-vehicle network. It is expected to be faster and a more reliable proven network
than other networks, and is needed for the growing field of electronic devices in
electric motorcycles. All modules in this embedded system control the driving
section, which plays a role in generating driving force, use CAN communication to
transmit the data. Various sensors, including radar sensors, laser sensors, lidar
sensors, vision sensors, and ultrasonic sensors, pressure sensors, temperature
sensors and steering angle sensors will be used for smart vehicles in the near
future. The ADC/DAC module is designed for sensors applied to various appli-
cations for motorcycles. The ADC converts analog sensors output signals to digital
signals of 0*5 or 0*10 V using amplification and filters. The DAC is applied to
devices using an analog input signal, such as an audio system. The ADC/DAC in
this embedded system is used to control conductivity sensors, illuminance sensors,
speed sensors, etc. The Motor control module to control the motor of the driving
section in electric motorcycles is configured to PWM mode. PWM can control the
motor using pulse width and regular cycles. Finally, the Digital and Analog input/
output plays a role in the control of the motor, as well as switching, for various
applications which require 0*5 or 0*10 V, including brakes, lights, turning
signals, selecting mode, controlling hill hold valve and precharge relay, etc.
3 Model-Based Design
Figure 4 shows the general software development process applied to an embedded

system. The first step is requirement analysis. Next is the development of the
prototype for implementation and verification of whether or not the system
operates properly [11].
Fig. 4 Development process
MBD uses graphic blocks for software algorithms. It enables developers

without knowledge of the hardware to design, simulate, test and verify various
models. MBD can often be verified from the beginning step to the last step before
developing MBD completely. The errors and faults in the system are detected at
the beginning step. Auto-code generation can be used to reduce the amount of
errors since hand-coding is not needed, and time and cost to develop the system is
saved.
With Model-Based Design, engineers improve efficiency by [12]:
• Using a common design environment across among project teams
• Linking designs directly to requirements
• Integrating testing with design to continuously identify and correct errors
• Refining algorithms through multidomain simulation
• Automatically generating embedded software code and synthesizable HDL code
• Developing and reusing test suites
• Automatically generating documentation
• Reusing designs to deploy systems across multiple processors and hardware
targets.
Figure 5 shows that MBD processes the several steps in the yellow box at one
time. It is possible to integrate design, implementation and simulation simulta-
neously. For these reasons, the cost and time of development are saved, and the
probability of errors can be reduced [13].
MBD in vehicles is used in various fields, such as safety systems, powertrain
and body controls. MBD is even applied to the development of entertainment and
multimedia systems.
Recently, since it is complicated designing with standard software like AUTO-
SAR and OSEK OS, and embedded systems in the automotive field, developers that
design embedded systems implement functions using graphic blocks in MBD. It is
more readable and reusable system than manual programming. The graphical models
Fig. 5 V-Model
provide graphical results as well as simulation function that enable developers to be

understood readily. In addition, as the control logic comprises a combination of
graphical blocks, it is easy to understand the flow of the algorithm [14]. MBD can
generate auto-code and executable files that can be used in embedded systems
without any manual programming or modifications necessary [13].
4 Model-Based Design for Basic Software
After the system model is designed by MBD In MATLAB/Simulink, embedded

code can be generated automatically. The MATLAB/Simulink supports an auto-
code generator in Real-Time workshop [14]. The MATLAB/Simulink provides
support for the following MCUs used to design embedded systems to develop
functions easily.
• Freescale: MPC55xx, MPC74xx, MPC5xx
• Infineon: C166, TriCore
• Texas Instruments: C2000, C5000, C6000.
The developer can set one of the above MUCs as the target processor. Then,
embedded code and a built project are automatically generated. As mentioned,
because developers can automatically generate embedded code for prototyping
targets, implementation errors and target system inconsistencies may be avoided
[14, 15].
Fig. 6 Digital IO, communication device drivers
We developed integrated ECU with an Infineon XC2265 as the target system. In

order to compile auto-code generated automatically, the target compiler is set to
TASKING Classic through IDE Link Target Preferences. Then, because MAT-
LAB/Simulink does not support the XC22xx family, we have to configure an
appropriate driver for XC2265. We designed various function models related to
general purpose platform using MATLAB/Simulink.
We designed these blocks for Digital IO, serial communication, and CAN
communication in Fig. 6. The CAN is based on the communication protocol in this
system. Since it is necessary to analyse CAN messages, the graphic blocks of
CAN pack and CAN unpack were designed. The blocks of CAN Transmit and
CAN Receive are for CAN communication. The blocks of ASC Transmit and ASC
Receive are for RS-232 serial communication. The blocks of Digital In and Digital
Out are designed for various modules in the integrated ECU. Because the XC2200
family is not supported in the Real-Time Workshop Embedded Coder, XC2265
Resource Configuration was designed for target configuration. Thus, a developer
can build a system with graphic blocks by designing the modules comprising an
integrated ECU for electric motorcycles without hand-coding.
Figure 7 is an example model using the developed graphic blocks. The example
model consists of three tasks. The first is the CAN communication control model.
The second task is serial communication. This task prints out ‘‘Hello World’’ to a
serial communication terminal. The last task controls LEDs using Digital Out
block.
5 Experiment
The Embedded system for electric motorcycles is developed in Fig. 8. Two layers
were designed because the MCU can be changed variously depending on electric
motorcycle models. The high layer is for MCU platform. And the low layer
Fig. 7 Example modeling
Fig. 8 The experiment configuration

supports IO, communication interface, ADC/DAC, etc. This embedded system can
reuse proven IO, communication interface through mapping between high layer
and low layer.
Figure 8 shows an experiment configuration. The model was designed using
developed graphic blocks in MATLAB/Simulink. The embedded code is generated
automatically by building designed model. Since MATLAB/Simulink is inter-
locked with TASKING Classic, the generated embedded code can be ascertained
in TASKING compiler. The auto-code is compiled for making an executable file
by TASKING compiler. The executable file is downloaded to the integrated ECU.
We use an example model in Fig. 7. We checked digital out signal using LEDs in
the integrated ECU. The CAN communication was checked by the Kvaser canking
tool that monitors CAN messages and we checked ‘‘Hello world’’ on serial
communication by the terminal program.
6 Conclusion
The various functionalities in an electric motorcycle can be optimized quickly by

controlling the ECU with various methods. Program errors will be reduced using
model-based programming. And it enables to implement and verify the system
without hardware. For these reasons, if we develop the new model using MBD, it
is expected to save development time and cost [16].
Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Ministry of Knowledge Economy and the
Korea Institute for Advancement in Technology through the A Development of High Efficiency
Electric Motorcycle and Construction of Integrated Development Environment.
References
1. Sung-Suk J (2012) Design and implementation of HW/SW platform for electric motorcycle.
Industrial technology (ICIT), IEEE international conference on March 2012, pp 760–765
2. Suk-Hyun S, Jin-Ho K, Sungho H, Key Ho K, Jae Wook J (2009) A model-based design for
electronic control units based on OSEK/VDX. Industrial electronics, ISIE 2009. IEEE
international symposium on July 2009, pp 681–685
3. Tom E, Michael B, Michael C, Wensi J (2008) Applying model-based design to commercial
vehicle electronics systems. The MathWorks, Inc
4. Smith PF, Prabhu SM, Friedman J (2007) Best practices for establishing a model-based
design culture. The MathWorks, Inc
5. The MathWorks, Inc. [Online] Available: http://www.mathworks.com
6. Oh WH, Lee JH, Kwon HG, Yoon HJ (2005) Model-based development of automotive
embedded systems: a case of continuously variable transmission (CVT). Embedded and real-
time computing systems and applications. Proceedings of the 11th IEEE international
conference on, pp 201–204
7. Sangiovanni-vincentelli A (2003) Electronic-system design in the automobile industry. Micro
IEEE 23(3):8–18
8. Simonds C (2003) Software for the next-generation automobile. IT professional 5(6):7–11

9. Ping X, Peicheng S (2011) Research on the driving system of hybrid electric motorcycle.
Electric information and control engineering (ICEICE), International conference on April
2011, pp 2532–2536
10. XC2000 Brochure XC226xN Data Sheet, XC228x Data sheet, Infineon, Infineon
Technologies AG [Online] Available: http://www.infineon.com
11. OSEK/VDX [Online] Available: http://portal.osek-vdx.org
12. AUTOSAR, AUTomotive Open System Architecture, [Online] Available: http://www.
autosar.org
13. Erkkinen T (2007) Automatic code generation—technology adoption lessons learned from
commercial vehicle case studies. The MathWorks, Inc
14. Vijayagopal R, Shidore N, Halbach S, Michaels L, Rousseau A (2010) Automated model
based design process to evaluate advanced component technologies. SAE International
15. Di Natale M (2008) Design and development of component-based embedded systems for
automotive applications. Reliable software technologies lecture notes in computer science,
pp 15–29
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Model Based Nonlinear Controller Design
for Fuel Rail System of GDI Engine
Pengyuan Sun, Baiyu Xin, H. Chen and J. Li
Abstract The precise control of rail pressure in GDI engines is an important

issue. To reduce the workload of calibration and enhance the robustness in auto-
motive product development process, a model-based controller design method is
presented in this paper. A control-oriented fuel rail system nonlinear dynamics
model, involving the high pressure pump, the fuel rail and the injectors, is
established. The backstepping technique is used to derive a nonlinear rail pressure
controller for the simplified model. The simulation results with MATLAB/Simu-
link demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control scheme, and control
precise and response satisfy the design requirements.

Keywords GDI engine Fuel rail high pressure control Backstepping algorithm
1 Introduction
The gasoline direct injection (GDI) technology has been widely used in the
internal combustion engine to meet the increased environmental requirements and
demands on decreased fuel consumption. The unique working mode of GDI engine
that the fuel injection happens in the cylinder directly, determines its economy and
emissions [1]. The fuel injection system based on the Fuel Rail architecture is a
F2012-D03-026
P. Sun (&) J. Li
China FAW Co., Ltd R&D Center, Mainland, China
B. Xin H. Chen
Jilin University, Changchun, China
504 P. Sun et al.
key device in GDI engine. The stable rail pressure makes GDI engine easy to
control precisely the fuel injection. So the fuel rail pressure control becomes one of
main tasks in GDI engine.
Many research studies have been carried out on the rail pressure control topic. For
instance, a model reference adaptive control algorithm based on a common rail (CR)
mean value model is proposed to reduce the residual pressure in the rail [2], and the
results are satisfactory. The author of the paper [3] proposed an injection pressure
regulation to stabilize the fuel pressure in the CR fuel line. The experimental results
with the closed loop performance confirm the effectiveness of the control algorithm
in the mean value rail pressure model. In the paper [4], the author identifies the
second-order CR system model through the experiments data, and a CR pressure
robust controller is designed and analyzed under the QFT control theory. A feed-
forward based fuzzy PID controller is developed for the CR pressure control in the
paper [5]. In the paper [6], a CR fuel system is modeled by system identification
theory, and the model validation is then carried out with experimental data. A rule
modelling method is provided for the diesel engine, and a slide controller is derived
for the rail pressure control [7]. However, the choice of the sliding surface depends on
experience, and there are some differences between GDI engine and diesel engine in
the fuel system. GDI engine works with unique features.
In the automotive product development process, model-based controller design
methods have been widely accepted to reduce the workload in engineering cali-
bration and improve the control performance. In this paper, a mathematical model
of fuel rail system based on the structure of GDI engine is established. There are
some nonlinear characteristics in the model. A nonlinear rail pressure controller is
derived by backstepping technology with the simple model. The simulation results
with Simulink validate the controller performances.
The paper is organized as follows. The math model of the GDI engine fuel rail
system is briefly described in Sect. 2, including the general description of the fuel
rail system’s operational principle. And a nonlinear controller is derived by
backstepping technology in detail in Sect. 3. Then simulation results are presented
to validate the backstepping controller performances in Sect. 4. Section 5 gives the
conclusions.
2 The Math Model of the Fuel Rail System
As one of the most important parts in GDI engine fuel system, the fuel rail
system’s structure and characteristics make the injection pressure up to 150*200
bar. The pressure is independent of the engine speed to ensure a good spray
atomization in a low engine speed. The basic structure of the GDI fuel rail system
includes a pressure control valve, a high pressure pump, a fuel rail, the injectors, a
rail pressure sensor and the Electronic Control Unit (ECU). Take CA4GA1T1
engine, made by FAW, as an instance, the structure diagram of the GDI fuel
system is shown in Fig. 1.
Model Based Nonlinear Controller Design 505
Fuel rail Rail pressure sensor
High pressure pump

High pressure injectors
Fuel pump
Fuel tank
ECU
Fig. 1 The diagram of the fuel rail system
The low pressure pump generates about 3*5 kg/cm2 fuel pressure. The fuel flows
into the high pressure pump passed by the pressure control valve. The fuel pressure is
raised up to 50*120 kg/cm2 by the high pressure pump. The fuel rail is a fuel
container made by aluminum alloy to absorb the pulse of the high pressure fuel. The
injectors are connected with the rail and get a high injection pressure. The ECU gets
the real-time rail pressure from the rail pressure sensor as a feedback signal and sends
the order to the pressure control valve for rail pressure control. The other function of
the ECU is to issue the fuel injection pulse width commands for injection. The high
pressure pump, a pressure sensor, a pressure limiting valve and injectors are installed
next to the fuel rail. The pressure limiting valve prevents the fuel rail from the
damage by excessive pressure. The high pressure pump is lubricated by gasoline. The
outlet check valve of the high pressure pump ensures the system to work.
Considering compressibility of the fuel, the basic principle of modelling is
shown in the following expression [7].
dp dp
Kf ¼ ¼ ð1Þ
dv=v dq=q
where Kf is the bulk modulus of elasticity defined as the relationship between the
density and pressure, q is the fuel density, p is the pressure of the fuel and the
volume is defined as v.
The relationship between the volume change and the pressure change can be got
from Eq. (1),
dp Kf dv
¼ ð2Þ
dt v dt
506 P. Sun et al.
Fig. 2 The principle of the high pressure pump in GDI engine
And
dv dvm
¼ qin þ qout ð3Þ
dt dt
Where dv=v takes into account the intake and the outtake flows qin and qout ; and
the volume changes dvm =dt due to the motion of mechanical parts. According to
the energy conservation law, the fuel flows can be calculated as the following
expression.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2jdpj
q ¼ sgnðdpÞ cd A0 ð4Þ
q
Where A0 is the interested orifice section, cd is discharge coefficient defined as the

ratio of actual and ideal flows, which is decided by the shape of the cross section.
dp is the pressure difference of the cross section on both sides.
Based on the above principle, the mathematical model of the GDI fuel rail
system is established. To achieve the goals that the model can catch the funda-
mental physical aspects and the model is simple enough for control, a control-
oriented model of a GDI fuel rail system is deduced.
2.1 The High Pump Model
There are many types of the high pump structure in fuel rail system. One of the
types is cam-driven structure. The principle is shown in Fig. 2.
The cam is driven by the crankshaft of the engine in normal operation. The
piston moves downward, when the cam moves to the pump bottom dead centre
from the pump top dead centre. Due to the pressure difference, the fuel flows into
the high pressure pump from its intake. As the check valve exists, there is no back-
flow at the outlet of the high pressure pump. The fuel flows to the fuel rail from the
high pump, when the pressure control valve keeps close and the cam runs to the
pump top dead centre from the pump bottom dead centre. On the contrary, the fuel
flows back to the low pressure circuit, if the pressure control valve is open. The
pumped fuel volume is controlled by the control valve at the inlet of the high
pressure pump.
The fuel flow pressure equation in the high pressure pump is shown as follows:

Kf ðpp Þ dvmp
p_ p ¼ þ qu qpr q0 ð5Þ
vp ðhÞ dt
Where qu is the volume flow at the inlet of the high pressure pump, qpr is the intake
volume flow of the fuel rail, and q0 is the leakage fuel. The fuel volume change
due to piston motion is dvmp =dt:
dvmp dhp dhp
¼ Ap ¼ Ap xrpm ð6Þ
dt dt dh
And qu and qpr can be written in the form:

2 Pt p p
qu ¼ sgnðPt pp Þ ctp ðU Atp Þ ð7Þ
q

2 pp pr
qpr ¼ sgnðpp pr Þ cpr Apr ð8Þ
q
where U is the state of the pressure control valve. U ¼ 0 when the valve is closed
contrarily, U ¼ 1 when the valve is open. ctp and cpr are the discharge coefficient
of the inlet of the high pressure pump and the discharge coefficient of the rail inlet
respectively. Atp and Apr are the interested orifice section of the high pressure
pump inlet and the interested orifice section of the rail inlet. Ignore the change of
the fuel density caused by the pump pressure variety. The pump pressure state can
be rewritten as Eq. (9), and vp ðhÞ ¼ Vp0 Ap hp ðhÞ:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Kf ðpp Þ dhp 2jPt pp j
p_ p ¼ vp ðhÞ ðAp xrpm dh sgnðPt pp Þ ctp ðU Atp Þ q
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð9Þ
2jpp pr j
sgnðpp pr Þ cpr Apr q q 0 Þ
508 P. Sun et al.
2.2 The Fuel Rail
In short, the fuel rail is a fuel container with a certain volume. As a storage
component, the main effect of the fuel rail is to make the hydraulic pressure
stability, reduce the pressure fluctuation, and hold the fuel pressure. The rail
pressure sensor and pressure limiting valve are beside the rail. To simplify the
model, the volume of fuel injected qri is considered as a disturbance known. Ignore
the tiny variety of the volume flow which is caused by pressure change. Then the
model of fuel rail can be written in the following form.
Kf ðpp Þ
p_ r ¼ ðqpr qri Þ ð10Þ
Vr
According Eq. (4), the rail model representation is
0 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
Kf ðpr Þ @ 2 p p p r

p_ r ¼ sgnðpp pr Þ cpr Apr qri A ð11Þ
Vr q
Where Vr is the volume of the fuel rail.
3 Design of a Backstepping Controller for the Fuel Rail

System
According to the structure and the operation principle of the GDI fuel rail system,
the block diagram of the rail pressure control is shown in Fig. 3. The reference rail
pressure, which is decided by the engine working condition, and the real-time rail
pressure are the inputs of the controller. The output of the controller affects the
GDI fuel rail injection system. The system model should be simplified in order to
design an appropriate control law. The injection quantity and the leakage of the
high pressure pump are considered as the disturbance with uncertainty, and
the impact of the fuel pressure on the volume bulk modulus is neglected here. Then
the system model is stated as Eq. (12).
8 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> 2jPt pp j
>
>
Kf dhp
p_ p ¼ vp ðhÞ ðAp xrpm dh þ sgnðPt pp Þ ctp ðu Atp Þ
>
> q
>
< r ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2jpp pr j
sgnðpp pr Þ cpr Apt q0 Þ ð12Þ
>
> q
>
> r ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> 2jpp pr j
>
: p_ ¼ Kf ðsgnðp p Þ A q Þ
r Vr p r pr pt q ri
Define x1 ¼ pp ; x2 ¼ pr and u ¼ qu : Taking the actual application into consid-

eration, the ECU can control the pump only when x1 [ x2 ; and when x1 x2 ; the
rail pressure will be reduced as engine runs. So the state-space representation is
Fig. 3 The block diagram of the rail pressure control in the fuel rail injection system
8 Kf dh pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
< x_ 1 ¼ vp ðhÞ ðAp xrpm dhp þ u a12 x1 x2 q0 Þ
ð13Þ
: K pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x_ 2 ¼ Vrf ða12 x1 x2 qri Þ
Where a11 and a12 are shown as

sffiffiffi sffiffiffi
2 2
a11 ¼ ctp Atp ; a12 ¼ cpr Apr ð14Þ
q q
Because there are coupling between x1 and x2 ; a new variable z is introduced as

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
z ¼ x1 x2 :
Then equations of state system can be written with the new variable z as
8 h i
< z_ ¼ 1 Kf A x dhp þ Kf u ðKf þ Kf Þ a z Kf q þ Kf q
2z vp ðhÞ p rpm dh vp ðhÞ Vr vp ðhÞ 12 vp ðhÞ 0 Vr ri
: x_ 2 ¼ Kf ða12 z qri Þ
Vr
ð15Þ
The whole system is divided into several sub-systems in backstepping tech-
nique. By building the state error, the virtual control input is designed for each
sub-system. The stability of the system is ensured by Lyapunov theory. The
derived process of the controller is simple. There are many success cases in the
aerospace and process control areas [8].
So the backstepping technique is used to derive the nonlinear controller with a
feed-forward controller for the problem stated earlier. According to the form of the
system state equation, the fuel rail tracking error variance e2 is defined to be
e2 ¼ x2 x2 :
Kf
e_ 2 ¼ x_ 2 x_ 2 ¼ x_ 2 ða12 z qri Þ ð16Þ
Vr
As the first Lyapunov function, V2 is defined as V2 ¼ 12 e22 : If the virtual control
z is selected as z ¼ KfVar 12 x_ 2 þ Kkf1aV12r x2 Kkf1aV12r x2 þ aq12ri ; and when z is equal to
z ; there is Eq. (17).
Kf
V_ 2 ¼ e2 ½_x2 ða12 z qri Þ ¼ k1 e22 0 ð17Þ
Vr
510 P. Sun et al.
And the system meets the Lyapunov stability condition. A new error variable e1
is selected as e1 ¼ z z. The error e1 is rewritten in the form:
Vr k 1 V r k 1 Vr qri
e1 ¼ x_ þ x x2 þ z ð18Þ
Kf a12 2 Kf a12 2 Kf a12 a12
The system Lyapunov function is selected as the form V1 ¼ 12 e21 þ 12 e22 ; and if
the derivative of V1 is negative, the fuel rail system is stable.

Kf Kf qri
V_ 1 ¼e1 e_ 1 þ e2 e_ 2 ¼ e2 x_ 2 a12 z þ þ e1 e_ 1
Vr Vr
ð19Þ
Kf a12
¼ k1 e2x þ e1 e2 þ e_ 1
Vr
K a
When the control law is selected as (20), the condition e1 ð fVr 12 e2 þ e_ 1 Þ ¼
k2 e21 is met, and there is an equation likes Eq. (21) to make the system stable.
vp ðhÞ Kf dhp Kf Kf
u¼ Kf ½ vp ðhÞ Ap xrpm dh Vr qri þ vp ðhÞ q0
K Kf K a
þðVrf þ vp ðhÞ Þ a12 z þ 2z fVr 12 ðx2 x2 Þ þ 2z KfVar 12 €x2
ð20Þ
þ2z Kkf1aV12r x_ 2 2z Kkf1aV12r x_ 2 þ 2z ðaq12ri Þ0
þ2z k2 ðKfVar 12 x_ 2 þ Kkf1aV12r x2 Kkf1aV12r x2 þ aq12ri zÞ
V_ 1 ¼ k1 e21 k2 e22 0 ð21Þ

In order to make the controller applied in the actual fuel rail system, the final
control law is collated as (22).
u ¼ AðzÞ þ Kp ðx2 x2 Þ þ Kd ð_x2 x_ 2 Þ ð22Þ
The parameters of PD feedback control law are Kp and Kd : AðzÞ is the feed-
forward.
dhp vp ðhÞ vp ðhÞ Vr
AðzÞ ¼ Ap xrpm þ q0 þ a12 z þ ða12 z qri Þ þ 2z 2 €pr
dh Vr Kf a12
ð23Þ

vp ðhÞ Kf a12 k1 k2 Vr
Kp ¼ 2z þ ð24Þ
Kf Vr Kf a12
vp ðhÞ ðk1 k2 Þ Vr
Kd ¼ 2z ð25Þ
Kf Kf a12
Considering the form of the system state equations, the dynamic fuel charac-
teristics of the high pressure pump and the rail are included in the feed-forward.
Table 1 The values table of the parameters in GDI fuel rail system
The volume of rail (m3) 65:824 106
2
The section of the inlet in high pressure pump (m ) 8:553 106 0:75
The section of the inlet in fuel rail (m2) 12:566 106 0:65
The section of the pump piston (m2) 78:5398 106
The max volume of high pressure pump (m3) 0:27 106
The leakage of the high pressure pump (m3/s) 0:0005
The pressure supplied by low pressure pump (bar) 5:7
Fig. 4 The block diagram of the close-loop fuel rail system with backstepping controller
4 The Controller Performances
To test the rail pressure, a fuel rail plant model is established with Simulink
software. And the parameters of the fuel rail system are shown in Table 1. With
the parameters, the Simulink model works well and can reflect the actual fuel rail
system characteristics to a certain extent.
Embed the backstepping rail pressure controller into Simulink system, as shown
in Fig. 4.
Two different operating conditions by using Simulink software are simulated to
test the control law.
4.1 Condition 1: Constant Pressure Tracking Test
Set the referenced rail pressure as 150 bar. The stable engine speed is 5000 rpm
The fuel injection pulse width is 2.2 ms, and 66°. The start angle of injection is
512 P. Sun et al.
Fig. 5 The simulation result for the constant pressure tracking test 1
Fig. 6 The simulation result for the constant pressure tracking test 2
270°and the density of the gasoline is 0.73 kg/L. The controller parameters are set
as k1 ¼ 5:1; k2 ¼ 3:03: Within the 0.5 s simulation, the rail pressure can be stable
at the set-point pressure by the control action. The results are shown in Figs. 5 and
6. The max error is less than 0.4 bar.
4.2 Condition 2: Sine Function Referenced Pressure Tracking

Test
To verify the dynamic tracking performance of the nonlinear controller, a sine

pressure tracking test is implemented. The signal sine has amplitude of 10, bias of
140 bar and frequency of 4.5 rad/s. In Figs. 7 and 8, the rail pressure is properly
taken close to the set-point with a small fluctuation. The max error is less than 2
Fig. 7 The simulation result for the sine function referenced pressure tracking test 1
Fig. 8 The simulation result for the sine function referenced pressure tracking test 2
bar. The backstepping controller is still able to maintain the rail pressure close to
the reference value.
From the results, the controller designed before has the performance to stabilize
the rail pressure. The real-time bench test will be implemented at the next step for
validating the controller real-time performance.
5 Conclusions
To meet the rail pressure control requirements in GDI fuel rail system, this paper
presents a mathematical model (in the control-oriented) of a fuel rail system for
GDI engine. The model is obtained by the main fluid dynamic. The parameters are
514 P. Sun et al.
obtained from the real geometrical data of a real GDI engine. Then the rail
pressure controller is derived by backstepping technology based on the simple
model. The controller performance is validated preliminarily by the simulation.
This method-based on model reduces the calibration work and the development
cost of ECU.
For the application of this nonlinear rail pressure controller, the fuel pressure in
high pressure pump is needed to be known. So an estimator for the pump pressure
may be the next work in the future. Then the hardware in loop experiment will be
finished for testing the on-line performances of the fuel rail controller with a real
GDI fuel rail test bench.
Acknowledgments Thank to the sustentation of the National Nature Science Foundation of

China and Program for Chang jiang Scholars and Innovative Research Team in University.
References
1. Myung C, Park S (2011) Exhaust nanoparticle emissions from internal combustion engines: a
review. Int J Automot Technol 13(1):9–22
2. Montanaro U, Gaeta A and Giglio V (2011) An MRAC approach for tracking and ripple
attenuation of the common rail pressure for GDI engines, preprints of the 18th IFAC world
congress, Milano, Italy, 28 Aug–2 Sept 2011
3. Corno M, Savaresi S, Scattolini R, Comignaghi E, Sofia M, Palma A and Sepe E (2008)
Modelling, parameter identification and dynamics analysis of a common rail injection system
for gasoline engines, proceedings of the 17th World Congress The International Federation of
Automatic Control, Seoul, Korea, 6–11 July 2008
4. Chatlatanagulchai W, Aroonsrisopon T and Wannatong K (2009) Robust common-rail
pressure control for a diesel-dual-fuel engine using qft-based controller. SAE paper 2009-01-
1799
5. Su H, Hao G, Li P, Luo X (2010) Feed forward fuzzy PID controller for common-rail pressure
control of diesel engine, proceedings of 2010 international conference on measuring
technology and mechatronics automation. Changsha, China, 13–14 March 2010
6. Gaeta A, Fiengo G, Palladino A and Giglio V (2011) Design and experimental validation of a
model-based injection pressure controller in a common rail system for GDI engine, 2011
American control conference on o’farrell street, San Francisco. CA, USA, 29 June–01 July
2011
7. Lino P, Maione B, Rizzo A (2007) Nonlinear modelling and control of a common rail injection
system for diesel engines. Appl Math Model 31:1770–1784
8. Khalil H (2007) Nonlinear systems, 3rd edn. House of Electronics Industry Press, pp 589–603
Research on OBD Performance of T-GDI
Engine
Song Yan, Pengyuan Sun and Tonghao Song
Abstract In order to fulfill requirement of Euro V regulation and meet the high
reliability and performance requirements, the On-board Diagnostics (OBD)
software architecture of turbo-charged GDI engine is redesigned, the analysis and
improvement of OBD reliability and performance based on software structure are
described in this chapter, the main factors have been taken into consideration.
Keywords GDI EURO V OBD
1 Introduction
According to the inspection of EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), above

60 % air pollution from passenger car was caused by the fault of the emission
control system. In recent years, many techniques have been applied to reduce the
pollutant emission. On-board Diagnostics technique had been introduced to
vehicle for this purpose in 1989 when the first OBD regulation released by CARB
(California Air Resources Board), and the similar legislation appeared in European
Union [1], which is called EOBD regulation. The Euro V stage, including EOBD
for SI-engine on passenger vehicles, separated into two sub-stages, named as EU5a
and EU5b, or as EU5 and EU5 plus, has been implemented since 2009 (Fig. 1).
F2012-D03-027
S. Yan (&) P. Sun T. Song

FAW R&D Center, Changchun, China
e-mail: yansong@rdc.faw.com.cn
516 S. Yan et al.
Fig. 1 Schedule of OBD implementing regulation
According to the clauses from EOBD regulation, all components or systems

which might lead emissions exceed the standard limits should be monitored, and
monitors should give some indications on finding any fault or deterioration of
components or systems. In addition to the illumination of the MIL, the faults
storage and a standardized environment datasets are required. All information
should be sent to an external scan-tool by a standardized communication protocol
and interface.
In recent years, the OBD software development has encountered challenges
because it is experiencing a continuous increase of functionality extent and
complexity. Today, in some high-end SI-engine based on Euro V regulation, the
OBD related executable software codes in engine control unit is above 40 %, and
the number of OBD calibration parameters exceed 15,000 because of the stricter
legislation and costs saving demand. The cost reduction is mainly focused on
minimized components cost. Take misfire detection strategy for example, it could
be done by using cylinder pressure sensors to measure the cylinder pressure, which
could be easier for the software implementation but higher cost because the cyl-
inder pressure sensors is so expensive. It could also be done by using engine speed
sensor to measure the fluctuation of engine speed, which could be more compli-
cated for the software implementation but much cheaper because the engine speed
sensor has already existed in system.
In order to fulfill the Euro V regulation and meet the high reliability and
performance requirements, the OBD software of a new passenger car with turbo-
charged GDI engine is redesigned.
There are some researches related with OBD performance topics. But they are
mainly focused on hardware design and test field. For example, in terms of
hardware design, smart driver ICs are used by various loads like injector, fuel
pump, O2 heater and lamps, and fed back diagnostic information to a micro chip
via SPI [1], it can detect power-stage fault much reliably and decrease main chip
load. In terms of test, to confirm the performance of the OBD system and to avoid
Research on OBD Performance of T-GDI Engine 517
any kind of misdetection in the OBD system, several field tests such as the fleet
test and the environmental test have been described in the chapter [3, 4], and from
the experimental results, it indicates that significant potential exists in the opti-
mization of the real-world OBD system performance [5].
2 Reliability and Performance Analysis
The Euro V EOBD is inherited from Euro IV, most of components and systems
monitors requirements are all similar except for some of special demands. For
example, catalyst NOx conversion monitoring strategy is needed for Euro V
EOBD.
The reliability mainly refers to regulation fulfillment and fault reports, and the
performance is mainly referring to efficiency of functions execution.
Some factors, except for cost, which affect the reliability and performance are
considered. In this chapter, the three factors are discussed, including optimization
of OBD system management, condition interlock and efficiency of function
execution.
2.1 Factor 1: Optimization of OBD System Management
In a short trip, some monitoring functions perhaps have no chance of execution,

and with software continuous increase of complexity, it is possible that some
functions would have no chance to run. It would not fulfill the regulation of Euro V
plus. So a dynamic priority of functions and in-use performance ratio (IUPR)
concept are introduced to solve the problem. The dynamic priority is conceived
from operation system. Scheduler can determine the status of a function depending
on the dynamic priority, and the status is comprised of sleep, ready, activated, and
etc. When a function is activated, it means the function has got the priority to run.
The IUPR is from EU5b stage regulation demand, it was legislated in Euro V plus,
and used to monitor the diagnostic frequency of functionality by drive cycles. The
dynamic priority is designed and is determined by the significance of the function
and its history of IUPR records. As a monitoring function running frequency is so
low in recent drive cycles that IUPR ratio value below a certain limit, the dynamic
priority of the function should be increased. It can assure that all monitoring
functions have chance to execute recently. All the work is implemented by
function scheduler to arrange the monitoring function execution order (Fig. 2).
518 S. Yan et al.
Monitoring function (1)
Scheduler
Monitoring function (2)
Monitoring function ...

IUPR kernel Dynamic priority handler
Monitoring function (n)
Fig. 2 Scheduling of monitoring function
Fig. 3 Example of
Lambda sensor Catalyst
derivative faults
Lambda sensor fault Catalyst aging
2.2 Factor 2: Condition Interlock
To ensure the correct implementation of the functionality and to avoid incorrect

results report, functions physical conditions are introduced, which are used to
prevent monitoring functions from running with error. Too strict conditions would
always lead monitoring functions to be locked, and too loose conditions may lead
to incorrectly execution on the contrary. Both cases are not reliable. From the
perspective of software development, the correct result is needed to be considered
based on legal demand. It means running under correct conditions should be
guaranteed from functionality consideration and should test the conditions under
the NEDC cycle provided by European emission regulation.
Beside the physical conditions, there is another important condition called ‘‘deriv-
ative faults’’. Figure 3 shows an example of the ‘‘derivative faults’’. The three-way
catalyst ageing monitoring strategies is based on dual lambda sensors (also called
oxygen sensors), they are located in front and rear of catalyst respectively. If no
consideration about ‘‘derivative faults’’ is taken, any defect of lambda sensors may lead
to a false report of the catalyst, so both faults of lambda sensor and catalyst would be
reported although catalyst has no fault actually. Therefore, the result should be regarded
as incredible. To solve the ‘‘derivative faults’’ problems, the primary fault and sec-
ondary fault are defined to distinguish the root cause of faults. In this case, the lambda
sensor fault is considered to be primary, while the catalyst fault is considered to be
secondary. If the primary fault is reported, the function to report the secondary fault will
be locked and no secondary fault will be reported.
A system B system C system
A system B system C system

fault fault fault
Fig. 4 Example of a more complexity of derivative faults
An even more complexity of ‘‘derivative faults’’ problem arises with cycles of

fault primary-secondary relations (Fig. 4). ‘‘A system’’ fault will cause ‘‘B sys-
tem’’ error, and ‘‘B system’’ error also can cause ‘‘A system’’ fault report. So both
faults are primary faults and can not be distinguished for each other. In this
example, the ‘‘C system’’ is secondary error to ‘‘B system’’, and its status will
distinguish the root cause fault: If ‘‘C system’’ has a fault, then ‘‘B system’’ is
validated to be the root cause but not ‘‘A system’’. Vice versa if ‘‘C system’’ has no
fault, ‘‘A system’’ is the root cause. There is a simple case constituted by front
lambda sensor, fuel trim system and rear lambda sensor respectively. The addi-
tional logic will make the diagnostic results more credible.
The existence of function lock is not only up to primary-secondary ‘‘derivative
fault’’ relationship, but also up to the cross-influence of the functions. An example
is introduced here in Fig. 5, the function which is pointed by a arrow will be
effected by the other function, which is on the other end of the arrow. There are
four monitoring functions around the lambda monitoring system. In case of rear
lambda sensor monitoring function is not running, the other three functions would
be affected. To prevent the influence, a test result is introduced. When a function is
executed completely, its test-over flag will be reported. The flag is reported not
only to other three functions which have influence on this function, but also to
standardized external communication interface, like scan-tool. Only when the rear
lambda sensor has been tested ok and test-over flag is reported, the other three
monitoring functions will have the permission to be activated. Otherwise, they will
be locked.
2.3 Factor 3: Efficiency of Function Execution
The efficiency here is not the code efficiency but the architecture of the program
emphasized in this chapter. All functions come from regulation requirements.
But when the functions are executed in CPU, the hardware load has to be taken
into consideration. Most of cases, one functionality is able to be separated into
several tasks to run in control unit (Fig. 6), and each task could be regarded as a
sub- functionality, while the function integrity does not be affected. They could be
running in deferent time slice on the the operating system. The basic principle of
separation is according to sample rates of the output variables.
520 S. Yan et al.
Front lambda sensor

catalyst monitoring
monitoring
Rear lambda sensor

fuel system monitoring
monitoring
Fig. 5 An example of cross-influence of the functions
Functionality
Task(1) Task(2) ...... Task(n)
Fig. 6 Relationship between functionality and tasks
The task could be carried out in a certain time interval repeatedly, for instance,
10, 50 ms, and etc., or every ignition interrupt event, which is similar to OSEK
operating system. In order to add the tasks into the operating system, it is nec-
essary to analyze the relationship among tasks and to test CPU load under the most
unfavorable case repeatedly. If a task could run in either 50 or 10 ms time interval,
the 50 ms period is preferred for chip load consideration. If the task could run in
either 10 ms time interval or ignition event, 10 ms period is preferred based on the
same consideration as above.
Although the separation could decrease the CPU load, there is still a disadvantage
that is the increasing of switch-over time between tasks as the number of tasks
growing, and sometimes the total switch-over time may be considerable. To reduce
the time increase, merging the tasks which have the same time interval is very useful.
Another issue around the functionality running efficiency is distinguishing
between inline and offline running mode. The off-line are generally referring to
non real-time running mode, like the functions activated by external tester request,
while the in-line referring to real-time running mode. Take the tooth error learning
function for example, the function is used to correct the crankshaft tooth wheel
error, the error may have a significant impact on misfire diagnosis especially when
the engine speed is too high. The tooth error learning function can running in either
on-line or off-line mode while it has little significant impact on reliability. When
the function is running in in-line mode, the tooth error learning function will run
every time the engine is under overrun fuel cut-off condition. If the off-line mode
is selected, the tooth error learning function will be activated only by the external
tester request when the engine is under overrun fuel cut-off condition. Generally
speaking, offline mode is priority to online mode from the viewpoint of efficiency,
but it is more reliable if the online mode is selected.
3 Conclusion
The main goals of the research are improving the reliability and performance of
OBD system to fulfill regulation of Euro V and meeting continuous increasing of
software complexity. To improve the reliability and performance of software, three
factors are taken care specially:
• Optimization of OBD system management
• Conditions interlock
• Efficiency of function execution.
Optimization of OBD system management has introduced the dynamic priority
and in-use performance ratio (IUPR) concept; they are used by OBD monitoring
function scheduler to improve OBD reliability and performance.
Conditions interlock is focused on ‘‘derivative faults’’ and the analysis of
functions cross-influence.
Efficiency of function execution contains the analysis of task divisions and the
differences between online function and offline function.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Jilin University who supplies engine test
bench to us for validating the functionalities.
References
1. Official Journal of the European Union (2007) Regulation (EC) no 715/2007 of the European
parliament and of the council[S]
2. Xie H, Hu C, Nenghui Z, Hao M (2006) A Micro-controller based control unit for motorcycle
engines to meet emission and OBD requirements[J]. SAE paper no. 2006-01-0402
3. Park S, Chung Y, Park J (1998) The OBD-II system in the hyundai accent[J]. SAE paper no.
982551
4. Unger A, Smith K (1993) The OBD-II system in the volvo 850 turbo[J]. SAE paper no. 932665
5. Tsinoglou DN, Samaras ZC (2009) Malfunctions in selected emissions-related components of
Euro 4 passenger cars: emissions increase and OBD system response[J]. SAE paper no. 2009-
01-0731
Part IV
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
Resonance Mechanism in Power
Electronic Products for Automobiles
and its Relationship to EMC Performance
Masato Izumichi
Abstract Research Objective. This chapter explains the resonance mechanism in

automotive power electronic products and how resonance affects EMC perfor-
mance. Power electronic products consist of a printed circuit board (PCB) and
some connecting parts, such as bus bars, all enclosed in a metal case. The PCB
pattern and connection parts have self-inductance (L). Stray capacitance (C) is
formed between the PCB and metal case. These L and C form an unintended
resonance circuit that lowers EMC performance. This chapter describes the res-
onance mechanism in motor controllers, and how it affects both immunity and
emission tests. Methodology. A product controlling motor rotation speed was
tested at 1–400 MHz based on bulk current injection (BCI) test standards. The
frequency at which the abnormality occurred and the motor rotation fluctuation
were recorded. Next, the resonance frequency was measured at the connector using
a network analyzer. Comparing the BCI test result with the measured resonance
frequency showed a relationship. Then, by measuring the magnetic field of the
PCB surface, the resonance location was identified. It was assumed that the PCB
pattern, bus bar, and metal case formed an unintended resonance circuit. There-
fore, we modified the PCB pattern shape to change the stray capacitance between
the PCB and case, confirming changes in the resonance frequency and BCI result.
Finally, a dumping resister was added to suppress the resonance and its effect was
confirmed. In addition to BCI, we investigated conducted emissions and confirmed
the relationship between resonance and emitted noise from a product. Results.
The investigated product was abnormal at 50–58 MHz on the BCI test, and the
measured resonance frequency matched at 56 MHz. Meanwhile, the resonance
F2012-D04-002
M. Izumichi (&)
Denso Corporation, Kariya, Japan
e-mail: MASATO_IZUMICHI@denso.co.jp
526 M. Izumichi
location measured magnetically was around the PCB ground pattern and bus bars.
The parts’ self-inductance was estimated at 70 nH. Similarly, the stray capacitance
between the PCB and case was estimated at 100 pF, indicating a resonance of
around 60 MHz. Supporting this was an unintended resonance circuit, which
affected the BCI result. By adding a dumping resister between the ground pattern
and case, the resonance was dissolved and the BCI abnormality disappeared.
In addition to BCI, we tested conducted emission using another product. Even
though the switching devices had no ringing waveform, a resonance of 120 MHz
was observed at the connector. This worsened the emission level. We improved the
emission level by adding a dumping resister. Conclusion: The self-inductance of
the pattern of PCB, bus bars and stray capacitance between the PCB and metal
case generates unintended resonance, creating a close relationship to the EMC test
results. In BCI, the ground impedance increased in resonance and caused insta-
bility in the products. With conducted emission, the harmonic noise from the
switching device was amplified by the resonance. As mentioned above, the
unintended resonance circuit lowers EMC performance. Diminishing the reso-
nance with a dumping resister improves the EMC performance of the products.
It is important to strive for a design that creates no resonance.
Keywords EMC Resonance BCI Conducted emission
1 Introduction
Several studies have shown that there is harness resonance in the bulk current
injection (BCI) method [1]. Some studies have analyzed the resonance relationship
between the parasitic capacitance of power supply line on the printed circuit board
(PCB) and equivalent series inductances (ESL) of decoupling capacitors [2].
However, little research has been done not only on the resonance caused by the
products’ structure but also on the influence of both immunity and emission tests.
This chapter shows the resonance mechanism in automotive power electronic
products and how resonance affects EMC performance, i.e. both immunity and
emission. The power electronic products consist of a (PCB) and some connecting
parts such as bus bars. These are enclosed in a metal case. The PCB pattern and
connecting parts have self-inductance (L). Stray capacitance (C) is formed
between the PCB and metal case. These L and C form an unintended resonance
circuit that lowers EMC performance. The present study is undertaken to clarify
the resonance mechanism using two motor controllers, and how it affects both
immunity and emission tests. This chapter has two sections. In the first section, we
discuss BCI as the immunity test, and in the second section we discuss the con-
ducted emissions (CE) test.
Resonance Mechanism in Power Electronic Products for Automobiles 527
Fig. 1 Structure of
investigated product for BCI
Bus-Bar
(Power Supply)
Screw
(GND)
Bus-Bar
(GND)
IC
PCB (Made of Ceramic) (Integrated Circuit)
Connector
Aluminum Base
Blushless Motor
2 Relationship: Between Resonance and Immunity Test (BCI)
2.1 Observation
2.1.1 Tested Product
A product that controls motor rotation speed was tested. Figure 1 shows the tested
products. The product is a three-phase inverter, consisting of a (PCB) and some
connecting parts such as bus bars. These are attached to a motor whose outer case
is made of metal (aluminum). On the PCB, are an integrated circuit (IC) and eight
power MOS devices. These control the motor rotation speed by PWM signals,
which are input from the connector.
2.1.2 BCI Test Method
The BCI test is standardized in ISO 11452-4 [3] and a substitution method was
used. Figure 2 shows the test setup for the BCI test. A 1 m long wiring harness
was set on the isolation block, which was set on a ground plane made of copper.
The product was connected to a control box through the wiring harness. The
control box, which simulated the ECU, generated PWM signals, which were
applied to the product.
528 M. Izumichi
Fig. 2 BCI test setup BCI Probe Tested

Battery Product
Control Box
Harness Length: 1m
Ground Plane
Injection Current : 200mA
Fig. 3 BCI test result Control Signal

for Motor
Hz Rotation (Hz)
50-58MHz
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200
MHz
The BCI injection probe was placed 150 mm from the product and all of the
wiring harness was routed inside of the probe. The RF current level, which was
injected to the wiring harness through the probe, was 200 mA. The test was
conducted at the frequency range of 1–400 MHz, and the frequency at which the
product abnormality was recorded (Fig. 3). Normally, the motor was rotated by the
100 Hz pulse signal from the product. However, the control signal stopped (went
down from 100 to 0 Hz) at 50–58 MHz, resulting in the motor stopping.
2.1.3 Resonance Frequency Measurement
The resonance frequency was measured at the connector of the product using a
network analyzer. The resonance appeared at 56 MHz. (‘Original’ in Fig. 6). The
frequency agreed with the frequency, which the abnormality was observed in the
BCI test.
2.1.4 Measurement of the Magnetic Field Above PCB Surface
To identify the location where the resonance occurred, we conducted a magnetic

field measurement. A probe with the capability of picking up the magnetic field was
used. The probe scanned the PCB surface, while RF energy was injected to each
connector terminal (Terminals A, B, C and D). Figure 4 shows distribution maps of
100-180MHz
Pick up probe
for magnetic Inject to Inject to Inject to Inject to
field Terminal A Terminal B Terminal C Terminal D
IC IC IC IC
Noise Input
GND GND GND GND
Line
Scan Area A B C D
GND Pattern to IC Noise Concentrates on Injected Terminal
50-60MHz
Inject to Inject to Inject to Inject to
Terminal A Terminal B Terminal C Terminal D
GND
IC IC IC IC
Connection
Point
GND GND GND GND
Terminal A, B, C, NC and D A B C D
Noise Concentrates on GND, regardless of

the injected terminals
Fig. 4 Measurement of the magnetic field
the magnetic field. It should be noted that at the frequency range of 50–60 MHz, the
magnetic field concentrates on the GND pattern on the PCB, regardless of the
injected terminals. In contrast to this result, at other frequency ranges, such as
100–180 MHz, the magnetic field concentrates on each injected terminal.
2.2 Assumption of the Mechanism
We made the following assumption based on the above observation (Sect. 1.1).
The PCB pattern and connection parts (bus bars) have (L). Stray capacitance (C) is
formed between the PCB and metal case. The PCB pattern, bus bar, and metal case
form an unintended resonance circuit (Fig. 5). Because the product develops the
resonance circuit around the GND pattern, it is possible the magnetic field could
concentrate on the GND pattern. Also, the resonance changing the GND imped-
ance could result in IC instability, affecting the BCI test result.
2.3 Method of Proof Assumption
We modified the PCB pattern’s shape to change the stray capacitance between the
PCB and case. The impedance of the four cases of GND pattern were measured
and compared with BCI results. The GND area size was ordered as ‘‘Original [
530 M. Izumichi
Power Electronics Product

BCI Probe
Noise PCB pattern
IC M
Control Wire Signal
Harness Terminal Coupling
Box Motor
Noise
Bus-Bar
GND PCB Pattern (GND)

Terminal
Noise
Screw Resonance Circuit Stray
Source
(Unintended) Capacitor
Metal Case
Ground Plane
Fig. 5 Assumption of resonance circuit
Case (1) [ Case (2) [ Case (3)’’. As an additional investigation, we tried two
methods to suppress the resonance. The first method was to add a capacitor to the
resonance circuit. A 1000 pF capacitor was added between the GND pattern on the
PCB and the metal case. The second method was to add a resister to the circuit; in
this case a 10-ohm resister was added between the GND pattern on the PCB and
the metal case. The screw is included in the resonance circuit, so in the future tests
can be done with this screw removed. However, it is necessary to fix the PCB on
the motor case.
2.4 Results
‘‘Original’’, Cases (1), (2) and (3) in Fig. 6 show the relationship between the
modified GND impedance and BCI test results. (Please note that since a wire probe
was used to measure the impedance, this could have had some effect on the
impedance increasing as the frequency increased.) The smaller the GND area,
the higher the resonance frequency. Additionally, it is confirmed that BCI test
results follows each resonance frequency. In the original case (before modifying
the product), the self-inductance of the parts is estimated at 70 nH. The stray
capacitance between the PCB and case is estimate at 100 pF, meaning the reso-
nance occurred around 60 MHz, given by Eq. (1). If we reduce the GND area, the
stray capacitance is reduced, indicating that the resonance frequency moves to a
higher frequency. This supports the assumption that there is an unintended reso-
nance circuit and that it affects the BCI test result.
1
f¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1Þ
2p LC
Impedance of GND Pattern

1000
GND Impedance (Ohm)

100
10
0.1
10 30 50 70 90 110
Frequency (MHz)
Result (Original) Case(1) Case(2) Case(3)

Motor Rotation (Hz)
Motor Rotation (Hz)
Motor Rotation (Hz)

Motor Rotation(Hz)
150 150 150 150

50-58MHz 53-64MHz 63-68MHz 73-75MHz
100 100 100 100
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
Frequency(MHz) Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
Fig. 6 Relationship GND impedance and BCI results
In case of adding a capacitor:

The resonance frequency decreased from 58 to 30 MHz. The abnormality was
no longer observed in the BCI test. See Fig. 7b.
In case of adding a resister:
The resonance frequency disappeared. The abnormality was no longer observed
in the BCI test. See Fig. 7c.
We adopted the method of adding a resister rather than a capacitor to improve
immunity (Fig. 8). This is because when adding a capacitor, the resonance fre-
quency simply shifted to a lower frequency. There is also the possibility that an
abnormality would appear at the lower frequency if something is changed such as
the increasing the length of the wire harness in an actual vehicle.
3 Relationship Between Resonance and Conduct Emissions

Test (CE)
3.1 Observation
3.1.1 The Tested Product
Another power electronics product was used for investigating the relationship
between the resonance and conducted emissions test. Figure 9 shows the tested
product. The test sample structure is similar to the one used for the BCI analysis, a
DC-DC converter used as a motor controller in a vehicle. It consists of a PCB and
532 M. Izumichi
GND Impedance BCI Result

1000 120
Original 100
100
80
10 60
1
GND 40
Impedance 20
Countermeasures 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
120
1000
(B) Add Capacitor 100
100
80
10 60
40
1
20
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
120
1000
(C) Add Resister 100
GND Bus-bar Add 1000pF 100

80
PCB Pattern
(GND) 10 60
Screw 40
Stray
Resonance Capacitor
1
20
Circuit 0 0
Add 10ohm 0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200

Metal case
Fig. 7 Countermeasures
Bonding Wire
Printed resister
GND
Fig. 8 Realization of adopted countermeasures
some connecting parts, such as bus bars. These are attached to a cooler made of
metal (aluminum). On the PCB are an IC and two power MOS devices. The power
MOS devices are switched by inputting a PWM signal to drive a motor through the
wire harness. An LC filter and Pi-filter are also equipped to reduce noise emitted
from the power MOS devices.
3.1.2 Conducted Emissions Test Method
The setup test is standardized in CISPR 25 [4]; however, the following was
changed from the standard. In the conducted emissions test (voltage test method)
under CISPR 25, the measurement is performed at an LISN (line impedance
Bus-Bars Choke Coil Cooler

PCB
Connector High side

MOS CR snubber
Output
Pi-filter
Power Low side
supply MOS LC
filter
Ceramic capacitor Noise sources

(Power MOSs)
Fig. 9 Structure of investigated product for CE test
Fig. 10 Setup basedon Low relative permittivity support (50mm height)

CISPR 25 (Voltage method)
50
+ LISN
Power Measured
Supply - LISN Product
Control
Box
GND Plane
Load
Coaxial Cable
stabilized network) terminal. However, we measured the noise at the product

terminal to clarify the influence of the resonance of the product. If we had mea-
sured at the LISN terminals, the influence of the LISNs and wire harness would
have been strong. It would make the analysis complicated. The reference point of
the measurement was the ground plane. Figure 10 shows the test setup. The wiring
harness was set on an isolation block, which was on the ground plane made of
copper. The product was connected to the LISNs, a control box, and a load, whose
impedance was equivalent to an actual motor, by a wiring harness. A control box,
which simulated the ECU, generated a PWM signal, which was applied to the
product. The measurement was conducted from 1 to 300 MHz with a spectrum
analyzer. The conductive emitted noise from the product was recorded (upper
graph in Fig. 11). The noise can be seen peaking around 60 and 120 MHz. In this
chapter, we focus on the 120 MHz resonance.
3.1.3 Resonance Frequency Measurement
The resonance frequency was measured at the connector using a network analyzer.
The resonance appeared around 120 MHz. (As with the BCI case, please note that
since a wire probe was used to measure the impedance, this could have had some
534 M. Izumichi
Fig. 11 Relationship Emitted Noise Level

between emitted noise level -30
and resonance frequency
-40
-50
dBm
-60
-70
-80
-90
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
MHz
Measured Impedance (GND)

300
200
ohm
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
MHz
effect on the impedance increasing as the frequency increased). The frequency

agreed with the recorded frequency in the emissions test. It can be presumed that
the resonance worsens the emission level. We also measured with an oscilloscope
to obtain the time domain waveforms. Even though the switching device had no
ringing on the waveform because of the CR snubber, the 120 MHz ringing
waveform was observed at the connector (Fig. 12).
3.2 Assumption if the Mechanism
As with the BCI case, the PCB pattern and connection parts have (L). Stray
capacitance (C) is formed between the PCB and metal case. It is believed that the
PCB pattern, bus bar, and metal case form an unintended resonance circuit.
When the power MOS device is switched by PWM (100 kHz), harmonic noise
with an interval of 100 kHz appears. This 100 kHz harmonic noise is caught by
this resonance circuit and is amplified at the resonance frequency. Since this
amplified noise affected other signals, it is regarded as common mode noise.
Figure 13 shows the resonance loop that is assumed. It is very similar to the BCI
case; however, the noise direction is completely different such that noise flows
from inside the product to the resonance circuit.
Fig. 12 Time domain 15 0.05

measurement Noise on GND (120MHz)
Noise on GND (V)

12 0
MOS Output (V)

9 -0.05
6 -0.1
3 MOS Output -0.15
0 -0.2
-3 -0.25
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100
time (ns)
Fig. 13 Unintended Product

resonance circuit (CE)
Load
Power
Battery MOS
GND
GND Pattern Terminal
Dumping Resonance
Resister Circuit
Stray Capacitor
Cooler
Ground Plane
Fig. 14 Improvement of
noise level
Original
10dB/div
Improved
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

MHz
536 M. Izumichi
3.3 Method for Proof of Assumption
A resister, 10-ohm, was added between the power ground and cooler to absorb the
resonance energy and its effectiveness was confirmed. (See Fig. 13)
3.4 Results
By adding a resister, 10-ohm, the resonance energy is absorbed and the emitted
noise becomes lower at 120 MHz. Figure 14 shows the result.
4 Conclusions of Sections 1 and 2
The self-inductance of the pattern on the PCB, bus bars, and stray capacitance
between the PCB and metal case generates unintended resonance, creating a close
relationship to EMC test results.
In the case of BCI, the ground impedance became higher due to resonance,
causing product instability. In conducted emissions, the harmonic noise of the
switching device was amplified by the resonance. As mentioned above, the
unintended resonance circuit lowers EMC performance. For both immunity and
emissions, by dissolving the resonance with a dumping resister, the products’
EMC performance could be improved. It is important to strive for a design that
creates no resonance. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the location where
resonance occurs. The magnetic field measurement (mentioned in Sect. 1) or 3D
full-wave electromagnetic simulation is an effective tool to detect resonance
circuits.
References
1. Shigenobu T, Kazuhisa Y, Koh T (1995) A study on bulk current Injection method,’’ technical
report of IEICE, EMCJ 95–33: 33–38 (in Japanese)
2. Yusuke Y, Kengo I, Yoshitaka T (2011) Insertion of dumping resister RF IC-oower-current
peak caused by resonance due to parasitic impedance. IEICE technical report, EMCJ 2011-84:
29–34 (in Japanese)
3. ISO 11452-4 (2005) Road vehicles: Component test methods for electrical disturbances from
narrowband radiated electromagnetic energy, Part 4: Bulk current injection (BCI)
4. CISPR 25 (2008) Vehicles, boats and internal combustion engines—radio disturbance
characteristics—limits and methods of measurement for the protection of on-board receivers
Application of the MOS Tube on Power
Window Switch
Yihai Wang, Xia Li and Rongxia Zhang
Abstract We use MOS tube as a control element, which decides on–off of current
flow, to solve the problem of contact ablation in 24 V power window switch,the
relay enclosed in switch is only to shift the direction of current flow, MOS tube is
precedent in controlling on–off of current flow than the relay, which itself doesn’t
participate in the control process, Without electric spark in the contact, the
durability of relay is improved, Switch without contact is realized.
Keywords Power window switch MOS tube Relay Heavy truck
1 Introduction
With the development of society, the truck window operation convenience and
comfort are put on the agenda, hand-operated window system gradually quit the
stage of history, electric window in truck applications become more and more
popular. Electric window system by the electric window switch, power windows,
power window motor side switch, electric window switch by controlling the
window motor to realize the rise or fall of window glass. Power window switch for
power and signal model two kinds, power to switch to directly drive the window
motor, signal type for vehicle body controller provides a signal switch to BCM,
powered by BCM window motor. Signal type switch must be and BCM use BCM,
F2012-D04-004
Y. Wang (&) X. Li R. Zhang

Anhui Jianghuai Automobile Co., Ltd, Hefei, China
e-mail: kj_jszx@jac.com.cn
538 Y. Wang et al.
Fig. 1 Motor process current curve
because of higher prices, the switch is used less. Power type electric window
switch for convenient use, lower prices in the heavy truck, light truck, commercial
vehicle on popularization [1, 2].
2 Jianghuai Heavy Truck Power Window Switch Principle
2.1 Cause Analysis of Relay Contact
Jianghuai heavy truck power window switch is the power switch, prior to the
introduction of passenger car of the switch, the 12 V system is changed to a 24 V
system, according to the 24 V system requirements to design of switching the
internal PCB and matching the 24 V relay. But in the practical use of the relay
contact ablation failure rate. The contact problem is easy to be ablated arc sparks
temperature exceeds the contacts can stand, arcing is the cause of motor in the
up/down movement ended, and the formation of blocking, the switch current
detection circuit detects the motor, will release relay, shutting machine. In the
motor locked rotor condition, current is about 8–12 A, current curve in Fig. 1, the
cut-off relay, will form a strong reverse electromotive force (EMF), the contact of
the relay is disconnected from the moment to form an arc, arc spark temperature
up to several thousands of degrees, the contact forming ablation, long-term and
such finally, burning of relay contact.
Application of the MOS Tube on Power Window Switch 539
Fig. 2 A diode and a

capacitor inhibits reverse
EMF diagram
2.2 Reverse Electromotive Force Suppression Method
Reverse electromotive voltage is a reverse of the high voltage pulse, so in return relay
contact before, be protection diodes to form a short circuit, absorb part of peak
voltage, so as to achieve the purpose of protection relay contacts. Actual tests show
that, this method is invalid. The main reason is the switch time is too long, can
effectively absorb the peak voltage. Absorption capacitor is a widely used method for
eliminating electric spark, so be sure to be effective, because the diode absorption
pulse voltage failure, increase the capacity of the capacitor, to 47 uF, because the
motor positive inversion, the output line polarity is variable, so the use of non-polar
electrolytic capacitor. Motor peak inverse voltage through a capacitor, the capacitor
will charge the capacitor, similar to a short circuit, so can the end forming protection.
Protection time depends on the charging time of the capacitor, once the capacitor is
filled, and the peak inverse voltage exists, protect the function disappeared, a diode
and a capacitor inhibits reverse EMF principle is shown in Fig. 2. Laboratory proven:
capacitance added to the 47 uF, contact spark is greatly reduced. Proof of actual use
has greatly improved, but there are still 1–3 % burning of contact problems.
2.3 The Application of MOS Tube
Burning of contact reason is arc, so need to solve the electric arc generated by
reason. Arcing is the cause of relay in switching process contact exists between the
potential difference of voltage. Reverse EMF is simply the higher voltage. If the
540 Y. Wang et al.
Fig. 3 Power window switch application MOS control schematics
switch relay in the closure and release process, there is no potential difference is
zero voltage, so there is no reverse EMF. When the contact only to overcome static
wear can maintain better life. To make the contacts and no voltage difference, must
let the relay in the circuit opened under the circumstances, namely the need in the
switch circuit with electronic switch can do. In the loop gain a big power MOS
switch tube, MOS tube control circuit on/off, and other circuit stops working, then
operate relay, relay contact without current switching.
The working principle is shown in Fig. 2: starting switch is open, MOS switch
is in the off state, the first relay contact closure, the contacts and no potential
difference between contacts, so no current, starting relay without contact spark.
Relay starting after closure, and then open the MOS switch, motor, glass upward or
downward movement. Motor off, shut off the MOS tube, and the motor stops
rotating, the contacts are in the operating state, the motor locked rotor current,
reverse electromotive voltage of contact without effect. When the MOS tube is
disconnected, the motor stops working, then disconnect relay contact, when the
motor is in a stop state, the contact has no potential difference, no current.
Therefore, no electric spark generated (arc) (Fig. 3).
Based on the MOS tube power control module function
1. Manual mode to achieve the current protection
The original manual mode and no current protection function, which uses the
manual rise/decline, even if the motor, as long as the hand is not loosened, the circuit
Application of the MOS Tube on Power Window Switch 541
Table 1 P55N06 MOS tube parameter

Model: P55N06
Performance Parameter Unit
Rated working voltage 60 V
Rated working current of 25 °C 55 A
Rated working current of 100 °C 34.8 A
Pulse voltage B400 V
Ambient temperature -55*150 °C
has been working, on the motor is great test. Improved after joining the manual
mode protection function, as long as the plug is off, MOS tube and release the relay,
protection of motor.
2. Join the under abnormal condition, the automatic shutdown function
When entering the automatic mode, 10 s after the still not detected motor stall
current, automatic shutdown. Prevent when motor damage/harness off in abnormal
condition, the switch has been in a state of abnormal problems caused by burn.
2.4 MOS Tube Parameters Matching
Using MOS tube as a current switch, MOS tube performance requirements are
relatively high, but also in the circuit is disconnected, motor peak inverse voltage
full on MOS tube ends, so the pressure has certain requirements, motor locked
rotor current maximum working voltage of 12 A, the largest 32 V, peak inverse
voltage of about 200 V, design 3 times left margin, using P55N06 high power tube
(parameters see Table 1), rated current 55 A, rated voltage 60 V, under 400 V
following pulse interference. MOS tube has a protection diode, without the need
for an external protection.
2.5 Application Effect of MOS Tube
Through in the Jianghuai heavy truck on batch application, market performance is

good, the power window switch failure rate plummeted, from 1–3 to 0.1 %,
confirmation of MOS tube in the electric window switch application can funda-
mentally solve the 24 volt power window switch ablation problem.
542 Y. Wang et al.
3 Conclusion
Power window switch adopts MOS technology, in order to solve the traditional
switch relay contacts easy ablation problem, using the MOS as the current control
switching element, realize contactless switch, high reliability, long service life, is
the development direction of automobile power switch.
References
1. Dai H (2010) Bora car electric window failure analysis. Automobile repair 03:36–37
2. Li Z (2005) MOS tube model. Electron world 02:36–38
Simulation Analysis of Electromagnetic
Compatibility in Vehicle Ignition
Control System
Ya’nan Li, Wenqiang Chen, Xingmin Wei and Fuquan Zhao
Abstract The ignition control system is the critical Electromagnetic interference

source in automobile, and the transient voltage in primary circuit loop attacks the
accumulator and interferes with the ECU or other electronic devices by power
cord, and simultaneously the high frequency spark noise caused by spark plug may
produce radiated noise which affects the electromagnetic environment inside and
outside the automobile. Lots of vehicle manufactory are faced with the problem
that the EMI testing value exceeds the threshold value. It is an urgent need to
research the ignition system electromagnetic compatibility and seek the ignition
system EMI suppressing method for enhancing the vehicle EMC. The objective of
this study is to analyze the ignition system EMI formation mechanism and its
effect for electromagnetism environment inside the vehicle, then taking effective
suppressing measures to optimize ignition system EMC design. This paper sim-
ulates the ignition primary circuit transient current and voltage in EMC simulating
software by analysing the working principle of gasoline engine ignition system and
the formation mechanism of ignition system EMI. This study establishes sec-
ondary coil circuit loop spark plug discharge modle, the high voltage wire is
equivalent to antenna, the electric field EMI distribution inside vehicle has been
worked out, and then it researched the electromagnetic environmental effect of
high-voltage wire position, length, working frequency and load impedance. The
radiated electric field distribution is acquired by establishing vehicle body, antenna
model in the Simulation Analysis. The longer length the high-voltage wire is, the
stronger the radiated noise is. The height of wire from ground has little effect on
electric field intensity, working frequency is higher and the radiated noise is
F2012-D04-008
Y. Li (&) W. Chen X. Wei F. Zhao

Zhejiang Geely Automobile Research Institute CO. LTD, Hangzhou, China
e-mail: liyanan@rd.geely.com
544 Y. Li et al.
stronger. These studies provide judgement basis for the optimization of electronic
equipment installation position. This paper analyses the reason of ignition system
EMI and electromagnetic environmental effect, and gives suggestion for suscep-
tive electronic equipment installation. An important limitation of the current study
is our study can’t include all ignition system problems, and some problems need to
be discussed further; more convenient vehicle body modeling methods and spark
plug noise suppressing methods need to be researched further. It is a new study of
analysing ignition system EMI, establishing math model and analysing the effect
of susceptivity equipment for electromagnetic environment. At present, most of
car manufactories mainly focus on electromagnetic noise testing, so the simulating
researching of ignition system disturbance characteristic can improve automobile
overall EMC design. The research result indicates: making use of damp high-
voltage wire, resistance type spark plug and shielding method for ignition coil and
high-voltage wire can reduce radialization disturbance, but sometimes various
suppressing measures will be taken.

Keywords Automobile Ignition control system Ignition coil EMC EMI

High-voltage wire Noise suppression
1 Introduction
Along with the progress of modern electronic technology and automotive elec-
tronics technology development, Automobiles are equipped with more and more
electronic products, Electronic products increase the car’s economy, security and
comfort, at the same time, the automotive electromagnetic compatibility problems
become more complex.
The ignition system is the most important source of electromagnetic interfer-
ence in the vehicles. As early in 1906, people found that a car engine running on
the road can cause interference on surrounding radios, so the restrictions was
proposed on the electromagnetic interference generated by the vehicle ignition
system. However, this work is one of the difficulties which include the automotive
electromagnetic interference suppression and achieving electromagnetic compat-
ibility. The ignition system related to the performance of the ignition circuit, the
ignition energy controlling ignition time controlling, cylinder conditions and many
other technical issues. Large amounts of electromagnetic disturbance will be
produced during ignition process, which mainly involve conducted interference
caused by the ignition coil primary circuit transient voltage, high voltage wires and
spark discharge high frequency radiation interference. Conducted interference is
not only an impact on the battery voltage but spreads other electronic equipment of
the car through the power cable. High-frequency electromagnetic radiation may
also have a greater impact on the vehicle electronic control unit (ECU) and serious
harm to the vehicle monitoring and security. The ignition system on
Simulation Analysis of Electromagnetic Compatibility 545
Fig. 1 Electronic device in Vehicle
electromagnetic compatibility is the focus of attention of many car manufacturers

and research institutes. Many countries have carried out testing of the system for
ignition noise, and begin to electromagnetic compatibility prediction.
This research started late in China, lots of researches was focused on the
electromagnetic noise test at present. So the simulation research for interference
characteristics of the ignition system can effectively improve the overall vehicle
electromagnetic compatibility design.
2 Vehicle Ignition System Components

and Working Principle
2.1 Ignition System Structure
The modern automotive ignition system is composed of battery, ignition switch,

ignition coil, high voltage ignition wires, distributor and spark plugs and other
composition. Simplified model diagram is shown as Fig. 1:
1. Ignition coil. Every two cylinders share a common ignition coil, the ignition
appears in the exhaust stroke of the cylinder and in the compression stroke
cylinder at the same time. The four-cylinder engine requires two ignition coils.
The primary winding of the ignition coil is controlled by the ECU power
transistor; Secondary winding is connected directly to the spark plug by the
high voltage wire. Normally, when the engine is in the compression stroke, the
546 Y. Li et al.
Cam position sensor Ignition components
B
Ignition coil 1
spark plug 1
Self-correctiong
spark plug 4
discriminance circuit
Cylinder sequence signal
spark plug 2
Cylinder
Input interface Cylinder sequence signal
spark plug 3
Ignition coil 2
Ignition signal
Close angle
Output
CPU
Constant current control
Fig. 2 Electronic ignition system block diagram
cylinder internal pressure is very high, compressed mixture gas resistance is

larger between spark plug poles; when the engine is in the exhaust stroke and
the cylinder internal pressure gets close to atmospheric pressure, the air
resistance is relatively smaller between spark plug poles.
Most of the high pressure applies on the spark plug in the compression stroke,
forcing the breakdown of spark plug electrode gap to conduction.
2. Ignition components. Constant current control integrated in the closed angle

ignition components, and has a cylinder discrimination circuit in the ignition
components, the ignition signal is sent to the appropriate ignition driver circuit
by cylinder sequence discrimination signal to control the ignition coil primary
winding off and on.
3. Cam position sensor. There are three signal coil sensor which are used to
identify the number of cylinders and detect crank angle to determine the
ignition time.
2.2 Vehicle Ignition System Working Principle
When the vehicle starts, the distributor rotates together with the cam in the engine
camshaft driven; rotating cam alternately makes the breaker contacts open and
close. In the case that the ignition switch is connected, when the contacts are closed,
current flow through the primary winding of the ignition coil, which produces a
magnetic field in the core. When the breaker contacts are open, the primary circuit
Fig. 3 Vehicle ignition system schematic diagram
is turned off, the primary winding current quickly drops to zero, causing the
magnetic flux dump, and self-inductance electrical potential generated in a winding
up to 200*300 V amplitude U1max, Secondary winding products as high as
15–20 kV high-voltage electrical potential U2max in mutual inductance which is
proportional to turns ratio. The spark plug gap have a breakdown under the elec-
trical potential, spark ignites the gas mixture in the engine cylinder (Fig. 2).
3 The Formation Mechanism of the Ignition System

Conducted Interference
Ignition system schematic diagram and equivalent diagram as shown below:

(Figs. 3 and 4)
In ignition process, the coil transient voltage on the impact of the car battery is
the source of the interference caused by conducted interference, when the battery
voltage is higher, current and voltage waveform rise faster, oscillation intensified
after the switch is closed.
Coil voltage waveform is impacted by capacitance C1 repeatedly charging and
discharging, it is an oscillating decay curve, the ripple voltage will be directly
coupled to the ECU, car entertainment systems, ABS and other electronic devices
interfere by the wires. To avoid this effect, the IGBT (insulated gate bipolar
transistors) is applied on modern vehicles to control the ignition timing, and TVS
(transient voltage suppression diodes) is used to protect the control circuit to
ensure that the ignition timing is more accurate, the connection of the battery
Ground and capacitors should be reliable in order to reduce the contact discharge
electromagnetic interference.
According to the conclusions of the study of the Ford Motor Company, the
formation mechanism of electromagnetic interference and coupling path in the
course of car ignition systems working can be represented in Fig. 5. On the Spark
plug breakdown moment, rapid voltage changes between the center electrode and
side electrode enable to form a transient noise current source on the spark plug
548 Y. Li et al.
Fig. 4 Ignition system

primary circuit diagrams
R
i1
U L
K
C1
Fig. 5 Primary ignition

current and voltage
inside the cylinder and its connection conductor, the transient noise mainly enters
into the ignition coil by conduction, the electromagnetic energy is coupled into the
car and its surrounding space by high-voltage wire and primary cable ‘‘antenna’’
effect. In view of the above, in order to reduce the electromagnetic interference of
the ignition system, the following measures can be taken:
(1) Reducing the noise current source formed in the spark plug breakdown
process.
(2) Reducing the noise current from the ignition coil coupled to high voltage wires
and the primary cable.
(3) Shorten the length of the primary cable and high-voltage wire.
4 The formation of Radiation Electromagnetic Disturbance

in Vehicle Ignition System
4.1 Spark Plug Electromagnetic Interference
The radiated electromagnetic interference of ignition system is caused by a high

frequency pulse ignition current, so this paper first studies the ignition current on
breakdown of the spark plug gap.
Fig. 6 The formation mechanism of the vehicle ignition system electromagnetic interference
and coupling path
The spark plug is considered as an implanted resistance of the coaxial capacitor,

the physical model structure and size as shown in Fig. 6. When the spark plug
electrode gap has a breakdown, according to the secondary loop equivalent circuit
model as shown in Fig. 7.
Cq, Cp is the spark plug coaxial distributed capacitance, Cr is the spark plug
damping impedance distributed capacitance to ground; Rr is built-in resistor for
spark plugs; rg is spark resistance; Rw, Cw is respectively high-voltage ignition
resistance and distributed capacitance; RL, L2, and CL is respectively the resistance
of the secondary ignition coil, inductance and parasitic capacitance (Fig. 8).
The following equation can be obtained through the formula derivation:
I ðsÞ
I ðsÞ ¼ g
1 þ sZp Cr þ Cp 1 þ sZw Cq þ Cr þ C2w
It can be seen from the above analysis, the ignition current i and the spark
current ig can be approximately calculated to get by the spark plug size and the
spark plug gap breakdown voltage. At the same time, the above equation shows
that the ignition current i decreases with the impedance Zw and Zp increasing and it
is proportional to spark current. Electromagnetic radiation of the spark current and
high-voltage wire in spark plug breakdown is the source of radiation interference
in the ignition system, spark plugs is located in a shielded cylinder, the external
radiation is weaker, and the in-vehicle interference comes from the high voltage
wire. Therefore, the electromagnetic radiation generated by high-voltage wire is
equivalent to a monopole antenna is located in under the car hood, the numerical
simulation method can figure out the electromagnetic field distribution of the
vehicle radiated interference generated by the ignition system.
550 Y. Li et al.
Fig. 7 Spark plug model diagram
ZL Zw Zp
i
Rw Rr
ig
RL
C r /2 Cp
CL CW/2 C r /2 rg
C W/2 Cq
L2
Fig. 8 Secondary loop equivalent circuit
4.2 Connecting Cables Electromagnetic Interference
In order to effectively reduce the electromagnetic interference, it is necessary to

implement a comprehensive management of the ignition system. In addition to the
above design measures for Spark plug, high-voltage wires and ignition coil, the
effect of the connecting cables should also be considered. The noise current
coupling in high-voltage wires and the primary cable can radiate electromagnetic
energy to the car and its surrounding space. Differential mode and common-mode
radiated field caused by the connection cable can be expressed as:
1:316 1014 ID f 2 Ls
ED max ¼
r
1:257 106 IC f Ls
EC max ¼
r
Where, IC is the noise current on the cable; f is frequency; L is cable lengths; s is
distance between the two cable conductors.
Common-mode radiated caused by a single wire is ECmax/2. From the above
equation, reducing the noise current on the ignition coil cables and shortening the
Fig. 9 Ignition coil

electromagnetic interference
suppression mixed filter
length of the connecting cable will reduce the ignition system radiated electro-
magnetic interference. The high-voltage wire length and layout are subject to the
design requirements of the engine, so it is generally more difficult to change.
However, the arrangement position of the EMS and the battery can be easily
optimized to reduce the length of the primary connection cable, thus the inter-
ference of electromagnetic radiated by the primary cable can be reduced.
The following figure shows a mixed-type filter designing for suppression of
noise current on the ignition coil primary power line, LC is common mode sup-
pression inductance, CD is the differential mode suppression capacitor. The
interference of electromagnetic radiated by the primary cable can be reduced
through the suppression of ignition coil primary cable common mode and differ-
ential mode noise current (Fig. 9).
5 Vehicle Ignition Systems Radiated Electromagnetic

Disturbance Calculation Model and Simulation Analysis
The following vehicle ignition system radiated simulation analysis is done com-
bined with specific vehicle model EMC experiment and measured data.
During vehicle EMC broadband trial, the left side of the vertical position, the
engine speed is 1500 rpm, the vehicle electrical devices are fully turned on, the
interference peak is respectively on 38, 48, 88 MHz, over limits are respectively
1.2, 0.3, 1.9 dB, and they do not meet the regulations, and need to be improved
(Fig. 10).
High-voltage wire introduces the high-voltage electric potential in the sec-
ondary coil into spark plug, so that the spark plug gap has a breakdown to ignite
mixture gas of oil and gas, damping wire are usually used the high-voltage wires,
about 20 cm in length.
In order to get the high-voltage wire radiation field distribution, in this paper the
high voltage wire is equivalent to the monopole antenna to calculate electric field
distribution inside the vehicle. Because the automobile is an extremely complex
system, firstly a right physical model should be established, and the effective
552 Y. Li et al.
ECE R10 03 BB QP 10m

80
70
ECE R10.03 BB PK 10m Lim.52-63
60
Level in dB¦ÌV/
50
40
30
20
10
-10
30M 50 60 80 100M 200 300 400 500 800 1G
Frequency in Hz
ECE R10.03 BB QP 10m Lim.32-43.LimitLine ECE R10.03 BB PK 10m Lim.52-63.LimitLine
Preview Result 1 Final Result 1
Fig. 10 Practical vehicle EMC broadband trial data
Fig. 11 Model of automobile
electromagnetic field calculation method should be selected before simulation

analysis, at the same time necessary simplifications and assumptions should be
done. When creating a numerical model, if the characteristics of field distribution
can be correctly analyzed and the complex computer models can be simplified
according to problem and the desired accuracy, the computational workload may
be greatly reduced ensuring to achieve the target of the same requirements.
For electromagnetic simulation, lights, mirrors, exhaust pipes and junctions,
gaps, holes, welding bolt modeling is very complex, these components should be
simplified. In addition, vehicle body is curve surface configuration, so some
secondary should be ignored as much as possible in the simulation of the models.
Fig. 12 Model fractionize

gridding and any position
electric field distribution
Fig. 13 In-vehicle electric field distribution
A block plane approach is used to construct the surface structure. The vehicle
model as shown below (Fig. 11):
Vehicle body is set up as a good conductor, the inside and outside body cal-
culation region are in vacuum, the antenna model is set to k/2 monopole antenna
[1], Antenna length is 15 cm and close to the actual voltage wire. Gaussian pulse is
considered as the excitation source.
When ignition signal is high level, the circuit between the primary coil and the
battery is connected, the magnetic field stored in the ignition coil continues to
increase. After a period of time, the ignition signal goes low, the circuit is dis-
connected, and the primary coil induced electromotive force. After ignition coil
amplification, high-voltage generated in the secondary coil, spark plug gap has a
breakdown discharge.
554 Y. Li et al.
Fig. 14 Electronic Field

Distribution along with
observe line
The figure shows that the radiation noise generated by the wire at the front part
of vehicle is mainly focused within the hood, it is the main factors to cause
electromagnetic disturbance for other electronic devices in the car. There are also
the electric field distribution in the passenger compartment and trunk, but they are
relatively weaker. The previous analysis shows that damping wire can effectively
suppress the spark noise, this paper calculated electronic field distribution along
with observe line in condition of the antenna terminal open circuit and terminal
with resistance, the results as shown in Figs. 12, 13 and 14.
6 Conclusion
In order to optimize the car ignition systems, electromagnetic compatibility,

combined with EMC test measured data and calculated results of the simulation
software, this paper gives a depth analysis for the mechanism of electromagnetic
interference generated by the ignition system and the corresponding interference
suppression measures. The following conclusions can be drawn:
1. As the vehicle electronic equipment is mainly located on the body front, so the
design of high voltage conductor installation location and length is very critical
in the early. The selected high voltage conductor places should be far away
from the ECU as far as possible, selected the nearest ground, and shorten the
length of the high voltage wire trace. Other sensitive equipment should also
avoid installation in the radiation area, in order to avoid the interference of
strong radiation and increase security. Increasing the spark plug resistance and
lead resistance can effectively suppress ignition system radiated noise.
2. Wire wound resistors high-voltage wire interference suppression mainly is

determined by the resistance in the low frequency; the suppression effect is not
obvious. Along with the frequency increasing, the enhancing of the skin effect
and inductance of wire wound resistor strengthens its high-frequency inter-
ference suppression capability
3. Increasing the length of the spark plug damping resistor and ensuring ignition
reliability, increasing the damping resistor can effectively reduce the ignition
system radiated electromagnetic interference.
4. High-voltage wire length has a significant impact for the field strength distri-
bution, the wire is longer, and its radiated ability is stronger, so the ignition
system should shorten length of the high-voltage wire in the design process as
far as possible.
5. Adding Shield between primary and secondary windings of the ignition coil and
connecting reliable ground can improve the electromagnetic compatibility of
the ignition system to a certain extent
The radiation of ignition coil device working is difficult to be predicted due to
device complexity. Therefore, the radiation characteristics and spectral distribution
around engine, ignition coils and other electronic devices can be measured by the
test equipment. These test data can be imported into electromagnetic simulation
software, and then vehicle external electromagnetic radiation can be simulated,
and then the result can be showed whether EMC certification standards can be met.
Reference
1. Fujiwara O (1982) Calculation of ignition noise level caused by plug. Gap breakdown. IEEE
Trans Electromagn Compat 24(2):26–32
A Method for Improving Radiated
Emission of Automotive Spark-Ignition
System with Improved Micro-Genetic
Algorithm
Yanming Qin, Bin Li, Qingsong Liu, Xiangling Xu and JianPeng Zhai
Abstract A new method for improving radiated emissions of automobile

spark-ignition system is proposed. This method realizes automatic optimization
design of automotive spark-ignition system with EMI simulation models and
optimization algorithm in which it takes the models’ parameters as optimized
variables and radiated emission as optimized object to automatically simulate and
seek better models. A new optimization algorithm called improved micro-genetic
algorithm (I-MGA) is also developed to promote the optimization efficiency and
speed. The results show that the performance of I-MGA is more superior to other
optimization algorithms and combined application of numerical simulation tech-
nology and I-MGA can be effectively used to improve the radiated emission of
automotive spark-ignition system.

Keywords Automotive spark-ignition system Electromagnetic compatibility

Radiated emission Improved micro-genetic algorithm Optimization
1 Introduction
Radiated emission caused by high-voltage electric spark igniting the automotive

engine has serious electromagnetic interference (EMI) to electronic systems on-
board and ambient electromagnetic environment. To prevent disturbing nearby
F2012-D04-009
Y. Qin (&) B. Li Q. Liu X. Xu J. Zhai

Chongqing Vehicle Test and Research Institute and Chongqing EMC Engineering
and Technology Research Centre, Chongqing, China
e-mail: qinyanming@cmhk.com
558 Y. Qin et al.
electronic systems, stringent electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) criteria should

be fulfilled, such as CISPR 12 [1]. So it is necessary to study the electromagnetic
disturbance characteristic of automotive spark-ignition system. However experi-
mental analysis method cost too much and because of the complicate structure of
spark-ignition system, the theoretical analysis method can only be used for guide
but not solving specific problems.
By simulating EMI predicting model of automotive spark-ignition system to
find out the hidden EMI problems is an effective way to improve EMC design of
automobile and parts [2], which can make up the existing shortage of experimental
and theoretical analysis method. However, previous study on automotive spark-
ignition system mainly focused on conduced EMI issues. Lots of works were done
to build up equivalent electrical circuit and to carry out theoretical analysis [3–5].
Few works were done to study the radiated EMI issues and radiated simulation,
much less the fast EMI optimization problem. There are still a number of works to
do on how to acquire a fast and effective method to suppress the radiated emission
of automotive spark-ignition system.
Fast EMC optimization approaches via artificial neural networks (ANN), fuzzy
optimization method and so on have been developed [6, 7]. Comparing with
traditional optimization method with artificial modeling process or parameter
sweep process, they take less computational time and can more effectively pro-
mote optimization efficiency. However, they require additional prior knowledge
that can not be easily acquired, which limits their application.
This paper is to provide a novel and efficient method which can automatically
build and optimize the model of automotive spark-ignition system for predicting
and suppressing its radiated emission. The parametric simulation models have
been built up to estimate the radiated emission. An optimization algorithm will be
used to automatically build and seek better models by taking their parameters as
optimized variables and radiated emission as optimized object. A novel algorithm
called improved micro-genetic algorithm (I-MGA) has been proposed to promote
the optimization effectiveness and speed.
2 Improved Micro-Genetic Algorithm
It is well known that the genetic algorithms (GA) falls under a special category of
optimization schemes that are robust stochastic search methods based on the
principles of natural selection and no special prior knowledge is needed [8]. For
multi-dimensional and multi-modal optimization problems, conventional GA
(CGA) needs large initial population size (typically 100–10,000) and process lots
of generations to achieve or be close to the global maxima, which costs a great
deal of computational resource and time. To avoid these difficulties, micro genetic
algorithms (MGA) is used [9].
Although the breeding procedure of MGA is similar to that of CGA, there is a
significant difference in a way of realizing the random search. The MGA starts
A Method for Improving Radiated Emission 559
with a random and small population size, typically 5–50. The population evolves
in CGA fashion and converges (locally) in a few generations (about 4–5). At this
point, keeping the best individual from the previously converged generations
(Elitism), a new random population is chosen and the evolution process restarts.
The small population size employed by the MGA makes it prone to premature
convergence to local extreme, thus necessitating the population restart strategy.
Because of the small population size, the mutation process is skipped.
To further improve the performance of MGA, we modify the genetic operators
and replace the worse individual with the optimal individual every generation in
each cycle. According to the procedure of GA, two different individuals in the
evolutionary population will implement crossover operation. But for a multi-
dimension optimization problem, if each dimension (variable) of an individual
undergoes the crossover operation, the weakened effect will dominate the
improved effect, which may lead to approximately stochastic and blindfold
searching. So for a selected individual, only a certain dimension selected randomly
implements the operation and the other dimensions carry out the operation under a
small probability. After that, the son-individuals will compete with the parent-
individuals and the best two individuals remain. So is the mutant operator but
every dimension mutates under a small probability and the best individual mutates
in range of Gaussian distribution.
The optimization performance of I-MGA is compared with that of MGA, GA,
particle swarm optimization (PSO) and evolution strategy (ES). The testing
function is Schaffer’s F6 function which has been widely used. The function’s true
optimum is 1 and it is described as follows,
! !, !2
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X X
max f ðxÞ ¼0:5 sin2 x2i 0:5 1 þ 0:001 x2i
n n ð1Þ
xi 2 ½100; 100
Where n is the number of dimensions. The parameter setting of these algorithms
is settled for all testing cases and results are recorded when current optimum
converges to true optimum or maximum iteration number achieves. The average
results of 100 tests are shown in Table 1.
It can be seen that I-MGA can always find the true optimum or near-optimum
and has better performance than that of the other algorithms in almost all cases.
Although MGA also converges very quickly, it is unstable and too easy to get into
premature convergence, especially in high-dimension optimization problems.
Additionally, other 5 common test functions with different characteristics are also
used for testing, which can be seen below. And the results are all similar.
,
X Y .p ffi
2
min f ðxÞ ¼ xi 4000 þ 1 cos xi i xi 2 ½600; 600 ð2Þ
n n
560
Table 1 Optimization result comparison of different optimization algorithms

Average results I-MGA MGA PSO GA ES Dimensions True optimum
Iteration number 220 290 14633 34140 14847 2 1
Optimum 0.9994 0.9995 0.9985 0.9932 0.9989
Variance 0.0003 0.0003 0.0023 0.0042 0.0005
Iteration number 9930 7127 98552 100029 100000 4
Optimum 0.9994 0.9986 0.9904 0.9843 0.9903
Variance 0.0018 0.0052 0.0011 0.0148 0.0000
Iteration number 121345 27158 150000 150000 150000 6
Optimum 0.9924 0.9650 0.9903 0.9820 0.9903
Variance 0.0059 0.1043 0.0000 0.0126 0.0000
Y. Qin et al.
Fig. 1 The simulation model

of automotive spark-ignition
system. 1 High-voltage
ignition wire;2 spark plug
cap;3 spark plug; 4 engine
cylinder
X
max f ðxÞ ¼ ðsinðxi Þ sinð2xi =3ÞÞ xi 2 ½3; 13 ð3Þ
n
X
min f ðxÞ ¼ x2i 10 cosð2pxi Þ þ 10 xi 2 ½5:12; 5:12 ð4Þ
n
X pffiffiffiffiffiffi
max f ðxÞ ¼ jxi j sin jxi j xi 2 ½500; 500 ð5Þ
n
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0 , ffi1
u X
uX
max f ðxÞ ¼20 exp@0:2t x2i nA þ exp cosð2pxi Þ=n
n ð6Þ
xi 2 ½30; 30
Because each test function represents different kind of optimization problem
and the radiate emission optimization problem of automotive spark-ignition sys-
tem belongs to which kind is always unknown. So I-MGA is more superior to the
others, it has a wider range of application.
3 Simulation and Optimization
Generally the simulation model should fulfill the requirements below: (1) the
dimension and structure is close to actual physical model or within a permitted
range; (2) if possible, the model should be as simple as possible to reduce the
computational demands. Spark plugs and high-voltage ignition wire are main
interfering sources of the automobile spark-ignition systems [4]. However because
the spark plug is within the engine cylinder, its radiated emission will be weakened
and high-voltage ignition wire produces main EMI interference. Therefore in this
study only spark plug, high-voltage ignition wire and engine cylinder are modelled
excluding other parts of automobile spark-ignition system, such as ignition coil,
shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The excitement defined by user will be directly fed on the
spark-ignition system.
To exanimate the validity of simulation model, an example is given according
to a kind of spark-ignition systems. The exciting signal is acquired from conducted
562 Y. Qin et al.
Fig. 2 The detailed structure

of spark plug. 1 Front spark
electrode; 2 insulation
dielectric material; 3
embedded resistance; 4 rear
spark electrode; 5 metallic
shell; 6 spark plug gap
Fig. 3 Comparison of
simulated result and test
result
Fig. 4 Comparison of result

before and after optimization
circuit according to paper [4] and he results are shown in Fig. 3. It can be found
that the results of simulation basically agree with that of tests. The validity of the
model is verified.
All the dimension and material of automotive spark-ignition system can be
parameterized for easily modifying the simulation model. The parametric simu-
lation models for full-wave transient analysis then can be used to estimate the
radiated emission of automotive spark-ignition system by using CST micro wave
studio (MWS) based on the finite integration technique (FIT). In fact, the forming
of CST simulation model can be controlled from a Visual Basic (VBA) script in
internal program environment or even in combination with external programs via
special interface. So an optimization algorithm programmed by VBA or other
program languages can be used to build a new simulation model, calculate the
radiated emission and analyze the results by taking their parameters as optimized
variables and radiated emission as optimized object to seek better models. This is
the reason why we can improve radiated emission of automotive spark-ignition
system with optimization algorithm. Theoretically the longer optimization runs,
the better results can be found.
In this paper, length of high-voltage ignition wire (ranging from 200 to
500 mm), relative dielectric constant of insulation dielectric material (ranging
from 7 to 12) and distance of spark plug gap (ranging from 0.5 to 1.1 mm) are
taken as the optimized variables. The relative magnitudes of field strength of
radiated emission and that of 3 m-limit described in CISPR 12 are taken as the
optimized object to reduce the radiated field strength. The exciting signal is Gauss
pulse ranging from 30 to 1000 MHz to accelerate verification process. The initial
population number of I-MGA is 20, small optimum-seeking population number is
5 and the maximal generation is set to 75. The optimization results are shown in
Fig. 4. The before-optimization results in Fig. 4 refer to the best model of initial
population generated randomly. It can be found out the radiated emission of
simulation model after optimization has been effectively improved.
4 Conclusion
A new method for improving radiated emissions of automobile spark-ignition

system has been developed. This method realizes automatic optimization design of
automotive spark-ignition system to improve its EMC performance with combined
application of numerical simulation technology and optimization algorithm.
Because there are no additional requirement for I-MGA, this method can also be
applied to automobile or other parts of automobile according to this paper.
Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge the support of Chongqing Natural
Science Foundation (CSTC,2008BB6343) and Chongqing Bureau of Quality and Technology
Supervision Research Project (2009-KY-11).
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Simulation of Electromagnetic Characters
of Vehicle Whip Antennas Based on Mom
Liguo Zang, Youqun Zhao, Wei Wang, Jian Wang and Haiyan Sun
Abstract Base-driven whip antenna is negatively affected by metallic car body

seriously because car body plays a role of radiating portion of the antenna. The
overall goal of this study is to analyse some important electromagnetic charac-
teristics of whip antenna mounted on the vehicle. In this paper vehicle electro-
magnetic modeling based antenna modeling was presented. Whip antennas
installed on different positions in the modeling were analysed based on method of
moments (MoM) with the purpose of showing the impact of the car body on the
performance of the whip antenna. The optimal antenna location was determined by
performance of antenna coupling S-parameter and radiation field gain direction
figure in given frequency band. Through the analysis we can know that the optimal
location of the whip antenna is the middle of the top part of car body. It can get
good performance both omni-directional work and radiation power. Another area
of interest is the value of coupling between two antennas. The study showed that
antenna coupling degree is determined by distance of installation position and
dimension of an antenna.
Keywords Vehicle Whip antenna MoM Electromagnetic compatibility

Coupling degree
F2012-D04-011
L. Zang (&) Y. Zhao W. Wang J. Wang

Department of Automotive Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics
and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
e-mail: zangliguo1986@163.com
L. Zang Y. Zhao W. Wang J. Wang
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Jilin, China
H. Sun
College of Transportation, Jilin University, Jilin, China
566 L. Zang et al.
1 Introduction
Automotive electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) has been a serious problem

since more and more mobile communication equipments and electronic equip-
ments were installed in the car, especially in electric vehicle and hybrid electric
vehicle [1, 2]. Antennas of different communication equipment affect one another
when they are installed in the limited space of the automotive. Short-wave antenna
and ultrashort wave antenna are the most common radio transmitter among
vehicle-borne antenna. The performance of automotive antenna system is
impacted when antenna is installed in the automobile. This is because of dif-
fraction and scatter of electromagnetic wave on the car body shell and coupling
degree of different antenna. It is very important to analyse antenna electromagnetic
characters before they are installed on complex vehicle body. In general, the
number of short-wave antenna is 4–5, and the number of ultrashort wave antenna
is less, not more than 2 of the most commonly [3]. Antenna electromagnetic
characters are not only affected by the metal body, but also antenna performance
characteristic disturbs one another [4, 5]. For base-driven whip antenna, metal car
body which is good conductor plays a role of radiating arm. The antenna and metal
car body constitute radiation structure. The distribution of antenna field is changed
by complex metal car body.
In this paper unsealed car body modeling was presented to simulate distribution
of antenna field. Car body modeling was more accurate than previous ones which
were simplified closed metallic surface usually.Whip antennas installed on dif-
ferent positions on the body modeling were simulated to get the far field gain
direction figure based on MoM. The optimal antenna location was determined
according to influencing rule of car body and pattern character. Moreover, the
optimal location of other antennas was determined by coupling degree after the
first antenna was installed. Antenna cross polarization and side lobe level were
reduced on the basis of this design proposal.
2 Electromagnetic Modelling of Vehicle
Usually, car body is simplified a sealed metallic surface in previous automotive

antenna electromagnetic compatibility problem. Current on metallic surface is
solved by magnetic field integral equation, and current on wires is calculated by
electric field integral equation. The range of conductance was complicated and its
current was calculated by both magnetic field integral equation and electric field
integral equation which domain of integration included line segment and metallic
surface [6, 7].
The Method of Moments (MoM) is a kind of effective method to solve operator
equation. At present the method is generally used in problems of antenna analysis,
design of microwave device and RCS calculation of complex device [8]. MoM is a
Simulation of Electromagnetic Characters of Vehicle Whip Antennas 567
method of electromagnetic computation based on the frequency domain mixed-

potential electric field integrals combined with the entire-domain Galerkin method
[9]. The advantage of this method, first of all, is that it can avoid numerical
dispersion because of application of green function. Electromagnetic field radia-
tion qualification on infinitely distant points is included in integral equation and
the unknown quantities relation is determined definitely. On the other hand, the
number of unknown is much less than that of differential equation [10]. MoM is
applicable to solve electromagnetic scattering problem of electrically large com-
plex object. For MoM, unknown function is expressed a group linear primary
functions, and is matched operator equation. At the last, expansion coefficient is
calculated by discrete linear simultaneous equations.
In this paper, unknown function is
X
N
f ðxÞ a1 f1 ðxÞ þ a2 f2 ðxÞ þ þ aN fN ðxÞ ¼ an fn ðxÞ ð1Þ
n¼1
where fi ði ¼ 1; 2; NÞ and ai ði ¼ 1; 2; NÞ denote, respectively, a group of

primary functions and unknown expansion coefficient. Also we can express the
equation in a typical operator equation equivalent to (1) given by
X
N
an Lfn ðxÞ hðxÞ ð2Þ
n¼1
We choose a group of weight functions xi ði ¼ 1; 2; NÞ to multiply respec-

tively. In this way, we can obtain a linear algebraic equation which an is unknown
coefficient.
X
N
Zmn an ¼ bm ; m ¼ 1; 2; 3 ; N ð3Þ
n¼1
The values Zmn and bm are given by

Z
Zmn ¼ xn ðxÞLfn dx ð4Þ
Z
bm ¼ xn ðxÞhðxÞdx ð5Þ
The function is determined by obtained coefficients, then others field quantities

are obtained.
In this paper the electromagnetic modelling considering electromagnetic influ-
ence factors of window gap, windshield space, and ignoring the influence of the tiny
car connection gap, car seats and body small accessories is presented. The antenna
modelling is ultrashort wave in given frequency range 30*88 MHz. The structure of
the computer modelling of the vehicle with antenna used in the MoM simulation
methods is presented in Fig. 1. Five antennas are installed on four different positions
568 L. Zang et al.
Fig. 1 Vehicle antenna

electromagnetic modelling
of a vehicle, front, back, middle and the rear middle of the car body. The length offour
antennas is 0.75 m and the remainder antenna is 0.3 m. A non-uniform meshing was
provided to ensure high accuracy of the electromagnetic modelling. It is used an
equivalent network for the antenna feed with pulsed excitation of the frequency
domain amplitude voltage is 1 V; voltage phase is 0. Input impedance of antennas is
50 ohm, and antennas’ radius is 0.0003 m (Figs. 2, 3).
Simulations of E-field from an antenna mounted on several different places on a
vehicle in given frequency (f = 74, 82, 88 MHz) for Phi = 80° have been per-
formed. It can be determined that base-driven whip antenna is negatively affected
by metallic car body, especially antennas in the left front and right rear position of
vehicle coordinate system. The performance omni-directional work could get bad
for antennas mounted on side of car body in the low frequency band. Also the
antenna at the middle of the top part of car body could get better performance of
radiation power than others in given frequency. Antenna at right rear position is
more seriously affected than one at left front by metallic car body. As the image
shows, the performance omni-directional of antenna 1 is better than antenna 4, but
the radiation power of antenna 1 is less than antenna 4 (Fig. 4).
Antennas gain lines can be seen in Fig. 5. Antenna gain showed a tendency to
increase from 30 to 88 MHz. The findings clearly indicate the performance of
antenna 1 and antenna 4 is better than others. This is because of variation trend of
antennas gain is gently to ensure the performance of antennas. It is also interesting
to note that gain lines of antenna 2 and 4 change severely in given frequency band,
especially at 40 and 80 MHz. The reason for this could be that there is a resonance
phenomenon between antenna natural frequency and radio wave.
The S21 can be calculated according to electromagnetic field theory from the
following relation:

b1 S11 S12 a1
¼ ð6Þ
b2 S21 S22 a2

S11 S12
where S ¼ denotes normalized scattering matrix of the two port
S21 S22
network. Scattering parameter Sij ði ¼ 1; 2; j ¼ 1; 2Þ is defined when four ports load
are matched.
freq = 7.4e+007 [Hz] freq = 7.4e+007 [Hz]

freq = 8.2e+007 [Hz] freq = 8.2e+007 [Hz]
whip antennas.emc whip antennas.emc
21
freq = 8.8e+007 [Hz] freq = 8.8e+007 [Hz]
90
78
120 90
60
1.
120 60
-2.08653 -2.72567
150 30 150 30
-5.46905 -7.23345
-8.85157 -11.7412
180 -12.2341 0 -16.249
180 0
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

270 270
Total Electric Gain (Total) Total Electric Gain (Total)
[dB] vs. Phi [deg-80] [dB] vs. Phi [deg-80]
Fig. 2 Total electric gain in given frequency (f = 74, 82, 88 MHz) for Phi = 80° of antenna 1
and 2
freq = 7.4e+007 [Hz] freq = 7.4e+007 [Hz]

freq = 8.2e+007 [Hz] freq = 8.2e+007 [Hz]
whip antennas.emc freq = 8.8e+007 [Hz] whip antennas.emc freq = 8.8e+007 [Hz]
904.8 90 3.1
120 066 60 855 60
120
0.016925 1.00825
150 30 150 30
-4.77275 -1.169
-9.56242 -3.34625
180 -14.3521 0 -5.5235

180 0
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

270 270
Total Electric Gain (Total) Total Electric Gain (Total)
[dB] vs. Phi [deg-80] [dB] vs. Phi [deg-80]
Fig. 3 Total electric gain in given frequency (f = 74, 82, 88 MHz) for Phi = 80° of antenna 3
and 4
Fig. 4 Far field 3D plot for

antenna 4 (f = 30 MHz,
Phi = 80°)
570 L. Zang et al.
whip antennas.emc Task01

6 Task02
Task03
Task04
5
Gain 4
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7
Frequency [Hz] x10
Fig. 5 Gain lines of vehicle antennas
The value of antenna coupling is defined by the following relation

Po
Cd ¼ 10 log ðdBÞ ð7Þ
Pi
where Po and Pi denote, respectively, transmitting antenna output power and

antenna input power. Also the value of antenna coupling can be obtained
according to equivalent circuit method of microwave theory.
The antenna coupling is that the amount of unwanted disturbance an antenna
received from a transmitting antenna. It can be determine by antenna coupling
S-parameter if the degree is accepted between antennas mounted on a vehicle [11,
12]. In order to study the coupling impedance matrix between antennas was cal-
culated based on MoM, and coupling was obtained according to equivalent circuit
method of microwave theory. The main advantage of this method is that mutual
interference is parameterized to optimize antenna location. It is used an equivalent
two-port network to determine admittance matrix. In this paper S21 is value of
coupling between two different antennas. The new calculate S21 is illustrated in
Fig. 6 (magnitude in dB) and as we can see now coupling show a tendency to
increase from 30 to 88 MHz. These results suggest that the value of coupling is
concerned with the distance of two antennas. Our findings show a significant,
positive, and strong relationship between the value of coupling and antenna fre-
quency except resonant frequency band. Figure 8 illustrates the value of coupling
between antenna 4 and other antennas (Fig. 7).
The purpose of mounting antenna 5 to is to discuss the relation between antenna
dimension and value of coupling. Large-sized antenna 5 was installed in the same
position with antenna 1. Coupling results are depicted in Fig. 8 and the value of
task41 is less than task45. Results indicate that the value of coupling shows a
positive correlation with antenna dimension.
Fig. 6 Two port network a1 a2
b1 b2
Fig. 7 Coupling between x10 analysis of couping degree.emc Task13

antenna 1 and other antennas -2 Task12
Task14
-3
couping degree [dB]
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7
Frequency [Hz] x10
Fig. 8 Coupling between x10 analysis of couping degree.emc Task43

antenna 4 and other antennas 0 Task42
Task41
Task45
-1
-2
couping degree [dB]
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7
Frequency [Hz] x10
572 L. Zang et al.
3 Conclusion
The paper presents a vehicle antenna electromagnetic computer modelling. The

electric gain pattern and coupling are analysed for different antennas mounted on a
vehicle. It can be concluded that base-driven whip antenna is negatively affected by
metallic car body seriously in given frequency. The performance omni-directional
work could get bad, especially on side of car body mounted antenna. Our findings
further suggest that the value of coupling is concerned with the distance of two
antennas and antenna dimension. This paper fulfils an identified information need
and offers practical help to optimize antenna location ahead of its installation into a
vehicle.
Acknowledgements This work is supported by National High Technology Research and

Development Program of China (2011AA11A220) and Open Foundation of State Key Laboratory
of Automotive Simulation and Control Program (20111109).
References
1. Kuvedu-Libla J-RK (2007) Vehicle active antennas face ‘‘EMC’’—and ‘‘RF-reception’’ -

challenges. In: IEEE international symposium on electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), vol
9–13, pp 1–6
2. Mutoh N, Nakanishi M et al (2005) EMI noise control methods suitable for electric vehicle
drive systems. IEEE Trans Electromagn Compat 47(4):930–937
3. Guan DD (2010) Modeling and EMC analysis of angled reflector antenna in vehicular multi-
antenna system. XIDIAN University, vol 2010, pp 5–8
4. Ji-hui YU, Xiao-lei MA, Ya-li Z (2008) Simulation and research on electromagnetic
character and coupling degree of vehicle antennas. J Syst Simul 20(6):1603–1605
5. Jobava RG, Bogdanov FG, Gheonjian AL, Frei S (2003) Analysis of influence of vehicle
body shell on the characteristics of wire antennas using a new MoM-based EM/EMC solver.
IEEE Int Symp Antennas Propag Soc 4(22–27):831–834
6. Newman EH, Pozar DM (1978) Considerations for efficient wire/surface modeling. IEEE
Trans AP 28(1):121–125
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modeling of complex antennas on mobile platform. In: Microwave conference 2003 33rd
European, vol 2. Michigan Univ, Ann Arbor, pp 719–722
8. Yang R-G (2008) Higher electromagnetic theory. : Higher Education Press, Beijing
9. Chavka G, Sadowski M et al (2005) Structure and EMC simulation of vehicle radio
Communication base station. In: IEEE 6th international symposium on electromagnetic
compatibility and electromagnetic ecology, 21–24:111–115
10. Han X-L, Yu Y-H, Yang K-Y et al (2010) Car electromagnetic analysis of wire antenna
moment method application. Aviat Precis Manuf Technol 46(4):60–62
11. Ankarson P, Carlsson J (2002) FDTD-simulation the electrical environment for vehicles by
using CAD-Data. In: 3rd international symposium on electromagnetic compatibility, vol
21–24, pp 272–275, May 2002
12. Scogna AC, Wang J (2008) Study of a conformal hidden wire antenna used for the detection
of stolen cars. In: IEEE international symposium on electromagnetic compatibility EMC
2008, Aug. 2008(18–22): 1–6
Study on Conducted Interference
and Radiated Interference of Buck-Boost
Converter in Electric Automobile
Jian Wang, Youqun Zhao, Liguo Zang and Wei Wang
Abstract Buck-boost converter is an important component of electric automobile, it

is an important interference source in electric automobile, the study of the interfer-
ence source is very important to restrain interference. The buck-boost converter in
continuous conduction mode (CCM) is established by using circuit simulation
software PSPICE. According to the request of GB18655-2002, the simulation study
on common-mode conducted interference,differential-mode conducted interference
and far-field radiated interference of buck-boost converter are given. The common-
mode current radiation of buck-boost converter is simplified as an electric dipole
radiation mode and the differential-mode current radiation is simplified as a rect-
angular loop antenna. In order to improve the electromagnetic compatibility of buck-
boost converter in electric automobile, some measures to reduce the conducted
interference and the radiated interference are proposed.

Keywords Buck-boost converter Conducted interference Radiated interfer-

ence PSPICE Electric automobile
F2012-D04-012
J. Wang (&) Y. Zhao L. Zang W. Wang

College of Energy & Power Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics
and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
e-mail: wangjian1987228@163.com
J. Wang Y. Zhao L. Zang W. Wang
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Changchun 130025, China
574 J. Wang et al.
1 Introduction
The output voltage of buck-boost converter can be regulated above and/or below
its input voltage with high efficiency [1]. Buck-boost converter has been widely
used in power electronics and communication field. The battery pack of Chery
electric vehicle consists of 100 lithium cells in series, one cell voltage is 3.6 V.
Some low voltage electric systems such as dashboard system, lighting system,
electric drive control system and car stereo system need 12 V voltage supply, the
voltage can be regulated from 360 to 12 V by using buck-boost converter.
In this paper, the switching frequency of buck-boost converter is 20 kHz. The
switching operation generates high du/dt and di/dt, and, consequently, wide dis-
turbance bandwidths [2]. In such condition with high frequency, serious conducted
interference and radiated interference are generated. According to the request of
GB18655-2002, in the frequency range of interest (150–30 MHz), the conducted
interference of buck-boost converter has been studied using Line Impedance
Stabilization Network (LISN). The common-mode current radiation of buck-boost
converter is simplified as an electric dipole radiation mode and the differential-
mode current radiation is simplified as a rectangular loop antenna.
At present, some electromagnetic simulation softwares such as FEKO, HFSS,
CST and EMC Studio are used to design and analyze antenna widely [3]. In this
paper, EMC Studio is used to simulate the radiated interference of buck-boost
converter, which is based on numerical calculation. Some measures to reduce the
conducted interference and radiated interference are proposed in the following
paper.
2 Working Principle of Buck-Boost Converter
The output voltage polarity is opposite to the input voltage in buck-boost con-
verter. Buck-boost converter can shift from continuous conduction mode (CCM) to
discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) with the variation of converter circuit
parameters such as the input voltage and inductance value [4]. In this paper, buck-
boost converter in CCM is studied.
Figure 1 shows the main circuit of buck-boost converter, it can be seen that the
main circuit of buck-boost converter is composed of switching transistor, diode,
inductor, capacitor and resistor.
Figure 2 shows the current path when the switching transistor Z works in
switch-on. In this condition, the inductor Lf is charged by dc source and the load
energy of R is given by the discharge of the capacitor Cf. Figure 3 shows the
current path when the switching transistor Z works in switch-off. In the first stage,
the inductor discharge energy to the capacitor and the load R. In the second stage,
the load energy of R is given by the inductor Lf and the capacitor Cf.
The output voltage is given by
Study on Conducted Interference and Radiated Interference 575
Fig. 1 Main circuit of buck-

boost converter
Fig. 2 Current path in

switch-on
Fig. 3 Current path in

switch-off
D
V0 ¼ Vin ð1Þ
1D
where D is the duty cycle of buck-boost converter, Vin is the input voltage, Vo is
the output voltage. The output voltage can be regulated by changing the duty cycle
D, when D \ 0.5, the output voltage is lower than the input voltage, when
D = 0.5, the output voltage is equal to the input voltage, when D [ 0.5, the output
voltage is higher than the input voltage.
The critical inductance for the occurrence of transition from CCM to DCM can
be obtained as follows:
Rð1 DÞ2 RVin2

Lf ¼ ¼ ð2Þ
2f 2f ðVin þ V0 Þ2
576 J. Wang et al.
Fig. 4 Buck-boost converter
where f is the switching frequency, R is the load resistor. If the inductance is less
than Lf, the buck-boost converter will operate in DCM, otherwise the buck-boost
converter will operate in CCM.
3 Simulation Study of Buck-Boost Converter
In this section, buck-boost converter is built by using circuit simulation software

PSPICE. The value of input voltage is 360 V, the output voltage is 12 V, the
switching frequency is 20 kHz and the output power is 600 W.
Figure 4 shows the simulation model of buck-boost converter, which is per-
formed by using PSPICE software platform with the following parameters:
Vin = 360 V, Lf = 20 uH, Cf = 667 uF, R = 0.24 X, R1 = 10 X. With: Z: power
switching tube APT50GF100BN, D: diode MUR100, R1: current-limiting resistor.
The transient analysis results of buck-boost converter circuit are obtained by using
software PSPICE and the simulation time is 2 ms.
From Fig. 5, it can be seen that the inductor current is continuous.
Figure 6 shows the output voltage, it can be seen that the output voltage is -12 V.
Figure 7 shows the output current which value is -50 A. From above results, it can
be obtained that the output power of buck-boost converter is 600 W.
4 Study on Conducted Interference of Buck-Boost Converter
The drain-source voltage of switching tube can change in a short time, which
produces high du/dt. The high du/dt spreads through the parasitic capacitance
between the switching tube and ground, so the common-mode interference (CMI)
is formed. High reverse recovery current is generated by diode when diode works
from on state to off state. Because distributed capacitance and inductance are
existed in the input and output wires, when high frequency surge current flow
through the wires, the differential-mode interference (DMI) is formed. According
to the request of GB18655-2002, in order to study the conducted interference,
Fig. 5 Inductor current
Fig. 6 Output voltage
Fig. 7 Output current
Line Impedance Stabilization Network (LISN) installed between power supply and
Equipment Under Test (EUT) is used.
Figure 8 shows the circuit of LISN, all the parameters are listed in the fol-
lowing: L2 = L3 = 50 uH, C2 = C3 = 1 uF, C4 = C5 = 0.1 uF, R3 = R4 = 50 X.
Figures 9 and 10 shows the conduction path of CMI and DMI. The common-mode
interference voltage and differential-mode interference voltage can be obtained on
R3 or R4.
Figure 11 shows the relationship between the conducted interference voltage
and frequency. According to the request of national standard GB18655-2002, the
test results are compared with the standard limits given by the national standard.
From Fig. 12, it can be seen that the test results of the conducted interference
exceed the national standard limits. Two methods are used to reduce the conducted
interference. Firstly, an RCD snubber circuit is added in parallel with switching
tube IGBT. Secondly, an RC snubber circuit is added in parallel with diode D.
Figure 13 shows measures for improving the circuit. After taking these mea-
sures, the test results of conducted interference are shown in Fig. 14.
578 J. Wang et al.
Fig. 8 Line impedance

stabilization network
Fig. 9 Conduction path of

CMI
Fig. 10 Conduction path of

DMI
5 Study on Radiated Interference of Buck-Boost Converter
Radiation field consists of far field and near field. High du/dt generates radiated
electric field, high di/dt generates radiated magnetic field. In this paper, far-field
radiation of common-mode interference and far-field radiation of differential-mode
interference are studied. The relationship between conducted interference current
and frequency is shown in Fig. 15.
Fig. 11 The conducted

interference voltage
Fig. 12 Comparison results

between test results and
standard limits
Fig. 13 Measures for

improving the circuit
Fig. 14 Comparison
between test results and
standard limits
580 J. Wang et al.
Fig. 15 Conducted
interference current
Fig. 16 Electric dipole mode
At the frequency from 150 kHz to 0.5 MHz, differential-mode conducted

interference takes the main part. At the frequency from 5 to 30 MHz, common-
mode conducted interference takes the main part.
In order to study the common-mode current far-field radiated interference,
electromagnetic simulation software, EMC Studio, is used. The electric dipole
radiation mode is built in EMC Studio (Fig. 16). L is the half length of the dipole,
which is made of conductor. Where 2d = 1 cm.
According to the request of GB18655-2002, the standard measurements of far-
field radiated interference are done at a distance of 10 meters from the EUT and
the measure frequency range vary from 30 to 500 MHz. Table 1 sums up the
simulation parameters for electric dipole.
The electric field strength of common-mode current far-field radiation is given
by
1
E ¼ 1:26 106 ðfILÞð Þ ð3Þ
r
where f is the frequency of common mode current, I is the value of common mode
current, L is the path length of common mode current, r is the distance between
test point and the interference source. In order to study the far-field radiation
strength, different common mode current sizes and different path lengths are used
to study the effects.
It can be seen that when the path length (common mode) L is under the same
condition, the larger the common mode current, the stronger the electric field
strength of far-field radiation will be (Fig. 17).
From Figure 18, it can be seen that when the common mode current I is under
the same condition, the longer the path length (common mode), the stronger the
electric field strength of far-field radiation is. In order to reduce the common mode
current far-field radiation, reducing the common mode current size and the path
length (common mode) are needed.
Table 1 Parameters for electric dipole

Common mode current (uA) L1 (cm) L2 (cm) L3 (cm)
800 5 10 15
600 5 10 15
400 5 10 15
Fig. 17 The electric field magnitude
The differential-mode current far-field radiation is simplified as a rectangular

loop antenna. The rectangular loop antenna is designed in electromagnetic simu-
lation software EMC Studio (Fig. 19).
Figure 19 shows the rectangular loop antenna built in EMC Studio, where M is
the width of the rectangular, L is the length of the rectangular. The electric field
strength of differential mode current far-field radiation can be obtained as follows:
1
E ¼ 1:316 1014 ðf 2 SIÞð Þ ð4Þ
r
where f is the frequency of differential mode current, I is the value of differential
mode current, S is the rectangular area, r is the distance between test point and
interference source.
In order to study the effect of the rectangular area on the electric field strength,
some parameters for rectangular loop antenna are shown in Table 2.
From Fig. 20, it can be seen that the larger the rectangular loop area, the
stronger the electric field strength of far-field radiation is.
582 J. Wang et al.
Fig. 18 The electric field magnitude
Fig. 19 Rectangular loop

antenna
Table 2 Parameters for rectangular loop antenna

Loop area (cm2) L (cm) M (cm)
9 3 3
16 4 4
25 5 5
9 2 4.5
16 2 8
25 2 12.5
Figure 21 shows when the rectangular loop area is equal to the square loop area,
the electric field strength of rectangular loop is less than square loop. In order to
reduce the differential mode current far-field radiation, reducing the rectangular
loop area is needed. Using narrow rectangular loop instead of square loop can
reduce the electric field strength of far-field radiation.
Fig. 20 Electric field magnitude
Fig. 21 Electric field strength comparison between rectangular loop and square loop
6 Conclusion
According to the request of GB18655-2002, the conducted interference and radiated

interference have been studied. In order to reduce the conducted interference, RCD
buffer circuit and RC buffer circuit are used. The methods of reducing the common
mode current and shortening the path length of common mode are used to reduce the
common mode current far-field radiation. The method of reducing the rectangular
loop area and using narrow rectangular loop instead of square loop are adopted to
decrease the differential mode current far-field radiation.
Acknowledgments This work is supported by National High Technology Research and

Development Program of China (2011AA11A220) and the Open Foundation State Key Labo-
ratory of Automotive Simulation and Control Program (20111109).
References
1. Restrepo C, Calvente J, Romero A et al (2012) Current-mode control of a coupled-inductor

buck-boost DC–DC switching converter. IEEE Trans Power Electron 27(5):2536–2549
2. Franc Mihalic, Dejan Kos (2006) Reduced conductive EMI in switched-mode DC–DC power
converters without EMI filters: PWM versus randomized PWM. IEEE Trans Power Electron
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Study on Electromagnetic Interference
Restraining of Motor Control System
Li Zhai, Runze Gao and Qiannan Wang
Abstract A study on electromagnetic interference restraining of electrical vehicle

motor control system is presented. The reason why the motor control system would
generate electromagnetic interference, the propagation ways and the hazard of
electromagnetic interference are presented in this paper, through analysis of the
structure and control strategy of motor control system. And it takes corresponding
technologies to restrain electromagnetic interference, such as the selection of
power devices, system grounding, electromagnetic shielding technology, filter
isolation technology, mechanism design, and cables reasonable distributing. The
results of electromagnetic emission test of electrical vehicle motor control system
show that the motor control system designed by electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) technology has good electromagnetic interference restraining performance.

Keywords Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Electrical vehicle (EV) Motor

control system Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
1 Introduction
Motor control system is not only the important basic supporting system for electric
vehicle, but also the significant link for the process of commercialization and
industrialization of electric vehicles. The electromagnetic compatibility of motor
F2012-D04-013
L. Zhai (&) R. Gao Q. Wang

National Engineering Laboratory for Electric Vehicle,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
e-mail: zhaili26@bit.edu.cn
586 L. Zhai et al.
Motor
Battery C0 A
+ B
Drive
circuit
PWM signal
Current feedback signal
Vehicle Rotate speed signal TMS320 Control Voltage feedback signal
control unit Torque signal LF2812 circuit Torque feedback signal
Fig. 1 Working principle of motor control system
control system have direct effects on the reliability of the motor control system as
well as the safety of the electrical vehicle, so it is especially important to research
on electromagnetic interference restraining for motor control system.
There are many references on the whole electric vehicle or charging system in
previous researches. However, there is little research on electromagnetic compati-
bility of motor control system for electric vehicle [1, 2]. The reason why the motor
control system generates electromagnetic interference (EMI), the transmission
paths, the hazard of EMI and the corresponding technologies to restraining EMI are
presented through analysing the structure and control strategy of motor control
system in this paper. The results of electromagnetic emission test of electric vehicle
motor control system show that the motor control system designed by electromag-
netic compatibility technology has good EMI restraining performance.
2 Working Principle of Motor Control System
2.1 Topological Structure of Motor Control System
The motor control system of electric vehicle consists of two parts, as shown in
Fig. 1, which are the power circuit and the control circuit. The main power circuit
uses three-phase voltage mode inverter circuit which consists of six IGBT-mod-
ules. The master control chip DSPTMS320LF2812 is used to perform real-time
digital control in the control circuit which consists of current feedback, voltage
feedback, torque feedback, rotate speed feedback, PWM signal output circuit etc.
Study on Electromagnetic Interference Restraining 587
2.2 Working Principle
According to the signals analysed by the vehicle control unit, the torque signal and
speed signal are sent to motor controller control circuit by CAN bus. According to
the designed program and the current feedback signals, the voltage feedback
signals, rotate speed feedback signals, the PWM signals are generated by the
master control chip TMS320LF2812. The PWM signals are imported to the
driving circuit after optoelectronic isolation to control the switch states (on or off)
of six IGBTs. The PWM wave signal is a kind of positive and negative half-cycle
symmetrical high frequency pulse. Thus the power circuit can complete the DC/
AC conversion and provide expected voltage to the motor. Therefore the required
rotate speed and torque of the motor are finally generated to satisfy the driver’s
command.
3 Electromagnetic Interference Existing in Motor

Control System
3.1 Electromagnetic Interference Source
Electric vehicle motor control system contains system interference source and out
system interference source. System interference source mainly refers to the EMI
generated by voltage and current sudden change in short time during the switching
process of the six IGBTs in the power circuit. And in this process, high frequency
pulse signal would be generated, which has big du/dt and di/dt. Due to the
inductance and capacitance devices existing in circuit, lead inductance existing in
IGBT itself and other devices, and routing stray inductance and capacitance, noise
voltage and noise current are generated. These noise voltage and noise current
would not only affect the power module, but also harm the control performance by
flowing into control circuit via the power supply and ground. Also, a current loop
with big di/dt is a radiated source. It would radiate electromagnetic wave in space
to form the very strong EMI, and affect other parts in vehicle. In addition, besides
the useful fundamental wave, there is large amount of high harmonics in PWM
wave produced by inverter switches. The radiated interference would be produced
to influence other equipment in electric vehicle. Out system interference sources
include lightning, electrostatics, charging system and other power switching
devices and so on.
588 L. Zhai et al.
Coupling path 1
i dm1 Coupling path 2
idm2
Battery
Motor
i1
Fig. 2 Differential mode interference
3.2 Coupling Path
In electric vehicle motor control system, there are two electromagnetic disturbance
coupling paths which include radiated coupling way which transmit in space and
conducted coupling way which transmit in circuit. The radiated coupling way
mainly refers to the near-field coupling way, otherwise the conducted coupling
way is an important path for interference transmission. According to the difference
of interfering ways, EMI source include differential mode (DM) interference and
common mode (CM) interference [3].
The DM interference as shown in Fig. 2, DM voltage would be generated from
the output side of the inverter when IGBT switch on or off, and DM interference
current idm1 and idm2 are formed on the output side of the inverter, so there are two
interference transmission paths. Loop i1 produced by the DM current, shown in
Fig. 2, can be seen as a small loop antenna, which radiate disturbance signal to
space.
As can be seen in Fig. 3, there is one transmission path of CM interference
current. The CM current iCM flows from the output side of the inverter, along the
motor shell and the chassis (ground), finally flows back to the inverter. The
inverter and the motor shell cannot completely insulate from the reference ground,
therefore there is stray capacitance exist between them. The du/dt would be
generated large CM interference current on the output side of the inverter.
3.3 Sensitive Equipment
Sensitive equipment of the electric vehicle motor control system mainly include
DSP digital control circuit, the PWM inverter, the signal driving circuit, signal
amplifying circuit, current sensors and voltage sensors, CAN bus, ABS, EDS,
lightning equipment, audio equipment, in-car entertainment system, GPS, parking
sensors, semiconductor device, signal cables and so on.
Fig. 3 Common mode PWM Inverter

interference
Motor Axis
Battery
CM Current
Chassis
(ground)
Interference to any of the above components may affect safety and stability of
the entire system. Take charging system for example, the signal distortion of the
sensors may lead to overcharge and damage the battery. These sensitive devices
also can be interference sources, which may interfere on other on-board equipment
with high sensitivity.
4 EMI Suppression Measures
4.1 EMI Suppression of Power Device
In general, such methods, like changing the topology and structure of circuit,
improving control strategy and optimizing driving circuit, would be adopted in
order to decrease the strength of interference generated by switching of power
devices. Increase the turn-on and turn-off time of power devices; Reduce the
electric field coupling between IGBTs and radiator [4]; Every IGBT’s gate driving
circuit adopt independent insulated power, and should not share current branch
with the main circuit’s current; To avoid noise interference, snubber circuit should
be adopted between power device’s collector and emitter, as shown in Fig. 4.
These measures are taken to decrease the change rate of voltage and current
greatly when IGBTs switch on or switch off, thus, the strength of interference
source is decreased.
4.2 PCB EMC Design
Electromagnetic compatibility design for DSP digital control PCB of electric

vehicle motor control system control circuit includes PCB layout and routing.
Grouping layout of components is used here. Space on PCB is divided
according to the groups, and those components, which are in the same group, are
placed together so that interference in space would be avoided among groups.
590 L. Zhai et al.
Fig. 4 Inverter EMI

suppression circuit
Motor
Battery C0
Snubber
circuit
Radiator
Chassis
Fig. 5 Layout with reduced

interference
Voltage feedback DSP power supply Reset circuit
circuit circuit
Switch
External RAM Input &
Current feedback circuit output
circuit
Over-temperature & DSP2812

analog signal PWM
input circuit Output
circuit
Rotate speed JTAG interface circuit
feedback
signal circuit
Serial ports
Communication
CAN communication
circuit
circuit
Classification of group layout includes high-speed and low-speed category, high

current and low current category, analog circuit and digital circuit category. In this
main control board, the classification is done according to high-speed and low-
speed, shown in Fig. 5. The high-speed CAN bus transceiver circuit is arranged on
one side of the circuit board, and the low-speed circuits including digital circuits
and analog circuits (PWM inversion circuit) are arranged on the other side of the
board [5].
The width and clearance of PCB routing are according to density of routing and
high frequency characteristics of wires. During the distribution of the power line,
the decoupling capacitors should be properly used at the power input side to reduce
Fig. 6 Multi-point
grounding
the coupling noise that gets into the printed circuit board and ground noise voltage
between power and earth wire. To avoid the common ground wire impedance
coupling interference, the incompatible ground wire, such as large current and
small current, high frequency and low frequency, analog and digital, different
supply voltage ground wire, should be set separately. As showed in the Fig. 6, By
divide the ground plane, the ground connections of the master control board can be
divided into 4 parts, which is AGND, DGND, 5VGND, 15VGND and
CAN5VGND. Therefore the grounding wire inductance is minimum to reduce the
grounding impedance, then the coupling of CM impedance is restrained. When
comes to double panel, the ground network should be designed at first in order to
effectively reduce the area of signal loop. The DM radiation and CM radiation are
proportional to the area, so the DM radiation and CM radiation are decreased.
4.3 Grounding Design
The EMI is restrained by the method of filter isolation for the electric vehicle
motor control system. The ground loop generates ground loop interference which
is a usual EMI. Filter isolation technology is applied to restrain ground loop
interference. The isolation measurements are used to isolate the motor control
system circuit and common ground or common conductor which can generate loop
current. The isolation measurements usually adopt transformer or optocoupler.
Take CAN bus interface circuit for example, as shown in Fig. 7. There are two
optocouplers 6N137, and they isolate the process of sending and receiving data
respectively.
592 L. Zhai et al.
Fig. 7 The principle drawing for CAN bus interface circuit
4.4 Shielding Design
Electromagnetic shielding technology is used to restrain the transmission of dis-

turbance in the space, which cuts off the transmission channel of the radiated
coupling. Shielding is one of the most basic methods of EMI restrain control.
Electromagnetic radiated disturbance transmits in a way of electromagnetic wave
by monopole antenna and small loop antenna in near-field and far-field. Use high
conductivity materials and grounding to cut off the electric field disturbance in
near-field, and use high conductivity materials and grounding to cut off the electric
field disturbance in far-field.
The electromagnetic shielding design of the electric vehicle motor control
system includes the shielding design of system chassis and cable. The overall
shielding effectiveness of shielding chassis is determined by the shielding body’s
weakest link which refers to various gaps and holes. In fact, there are many leaking
sources on the chassis, such as gaps of the junction of different parts, vents, display
windows, buttons, indicator lights, cables, power lines. Usually electromagnetic
sealing gasket is used at apertures, cut off waveguide filters is used at ventilated
places, and conductive glass is used at the display apparatus, etc., to improve the
shielding function.
4.5 Filtering Design
Conducted disturbance can transmit through wires such as power lines, signal
lines, interconnect lines, and conductors like shielding bodies, grounding con-
ductors and so on. Usually signal line filters and power line filters are used to cut
off cable coupling paths [6]. The motor driving control circuit of the motor control
Common -mode choke
L2 L0
VDCin C0 Motor
i1
Fig. 8 Filtering design for power source module
system in Electric Vehicle is low source impedance and high load impedance, so
LC type of filter structure is chose, shown in Fig. 8. Because there is DM inter-
ference at the input port of power module, a CM choke should be added, seen it in
Fig. 8.
4.6 Transient Pulse Suppression Design
The transient disturbance pulse and surge voltage that generated by lightning,
electrostatic, switches, motor drive system, and other power switching devices,
etc., would interfere the motor control system by near-field coupling through CAN
bus and other cables. When design the CAN bus circuit, Transient Voltage Sup-
pressors (TVS) should be chose to absorb the surge voltage (shown in Fig. 7) and
protect components, then the reliability of system would be enhanced greatly.
5 Test Results
Firstly, the motor control system power on to preheat, and achieve stable working
state, make sure the input signal, output signal of motor control system and the
communication signal of CAN bus perform normally; According to the band width
and minimum measuring time provided by national standard, the measuring
receiver can scan at a applicable frequency from 10 kHz to 10 MHz. The test
results of power line in control module of charging system is shown in Fig. 9,
it can be seen that the conducted disturbance generated on the power source port in
control module of charging system meet the limits requirements provided by
standard.
594 L. Zhai et al.
Fig. 9 EMI test result
6 Conclusion
The electromagnetic radiated interference and conducted interference are gener-

ated by DM current and CM current through analysing the structure and working
principles of motor control system. In order to restrain the EMI, power module
EMC design, PCB EMC design, grounding design, shielding design, filtering
design and transient pulse suppression design are adopted. The results of elec-
tromagnetic emission test of electrical vehicle motor control system shows that the
motor control system designed by EMC technology has good Emi restraining
performance.
References
1. Dou R-Z, Wang H-B, GOU Y-T, CHENG P, Yang Y, WU J-Y (2011) Research of
electromagnetic compatibility of motor drive system applied in electric vehicle. J Tianjin
Polytechnic Univ 30:6
2. Niu L, Tang Y, Jin B (2009) Electromagnetic compatibility and disturbance restraining of
electrical vehicle charging systems. East China Electric Power 37:10
3. Pei X (2004) Research on conduction electromagnetic interference of PWM Inverter. Ph.D.
thesis, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China
4. Jiang Baojun (2007) Research on the suppression methods of conduction common mode EMI
for PWM motor drive system. Ph.D. thesis, Harbin Institute of Technology, China
5. Cao J, Men R, Zhang A (2006) EMC and immunity-measures of engineering control panel
based on TMS320LF2407A. Electric Drive Autom 28:6
6. Zhai L, Dong S, Zhang C, Wang Z (2011) Study on electromagnetic interference restraining of
electric vehicle charging system. In: 4th international conference on power electronics systems
and applications (PESA)
Part V
Vehicle Sensor and Actuator
GPS Based Estimation of Vehicle Sideslip
Angle Using Multi-Rate Kalman Filter
with Prediction of Course Angle
Measurement Residual
B. M. Nguyen, Yafei Wang, Sehoon Oh, Hiroshi Fujimoto

and Yoichi Hori
Abstract In this paper, a new vehicle sideslip angle estimation based on GPS is
proposed. Course angle obtained from GPS receiver can be utilized as one mea-
surement for estimation design, together with the yaw rate from gyroscope. While
yaw rate is sampled every 1 ms, the sampling time of course angle is much longer
(200 ms). During inter-samples (between two updates of course angle), the con-
ventional estimation method relies upon only yaw rate measurement. In order to
enhance the estimation accuracy, multi-rate Kalman filter with the prediction of
course angle measurement residual during inter-samples is designed. Experiments
are conducted to verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.
Keywords Sideslip angle GPS Multi-rate Kalman filter Measurement

residual
1 Introduction
Sideslip angle estimation technique plays an importance role in vehicle stability

control (VSC). In VSC system, sideslip angle must be controlled to prevent the
vehicle accidents which may happen in critical driving situations, such as vehicle
cornering into slippery road at high speed [1]. In fact, current vehicles are not
F2012-D05-001
B. M. Nguyen (&) H. Fujimoto Y. Hori

Department of Advanced Energy, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Japan
e-mail: minh@hori.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Y. Wang S. Oh
Department of Electrical Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Japan
598 B. M. Nguyen et al.
equipped with an ability of measuring sideslip angle directly. Corrsys–Datron

provides the non-contact optical sensor for sideslip angle calculation based on
lateral and longitudinal velocity measurement [2]. Because of the high cost,
Corrsys–Datron sensor cannot be a practical solution. For both cost reducing and
safety purpose, sideslip angle estimation has been a big issue in motion control of
vehicle.
In conventional sideslip angle estimation method, lateral accelerometer is used
as output measurement [3]. Therefore, cornering stiffness appears in the mea-
surement equations. In fact, the variation of road friction introduces uncertainties
into the estimation model. In order to improve the sideslip angle estimation, non-
conventional sensors have been utilized, such as visual information using camera
image processing [4], attitude information from GPS receiver [5, 6], and the
measurement of tire lateral force sensor [7]. However, the poor update rate of
image processing is the main disadvantage of this approach. Camera visibility may
also be unavailable when road makers are covered with leaves, snow, water, or
dirt. Like visual based estimation, the main problem of GPS based estimation is
the update rate of GPS receiver (from 1 to 10 Hz) which is not fast enough for
motion control of vehicle. The high cost of tire force sensors is a question for the
application of this method in commercial vehicles.
Thanks to Japan’s own GPS system which has been constructed as national
projects, high accuracy of vehicle motion measurement based on GPS is achieved. In
this chapter, sideslip angle estimation based on multi-rate Kalman filter is designed
using yaw rate (sampling time of 1 ms) and course angle obtained from GPS receiver
(sampling time of 200 ms in this study). Using course angle measurement, cornering
stiffness disappears in the measurement equations. The estimation steps between two
continuous updates of course angle is called inter-samples in this chapter. During
inter-samples, conventional multi-rate Kalman filter relies upon yaw rate measure-
ment only. In this study, prediction of course angle measurement residual during
inter-samples is proposed. Therefore, sideslip angle is estimated every 1 ms with
high accuracy, even under model uncertainties, such as the variation of cornering
stiffness.
The proposed method is implemented in the control system of in-wheel mo-
tored electric vehicle COMS prototyped by Toyota Auto Body Co., Ltd. Two
in-wheel motors are equipped in the rear wheels to generate the yaw moment.
A RT-Linux operating system computer is used as the controller of COMS with
the control period of 1 ms. A Corrsys-Datron optical sensor installed in the front of
vehicle can be used to calculate the sideslip angle at the center of gravity. GPS
receiver CCA-600 is supported by Japan Radio Co. Ltd. It can provide the mea-
surement of vehicle course angle with the accuracy of 0.14 RMS every 200 ms.
This is more accurate than the one used at Stanford University (course angle
accuracy of 0.25 RMS) for the research in [5]. Experimental vehicle and GPS
receiver are shown in Fig. 1.
GPS Based Estimation of Vehicle Sideslip Angle 599
Fig. 1 Electric vehicle

COMS
2 Modeling of Vehicle Dynamics
The planar bicycle model of vehicle is shown in Fig. 2. This model is constructed
under the following assumptions: (1) Tire slip angle is small such that lateral tire
force is at linear region. (2) Vehicle is symmetric about the fore-and-aft center
line. (3) Load transfer is neglected. (4) Vehicle velocity is approximately constant.
Table 1 shows the list of nomenclatures. Sideslip angle is defined as the angle
between velocity, vector and longitudinal direction. Course angle of a moving
vehicle is the angle between vehicle’s direction and geodetic North. Using this
definition, course angle can be represented as the summary of yaw angle and
sideslip angle:
c¼wþb ð1Þ
The lateral force equation and yaw moment equation can be expressed as follows:

Fyf þ Fyr ¼ Mvx b_ þ c ð2Þ
Fyf lf Fyr lr þ Nz ¼ Iz c_ ð3Þ
where

lf
Fyf ¼ 2Cf af ¼ 2Cf df c b ð4Þ
vx

lr
Fyr ¼ 2Cr ar ¼ 2Cr cb ð5Þ
vx
Fig. 2 Planar bicycle model North

of vehicle f
c
vx
V
CG
lf vy
lr
Table 1 Nomenclatures l f ; lr Distances from front (rear) axle to the center

of gravity
Cf ; Cr Front (rear) cornering stiffness
Iz Yaw moment of inertia
df Front steering angle
Nz Yaw moment generated by in-wheel motors
M Vehicle mass
b Sideslip angle
c Yaw rate
w Yaw angle
c Course angle obtained from GPS
vx ; vy ; V Longitudinal, lateral, and velocity vector
From (1)–(5), the state space equation of vehicle dynamics is constructed as

(6)–(10). Front steering angle and yaw moment are selected as input vector.
x_ ¼ Ax þ Bu ð6Þ
x ¼ ½b c w T ð7Þ
u ¼ ½ df Nz T ð8Þ
2 3
2ðCf þCr Þ 2ðCf lf Cr lr Þ
1 0
6 Mvx Mv2x 7
6 7
6 2ðCf lf Cr lr Þ 2ðCf lf þCr lr Þ
2 2 7
A¼6 0 7 ð9Þ
6 Iz I z vx 7
4 5
0 1 0
2 2Cf
3
Mvx 0
6 7
6 2C l 7
B¼6
6 Iz
f f 1
Iz
7
7 ð10Þ
4 5
0 0
3 Prediction of Inter-Sample Measurement Residuals
3.1 Dynamics of Single-Rate Kalman Filter
For the sake of simplicity, steady state Kalman filter is used to derive the dynamics
of measurement residual. Assume that the output measurement’s sampling time is
the same as the control period Tc. The discrete model under process noise wk-1 and
measurement noise vk is expressed as follows:

xk ¼ Ad xk1 þ Bd uk1 þ wk1
ð11Þ
yk ¼ Cd xk þ vk
The Kalman filter has two states as follows where Ld is the Kalman gain matrix.
• Prediction:
xk ¼ Ad ^xk1 þ Bd uk1 ð12Þ
• Correction:
^xk ¼ xk þ Ld ek ¼ xk þ Ld ðyk Cd xk Þ ð13Þ

where ek is the measurement residual which is updated every Tc in this case. From
(11–13), the measurement residual is derived as follows:
ek ¼ Cd Ad ek1 þ Cd wk1 þ vk ð14Þ
From (11–14), the dynamics of estimation error is obtained as:

ek ¼ ðI Ld Cd ÞAd ek1 þ ðI Ld Cd Þwk1 Ld vk ð15Þ
The measurement residual in the next estimation step can be derived as:
ekþ1 ¼ Cd Ad ek þ Cd wk þ vkþ1 ð16Þ
Fig. 3 Dual-rate system

jr ... (j+1)r ... (j+2)r
Time
Tc
u
TS
y
From (15) and (16), under zero-noise condition, the relation between mea-
surement residual at step k ? 1 and measurement residual at step k is derived as:
1
ekþ1 ¼ Qd ek ¼ Cd Ad ðI Ld Cd ÞCdT Cd CdT ek ð17Þ
The estimation error in the next n step can be derived as:
ekþn ¼ ½ðI Ld Cd ÞAd n ek1 þ Wsr;n ðwk1 ; wk ; . . .wkþn1 Þ

þ Vsr;n ðvk ; vkþ1 ; . . .; vkþn Þ ð18Þ
X
i¼n
Wsr;n ðwk1 ; wk ; . . .wkþn1 Þ ¼ ½ðI Ld Cd ÞAd ni ðI Ld Cd Þwk1þi ð19Þ
i¼0
X
i¼n
Vsr;n ðvk ; vkþ1 ; . . .; vkþn Þ ¼ ½ðI Ld Cd ÞAd ni Ld vkþi ð20Þ
i¼0
3.2 Dynamics of Conventional Multi-Rate Kalman Filter
Assume that the measurement output’s sampling time Ts is longer than the control
period Tc. Define r = Ts/Tc is the multi-rate ratio and assume that r is an integer.
The steps between two measurement update are named inter-samples. The dual-
rate system is shown in Fig. 3. If measurement output is updated (at step k = jr),
the prediction and estimation equation are the same as the single-rate case.
During inter-samples (at step k þ n; k ¼ jr; n 2 ½1; r 1), because no new
measurement is updated, the correction term Ld ek is not accounted in the correc-
tion stage. Dynamics of estimation error during inter-samples is derived as
follows:
ekþn ¼ And ½ðI Ld Cd ÞAd ek1 þ Wmr;n ðwk1 ; wk ; . . .wkþn1 Þ þ Vmr;n ðvk Þ ð21Þ
Fig. 4 Idea of inter-sample

residual prediction
X
i¼n1
Wmr;n ðwk1 ; wk ; . . .wkþn1 Þ ¼ And ðI Ld Cd Þwk1 þ Ani1
d wkþi ð22Þ
i¼0
Vmr;n ðvk Þ ¼ And Ld vk ð23Þ

Equation (21) shows that under model uncertainties with the influence of noises
and disturbances, estimation performance may be degraded due to the lost of
correction term Ldek. The situation will become serious if the undesirable poles
happen to the matrix Ad, due to model parameter variation.
3.3 Proposal of Inter-sample Measurement Residual Prediction
The key idea can be explained using Fig. 4. If the measurement update is avail-
able, the real measurement residual is used to correct the estimated state. During
inter-samples, the predictive measurement residuals are utilized to enhance the
dynamics of the multi-rate estimation. The formulation of predictive residual is
proposed as follows:
~ekþn ¼ Qnd ek ; k ¼ jr; n 2 ½1; r 1 ð24Þ
By applying (24) for r – 1 times, we can prove the general formulation of
estimation error with prediction of inter-samples:
ekþn ¼ ½ðI Ld Cd ÞAd n ek1 þ Wehmr;n ðwk1 ; wk ; . . .wkþn1 Þ þ Vehmr;n ðvk Þ ð25Þ
!
X
n Xn
Wehmr;n ðwk1 ; wk ; . . .wkþn1 Þ ¼ Ani
d wk1þi Ani i
d Ld Qd wk1 ð26Þ
i¼0 i¼0
!
X
n
Vehmr;n ðvk Þ ¼ Ani i
d Ld Qd vk ð27Þ
i¼0
From (25), the dynamics of estimation error during inter-samples is enhanced in

comparison with the case of conventional multi-rate as expressed in ((21). How-
ever, the accuracy of inter-samples relies upon the past measurement at step
k = jr. In case of single-rate estimation, as represented in (18), estimation error at
any step is driven by the current and the past measurement noise. Thus, if the
system is zero-noise, the proposed method has the same estimation error dynamics
as the single-rate estimation. If a measurement error happens at step k = jr,
the proposed estimation cannot be as good as the single-rate case. This is because
the error at step k = jr is transferred to every step during inter-samples. Even
though, dynamics of estimation error of the proposed method is better than the
conventional multi-rate estimation.
4 Sideslip Angle Estimation Design
4.1 Output Measurements
Yaw rate and course angle are selected as output measurements for Kalman filter
design. The sampling time of yaw rate is the same as the control period Tc = 1 ms.
Course angle is obtained from GPS receiver every Ts = 200 ms. Inter-samples are
defined as the estimation steps between two continuous updates of course angle.
The measurement equation is constructed as follows:
yk ¼ C d xk þ vk ð28Þ
where the measurement matrix is:

0 1 0
Cd ¼ ð29Þ
1 0 1
4.2 Discrete Model
The continuous model in (6) is transformed into discrete model (30) by using the
transformation (31) and (32). Tc = 1 ms is the fundamental sampling time.
xk ¼ Ad xk1 þ Bd uk1 þ wk1 ð30Þ
Ad ¼ eATc AðTc I Þ þ I ð31Þ
ZTc
Bd ¼ eAs dsB BðTc I Þ ð32Þ
0
Initial
Correction
Prediction
Fig. 5 Algorithm of sideslip angle estimation using multi-rate Kalman filter with prediction of
course angle residual
4.3 Multi-rate Kalman Filter Algorithm
Kalman filter is designed based on the dynamics model (29) and the measurement
equation (27). Qv and Qw are the process noise and measurement noise covariance
matrices, as expressed in (32) and (33), respectively. They are tuning parameters
of the Kalman filter algorithm shown in Fig. 5.
2
rc gyro 0
Qv ¼ ð33Þ
0 r2c GPS
2 2 3
q11 0 0 0 0
6 0 q2 0 0 0 7
6 22 7
6
Qw ¼ 6 0 2
0 q33 0 0 7 ð34Þ
7
4 0 0 0 q244 0 5
0 0 0 0 q255
If Qv is too large, the Kalman gain will decrease, thus, the estimation fails to
update the propagated disturbance based on measurement. In (33), rc_gyro and
rc_GPS denote the variance of yaw rate noise and course angle noise, respectively.
They are chosen based on the idea that measurement of course angle is more
reliable than measurement of yaw rate. Small Qw results in unstable estimation. On
the other hand, large Qw forces the estimation to completely rely upon the mea-
surements. Therefore, the noise associated with the measurement is directly
transmitted into the estimated values.
At step k = jr, both yaw rate and course angle are update, thus, estimated states
are corrected with real course angle residual and real yaw rate residual:
^xk ¼ xk þ Lck eck þ Lck eck ð35Þ

Fig. 6 GPS interface software
At step k = jr ? 1, only yaw rate is updated, thus, estimated states are cor-
rected with real yaw rate residual and predictive course angle residual, using the
prediction formula (20).
^xk ¼ xk þ Lck eck þ Lck~eck ð36Þ
5 GPS Interface Design
GPS receiver CCA-600 outputs the information in NMEA-0183 protocol. In order

to transfer data from CCA-600 to the experimental vehicle, GPS interface software
is designed in a laptop (Fig. 6). It receives the NMEA messages from CCA-600
through serial port. Then, it decodes the messages for required data, such as
vehicle position, course angle, and velocity. The decoded data are sent to the
controller of experimental vehicle through LAN cable using user datagram pro-
tocol (UDP/IP). Measurements of course angle and velocity using the GPS
interface are shown in Fig. 7.
6 Experiment Results
In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, other three

sideslip angle estimation methods are performed. The proposed method is named
‘‘Enhanced Three-State MRKF’’ in this study. The name and description of each
method are listed as follows:
(a) (b)
Course Angle Velocity

(c) 190 (d) 12
180 10
Velocity [kph]
Course [deg]
170
8
160
6
150
4
140
130 2
120 0
10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30
Time [sec] Time [sec]
Fig. 7 Data recorded by GPS interface. a Vehicle position on Google Earth. b Experiment place.
c Course angle. d Velocity
• Two-State KF: The single-rate Kalman filter using only yaw rate measurement.
• Three-State MRKF: Conventional multi-rate Kalman filter using yaw rate and
course angle measurement. During inter-samples, sideslip angle is corrected
based on yaw rate residual only.
• Three-State MROb: From literature review, the enhancement of inter-sample
estimation was proposed by Hara et al. [8]. The key idea of this method is to
hold the real residual to correct the estimated state during inter-samples. The
observer gain is redesigned to confirm the convergence and stability of esti-
mation. This method was applied in hard disk drive system. We re-apply this
method for sideslip angle estimation by holding the real course angle residual
during inter-samples. It is important to notice that, the multi-rate ratio in case of
hard-disk drive (r \ 10) is smaller than the multi-rate ratio of vehicle system,
due to the limitation of GPS receiver (r = 200 in this study). Moreover, vehicle
control system is a time varying system due to the change of road friction
coefficient and velocity. The unknown external disturbance may be introduced
into the system. Therefore, in case of vehicle system, Kalman filter is applied
because it is the optimal linear estimator in sense that no other linear filter can
gives a smaller variance of estimation error.
(a) (b)
0.05 0.05
Beta [rad]
Beta [rad]
0 0
-0.05 Beta -0.05 Beta

Two-State KF Three-State MRKF
20 25 30 35 20 25 30 35
(c) (d)
0.05 0.05
Beta [rad]
Beta [rad]
0 0
-0.05 Beta -0.05 Beta

Three-State MROb Enhanced Three-State MRKF
20 25 30 35 20 25 30 35
(e) Course angle from GPS

(f) 0.06 Beta
1.6 0.055
Yaw angle estimation Three-State MRKF
Attitude [rad]
Beta [rad]
Two-State KF
0.05 Enhanced
1.4 Three-State MRKF
0.045 Three-State MROb
1.2 0.04
0.035
1
0.03
0.8 0.025
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 0.02
22 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 22.9 23
Fig. 8 Lane change test experiment results. a Two-State KF. b Three-State MRKF. c Three-
State MROb. d Enhanced three-state MRKF. e Vehicle attitude. f Inter-sample performance
Figure 8 shows the results of lane-change test on the asphalt road surface. The
real cornering stiffness are Cf = 10,000 [N/rad] and Cr = 10,000 [N/rad]. How-
ever, the cornering stiffness of the estimation model are set as Cfm = 10,000
[N/rad] and Crm = 10,000 [N/rad]. This makes the model error condition for
experiment. Two-State KF shows the poorest estimation performance. Three-State
MRKF shows the better estimation result. The estimation error is reduced when
course angle is updated. However, during inter-samples, sideslip angle is corrected
by only yaw rate measurement, the estimation performance of Three-State MRKF
is degraded. From Fig. 8f, thanks to the prediction of course angle residual,
Enhanced Three-State MRKF shows the best estimation performance. Besides
sideslip angle estimation, yaw angle is estimated at 1 kHz in comparison with
Table 2 Rmsd of sideslip angle estimation

Estimation method RMSD [rad]
Two-state KF 1.02 9 10-2
Three-state MRKF 0.86 9 10-2
Three-state MROb 0.48 9 10-2
Enhanced three-state MRKF 0.36 9 10-2
5 Hz course angle, as shown in Fig. 8e. Root-mean-square-deviation (RMSD)

from measured sideslip angle is calculated for comparison. The results is shown in
Table 2 in which, the proposed method has the smallest RMSD value.
7 Conclusions
From the view of control theory, this paper proposes a new method for enhancing
the multi-rate estimation. During inter-samples, estimated state is corrected with
the predictive measurement residual. The proposed method is applied in sideslip
angle using GPS and multi-rate Kalman filter for vehicle control system. Exper-
iments are conduct to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposal in comparison with
the previous estimation methods. Even under model error, accurate sideslip angle
estimation is achieved. In future works, auto-tuning of process noise and mea-
surement noise covariance matrix will be examined.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Japan Radio Company (JRC) for their
supports of GPS receiver for experiments in this study.
References
1. Wong JY (2001) Theory of ground vehicles, 3rd edn. Wiley, Hoboken

2. Corrsys-Datron http://www.corrsys-datron.com/optical_sensor.htm
3. Geng C, Mostefai L, Denai M, Hori Y (2009) Direct yaw moment control of an in wheel
motored electric vehicle based on body slip angle fuzzy observer. IEEE Trans Industr Electron
56:1411–1419
4. Wang Y, Nguyen BM, Kotchapansompote P, Fujimoto H, Hori Y (2012) Vision-based vehicle
body slip angle estimation with multi-rate kalman filter considering time delay. In: 21st IEEE
international symposium on industrial electronics
5. Bevly DM, Ryu J, Gerdes JC (2006) Integrating INS sensors with GPS measurements for
continuous estimation of vehicle sideslip, roll, and tire cornering stiffness. IEEE Trans Intell
Transp Syst 7(4):483–493
6. Anderson R, Bevly DM (2004) Estimation of slip angles using a model based estimator and
GPS. Am Control Conf 2004:2122–2127
7. Nam K, Oh S, Fujimoto H, Hori Y (2011) Vehicle state estimation for advanced vehicle
motion control using novel lateral tire force sensors. Am Control Conf 2011:4853–4858
8. Hara T, Tomizuka M (1999) Performance enhancement of multi-rate controller for hard disk
drives. IEEE Trans Magn 35(2):898–903
Multi-Gas Sensor by Infrared
Spectrometer
Tetsuya Enomoto, Tomoki Tanemura, Shuichi Yamashita,

Hiroyuki Wado, Yukihiro Takeuchi and Yutaka Hattori
Abstract In order to detect many types of gases (CO2, NOx, SOx, C2H5OH) in the
automotive cabin by infrared absorption sensor, we developed a novel micro
electro mechanical systems (MEMS) based Fabry–Perot spectrometer with an ultra
wide wavelength range (3.20–8.40 lm) compared to previously reported spec-
trometers (typically 2.80–5.80 lm). The wavelength range of a Fabry–Perot
spectrometer is known to increase by increasing the ratio of the refractive indices
of the multilayer mirrors. Thus, a novel mirror structure was proposed replacing
the low refractive index layer of SiO2 (nL = 1.44) with ‘‘air (nL = 1.00)’’ for a
wider wavelength range. To fabricate the proposed structure, the internal stress of
the four ultra-thin polycrystalline silicon films (ca. 320 nm) was controlled tensile
by the deposition temperature. A gas sensor was fabricated using our developed
spectrometer. It was found that the sensor detected CO2 and C2H5OH successfully.
Keywords Infrared absorption sensor Gas sensor Fabry–Perot spectrometer

MEMS
1 Introduction
Recently, there is increasing demand for the detection of many types of gases
(CO2, NOx, SOx, C2H5OH, and so on) in the automotive cabin. There are two types
of gas sensors; chemical sensors and physical sensors. Chemical sensors such as
F2012-D05-003
T. Enomoto (&) T. Tanemura S. Yamashita H. Wado Y. Takeuchi Y. Hattori

e-mail: TETSUYA_ENOMOTO@denso.co.jp
612 T. Enomoto et al.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram Gas absorption Fabry-Perot

Infrared source Infrared sensor
ofinfrared absorption gas cell spectrometer
sensor
Gas molecule
Can package
metal oxide gas sensors cannot identify and quantify more than two gases with a
single sensor because of their lower selectivity for many types of gases [1]. On the
other hand, physical sensors such as infrared absorption sensors detect many types
of gases with a single sensor because of their excellent selectivity for many types
of gases due to the different absorption spectra of the target gases. The infrared
absorption sensor was developed to detect many types of gases [2].
The infrared absorption gas sensor is composed of an infrared source, a spec-
trometer, and an infrared detector as shown in Fig. 1 [3]. In this kind of sensor,
various types of gases are identified using the absorption spectra of the detected
gases and their concentrations are determined by their absorbance. The key device
for this kind of sensor is a spectrometer with an ultra wide wavelength range and a
high spectral resolution in order to be able to successfully detect many types of
gases. There are various spectrometers, such as the Michelson interferometer, the
diffraction grating, and the Fabry–Perot spectrometer (FPS), and so on. The micro
electro mechanical systems (MEMS) based FPS is suitable as a gas sensor because
it has a high spectral resolution and is compact [3–6]. However, the conventional
FPS has a relatively narrow wavelength range, typically 2.80-5.80 lm, which does
not cover the absorption peaks of gases in the automotive cabin as shown in Fig. 2.
In this paper, a novel MEMS based FPS with an ultra-wide wavelength range
(3.20–8.40 lm) is presented. The proposed FPS has multilayer mirrors, which
consist of an air layer embedded in the polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) films.
A gas sensor was fabricated using our developed FPS. The detection of CO2 and
C2H5OH will be described.
2 Design of the Spectrometer
2.1 Optical Design
The FPS is an optical resonator consisting of two parallel mirrors facing each
other. The resonance condition of a FPS is k = 2d/m, where d is the distance of the
two mirrors, k is the wavelength and m is an arbitrary integer. The FPS transmits
only the resonant wavelengths of the incoming light. Therefore, the transmittion
spectrum is tuned by the distance of the mirrors by controlling the electrostatic
Multi-Gas Sensor by Infrared Spectrometer 613
Fig. 2 Absorption spectra of

gases in automotive cabin
1
Absorbance (a.u.)
0.5
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
force between them. The mirrors of the FPS are composed of dielectric multilayer
films. The thickness of these films is represented by kmid/4n, where kmid is the
central wavelength of the wavelength range, and n is the refractive index of each
film. The wavelength range is extended by increasing the ratio of the refractive
indices of the multilayer nH/nL, where suffixes H and L are for the high and low
refractive index of the layers, respectively. To obtain a wavelength range that
includes the absorption peaks of the gases in the automotive cabin ranging from
3.20 to 7.60 lm, a refractive index ratio (nH/nL) of more than 3.00 is required.
The dielectric mirror of the conventional FPS [3 - 6] was composed of Si
(nH = 3.45)/SiO2 (nL = 1.44)/Si (nH = 3.45) layers. The refractive index ratio of
Si/SiO2 was 2.40, and this ratio was less than 3.00. The mirror structure was
proposed replacing the low refractive index layer of SiO2 (nL = 1.44) with air
(nL = 1.00) for a wider wavelength range. The mirror structure of the proposed
FPS was composed of Si (nH = 3.45)/air (nL = 1.00)/Si (nH = 3.45) layers. The
refractive index ratio of the multilayer nH/nL was increased from 2.40 to 3.45, and
this ratio was more than 3.00. The kmid was determined as 4.5 lm which corre-
sponds to the central wavelength of the wavelength range from 3.20 to 7.60 lm.
The thickness of the Si and air layers, which make up the multilayers of the mirror,
was 0.32 and 1.15 lm respectively.
2.2 Structure
The structure of the FPS with an ultra wide wavelength range is shown sche-
matically in Fig. 3. The lower mirror was formed on an Si-substrate. The upper
mirror was formed in the shape of the membrane on the spacer which was formed
on the lower mirror. The upper mirror was moved to the lower mirror by elec-
trostatic force between them. The membrane consists of the mirror region and the
outer region which surrounds the mirror region. The diameter of the membrane
and the mirror region was 1800 and 800 lm, respectively. The mirror region was
divided into many small honeycomb structures to increase its rigidity. All Si layers
were composed of poly-Si.
1800µm
Membrane electrodeA
poly-Si
SiO2 upper mirror

poly-Si electrodeC Lower mirror electrodeB
SiO2
poly-Si
Thermal Oxide
Si-sub
500µm 800µm 500µm
Outer region Mirror region Outer region
Fig. 3 Schemetic diagram of Fabry–Perot spectrometer with ultra-wide wavelength
Fig. 4 Deformation of FPS Incident light

by applied voltage between
upper and lower electrodes
dmin dmax
Interfering light
The Si/air/Si mirrors of the proposed FPS can deform more easily than the
conventional Si/SiO2/Si mirrors of the FPS as shown inFig. 4. The full width at
half the maximum (FWHM) of the transmission spectra from the proposed FPS
can increase, because the distance of the two mirrors can be varied at every point.
In order to prevent the increase of the FWHM, the electrostatic force must be
generated only in the outer region surrounding the mirror region. A three electrode
configuration was used to overcome this issue. Three electrodes were formed in
the lower mirror region (electrode-A), in the lower outer region (electrode-B), and
in the upper mirror region (electrode-C), respectively, as shown in Fig. 3. The
same positive voltage was applied to electrode-A and electrode-C as was applied
to electrode-B to generate an electrostatic force only in the outer region.
These electrodes were formed by an ion implantation process of Si. Electrode-A
was made of n-type Si by implanting phosphorus (1016 cm-3). Electrode-B and
electrode-C were made of p-type Si by implanting boron (1019 cm-3).
Fig. 5 Deposition 100
Internal stress (MPa)

temperature dependence of p-typed poly-Si
the internal stress of the poly- 50
Si
0
-50
n-typed poly-Si
-100
500 550 600 650
Deposition temperature (degree C)
3 Experiment
3.1 FPS Experiment
The internal stress of the poly-Si must be tensile to fabricate this ultra-thin
(320 nm) poly-Si structure without buckling or deformation. However the stress of
the poly-Si is compressive when it is deposited using low pressure chemical
vapour deposition (LP-CVD) at 620 degrees C which is the standard deposition
temperature. In order to make the poly-Si layers tensile, after amorphous depo-
sition of poly-Si at low temperature, it was crystallized by annealing in N2 for 3 h
at 950 °C [7].
The affect of the deposition temperature on the stress of the poly-Si is shown in
Fig. 5. As the deposition temperature becomes lower, the tensile stress of the poly-
Si becomes higher. If the deposition temperature is 540 °C, the stress of n-type
poly-Si by implanted phosphorus (1016 cm-3) and p-type poly-Si by implanted
boron (1019 cm-3) is 74.9 and 61.2 MPa, respectively.
The FPS was fabricated using a standard MEMS process as shown in Fig. 6.
Four poly-Si layers were deposited by LP-CVD at 540 °C, as mentioned above.
Three SiO2 layers which have the role of the sacrificial layer to form the mirrors
and the movable membrane were also deposited by plasma enhanced chemical
vapour deposition. After all layers were deposited, the wafer was annealed for 3 h
at 950 °C to control the stress of the four poly-Si layers. The sacrificial layers
made from SiO2 were released by HF wet etching, and then the wafer was dried by
a supercritical drying process [8, 9] to successfully form the narrow gap between
the The fabricated FPS was observed by optical microscope and scanning electron
microscope. The transmission spectra of the fabricated FPS were measured by
fourier transform infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR).
3.2 Gas Sensor Experiment
A gas sensor was fabricated using the developed FPS with an ultra-wide wave-
length range, and then the gas-sensing performance was characterized. The
operation principle used was Single-Beam Dual-Wavelength measurement. An IR
Thermal oxidation of silicon poly-Si
1st poly-Si deposition SiO2

1st SiO2 deposition and patterning poly-Si
2nd poly-Si deposition SiO2
poly-Si
Create etching hole for lower mirror
Thermal Oxide
2nd poly-Si implant
(n-typed, p-typed) Si-sub
2nd SiO2 deposition

3rd poly-Si deposition
3rd SiO2 deposition and patterning
4th poly-Si deposition
Create etching hole for upper mirror poly-Si/air/poly-Si mirrors
annealing process
The sacrificial etching (wet HF)

Drying process with supercritical fluid
Metal deposition
Fig. 6 The process flow of proposed FPS
Infraredsource
Infrared sensor
Gas
Gas absorption cell

Bandpass filter
CAN package
FPS
Spacer
Infrared detector CAN package
STEM
Spectrometer
Detection circuitry
(a) (b)
Fig. 7 Gas sensor using Fabry–Perot spectrometer with ultra-wide wavelength range a The CAN
packeage structure, b The assembled gas sensor
detector and the FPS were mounted on a stem as shown in Fig. 7a. The stem was
hermetically sealed by a CAN with a band pass filter, which attenuated the light
except for the wavelength range of the FPS, to prevent the infiltration of the
detected gas. The infrared source, a gas absorption cell with a length of 0.05 m, the
CAN package, and the detection circuitry were assembled as shown in Fig. 7b.
The detecting scheme of the proposed sensor was as follows. The infrared
source was electrically modulated, i.e. turned on and off continuously. Light then
entered the gas absorption cell, where part of the photons at a certain wavelength
were absorbed by the target gas. The FPS was tuned so that the transmission
spectrum coincided with the absorption wavelength of the target gases. The signal
amplitude was defined as the signal difference at the on and off of the infrared
source and was recorded by the infrared detector.
Etching Hole
Mirror (Si/Air/Si)
PolySi Air gap 2.0 m
(a) (b)
Fig. 8 Fabricated Fabry–Perot spectrometer with ultra-wide wavelength range, a Top view of
Optical pictures, and b Cross-sectional SEM photograph
The signal amplitude when 100 % N2 (VN2) was detected was recorded as a
reference value, because N2 has a much lower absorption coefficient. The sensor
signal (Abs) by the target gas was defined as Eq. (1).
Vgas
Abs ¼ 1 ð1Þ
VN2
where Vgas is the signal amplitude of detecting the target gases.
The gas concentration dependence of the sensor signal can be represented by
the Lambert–Beer law;
Abs ¼ 1 10aLc ð2Þ
where a is absorption coefficient of the target gas, L is the absorption length

(0.05 m), and c is the gas concentration.
The performance of the sensor was examined by CO2 gas and C2H5OH gas. The
concentration of the supplied CO2 gas was controlled by diluting the mix with N2
gas using a mass flow controller. The range of the concentration was from 1 to 10 %.
C2H5OH gas was made from the liquid phase using N2 bubbling. The concentration
of C2H5OH gas was 8.7 % at 27 °C, which was the measurement temperature
because it corresponded to the saturated vapour pressure.
4 Results and Discussions
4.1 FPS
Figure 8a, b show optical and SEM pictures of the fabricated FPS. No buckling or
deformation and no sticking of the poly-Si layers were observed, as shown in
Fig. 8a, b.
Fig. 9 Transmission spectra 100

of FPSwith Si/air/Si mirrors 3.2 8.4 m
Transmittance (%)
80
60 Experimental
40 spectrum
20
calculated
0 spectrum
2 4 6 8 10
Wavelength ( m)
The experimental transmission spectrum and calculated transmission spectrum

by the matrix method [10] are shown in Fig. 9. The calculated spectrum coincided
closely with the experimental one. The wavelength range of the FPS with Si/air/Si
mirrors was from 3.20 to 8.40 lm, which is much wider than the conventional FPS
with Si/SiO2/Si mirrors (typically 2.80–5.80 lm). Therefore, the wavelength range
of our FPS includes the absorption peaks of gases in the automotive cabin (CO2,
NOx, SOx and C2H5OH) ranging from 3.20 to 7.60 lm.
Figure 10 shows the transmission spectra of the FPS when it was driven by an
electrostatic force. The peak wavelength was shifted from 4.50 to 3.20 lm by the
electrostatic force. Its shift range included the absorption spectra of CO2 and
C2H5OH. However, the peak wavelength shift by the electrostatic force was
limited by the pull-in phenomenon which was a unique problem associated with
the electrostatic device. The peak shift needs to be widened in the future. The
FWMH of the FPS was less than 60 nm in the wavelength region from 4.5 to
3.25 lm as shown in Fig. 10. The FWHM was almost independent of the elec-
trostatic force. This indicates that the novel electrode structures avoided the
deforming mirror, as mentioned above. This FPS had high spectral resolution to
identify multiple gases.
4.2 Multi Gas Sensor
Figure 11 shows the dependence of the sensor signal defined as Eq. (1) on the
transmission wavelength of the FPS with dots when the sensor is exposed to 10 %
CO2 and 8.70 % C2H5OH.
Figure 11 also shows the absorption coefficients of the gases with a continuous
line for comparison. The sensor signals had peak wavelengths around 4.25 and
3.35 lm, respectively. These peak wavelengths corresponded to the absorption
peaks of CO2 and C2H5OH, respectively. This indicates that the fabricated sensor
successfully detects CO2 and C2H5OH. However, a sensor signal detecting
C2H5OH was increased at a wavelength of around 4.00 lm which corresponded to
the low absorption of C2H5OH. These remaining sensor signals may have origi-
nated from the scattering of C2H5OH droplets on the gas absorption cell. On the
other hand, the spectra of the sensor signal were wider than the absorptance spectra
Fig. 10 Transmission 100

0V
spectra of FPS when it was 10 7V 5V
Transmittance (%)
FWHM (nm)
driven by the electrostatic 10.2V 10V 9V
force
50
5
0 0
3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Wavelength ( m)
Fig. 11 Wavelength 0.15

dependence of the sensor
Sensor signal (a.u.)
signal two different gases

(CO2, C2H5OH) 0.1 C2H5OH CO2
0.05
0
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Wavelength (mm)
Fig. 12 CO2 concentration 0.10

dependence of the sensor Theoretical value
Sensor signal (a.u.)
signal
0.05
Experimental value
0.00
0 5 10
Concentration of CO 2 (%)
of these gases. This difference could have been caused by an uncollimated beam
into the FPS.
The sensor signal dependence on CO2 concentration fitted according to the
Lambert–Beer law as shown in Fig. 12. The experimental value had good
agreement with the theoretical value of the Lambert–Beer law. This means that the
sensor determines the concentration of gases.
These results indicate that the gas sensor using an FPS with a wide wavelength
range is capable of detecting multiple gases.
5 Conclusion
To achieve an infrared multi-gas sensor, an FPS with an ultra wide wavelength

range (3.20–8.40 lm) was developed. A novel mirror structure of the FPS was
proposed replacing the low refractive index layer of SiO2 (n = 1.44) with air
(n = 1.00) for a wider wavelength range. To fabricate the proposed structure, the
internal stress of the poly-Si was controlled by deposition temperature. Moreover,
a three electrode configuration was used to avoid an increase of the FWHM of the
transmission spectra from the FPS. The wavelength range of the FPS with Si/air/Si
mirrors was from 3.20 to 8.40 lm, which is much wider than the conventional FPS
with Si/SiO2/Si mirrors. The FWHM of the transmission spectra from the FPS was
less than 60 nm when the FPS was driven by the electrostatic force in a wave-
length range from 4.5 to 3.25 lm
An infrared absorption sensor using our FPS was fabricated to identify CO2 and
C2H5OH, which had an absorption peak around 4.25 and 3.35 lm respectively.
These absorption peak wavelengths corresponded to the peak wavelengths of the
sensor signals. Thus this sensor successfully identified multiple gases (CO2,
C2H5OH). The CO2 concentration dependence of the sensor signals had good
agreement with the theoretical value of the Lambert–Beer law. Thus this sensor
determined the concentration of CO2. These results indicate that a gas sensor using
an FPS with a wide wavelength range is capable of detecting multiple gases with a
high degree of accuracy.
References
1. Chang SC (1979) Thin-film semiconductor NOx senor. IEEE Tran Elect 26(12):1875
2. Meléndez J, de Castro AJ, López F, Meneses J (1995) Spectrally selective gas cell for
electrooptical infrared compact multigas sensor. Sens Actuators A 47(1–3):417–421
3. Norbert N, et al. (2005) Micromachined mid-infrared tunable Fabry-Porot filter.
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4. Kentaro S et al (2003) Wide wavelength range tunable Fabry-Perot filter for gas
measurement. IEEJ Trans Sens Micromach 123(10):392–397
5. Blomberg M et al (1997) Electrically tunable micromachined fabry-perot infermeter in gas
analysis. Physica Scripta T69:119–121
6. Norbert N, et al. (2003) Tunable Fabry-Perot-interferometer for 3–5 lm wavelength with
bulk micromachined reflector carrier. In: MOEMS and miniaturized systems III, proceedings,
Vol 4983. p 215–226
7. Elwenspoek M, Jansen HV (2004). In: Elwenspoek M, Jansen HV (eds) Silicon
micromachining. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 419. ISBN 0521607671
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10. Heavens OS (1955) Optical properties of thin solid films. Butterworth Scientific Publications,
London
Dynamic Characteristics Analysis
and Experimental Study of Multilayered
Piezoelectric Actuator for Automotive
Applications
Chuanliang Shen, Xuewei Song, Jingshi Dong and Shuming Chen
Abstract The dynamic characteristics of multilayered piezoelectric actuator (MPA)

are analyzed by using the Finite element method (FEM) and experimental methods.
The results of FEM show that the resonant frequency of expending mode is 38.5 kHz.
The result of impedance analysis is 68.75 kHz and the result of sine sweep method is
7 kHz. The Comparative analysis of FEM and experimental results shows: the Resin
encapsulation structure which is not considered in finite element model affect the
accuracy of the analysis result; the impedance analysis method has a high accuracy for
the test of; the power limit of voltage source and the capacitive characteristic of
multilayered piezoelectric actuators lead to a fast decrease of displacement amplitude.
Keywords Multilayered piezoelectric actuators

Finite element method

Dynamic characteristics Experimental study Impedance analysis
1 Introduction
Multilayered piezoelectric actuator (MPA) is an Electrical—Mechanical converter

which is co-fired by many thin layers of piezoelectric ceramics. The MPA features
high resolution, high response, low power consumption and no electromagnetic
F2012-D05-004
C. Shen (&) X. Song S. Chen

State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun,
130025, China
e-mail: shencl@jlu.edu.cn
J. Dong
School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China
622 C. Shen et al.
Fig. 1 The structure of insulant

multilayered piezoelectric
actuator (MPA) Internal electrode
External electrode
Piezoelectric ceramic
noise and it is widely used in the areas of fuel injection, vibration and noise
control, energy harvesting, active engine mount and active damper [1–5]. Com-
pared to the piezoelectric bimorph actuator, the MPA has the advantages of high
energy convert efficiency, high output force, high response and stable output
displacement. Compared to the stacked piezoelectric actuator, the MPA charac-
terized small volume, low drive voltage and convenient usage. The characteristics
of high response and high precision make MPA a superior choice to replace the
traditional piezoelectric actuator and the electromagnetic motor. The current
research of MPA is focusing the applying technology [1–5], and the rare research
is about the dynamic analysis of the MPA. The dynamic characteristics of MPA
are studied by the theoretical and FEM analysis together with experimental study
based on actual structure of MPA. The parameters of dynamic characteristic
provide a basis to the establishment of the entire system model.
2 Theoretical Modeling of MPA
2.1 Structure of MPA
MPA is formed by many layers of piezoelectric ceramics which are co-fired

mechanically in series and electrically in parallel as shown in Fig. 1. Because the
polarization direction follows the axle of MPA, the total displacement of MPA is
the sum of every single layer. There is isolating glass instead of adhesive material
between the ceramic layers and the external electrodes are silver-palladium alloy.
The distance between two electrodes is about 100 lm and the drive effect can be
achieved by a certain low voltage.
2.2 The Equivalent Model of MPA
The MPA is equivalent to a circuit [6] electrically as shown in Fig. 2. R0 is the

internal resistance of the power supply, Rp is the equivalent resistance of MPA, Cp
is the equivalent capacity of MPA, ui is the input voltage and uo is the actual
working voltage.
Dynamic Characteristics Analysis and Experimental Study 623
Fig. 2 The equivalent circuit

model of MPA Ro
ui(t) RP CP u0(t)
It can be derived from the current law of Kirchhoff

iR0 ¼ iRp þ iCp ð1Þ
The parameters of Eq. (1) can be derived based on the Ohm’s law
ui ðtÞ uo ðtÞ
iR0 ¼ ð2Þ
Ro
uo ðtÞ
iRp ¼ ð3Þ
Rp
duo ðtÞ
iCp ¼ Cp ð4Þ
dt
By substituting Eqs. (2, 3) and Eq. (4) into Eq. (1), it can be obtained
duo ðtÞ Ro þ Rp
Ro Cp þ uo ðtÞ ¼ ui ðtÞ ð5Þ
dt Rp
Make a Laplace transformation on the both sides of Eq. (5)
Ro þ R p
Ro Cp sUo ðsÞ þ Uo ðsÞ ¼ U i ðsÞ ð6Þ
Rp
The transfer function of MPA is obtained
Rp
Ro þRp
Gpie ðsÞ ¼ Ro Rp C p
ð7Þ
Ro þRp s þ 1
Because of R0 \\ Rp, Eq.(7) can be simplified

1
Gpie ðsÞ ¼ ð8Þ
Ro C p s þ 1
The MPA is a first order inertia element in the form of electricity from Eq. (8)
and the time constant is RoCp. In order to enhance the response speed of the MPA,
reducing the internal resistance and the equivalent capacity is the effective way to
reduce the time constant, and a faster response can be achieved.
624 C. Shen et al.
3 The Dynamic Simulation of MPA
3.1 FEM Modeling
Firstly, the solid model of MPA is established. The thickness of thin layer pie-
zoelectric ceramic which is used to form the MPA is about 20–100 lm. Hundreds
of layers with rectangle cross section adopt the Ag-Pb electrodes and the thickness
of an electrode is about 6–10 lm. The type of MPA is AE0505D16 and it is
dissected for structure analysis. Peel off the epoxy resin coat, the number of
piezoelectric ceramic layers and the structural parameters can be measured. The
main parameters are the thickness T, the length of a side B for the piezoelectric
ceramic layer and the number of layers n.
The multilayered structure of piezoelectric ceramic is modeled in the FEM
software. The material properties of the piezoelectric ceramic are defined such as
the density, Poisson’s ratio and the piezoelectric stiffness matrix. The size of MPA
is 5 9 5 9 20 mm, and number of ceramics layers n = 400. The combination of
piezoelectric ceramic layer and electrode is realized by the command of VGLUE.
Then the element type of ceramic layers is defined and the solid model of MPA is
meshed. The FEM model of MPA is established.
3.2 The Modal Analysis of MPA
The results of modal analysis included the natural frequency and vibration mode
shows the vibrating characteristic of designed structure. The goal of modal anal-
ysis for the MPA is to obtain the natural frequency and corresponding vibration
mode. And it is also to check whether the resonance-frequency is at the range of
working frequency. The natural frequency is higher than the working frequency
means that the system has a good dynamic characteristic and this component can
not influence the bandwidth of the whole system. The natural frequency is in the
range of working frequency means that this component is the weakness and the
stiffness of the component should be enhanced to a higher frequency compared
with the working frequency. Another way is to increase the structure damping
factor to suppress the vibration amplitude corresponding to the frequency. That is
to reduce the damage of the resonance.
The established FEM model is analyzed. The vibration status of the MPA is
freedom. The orders of modal analysis and frequency range are defined. The
modals of the first 8 orders are solved by using the FEM software. The natural
frequencies are shown in Table 1 and the modes are shown in Fig. 3. Table 1 and
Fig. 3 show that the 1st mode and the 2nd mode of MPA have the same frequency
and both of them are bending mode. The 4th mode and the 5th mode also have the
same frequency and both of them are bending mode. These results are determined
by the symmetric structure. The MPA is a cube with the size of 5 9 5 9 20 mm.
Table 1 The FEM results of natural frequency for MPA

Order 1 2 3 4
Natural Frequency/kHz 5.4 5.4 15.9 26.3
Order 5 6 7 8
Natural Frequency/kHz 26.3 35.8 47.8 58.9
The length direction follows the axle of Z and the MPA is an axis-symmetry
structure in the directions of x and y. So the vibration characteristics of these two
directions are the same and the mode frequencies are equal.
The first order frequency of the MPA is about 5.4 kHz means that the MPA
features high natural frequency and high dynamic characteristic. The 6th mode
which follows the displacement direction of the MPA is stretching vibration with
the frequency of 35.8 kHz. The actual working mode is stretching deformation
along the length direction (the direction of layer’s thickness). So the dynamic
characteristic of MPA will not restrain the response of the whole system and it will
benefit the enhancement of the dynamic characteristic in mechanical structures.
4 The Dynamic Characteristics Test of the MPA
4.1 The Impedance Test and Analysis of the MPA
The dynamic characteristics of the MPA refer to the frequency response which
means the response speed corresponding to the input. It is an important index which
is to evaluate the high speed characteristic of a system. In the resonance status of
piezoelectric vibrator, the maximum current is appeared at the value of minimum
impedance. Therefore, the impedance of piezoelectric vibrator can be tested instead
of displacement amplitude to evaluate the dynamic characteristic. The frequency of
minimum impedance is the resonance frequency. The Agilent 4294A impedance
analyzer is adopted to test the impedance characteristic of the MPA with the type of
AE0505D16. The open circuit and short circuit compensations are carried on firstly.
Then the two electrode wires are connected to the terminals of the impedance
analyzer. The start frequency and stop frequency are set for the test of impedance
characteristic curve which is tested as shown in Fig. 4.
The sweep range is 1–150 kHz. Figure 4 shows that the impedance decreases
sharply in the range of 10 kHz. There is a peak in the frequency of 80 kHz and
other part has a even shape. The impedance angle in the range of 60–90 kHz
change obviously. It is also in the range of ±90°. The above change shows that the
MPA produces resonance in the range of frequency. It is known from the reso-
nance characteristic of non-loss piezoelectric vibrator that the resonance frequency
of piezoelectric vibrator is the frequency corresponding to the minimum imped-
ance. The influence of the loss is ignored because of the small value of the loss.
626 C. Shen et al.
Fig. 3 The vibration modes of MPA
Fig. 4 The impedance characteristics of MPA(1 kHz*150 kHz)
So the frequency corresponding to the minimum impedance can be recognized

to the resonance frequency. The impedance angle changes little in the frequency
range of 1 kHz-60 kHz. It just changes in the region of -90° to -80°. It can be
proved that the MPA has a characteristic of high capacity. The further analysis of
impedance characteristic for the MPA by changing the width of the frequency
window which is from 50 to 100 kHz shows clear impedance characteristic.
Fig. 5 The impedance characteristics of MPA (50 kHz–150 kHz)
Figure 5a shows that the value of impedance |z| for the frequency of 68.75 kHz
reaches the minimum value of 146.71 mX and the phase angle is -3.70°. Because
the impedance reaches a minimum value while the current reaches a maximum
value the MPA is in the status of resonance. This also means that the MPA has
maximum output displacement amplitude and has maximum power consumption.
Figure 5b shows that the value of impedance |z| for the frequency of 80.5 kHz
reaches the peak value of 38.18 X and the phase angle is -15.58°. The impedance
value to the curser is the maximum and the impedance angle is -15.5803°. This
frequency is the inverse resonance frequency according to the resonance charac-
teristic of piezoelectric vibrator [7].
The results of impedance analysis show that the resonance frequency of the
MPA is 68.75 kHz which is in agreement with the frequency value from the
producer. The impedance method for obtaining the frequency characteristic of
MPA is proved to be an effective way with high precision. The result of FEM is
35.8 kHz which is different from the result of impedance analysis because the
epoxy resin coat is ignored in the procedure of FEM modeling. While the epoxy
resin coat has a high stiffness which will increase the stiffness of the MPA.
Therefore, a lower result than the actual MPA is obtained. On the other hand, the
function of epoxy resin coat is the reason of constraining the first 5 orders vibration
mode except protecting the internal piezoelectric ceramic layers. Then the
stretching mode could be the first vibration mode of the MPA.
4.2 The Frequency Characteristic Test of the MPA
The direct way to test the frequency characteristic is utilizing the sweep method.
The vibration amplitude according to the different frequency is recorded. The test
diagram is shown in Fig. 6.
The test result of magnitude-frequency characteristic for the MPA is shown in
Fig. 7. The bandwidth (the frequency corresponding to -3 dB) is about 7 kHz.
628 C. Shen et al.
AG1200 Signal LV1610 Doppler CF5220 Fourier

Generator Vibrometer Analyzer
MPA Data
7058 Amplifier
output
Fig. 6 The test diagram of dynamic response
Fig. 7 The amplitude- 1

frequency characteristic of 0
MPA
-1
G /dB
-2
-3
-4
-5 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
F /Hz
The magnitude-frequency characteristic shows that the MPA has no obvious

resonance in the range of 1–10 kHz. So there is no resonance occurs in this
frequency range. That is to say that the resonance frequency is higher than 10 kHz.
The curve in Fig. 7 shows that the amplitude decreases sharply after the frequency
of 7 kHz; nevertheless, the impedance test result is 68.75 kHz. There is a big
difference between 7 and 68.75 kHz. Because the MPA has a high capacity which
is in the order of micro-farad the load impedance decreases along with the
increasing of power driving frequency. The output current of the power amplifier
goes up rapidly while the power of the amplifier is limited. So the voltage acted on
the MPA declines dramatically and then reduces the output amplitude of
displacement.
5 Conclusion
The dynamic characteristics of MPA are analyzed by using the Finite element
method (FEM) and experimental methods. The MPA is modeled according to the
actual detailed structure and the modal analysis is done by FEM software. The
frequency response characteristics are tested by impedance analysis method and
sine wave sweep method. The first 8 order natural frequencies are obtained by
using FEM. The FEM results show that the resonant frequency of expending mode
is 38.5 kHz. The result of impedance analysis is 68.75 kHz. The result of sine
sweep method is 7 kHz. The Comparative analysis of FEM and experimental

results shows: the resin encapsulation structure which is not considered in finite
element model affects the accuracy of the analysis result and gets a higher fre-
quency result; the impedance analysis method has a high accuracy for the test of
natural frequency; the power limit of voltage source and the capacitive charac-
teristic of multilayered piezoelectric actuators lead to a fast decrease of dis-
placement amplitude. The low capacitance and high power of supply can enhance
the amplitude-frequency characteristic. All the results show that the MPA has fast
frequency response. And the MPA has good potentials in many applications of
automotive engineering.
Acknowledgments This work is supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China
(51005092, 51175218) and Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education of
China (20090061120092). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations
expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
sponsoring institution. Song Xuewei is the corresponding author of this work.
References
1. Senousy MS, Rajapakse RKND, Mumford D, Gadala MS (2009) Self-heat generation in

piezoelectric stack actuators used in fuel injectors. Smart Mater Struct 18(4):1–11
2. Satkoski Chris A, Shaver Gregory M, More R, Meckl P, Memering D, Venkataraman S, Syed
J, Carmona-Valdes J (2011) Dynamic modeling of a piezoelectric actuated fuel injector. J Dyn
Syst, Measur Control, Trans ASME 133(5):1–8
3. Vasques CMA, Rodriques JD (2008) Dias. Numerical and experimental comparison of the
adaptive feedforward control of vibration of a beam with hybrid active-passive damping
treatments. J Intell Mater Syst Struct 19(7):805–813
4. Feenstra J, Granstrom J, Sodano H (2008) Energy harvesting through a backpack employing a
mechanically amplified piezoelectric stack. Mech Syst Sign Process 22(3):721–734
5. Sui Li, Xiong Xin, Shi Gengchen (2012) Piezoelectric actuator design and application on
active vibration control. Phys Procedia 25:1388–1396
6. Cui Y (2003) Study on piezoelectric ceramic self-sensing actuators and the control method of
micro-motion worktable driven by it. Dalian university of technology, Dalian
7. Li Y, Qin Z, Zhou Z (1984) Piezoelectric and ferroelectric materials measurement. Science
Press, Beijing
Intelligent Sensor Bearing for Torque
Ripple Reduction
Yi Yuan, Mathieu Hubert, Stephane Moisy, Francois Auger

and Luc Loron
Abstract Permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSM) are widely used in

the automobile industry (E.g. EV&HEV, EPS). However, an important problem of
PMSMs is that its parasitic torques may degrade the performances of the drive
system. In the vehicle, they bring uncomfortable feelings to passengers. These
torque ripples generally vary periodically with the rotor position and lead to speed
ripple. To suppress these speed ripples, an iterative learning control (ILC) is used,
because it is a good candidate for dealing with periodical errors. In this paper, a
new technique called ‘‘intelligent sensor bearing’’ is proposed and analyzed.
Compared to the existed torque ripple reduction approaches which implement the
current compensation calculation in the controller, this technique is realized by
modifying the feedback speed information of sensor. ILC is integrated into this
technique for computing the modified speed information. Simulation and experi-
ment are used to check the effectiveness of this approach. Results prove this
intelligent sensor technique has a good performance.
Keywords Sensor bearing PMSM EPS Iterative learning control Torque

ripples
F2012-D05-009
Y. Yuan (&) M. Hubert S. Moisy

ADC-SI, SKF France, Paris, France
e-mail: yi.yuan@univ-nantes.fr
Y. Yuan F. Auger L. Loron
IREENA laboratory, University of Nantes, Nantes, France
632 Y. Yuan et al.
1 Introducion
PMSMs are appealing candidates for many high performance applications in the
automotive industry, because of their attractive characteristic, such as high torque
density, high efficiency and high reliability. However, inherent torque ripples of
PMSM are considered as a serious problem in many industrial applications, par-
ticularly in the low speed and high torque situation. These torque ripples usually
lead to a degradation of PMSM drive system performance and may bring vibra-
tions and noise, which strongly influence the vehicle comfortability. Hence,
PMSM torque ripple reduction is a valuable and popular topic in both the auto-
mobile industry and the academic research.
Currently two kinds of methods are used to reduce the torque ripple [1]. The
first one focuses on the machine itself, optimizing the machine structure. However,
special designs increase the complexity of the machine, hence it is a kind of fixed
and expensive method. The other one is based on the use of advanced control
methods. Since the controller is a necessary part of the PMSM drive system, this
kind of solution does not add any extra cost for torque ripple reduction. Moreover,
active control algorithms can be easily matched to any kind of machine.
Several sources of torque ripples such as cogging torque, harmonic torque,
current scaling error, inverter defect and mechanical unbalance may occur in a
PMSM. Most of them are depending on the rotor position only. Hence, they result
in periodical oscillations of the machine speed and torque. Since the torque ripple
reduction can be considered as a kind of periodic disturbance rejection problem,
the ILC technique, as an iterative control method, naturally fits this goal, as already
reported in [2–5]. As other advanced control methods, the ILC technique is usually
implemented inside the controller also, which means that in the automobile
industry, to reduce the torque ripple by the ILC technique, engineers have to
redesign the system controller. Indeed, sensor, as a fundamental part of the PMSM
drive system, can take place of controller for embedding the ILC technique. The
sensor including advanced method is called intelligent sensor. This paper reports
on the possibility of using this intelligent sensor to reduce the torque ripple and
presents the implement details.
This paper is organized as follows: Firstly, the PMSM mathematic equations
and a conventional PMSM drive system are presented, and the different kinds of
torque ripples are discussed. Secondly, the nature of ILC technique is introduced,
and its several control principles are studied. Moreover, the possibility of the
intelligent sensor technique is analyzed and the use of intelligent sensor to reduce
torque ripples is investigated. Finally, both simulation and experiment are used to
verify the correction and effectiveness of this new technique under several dif-
ferent situations.
Intelligent Sensor Bearing for Torque Ripple Reduction 633
2 PMSM Model and Drive System
Under the assumptions that the PMSM is unsaturated and that eddy currents and
hysteresis losses are negligible, the stator d-q axis voltage equations of the PMSM
in the synchronous reference frame are given by [6]:
dwd dwq
ud ¼ Rs id þ xe wq uq ¼ Rs iq þ þ xe wd ð1Þ
dt dt
where wd ¼ Ld id þ W, wq ¼ Lq iq , xe is the electric angular speed, ud and uq are
the d-q axis voltages, id and iq are the d-q axis currents, Ld and Lq are the d-q axis
inductances, Rs is the stator resistance, wd and wq are the d-q axis flux and W is the
rotor flux.
In the synchronous rotating reference frame, the rotor flux is a periodic function
of he , the order of its harmonics being integer multiples of 6 [6]:
W ¼ W0 þ W cosð6h6 Þ þ W cosð12h12 Þ ð2Þ
where he is the electric angle, W0 is the fundamental component of the rotor flux,
W6 and W12 are the coefficients of 6 and 12 harmonic components. The resulting
electromagnetic torque Te is
3 3
Te ¼ np ðwd iq wq id Þ ¼ np ðWiq þ ðLd Lq Þid iq Þ ð3Þ
2 2
where np is the number of pole pairs. Equation 4 shows that the PMSM electro-
magnetic torque consists of two parts: the main and the reaction torque. With a
field oriented control of the PMSM, the stator current will usually be controlled to
obtain a right angle between stator current and rotor flux (id ¼ 0AÞ and therefore
not to contribute to magnetization, but only to torque production:
3
Te ¼ np Wiq ð4Þ
2
Finally, the mechanical angular speed is related to the torque ripple through [6]
Eq. 5.
dxm dh
J ¼ ðTe Tl Tfric Þ ¼ xe ¼ np xm ð5Þ
dt dt
where J is the rotor inertia, Te is the load torque, Tl is the friction torque, Tfric is the
electrical speed xm is the mechanical speed.
Figure 1 shows a PMSM drive system scheme, where two closed-loops are
used. The external one is the speed loop and the inner one is the current loop. One
speed controller and one current controller are used to control this system and both
of them are usually implemented inside a digital controller. In practice, if we want
634 Y. Yuan et al.
Fig. 1 The PMSM drive system scheme
to improve the system performance by adding a new control method, the algorithm
of this method is also realized in this controller and influences the whole system by
modifying the current information.
3 Torque Ripples Overview
Several kinds of parasitic torque ripples [4] such as cogging torque, harmonic
torque, offset torque and mechanical bias torque exist in PMSM. In many com-
mercially available machines, cogging torque has a nominal value of 5–10 % of
the rated torque [6], therefore it is the main target of the torque ripple reduction.
On the other hand, compared to other torque ripples, the harmonic torque is
relatively more important. Their nature and model are briefly presented in this
section.
3.1 Cogging Torque
Cogging torque [6] manifests itself by the tendency of the rotor to align in a
number of stable positions, even when the machine is unexcited. It is caused by the
interaction between the magnet flux and the stator slots [7]. An approximation
expression of Tcog is
Tcog ðhm Þ ¼ K1 sinðn1 zhm Þ þ K2 sinðn3 zhm Þ þ K3 sinðn3 zhm Þ ð6Þ
where z is the stator slot number and ni is the number which can make nz=2np an
integer, Ki is the coefficient which is determined by the machine structure.
Equation 6 indicates that cogging torque is a function of the mechanical angular
position.
3.2 Harmonic Torque
Harmonic torque is caused by the interaction between the stator current and the
rotor magnetic field [8]. Substituting Eq. 2 into Eq. 4 leads to:
3 3
Te ¼ T0 þ ðT6 þ T12 þ . . .Þ ¼ np iq W0 þ np iq ðW6 cosðhe Þ þ W12 cosðhe Þ. . .Þ
2 2
ð7Þ
This equation shows that the electric torque can be separated into two parts: one
is the product of the flux fundamental component and current, the other one is the
product of the flux harmonic components and current, which is called harmonic
torque and depend on the electrical angle. Since he ¼ np hm , the harmonic torque
can also be considered as a function of the mechanical angle. According to this, the
cogging torque, the harmonic torque and their sum are all functions of the
mechanical angle [9].
4 ILC Technique Introduction
Iterative Learning Control (ILC) is based on the notion that the performance of a
system that executes the same task several times can be improved by learning from
the previous executions (trials, iterations, passes) [10]. Compared to other kinds of
active control methods, it has the following advantages: it changes the control
signal, which means that it does not need to change the structure of the previous
control system, and it is not sensitive to the parameter variation of the controlled
object. In fact, a successful implementation of ILC can even be done without
knowing the model of the controlled process.
If a discrete-time, linear time-invariant (LTI) dynamic system is considered
here, defined as
yi ½k ¼ PðzÞusi ½k þ d½k ð8Þ
where i is the iteration index, k is the relative time index and k 2 ð0; . . .; N 1Þ, N
is the length of an iteration. Then the absolute time index is j ¼ ni þ k, n is the
number of iteration, z is the forward time-shift operator, usi is the control signal, d is
an exogenous signal that repeats at each iteration, y is the system output and P
represents the system transfer function. A widely used ILC learning algorithm is
ui ½k þ 1 ¼ QðqÞui1 ½k þ LðqÞei1 ½k þ 1 ð9Þ
where the LTI dynamic QðqÞ and LðqÞ are called the Q-filter and learning function
respectively, u is the output signal of the ILC algorithm and the ei ¼ yref ym is
the control error yref is the reference input and ym the measured output.
636 Y. Yuan et al.
As an iterative method, ILC has a good performance when tracking a periodic

reference or rejecting a repetitive disturbance. A PMSM with periodic torque
ripple could be regarded as a process with a periodic disturbance. Therefore, it is
reasonable to choose ILC for achieving torque ripple reduction.
For the ILC to be effective, the following basic postulates are required [11]:
(1) Each iteration (pass, cycle, batch, repetition) ends in a fixed time of duration.
(2) Invariance of the system dynamics is ensured throughout the repetition.
(3) The output yi ½k is measured in a deterministic way.
The stability of this controller can be assured by the following criterion [10]:
qðQ LPÞ\1 ð10Þ
where qðAÞ is the spectral radius of the matrix A. However, this condition can only
guarantee the stability of the ILC control system, in practice, we hope the system is
stable with its error converging into a small value. This kind of stability is called
monotonic stability and is assured by the following criterion
rðQ LPÞ\1 ð11Þ
where rðAÞ is the maximum singular value matrix A.
On the other side, the steady state performance of ILC is derived from the
amplitude of the asymptotic error. The ILC asymptotic error e1 is given by [10]
e1 ¼ ðI þ PðI QÞ1 LÞÞ1 ðyref dÞ ð12Þ

In Publications [2–4], the ILC controller and the PI speed controller are used in
parallel. ILC input is the speed error information between the reference speed and
the measured speed and ILC output is a current signal [12, 13].
5 Intelligent Sensor
According to the basic PMSM control knowledge, we know that when the sensor is
able to provide the true speed information to the controller, the controlling signal
based on this correct information makes the PMSM generate a torque with
unwanted ripples. Since the speed-loop controls current though a PI controller, the
feedback speed information can affect the current signal which is the usual con-
trolled object for torque ripple minimization. Therefore, in order to decrease the
torque ripple, we can modify the speed information. Since the sensor is responsible
for providing the speed and position information, the active control method which
is used to control the speed information can be accomplished in the sensor. It
means that the sensor will provide a modified speed signal which contains not only
the true information but also the additional information which is calculated by the
active control method and is used to minimize the torque ripple. In this paper, such
Fig. 2 The PMSM drive system with the intelligent sensor scheme
Fig. 3 The experimental bench and the detail of the SKF intelligent sensor bearing
torque ripple reduction strategy is called intelligent sensor technique. Consider

SKF sensor bearing, where sensor is integrated in the bearing of PMSM, therefore,
the intelligent sensor can enable the bearing be capable of reducing torque ripples.
This kind of bearing is called intelligent sensor bearing.
In this paper, ILC technique is chosen to take the task of the torque ripple
reduction. Figure 2 shows a scheme of a PMSM drive system using an intelligent
sensor basing on the ILC technique. In this case, ILC algorithm is embedded inside
the sensor, its input is speed error e which is provided by a high-pass filter and its
output xl is calculated by Eq. 9. Finally, a new feedback speed information xc
which can reduce the PMSM torque ripple is obtained by xm þ xl . Note that there
is no any modification of the conventional PMSM drive system. Therefore this
technique may be used to improve a previously designed controller thanks to a
replacement of the position sensor. The advantage of this technique is that it can
decrease the complexity of the torque ripple reduction application for the PMSM
638 Y. Yuan et al.
Table 1 The PMSM parameters

Rated power 1.4 kW Rated speed 2,000 rpm
Stator resistance 0.2 X Stator inductance 4 mH
Flux linkage 0.17 Wb Number of poles 8
Inetia 0.047 kg.m Number of slots 12
Fig. 4 Simulation results
Fig. 5 dSPACE based experimental bench results
drive system designer. Since the torque ripple reduction algorithm is integrated in
the sensor bearing, the previously designed PMSM control system does not need to
be modified.
6 Simulation and Experiment
Firstly, Matlab/Simulink as a simulation platform is used to verify the effective-

ness of the proposed approach. To testify the method practical performance, a
dSPACE based experimental bench with SKF intelligent sensor bearing is chosen,
as shown in Fig. 3. This experimental system includes following components, HP

mobile work station, Dspace DS1005 Controller, dSPACE Power Unit, PMSM
used for Renault Mégane II EPS, SKF sensors. The machine parameters are
illustrated in Table 1.
In the simulation, PI current parameters, to avoid the current overshoot, the
proportional component is chosen as 0.2 and the integral component is chosen as
10. PI speed controller according to Ziegler-Nichols tuning principle, its propor-
tional component and integral component are chosen as 0.1 and 0.5 respectively.
The ILC parameters Q and L are chosen as 0.9 and 0.015 separately.
Depend on these parameters, a simulation with a reference speed 120 rpm and a
reference torque 10 N.m has been done, and both speed and torque results are
shown in Fig. 4, which shows after using of the ILC at 1s, the amplitude of speed
peak-to-peak decreases from 0.43 to 0.05 rpm and the amplitude of torque peak-
to-peak decreases from 7.52 to 1.91 N.m. Therefore in the simulation, this intel-
ligent sensor is capable of eliminating 89 % speed ripples and 75 % torque ripple.
An experiment with three different speeds 50, 60 and 70 rpm was realized in
our experimental bench. Its results are shown in Fig. 5, where two figures show the
speed ripple situations without and with the intelligent sensor respectively. The
speed peak-to-peak without the intelligent is around 12.2 rpm, and the speed peak-
to-peak with the intelligent is nearly 5.5 rpm, therefore 55 % speed ripple was
reduced by the intelligent sensor. Meanwhile, we notice that the intelligent sensor
can keep its efficient in various speeds.
7 Conclusion
Utilization of the SKF intelligent sensor bearing to solve PMSM torque ripple
problem is proposed in this paper. The possibility of an original idea of embedding
the intelligent control method in the sensor bearing, replacing of traditional
approaches which implemented in the controller, is carefully analyzed. The first
laboratory simulations and experimental measurements have shown a good effi-
ciency of this intelligent sensor bearing. There is no denying that the arrival of this
new technology can alleviate the burden of the automobile engineer who needs to
handle the PMSM torque ripple reduction problem and its simply realization is
able to accelerate the project progress, winning the time and the profit.
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4. Qian WZ, Panda SK, Xu JX (2004) Torque ripple minimization in PM synchronous motors
using iterative learning control. IEEE Trans Power Electron 19(2):272–279
5. Yuan Y, Auger F, Loron L, Debrailly F, Hubert M (2011) Design of a lying sensor for
permanent magnet synchronous machine torque ripple reduction using the iterative learning
control technique. In: Proceedings IEEE international conference on power electronics and
drive systems, Singapore, December 2011
6. Quang NP, Dittrich JA (2008) Vector control of three-phase AC machines. Springer,
Germany
7. Krishnan R (2009) Permanent magnet synchronous and brushless DC motor drives. CRC
Press, USA
8. Zhu ZQ, Ruangsinchaiwanich S, Schofield N, Howe D (2003) Reduction of cogging torque in
interior-magnet brushless machines. IEEE Trans Magnetics 39(5): ER–04
9. Ashabani M, Kaviani AK, Milimonfared J, Abdi B (2008) Minimization of commutation
torque ripple in brushless DC motors with optimized input voltage control. In: Proceedings
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10. Bristow DA, Tharayil M, Alleyne AG (2006) A survey of iterative learning control. IEEE
Cont Syst Mag 26(3):96–114
11. Ahn HS, Chen YQ, Moore KL (2007) Iterative learning control: brief survey and
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convergence for interval systems. Springer, Germany
13. Verwoerd MHA (2005) Iterative learning control-a critical review. Wohrmann Print Service,
Netherland
Part VI
In-Vehicle Network
Study on Diagnostic Methods
of Lin Slaves
Jitai Li, Ted Huang, Lifang Huang and Liguo Wang
Abstract LIN specification V2.1 defines a diagnostic method of LIN slaves.

According to this method, the diagnostic messages are communicated between
diagnostic tester and LIN slaves by using LIN master as a gateway. However, this
method is not suitable for the transmission of mass data because it will cause high
network load of the backbone bus and reduce the transmission efficiency. In this
paper, two new diagnostic methods of LIN slaves are introduced. The gateway
function of LIN master is eliminated in both methods to realize the direct com-
munication between diagnostic tester and LIN slaves. As a result, the impact to the
backbone bus is minimized. Moreover, two simulation diagnostic systems are built
in CANoe environment to prove that both methods are realizable.
Keywords LIN Diagnosis Slave Simulation In-vehicle network
1 Introduction
As the LIN bus is applied more widely on vehicles, it is necessary to design a

diagnostic method of LIN slaves. A method is defined in LIN specification V2.1 by
using LIN master as the gateway to transfer the diagnostic messages between
diagnostic tester and LIN slaves [1]. However, this method is not suitable for the
F2012-D06-001
J. Li (&) T. Huang L. Huang L. Wang

Automotive Engineering Institute, Guangzhou Automobile Group Co., Ltd,
Guangzhou, china
e-mail: li_jitai@126.com
644 J. Li et al.
Fig. 1 Diagnostic
CAN BUS DIAGNOSTIC
architecture of the first TESTER
method
LIN LIN BUS

MASTER
LIN LIN
SLAVE1 SLAVE2
transmission of mass data. The limitation of this method is that the data is
transferred through the gateway. This will cause high network load of the back-
bone bus, and reduce the transmission efficiency.
In this chapter, two new diagnostic methods of LIN slaves are introduced,
which eliminate the gateway to realize the direct communication between diag-
nostic tester and LIN slaves. As a result, they can solve the problem of high
network load of the backbone bus and improve the transmission efficiency.
Moreover, two simulation diagnostic systems are built in CANoe environment
which can prove that both methods are realizable and effective [2].
2 The First Diagnostic Method of LIN Slaves
Diagnostic tester is connected to the original LIN network as a LIN slave, and to
the CAN network which contains the LIN master. Figure 1 shows the diagnostic
architecture of this method.
At first, the diagnostic tester sends a request to LIN master to ask for the
diagnosis of LIN slaves via CAN bus. And then, the LIN master sends a positive
response to the tester via CAN bus and switches to the diagnostic schedule table,
so that the tester can communicate with the LIN slaves via LIN bus. Figure 2
shows the data flow sequence.
1. The diagnostic tester sends a request to LIN master to ask for diagnosis of LIN
slaves via CAN bus.
2. The LIN master sends a positive response to the tester via CAN bus if possible,
and switches to the diagnostic schedule table in LIN bus.
3. The LIN master sends a header of diagnostic request frame via LIN bus, and
then the diagnostic tester sends the response of this frame so that the whole
diagnostic request is sent to the slave.
4. The LIN master sends a header of diagnostic response frame via LIN bus, and
then the LIN slave sends the response of this frame so that the whole diagnostic
response is sent to the tester. As a result, the diagnostic communication
between the tester and the slave is accomplished.
Study on Diagnostic Methods of Lin Slaves 645
1
DIAGNOSTIC
TESTER
2
3 3 4
LIN
MASTER
4
LIN LIN
SLAVE1 SLAVE2
Fig. 2 Diagnostic data flow
Fig. 3 Topology of CAN and LIN network
After the diagnostic communication is finished, the LIN master switches to the
normal schedule table in LIN bus and the diagnostic tester is disconnected.
According to this method, most of the diagnostic information is communicated
via LIN bus, and there is no gateway in the diagnostic procedure. As a result, there is
no impact to CAN bus and it will not cause the reduction of transmission efficiency.
3 Simulation Diagnostic System of the First Method
In order to prove the feasibility of this method, a simulation system is designed in

CANoe. It assumes that there are three nodes in the LIN network, Body Control
Module (BCM), Front Door Module (FDM), and Roof Module (RM). BCM is the
master and also the gateway between CAN and LIN network. Figure 3 shows the
topology of the CAN and LIN network.
There are three schedule tables in LIN bus, application schedule table, diag-
nostic schedule table for FDM, and diagnostic schedule table for RM. The relative
codes are showed below.
646 J. Li et al.
Schedule_tables {
Application_Table { //application table
BCM_LIN_1 delay 20 ms ; //application frame sent by BCM
FDM_1 delay 20 ms ; //application frame sent by FDM
RM_1 delay 20 ms ; //application frame sent by RM
BCM_WaitFor200ms delay 140 ms ; //free time
}
Diagnostic_Table1 { //diagnostic table for FDM
BCM_LIN_1 delay 20 ms ;
FDM_1 delay 20 ms ;
RM_1 delay 20 ms ;
DiagReq delay 10 ms ; //diagnostic request
FDMDiagRsp delay 10 ms ; //diagnostic response from FDM
BCM_WaitFor200ms delay 120 ms ;
}
Diagnostic_Table2 { //diagnostic table for RM
BCM_LIN_1 delay 20 ms ;
FDM_1 delay 20 ms ;
RM_1 delay 20 ms ;
DiagReq delay 10 ms ;
RMDiagRsp delay 10 ms ; //diagnostic response from RM
BCM_WaitFor200ms delay 120 ms ;
}
}
When BCM receives the diagnostic request for LIN slaves sent by tester via
CAN network, it switches to the diagnostic schedule table in LIN bus, and then the
tester can communicate with the slaves via LIN network. The relative codes are
showed below.
on message 0 9 720//CANID 0 9 720 is for diagnostic request of BCM
{
if((this.byte(0)==0x02)&&(this.byte(1)==0x10)&&(this.byte(2)==0x41))
//ask for diagnosis of RM
{
linChangeSchedTable(2); //switch to RM diagnostic schedule table
}
}
Figure 4 shows the communication traces. It proves the feasibility of this

method.
Fig. 4 Communication traces
Fig. 5 Diagnostic ORIGINAL LIN

LIN
architecture of the second MASTER
method
LIN LIN
SLAVE1 SLAVE2
DIAGNOSTIC
TESTER
DIAGNOSTIC LIN
Fig. 6 Diagnostic data flow LIN LIN

SLAVE1 SLAVE2
3
3
2
DIAGNOSTIC
TESTER
1
4 The Second Diagnostic Method of LIN Slaves
Diagnostic tester is connected to the specific LIN diagnostic network as a LIN master
instead of the original LIN network. As a result, it requires each LIN slave has two
LIN channels. One is for the original LIN network, and the other is for the specific
LIN diagnostic network. Figure 5 shows the diagnostic architecture of this method.
At first, the diagnostic tester is connected to the diagnostic LIN bus and wakes
it up. And then, the tester can communicate with the slaves. Figure 6 shows the
data flow sequence.
1. The diagnostic tester wakes up the specific LIN diagnostic network.
2. The diagnostic tester sends the whole diagnostic request frame to the slave.
3. The diagnostic tester sends a header of diagnostic response frame, and then, the
slave sends the response of this frame, so that the diagnostic tester can receive
the diagnostic response. As a result, the diagnostic communication between the
tester and the slave is accomplished.
After the diagnostic communication is finished, the diagnostic tester is dis-
connected and the specific LIN diagnostic network falls asleep.
According to this method, all the diagnostic information is communicated via a
specific LIN diagnostic network. As a result, there is no impact to CAN bus or the
original LIN bus, but it demands that the LIN slaves have an additional LIN channel.
648 J. Li et al.
Fig. 7 Topology of LIN networks
5 Simulation Diagnostic System of the Second Method
In order to prove the feasibility of this method, a simulation system is also designed
in CANoe. It assumes that there are three nodes in the original LIN network, Body
Control Module (BCM), Front Door Module (FDM), and Roof Module (RM). BCM
is the master. There is another specific LIN diagnostic network which has three
nodes, FDM, RM and tester. The tester is the master. FDM and RM both have two
LIN channels. Figure 7 shows the topology of these two LIN networks.
There is an application schedule table in the original LIN network, and there is
a diagnostic schedule table in the specific LIN diagnostic network. The relative
codes are showed below.
Schedule_tables { //for original LIN network

Application_Table {
BCM_LIN_1 delay 20 ms ; // application frame sent by BCM
FDM_1 delay 20 ms ; // application frame sent by FDM
RM_1 delay 20 ms ; // application frame sent by RM
BCM_WaitFor200ms delay 140 ms ; //free time
}
}
Schedule_tables { //for specific LIN diagnostic network
Diagnostic_Table {
MasterReq delay 10 ms ; //diagnostic request
SlaveResp delay 10 ms ; //diagnostic response
TESTER_WaitFor200ms delay 180 ms ; //free time
}
}
Fig. 8 Communication traces
When the diagnostic tester connects to the diagnostic LIN bus, it wakes up the
LIN diagnostic network. And then, the tester can communicate with the slaves
according to the diagnostic schedule table. There is no impact to the original LIN
network. Figure 8 shows the communication traces. It proves the feasibility of this
method.
6 Conclusions
This paper introduces two effective diagnostic methods of LIN slaves. Both
methods realize the direct communication between tester and LIN slaves so that
they can solve the problem of high network load of the CAN bus and improve the
transmission efficiency.
However, both methods increase the cost of the diagnostic system. The first
method requires the tester has both CAN and LIN channels. The second method
requires each LIN slave has an additional specific LIN diagnostic channel.
In a word, this paper provides two new options for the engineers to design and
improve their diagnostic systems.
References
1. LIN Consortium. LIN specification package revision 2.1 [M]. 2006

2. Vector Informatik GmbH. CANoe Help V7.2.5 [M]. 2009
The Research of Vehicle Network Control
System Model
Kai Li, Juan Wan, Jie Bai, Jianxian Chen, Gan Chen, Fanwu Zhang
and Jianguang Zhou
Abstract With the development of vehicle electronics, the problem of strong

coupling and poor generality of vehicle electronic control products become more
significant due to the closed-loop control mode of the vehicle electronic control
systems. According to the trend analysis of the future development of Vehicle
Electrical and electronic by using s-curve and nine-screen method of the TRIZ,
vehicle network control system, also referred as VNCS is not only an important
way to solve the above mentioned problem, but also an important trend for Vehicle
Electrical and Electronic development. Since the basic theory and model of VNCS
have not fully developed yet, the methodology of research and design of VNCS
still need to be further studied. In this paper, according to vehicle electrical and
electronic features, the theory of industrial network control system and commu-
nication system model is introduced to build up the vehicle network control system
model, furthermore, vehicle network control system model based on CAN and
FlexRay are simulated and analyzed. The research results indicated that, real-time
performance of vehicle network control system model based on FlexRay is better
than which based on CAN. At the same time, with the separation f vehicle control
system sensors, actuators and controllers, the diversification of the system func-
tions is increased, which is an effective solution for the problem of strong coupling
and poor generality of vehicle electronic control products. This research provided
guidance of basic theory and design for VNCS, and also forecasted the future of
vehicle network control system development prospect.
F2012-D06-002
K. Li (&) J. Wan J. Bai J. Chen G. Chen F. Zhang J. Zhou

Dongfeng Motor Corporation Technology Centre, Shiyan, China
e-mail: lik@dfmc.com.cn
652 K. Li et al.

Keywords CAN FlexRay Vehicle network control system model Real-time

simulation Functional analysis
1 Introduction
With the widely use of CAN, LIN bus technology in vehicles, the traditional method
of vehicle control has developed from point-to-point control to distributed control,
which enables the exchange of information between various control systems by the
communication network. Compared with the traditional point-to-point control
system, network communication technology is introduced to realize the information
and resource sharing with the advantages of strong diagnostic capability, reduced
system wiring, increased system flexibility, reliability and interactive etc. Network
communication technology has brought many advantages, while due to its own
closed-loop control mode, there is exists the problems of poor generality and strong
coupling of vehicle electronic control products. The existence of these problems
have caused great distress to vehicle control system design and production of car
companies, and increased the design and research cost. In order to solve these
problems, new requirement of vehicle network development has been raised.
2 The Development Process and Future Forecast of Vehicle

Electrical and Electronic System
Vehicle electrical and electronic systems have gone through the following three
stages.
1. The first stage from the 1960s to the late 1970s
In 1955,GE (General Electric Company) installed the transistor radio in vehicles. In
1964, Toyota used Automatic Electrical door locks for the first time. In the late 1970s,
vehicle electrical control turned to use digital technology, and electronic control
devices gradually completed the transition from discrete components to integrate.
2. The second stage from the late 1970s to the early 1990s
With the development of large scale integrated circuit and control technology,
many electrical control systems for some special control functions achieved rapid
development taking MCU as the core of the control systems. In the late 1990s,
there has been a comprehensive, integrated electronic control system.
3. The third stage from 1990s until now
Vehicle electronic and electrical system has been connected to a multi-ECU and
multi-node organic whole, which leads to the emergence of vehicle interior
The Research of Vehicle Network Control System Model 653
Fig. 1 S-curve of vehicle

electronics technology
development
network. Through the networked control system, information from each control
module can be shared in the car, which reduces the wiring harness, and has the
ability to focus on diagnostic failure.
In summary, the development of vehicle electrical and electronic systems
technology experienced three landmarks as the introduction of integrated circuits
in 1970s, the introduction of microprocessors in the 1980s and The introduction of
network control technology in the 1990s. The electronic control system sensors,
controllers and actuators in today’s vehicles are integrated and articulated in the
communication network, which is an integrated network control technology.
According to the principle of separation from the TRIZ theory, vehicle electronics
will be a centralized network control technology to a distributed network control
technology direction.
The development of vehicle electronics technology accords with the S-curve,
shown in Fig. 1.
2.1 Vehicle Bus Technologies
Since the 1980s, many well-known companies have begun to commit to the
research and application of vehicle network technology [1]. The application of
vehicle network has solved the problem brought by point-to-point body wiring,
which makes the body wiring area normalization and standardization, reduces the
vehicle costs and enhances the vehicle stability as well. At present, CAN and LIN
bus technologies have been widely used in vehicle network. The developing high-
speed network protocol FlexRay has been used in some high-end models.
2.2 Lin/Can/Flexray
LIN is a low-cost serial communication network protocol for vehicle distributed

electronic control system, its highest transmission speed is 20 kpbs, and mainly
654 K. Li et al.
uses in electric window lift, seat adjustment, lighting, rear mirror and door lock
control [2].
CAN is a most widely used vehicle network, the communication speed of high-
speed CAN bus can reach 500 kbps or 1 Mbps, mainly used in critical real-time
control, such as engine management, anti-lock braking system, chassis system [3].
The propose of FlexRay network protocol after CAN, LIN is to meet the need
of future vehicle development, including faster data rates, more flexible data
communication, more comprehensive topology choice and fault-tolerant
computing.
FlexRay provides a large number of features that traditional vehicle commu-
nication protocols don’t have, as follows [4]:
1. FlexRay supports two communication channels, and the speed of each channel
reaches 10 Mbps, which is 10*20 times of CAN protocol communication
band;
2. Its communication mechanism bases on time division multiple access (TDMA),
which ensures the certainty of communication;
3. FlexRay supports the option of redundant message transmission, which
improves the system fault-tolerance and reliability;
4. FlexRay supports a variety of topologies, provides the two options of message
redundant and non- transmission as well as the combination of TDMA and
FTDMA communication mechanism, which improves the system flexibility.
The features above make FlexRay very suitable for wire-controlling system of
control signal transmission.
2.3 Comparison of the Three Technologies
The result of the comparison of the three bus technologies including LIN, CAN
and FlexRay is shown in Table 1.
3 Vehicle Network Control System Model
3.1 The Current Status of Vehicle Network Control System Model
At present, the typical vehicle communication network is based on CAN bus

technology. The point-to-point physical model of CAN bus is shown in Fig. 2
according to the combination of communication system physical model [5] and
CAN bus communication mechanism.
In this typical vehicle network design, a typical vehicle network control
structure is formed according to the research of CAN bus physical model, as
Table 1 The comparison of LIN, CAN and FlexRay

Comparison LIN CAN FlexRay
content
Media access Single host Muiti-host Muiti-host
control
Wiring Single line Twisted paired Twisted paired
Max communication 20kbit/s 1Mbit/s
speed
10-20Mbit/s
Access method TDMA CSMA TDMA ? FTDMA
Encoding mode NRZ 8NI(UART) Uni-polar NRZ w/bit Bipolar NRZ w/bit stuffing
stuffing
Transmission 40 m 40 m 24 m (bus and passive star)
distance 48 m (one active star)
72 m (two active star)
Data field 8 byte 8 byte 254 byte
length of
each frame
Network nodes 10 nodes 16 nodes(HS-CAN) 22 nodes
32 nodes(MS-CAN
and LS-CAN)
Channel Single channel Single channel Dual-channel
Topology Bus Bus, passive star Bus, active star, passive star,
hybrid
Error detection 8 bit check sum 15 bit CRC check 11bit initial CRC
check ? 24bit frame CRC
check
Max time-delay – 0.5 ls 0.44 ls (bus and passive star)
0.93 ls (one active star)
1.42 ls (two active star)
Scope of Aimed at low-speed Now widely used in Suitable for wiring control
application network of power, chassis and system, use FlexRay to
sensors and body system transmit control signals
actuator
Noise
Controller TE TD Controller
A N B
SensorA Sensor B
source
U X Y V
sink
MCU encoding channel decoding MCU

A B
ActuatorA ActuatorB
Fig. 2 CAN bus physical model
shown in Fig. 3. The current vehicle network control system model is formed by
the point-to-point connection of this typical structure, which is aimed at network
information sharing, that is sharing signals transmitted by vehicle network and its
control function realized by closed-loop control system Fig. 4.
656 K. Li et al.
Actuator Sensor Actuator Sensor
controller controller
Actuator
ᢗ㹼ಘ
Րᝏಘ
Sensor
controller
controller
Actuator
Sensor
Րᝏಘ
ᢗ㹼ಘ
᧗ࡦಘ
controller ᧗ࡦಘ
controller ᧗ࡦಘ
controller
ᢗ㹼ಘ Sensor
Actuator Րᝏಘ ᢗ㹼ಘ Sensor
Actuator Րᝏಘ ᢗ㹼ಘ Sensor
Actuator Րᝏಘ
Fig. 3 Current typical vehicle control system structure
Noise
Controller TE TD Controller
A N B
Sensor SA SB Sensor
A U X Y V B
MCU encoding Channel Z decoding MCU
Actuator AA AB Actuator
A B
Fig. 4 Current typical vehicle control system model
The integration of existence sensors, controllers and actuators by this kind of

vehicle network control system model leads to the problem of poor generality and
strong coupling of vehicle electronic control system products, which is not con-
ducive to the modular production of electronic control products.
3.2 The Development Trends of Vehicle Network

Control System
To solve the problem of strong coupling of vehicle electronic control system, a

new vehicle network control system model is formed according to the combination
of the prediction that future development trend of vehicle electronic is distributed
network technology and the traditional industry network control system model [6].
The new model is able to realize that vehicle bus connects sensors, actuators and
control units together as a network system to complete control tasks, transmits
control instructions through a sharing network channel, and then forms a closed-
loop feedback control system Fig. 5.
This kind of vehicle network control system uses network transmission control
instruction, which requires high reliability, real-time and bandwidth of vehicle bus
communication technology. According to the comparison of CAN, LIN and
FlexRay bus technology, FlexRay is suitable for this kind of future vehicle network
control system.
Noise
ControllerA TE TD ControllerB
N
MCU U encoding/ X Y encoding/ V MCU

A decoding decoding B
TE SA TDSB
Actuator A ActuatorB
Actuator USA XSA YSB VSB Actuator

decoding Channel decoding
A B
Z
SensorA TEAA TDAB Sensor B
Sensor UAA XAA YAB VAB Sensor

encoding encoding
A B
Fig. 5 Vehicle network control system model
Fig. 6 The constitutes of Communication time-delay
4 The Analysis of Vehicle Control System Model
4.1 Real-Time Analysis
4.1.1 Constitutes of the Communication Time-Delay [7]
The Communication time-delay ‘Td’ is divided into four parts: the generate time-
delay ‘T1’, the queue time-delay ‘T2’, the transmission time-delay ‘T3’, and the
receive time-delay ‘T4’, as shown in Fig. 6.
The generate time-delay means the time period from the moment of the sending
node processor receives the request to the moment of the node writes the data to
658 K. Li et al.
buffer queue. The queue time-delay means the time period from the moment of the
message frame enters into the sending buffer to the moment of the message frame
controls the bus. The transmission time-delay means the time period from the
moment of the message frame controls the bus to the moment of releases the bus.
The receive time-delay means the time period from the moment of the message
frame releases the bus to the moment of the valid data is provided to the receiving
node processor. The generate time-delay and the receive time-delay are not con-
sidered in the analysis of time-delay, because they are not related to the com-
munication network, but related to the processor, and they are relatively short. So
the network time-delay is composed of the queue time-delay and the transmission
time-delay, which means Td = T2 ? T3.
4.1.2 Real-Time Simulation Analysis
1. Introduction of the simulation tool

CANoe is not only provides network monitoring and analysis function, but also
has a powerful system simulation capabilities. At present CANoe is widely used in
the simulation of vehicle network based on CAN/LIN bus. With the development
and application of FlexRay bus technology, CANoe.FlexRay software is accord-
ingly developed by the Vector Company for the simulation of the FlexRay net-
work, which also monitors the FlexRay network in the underlying hardware
support.
2. The simulation of vehicle network control system model based on CAN
The communication simulation model of a pure electric vehicle is built in CANoe,
as shown in Fig. 7. In this model, CAN bus speed is configured to 500 kbps, and
has six nodes on the CAN bus, as shown in Table 2. Each node sends different
message numbers, for example, VCU sends three messages with the identifier of
0 9 E5,0 9 F0 and 0 9 F2, and MCU sends two messages with the identifier of
0 9 C2 and 0 9 C3.
Change the network load of the above communication system by 20 or 30 %,
‘‘the waiting time of the sending node send message’’, which means the queue
time-delay is monitored by CANoe, and the results is as shown in Table 3.
From the simulation results described in Table 3, it concluded that with the
increase of network load, the queue time-delay of the message increases. The
minimum queue time-delay is 0.533 ms (533 ls) and the maximum queue time-
delay is 5.012 ms (5012 ls) when network load reaches 30 % in this simulation,
the network time-delay is certainly increased if the transmission time-delay added.
3. The simulation of vehicle network control system model based on FlexRay
The communication simulation model is still as shown in the above Fig. 7, the
message is set to the static frames or the dynamic frames according to the com-
munication requirement. Each node sends time to trigger the message frames in the
Fig. 7 The simulation model of network communication system
Table 2 Communication nodes and messages

Communication node Abbreviation Identifier
Vehicle control unit VCU 0 9 E5, 0 9 F0, 0 9 F2
Motor control unit MCU 0 9 C2, 0 9 C3
Battery management system BMS 0 9 B9, 0 9 BC
On-board charger ONC 0 9 480
DC-DC DC 0 9 345
Anti-lock brake system ABS 0 9 A0, 0 9 A3
Table 3 The simulation results of the time-delay

Message(ID) The waiting time of the node sending message (the queue time-delay)
20 % (ms) 30 % (ms)
VCU1 (0 9 E5) 1.597 2.011
VCU2 (0 9 F0) 2.129 2.623
VCU3 (0 9 F2) 2.661 3.124
MCU1 (0 9 C2) 1.331 1.922
MCU2 (0 9 C3) 1.863 2.343
BMS1 (0 9 B9) 0.533 1.022
BMS2 (0 9 BC) 1.065 1.567
ONC (0 9 480) 4.523 5.012
DC (0 9 345) 2.927 3.455
ABS1 (0 9 A0) 0.267 0.533
ABS2 (0 9 A3) 0.799 1.212
660 K. Li et al.
Table 4 FlexRay network parameters

Communication speed Communication cycle Static segment Dynamic segement
10 Mb/s 5 ms 60 ls//slot; 40 ls//minslot;
65 slot/cycle 20 minislots/cycle
Table 5 the simulation nodes and the identifier of the static frames
Communication node Abbreviation The ID of the static frames
Vehicle control unit VCU 31,32,33
Motor control unit MCU 21,22
Battery management system BMS 11,12
On-board charger ONC
DC–DC DC
Anti-lock brake system ABS 1,2
static segment, or sends events to trigger the message frames in the dynamic
segment. The network parameters are as shown in Table 4.
The sending time of the FlexRay static frames is fixed as it is time-triggered, so
the queue time-delay of which is negligible, that means the network time-delay of
the FlexRay static frame is equal to the transmission time-delay. The simulation of
the FlexRay static frames is only executed in this chapter.
The transmission time-delay of the FlexRay static frames can be calculated
when the receiving time of which is monitored by CANoe, because the sending
time of the FlexRay static frames is fixed. Table 5 describes the nodes of simu-
lation model and the identifier of the static frames. Each FlexRay static frame is
transmitted for 50 times, and the receiving time of frames that monitored by
CANoe and the transmission time-delay calculated are recorded in Table 6.
From the simulation results described in Table 6, the sending time and the
receiving time of all static frames are the same for 50 times, and the network time-
delay of the static frames is stable and low latency that maintained on 13 ls.
4. The summary of simulation analysis

The simulation results show that vehicle network control system model based on
FlexRay has lower latency and better real-time than vehicle network control
system model based on CAN. Therefore, in the system application of strict real-
time requirement, FlexRay has a great advantage compared with CAN, That is to
say, the FlexRay bus technology will be more suitable for those vehicle network
control systems with strict real-time requirements.
Table 6 The transmission time-delay of the static frames

The ID of the Time of sending Time of reception The transmission time-delay
frame (ls) (ls) (ls)
1 0 13 13
2 60 73 13
11 600 613 13
12 660 673 13
21 1,200 1,213 13
22 1,260 1,273 13
31 1,800 1,813 13
32 1,860 1,873 13
33 1,920 1,933 13
Table 7 Examples of system function

Night Lane Lane Fatigue driving
vision identification assist warning system
system system system
Sensor Camera D D D
Radar D
Speed sensor D D D D
Rain light sensor D D
Controller Lane assist control unit D
Lane identification D
system control unit
Fatigue driving warning D
system control unit
Night Vision processing D
unit
Actuator Warning lighting D D
Buzzer D D
Display screen D D D
4.2 Functional Analysis
The sensors, controllers and actuators are separated in the Vehicle network control
system model, which can reduce the strong coupling of vehicle electronic control
products. Moreover, with the separation of vehicle control system sensors, actu-
ators and controllers, the diversification of the system functions is increased.
As shown in Table 7, ‘‘D’’ indicates the sensors, controllers or actuators of
certain control system, For example, Night Vision system is composed of camera,
speed sensor, rain light sensor, night vision processing unit and display screen, in
which the camera can be used as the component of lane identification system and
fatigue driving warning system, and the speed sensor as the general component for
lane identification system, Lane assist system and fatigue driving warning system
662 K. Li et al.
as well. That is to say, vehicle network control system model can implement more
functions by combing smaller set of components.
4.3 Summary
From the above real-time and functional analysis of vehicle network control
system model, it is concluded that vehicle network control system model based on
FlexRay is not only meet the real-time requirement, but also implement more
functions and expand easier because of the separation of the sensors, controllers
and actuators.
5 Conclusions
This paper compares the widely used vehicle bus technology including CAN and
LIN, and the developing FlexRay. And based on the analysis of the current situ-
ation and existing problems of the existing vehicle network control system, the
network control system of traditional industrial control area is introduced to build
vehicle network control system model. According to the real-time and functional
analysis, it can be concluded that with the separation of with the separation of
vehicle control system sensors, actuators and controllers, the diversification of the
system functions is increased, and vehicle network control system based on
FlexRay bus technology can meet real-time requirement of control system, which
is also the trend of vehicle network control system.
References
1. Tong H, Chen P (2006) Vehicle network technology. Auto Appl 11

2. Zhang Q-L, Zhang X-F (2007) Survey and forecast on networked control systems. Information
and control, 2007(03)
3. Zhao M, Shi Xiao-lin, Duan H (2009) TRIZ Introduction and practice, Science Press 2009(03)
4. Long Y (2008) Application status and development trend of the modern vehicle electronic
technology; Mechanical Management and Development 2008(08)
5. Ji G-J, Wan M-S (2006) New platform of vehicle ECU communication: flexRay (V2.1)
protocol criterion. Auto Electric Parts, 2006(10)
6. Fan C (2009) Modern communication principles. Posts and Telecom Press, 2009(10)
7. LI J, Tian G, Niu X, Chen Q (2007) Response time for flexray communications. J Tsinghua
Univ, 2007(47)
Research on Reformation Method
of Vehicle Intelligent Electric/Electronic
System
Weiwei Kong, Diange Yang, Tao Zhang, Bing Li and Xiaomin Lian
Abstract With development of vehicle electric/electronic system, vehicle harness

is rapidly increasing, and connection between them is more complex and disor-
dered. Therefore, it becomes badly essential to globally monitor electronic/elec-
trical devices’ statues and fault diagnosis in real time, to ensure vehicle’s usage
safety. One sample vehicle, with few intelligent devices, cannot gain the real-time
state information of the overall electronic/electrical devices, let alone realise the
whole vehicle’s state monitoring and fault diagnosis, which brings great security
risks. Arming at the sample vehicle’s problems above, the writer reforms it into an
intelligent electric/electronic system, and presents a reformation method based on
modularization. According to characteristics and function requirements, all the
traditional electronic/electrical devices are classified and developed into smart
ones respectively, unified and standardized. With this proposed method, all 63
electronic/electrical assemblies are intelligentized, and achieve communication
and information sharing. With every electronic/electrical device’s real-time statue
and fault diagnosis information, the whole vehicle system is in total supervisory
control, and the sample automotive safety is greatly improved. The feasibility of
the method is verified by tests.

Keywords Intelligent electric/electronic system Vehicle intelligent electronic/

electrical devices Intellectualization design Modularization
F2012-D06-003
W. Kong (&) D. Yang T. Zhang B. Li X. Lian

Department of Automotive Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety
and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
e-mail: kongwei_1987@hotmail.com
664 W. Kong et al.
1 Introduction
Along with the rapid development of vehicle electronic and electric technologies,
the vehicle electric/electronic devices (EEDs) are booming [1, 2], and the wirings
connecting them are becoming more and more complex [3], which brings great
difficulties to the EEDs’ controlling and power supplies. Therefore, the hidden
failure of vehicles grows; the faults’ location and diagnosis are more difficult to
determined, and the electrical using safety is increasingly difficult to be guaranteed
[4].
With the advancement of automobile electronic technology, in-vehicle EEDs
are gradually moving into intellectualization, and possess intelligent functions,
such as digital communication, automatic control, and self-diagnosis etc. [5].
Intelligent electric/electronic devices (IEEDs) have become a key solution to solve
the above-mentioned problems in the development of vehicles [6].
One sample vehicle, with few intelligent devices, cannot gain the real-time state
information of the overall electronic/electrical devices, let alone realise the whole
vehicle’s state monitoring and fault diagnosis, which brings great security risks.
According to these problems, an intelligent electric/electronic system (IEES) is
presented, and all the traditional EDDs are converted into IEEDs, with a refor-
mation method based on modularization, proposed in this paper.
2 Intelligent Electric/Electronic System
Arming at the sample vehicle, an IEES is designed, whose structure is shown in

Fig. 1.
As shown in Fig. 1, IEES is a globally distributed electric/electronic system,
based on the in-vehicle bus. After intellectualization transformation, the entire
EEDs are converted to IEEDs, which interconnect into the vehicle network as
separated network nodes, realising the entire vehicle networking and communi-
cating. According to importance and communication requirements, the original
EEDs are divided into backbone EEDs (c1*ci) and local EEDs (l1*ln), access to
backbone network (C) and local network (L), respectively. C and L communicate
with each other via gateways ð~c1 ~ci Þ: Each IEED collects information of state and
fault diagnosis, and sends to the central coordinator (CC), which implements the
vehicle’s overall coordination control and fault processing. As a backbone network
node, intelligent power (IP) achieves electrical power supply control and over-
current protection, to ensure the whole vehicle’s electrical using security.
Research on Reformation Method 665
Central Central
Coordinator Computer
∼
Gateway c∼1 Gateway ci
L1 Li c1 ci
Backbone Backbone Intelligent

l1 li ln l1 li ln IEED IEED Power
Local IEEDs Local IEEDs
Fig. 1 Structure of IEES
From the above, the design and development of IEEDs is a critical step to
achieve IEES.
3 Design and Development of IEEDs
IEED is developed by adding a controller to the original EED. With different sorts
of EEDs, their functions, control modes, and characteristics are various, so their
controllers are different. Because of the huge scale and complex controlling logic
of controllers, it is much needed to improve the reusability and generality of
hardware and software design, that is, to realise standardized design.
In the paper, functional classification is established for original EEDs, and each
type of EED is intelligently designed respectively. With modularization method,
controllers’ hardware and software are composed of standard circuit modules and
software algorithm modules, which will be introduced in detail as following.
3.1 Modularization Design of Controllers
Modularization design of controllers contains that of hardware circuits and soft-

ware algorithms.
666 W. Kong et al.
Load electric
protection module
Network Interface
Controller
power module
Execution
Interface
EED
Network module
information Calculation
conversion module Execution
module
input of load power; input of controller power; network communication signals
Fig. 2 Function planning of controllers, 1 input of load power; 2 input of controller power; 3
network communication signals
Table 1 Functional classification and corresponding execution modules

No. Type of devices EM No. Type of devices EM
1 Resistor-type D 7 Electric-type interface H
2 Motor-type M 8 Ground-type interface G
3 Switch-type S 9 Analog voltage interface V
4 Resistor-type sensor A1 10 Serial communication interface (SCI) U
5 Voltage-type sensor A2 11 Gateway N
6 Frequency-type sensor A3 12 Relay I
3.1.1 Modularization Design of Hardware Circuits
According to functions the IEEDs need to implement, the planning of controllers is

shown in Fig. 2.
As is shown in Fig. 2, controllers consist of several function modules: load
electric protection module, controller power module, backbone/local network
information conversion module, calculation module, and execution module.
Among them, backbone network information and calculation module (C), local
network information and calculation module (L), controller power module (P), and
load electric protection module (F) are general modules. Execution modules,
which implement functions, such as electric driving, fault diagnosis, status col-
lection etc., need to be schemed arming at different types of EEDs. Functional
classification and corresponding execution modules (EM) are shown in Table 1.
3.1.2 Modularization Design of Software, Command Control Algorithm
In IEES, CC is designed to implement whole-vehicle-level coordination control

and fault processing of all the devices, and each device only needs to execute
control instructions for its own. The characteristic of command control algorithm
is that every IEED only receives some fixed instructions of a fixed information
frame from CC, no need to concern or judge other devices’ working states.
command control
algorithm
downlink uplink
algorithm algorithm
instruction instruction state message

receiving implementation acquisition sending
I/O D/A SCI I/O A/D I/C SCI

output output output input input input input
Fig. 3 Algorithm modules of command control
Therefore, devices realise decoupling, and become more independent, resulting in

simpler control logic for each controller.
From the introduction above, it is logical to known that command control
algorithm contains two parts: uplink algorithm, which is used for instruction
receiving and implementation; downlink algorithm, for state acquisition and
message sending. They can be decomposed, as is shown in Fig. 3.
3.2 Intellectualization Design of EEDs
According to functions, all the original devices can be classified into seven
categories:
1. Resistor-type devices: the most common devices in automobiles, only possess
two states: open and closed. The corresponding execution module is D module,
which can drive devices and detect failures. According to execution channels,
resistor-type devices can be further divided into single resistance devices,
double resistance devices, and four resistance devices;
2. Motor-type devices: should realize primarily timed accurate turn, turn over, and
brake control, and detect failures such as over-current, short circuit etc. The
corresponding execution module is M module;
3. Switch-type devices: need to measure the on–off signal, and convert it to signal
that calculation module can identify. The corresponding execution module is
S module;
4. Resistance-typed sensors: make use of variable resistance principle, the cor-
responding execution module is A1 module;
5. Voltage-typed sensors: make use of variable voltage principle, the corre-
sponding execution module is A2 module;
668 W. Kong et al.
P D
zb
C
S
zJ
Fig. 4 Hardware structure of generator controller
Fig. 5 Software algorithm

structure of generator Iq
controller AR B1 B2 BT T
6. Frequency-typed sensors: make use of variable frequency principle, the cor-

responding execution module is A3 module;
7. Combined devices: functions are more complicated, and controllers demand
several kinds of execution modules.
Controllers of these seven kinds of devices need to be designed respectively,
with modularization method described in Sect. 3.1 Take one combined device—
generator for example, its intellectualization design is as follows:
3.2.1 Hardware Design of Generator Controller
One characteristic of modularization is that controller’s hardware is developed by

splicing modules together seamlessly, with no other components. Therefore,
generator controller’s hardware structure is shown in Fig. 4.
As is revealed in Fig. 4, there are 2 execution modules, D module and S
module. D module controls the electric power supply of generator’s excitation coil,
and diagnoses short circuit and break circuit. S module acquires generator’s
neutral point, for charging indication.
In the figure, Zb is network interface, which is standard, unified interface. ZJ is
interface connecting to device.
Fig. 6 Real controllers for IEEDs a gateways, b controllers for motor-type devices
Fig. 7 Monitoring interface of CANoe
3.2.2 Software Algorithm Design of Generator Controller
Because of command control mode, controller’s software structure is quite simple,

that is, front and background embedded system structure. Generator controller’s
software algorithm structure is shown in Fig. 5.
As Fig. 5 shows, AR is instruction receiving module, A1 is instruction imple-
mentation module, B1 is state acquisition module, and BT is message sending
module. Iq is interrupt from bus information, and interrupt occurs once one
information frame reaches. With front and background embedded system, AR
accomplishes in background interrupts. A1 and B1 carry out in foreground. For
generator, A1 implements instructions: power generation or closed, and B1
acquires generator’s working state information and fault diagnosis information,
which are sent through BT. T ensures the periodic cycle operation of programs.
670 W. Kong et al.
Table 2 Operation conditions for road tests

No. Operation Number of tested No. Operation condition Number of tested
condition devices devices
1 Driving in 26 7 Driving in foggy day 31
daytime
2 Driving in night 28 8 Park with OFF gear 14
3 Driving in rainy 28 9 Park with ON gear 15
day
4 Driving in snowy 31 10 Night ? winter 32
day
5 Driving in 27 11 Night ? rainy 30
summer
6 Driving in winter 30 12 Night ? snowy ? foggy 38
4 Demonstration and Verification
According to the method described above, intelligent electric/electronic system

(IEES) for the sample vehicle is designed, and all 63 electronic/electrical
assemblies are intelligentized. Some controllers are shown in Fig. 6.
4.1 Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis Test
CAN bus is used for communication in backbone network. Therefore, CANoe can
be used as the test tool, to monitor the real-time status messages and analysis, as
Fig. 7 shows.
As is shown in Fig. 7, the CAN bus state is fully monitored and recorded with
CANoe, and all the devices’ working condition and fault information can be
obtained in real time.
4.2 System Reliability Test
A large number of road tests are implemented on the transformed sample vehicle.
Tests’ road condition include test field of Geely Research Institute, urban road in
Beijing, and test environment contains daytime, night, rainy, snowy, and foggy.
Operation conditions for the road tests are designed as Table 2 shows. Result of
tests shows that the whole system can operate perfect, and controllers are able to
work stably and reliably. The feasibility and reliability of proposed method is
verified.
5 Conclusion
An intelligent electric/electronic system is designed arming at the sample vehicle’s

problems, and this paper proposes a reformation method based on modularization
to convert the original traditional devices into intelligent electronic/electrical
devices. According to characteristics and function requirements, all the traditional
EEDs are classified and each type of devices is intellectualized. Based on modular
method, controllers are decomposed into standard and unified circuit modules and
software algorithm modules. After each module’s design, controller is achieved by
reasonably combining these modules.
With the proposed method, all 63 electronic/electrical assemblies are intellec-
tualized. Tests show that all the controllers can work effectively and reliably. All
IEEDs with controllers are able to monitor working states and self-detect, and send
the messages to the communication network in real time. As a result, the converted
sample vehicle is wholly in real-time monitoring state, and able to send warning
for diagnosis, which greatly improve the vehicle’s use safety. Therefore, it is
verified that the proposed method is effective and feasible.
References
1. Kassakian JG (2000) Automotive electrical systems-the power electronics market of the future.
In: Proceedings of the applied power electronics conference and exposition, pp 3–9
2. Kassakian JG, Wolf HC, Miller JM, Hurton CJ (1996) Automotive electrical systems circa
2005. IEEE Spectr 33:22–27
3. Leen G, Heffernan D, Dunne A (1999) Digital networks in the automotive vehicle. Comput
Control Eng J 10(6):257–266
4. Liang L (2010) Intelligentization for vehicle electrical power supply system. Master
dissertation, Tsinghua University, Department of Automotive Engineering, Beijing
5. Gu ZM, Yang DG, Zhang XF et al (2009) Distributed vehicle body electric/electronic system
architecture with central coordination control. In: Proceedings of the institution of mechanical
engineers, Part D journal of automobile engineering, vol 224(2), pp 189–199
6. Zhang X (2009) Automotive intelligent electrical and electronic device system. Doctor
dissertation, Tsinghua University, Department of Automotive Engineering, Beijing
Ethernet-Based Integrated Network
for Active Safety Sensors
Jin Ho Kim and Jae Wook Jeon
Abstract The number of active safety sensors in an automotive system is

increasing exponentially. However, there is no international standard or de facto
standard for active safety sensor networks. Therefore, each sensor manufacturer
uses a different network protocol and makes vendor-specific command protocols
for their sensors. This makes active safety sensors difficult to use and increases the
development costs for intelligent automotive systems using active safety sensors.
Thus, we propose an Ethernet-based integrated network protocol for solving the
above problems. The proposed network protocol includes a physical layer, a data
link layer, a communication layer, a service layer and an application layer.
To verify this proposal, we implement an embedded system that supports the
proposed network and measures the synchronization performance and cycle time.
Keywords Ethernet
In-vehicle sensor network Active safety sensor

In-vehicle network ADAS
1 Introduction
The advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) provides intelligent service in

automotive systems in such capacities as lane keeping assistance system (LKAS)
or the collision avoidance systems (CAS). The number of active safety sensors for
ADAS, such as radar, laser scanners, vision and ultrasonic sensors, is increasing
F2012-D06-005
J. H. Kim (&) J. W. Jeon

Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea
e-mail: besteng83@gmail.com
674 J. H. Kim and J. W. Jeon
exponentially. However, there is no international standard or de facto standard for

active safety sensor networks, and each sensor manufacturer uses a different
network protocol and makes vendor-specific command protocols for their sensors.
This makes active safety sensors difficult to use and increases the development
costs for intelligent automotive systems using active safety sensors. Moreover,
when using sensor fusion techniques, the different network protocols must be
connected using gateways. This results in increased costs, network delays,
development complexity, and higher maintenance costs.
The Local Interconnection Network (LIN), Controller Area Network (CAN)
and Flex Ray are the most well-known in-vehicle networks [1], but they cannot
support sufficient bandwidth to connect many active safety sensors in one network
[2]. Media Oriented Systems Transport (MOST) currently supports sufficient
bandwidth, but the required bandwidth is increasing exponentially, so that even
this will not be suitable for integrated networks in the future [2]. In order to meet
the requirements of an in-vehicle sensor network, we propose an Ethernet-based
network protocol. Ethernet has several benefits for in-vehicle sensor networks,
such as low cost, verified reliability in industrial network areas, sufficient band-
width (100 Mbps, 1 Gbps), well-known technology, and the ability to reuse tools
and techniques from the Internet [3].
Ethernet has several merits for automotive systems, and is expected to become one
of the major in-vehicle network technologies in the future. Continental expects
Ethernet to become one of the major in-vehicle network technologies in 2015 [2].
BMW has plans to use Ethernet for automotive systems in 2013 [4]. Ethernet AVB [5]
and TTEthernet [6] are Ethernet protocols being considered for automotive systems.
Ethernet AVB is designed for streaming data communication such as video and audio
data. TTEthernet is designed for real-time communication using TDMA mechanism
and is applied to airplanes [7]. Ethernet AVB is suitable for the entertainment systems
and TTEthernet is suitable for the real-time control systems [8]. Research on Ethernet
for automotive systems is also being conducted [9–14]. These previous studies did not
consider active safety sensor networks for ADAS. Therefore, an Ethernet-based
integrated network protocol for an in-vehicle sensor network for ADAS is proposed.
The main idea is adding a profile layer between the application layer and the
communication stack. The profile layer role for abstraction of sensor type and
manufacture is similar to CANopen profile [15] and Profidrive [16]. The proposed
network protocol includes a physical layer, a data link layer, a communication
layer, a service layer and an application layer. To verify this proposal, we
implement an embedded system that supports the proposed network and measure
the synchronization performance and cycle time.
2 Profile Technology
This section describes the profile technology in factory automation. The profile
technologies are well known in the factory automation area. There are several
profiles that are used in this area. This section describes the profile for power drive
Ethernet-Based Integrated Network 675
Fig. 1 Motion profile referenced from IEC 61800-7 [17]
systems standardized in IEC 61800-7 [17]. Four types of profiles are defined: CiA
402, CIP Motion, PROFIdrive, and SERCOS. Only CiA 402 profile is described
for convenient understanding of the proposed idea (Fig. 1).
2.1 Profile for Power Drive Systems
The motion profile defines a standard method and interface to control motor drive.
The application control program can use several vendors’ motor drives using the
same method and interface independently of network protocol and motor drive
manufacturer. Figure 2 shows the main purpose of the profile for the power drive
system. The application control program in Fig. 2 can control motor drive using
the same method and interface, although the manufactures of motor drive are
different.
The CiA 402 specifies the operation mode and generic interface for motor drive.
In order to control motor drive, CiA 402 uses an object dictionary, which is a
group of objects. An object is a set of attributes to control motor drive, such as
Fig. 2 Purpose of motion

profile technology
desired position, actual position, and maximum velocity of the motor drive. CiA
402 defines mandatory, optional and vendor-specific objects to control the motor.
In order to control motor drive, the application control program must change the
value of an object of the motor drive using the network. CiA 402 can support
several network protocols, such as CANopen, EtherCAT and Ethernet Powerlink.
The motor drive that supports the CiA 402 profile supports the configuration file
that specifies the supported object dictionary.
2.2 Database for Automotive System
The automotive system uses a CAN database [18] for the CAN, and FIBEX [19]
for the FlexRay for the application layer. CAN databases and FIBEX are well-
known technology in automotive systems. The databases define messages, signals,
and attributes for automotive systems. The manufacturer of an automotive system
defines the database. As the communication database is different between manu-
facturers, standard methods like CiA 402 cannot be supported. Moreover, there is
no standard or de facto standard database for the active safety sensor networks.
Therefore, the database mechanism is not suitable to support standard methods and
interfaces for active safety sensors.
3 Protocol Architecture
The proposed Ethernet-based integrated network consists of a physical layer, a

data link layer, a communication layer, a service layer and an application layer. As
the OSI 7 layer aspect, the proposed protocol consists of a physical layer, a data
Fig. 3 The proposed protocol architecture
link layer and an application layer. The application layer in the OSI 7 layer is
divided into the communication layer, service layer and application layer, as in
Fig. 3.
The physical layer of the proposed protocol is the same as the Ethernet standard.
Although the most efficient topology in automotive systems has already been
addressed [20], redundancy mechanisms were not considered. In this paper,
bi-directional ring topology is used for redundancy because active safety sensors
used in active safety systems such as CAS are very important to assure driver safety.
The data link layer of the proposed protocol supports three types of data. The real-
time message box supports real-time messages that are sent periodically, like with
static slots in FlexRay. The real-time messages must satisfy deadlines. Non-real-time
message boxes support non-real-time messages, which are event-triggered, like with
CAN or dynamic slots in FlexRay. Non-real-time messages use the best effort
mechanism and are used for configuration, diagnosis, and re-programming. The
streaming buffer supports streaming data like high-resolution camera data. The
Synchronization module supports a time synchronization algorithm. The communi-
cation layer supports IP, TCP and UDP for the Diagnostic over Internet Protocol
(DoIP) [21], COM and NM modules. The COM module abstracts communication
protocols like OSEK/VDX COM. The NM module monitors the network and node
status (e.g. present, absent) and controls each node’s state (e.g. sleep, asleep).
The service layer supports a diagnostic module and sensor profile module. The
diagnostic module supports DoIP for diagnosis service. The sensor profile module
supports sensor profiles for abstract sensor manufacture and HW/SW platforms.
The sensor profile defines an object for each sensor, interface profile, and network
protocol. The same type of sensor uses the same profile independently of the
manufacturer and HW/SW implementation of the sensor. For example, there are
two LIDAR sensors developed from different manufactures that use different
Fig. 4 The embedded system for experiments
Fig. 5 The test environment
network protocols (one uses CAN, the other uses Ethernet). In this case, despite
different manufacturers and network protocols, the application uses the two
sensors in the same way.
4 Experiment and Results
In this section, an experiment and the results of the proposed protocol are
described. Real-time and synchronization performance were measured. The
method was implemented as an embedded system shown in Fig. 4. This embedded
system uses Montavista Linux [22] and supports two Ethernet ports and a General
Purpose Input Output (GPIO) port for measurement.
Fig. 6 Experiment environment of synchronization
Fig. 7 Synchronization
performance of proposed
protocol
For performance measurement, test environments were implemented as in

Fig. 5. The test environment uses 20 embedded systems and transmits sensor data.
4.1 Measurement of Synchronization Performance
In order to measure the synchronization performance, the IEEE 1588 synchroni-

zation algorithm was used for the synchronization module in the data link layer.
The slaves 1 and 19 set the GPIO pin to high and then set it low at the same time
Fig. 8 Experiment environment of cycle time
Fig. 9 Cycle time

performance of proposed
protocol
using synchronized time. The GPIO pins of slave 1 and slave 19 are measured
using an oscilloscope for two hours Fig. 6.
Figure 7 shows the result of synchronization performance. It is lower than
1 ms. The synchronization error can be reduced in hardware implementation.
4.2 Measurement of Cycle Time
In order to measure the cycle time, real-time data using real-time message boxes
was sent as 64-byte Ethernet messages. The master sets the GPIO to high when it
starts to send real-time messages, and sets it to low when it receives real-time
messages that round 20 nodes. Figure 8 shows the cycle time experimental
environment for real-time messages.
Figure 9 shows the result of cycle time performance of real-time messages. It is

lower than 1 ms. We expect to reduce the cycle time when using hardware
implementation.
5 Conclusion
An Ethernet-based integrated network protocol was proposed for addressing the

lack of international standard or de facto standard for active safety sensor networks
for intelligent automotive systems using active safety sensors. The proposed
protocol architecture includes sensor profiles. The sensor profile abstracts each
sensor with regard to manufacturer and HW/SW platform. The synchronization
performance and cycle time of real-time messages were measured. The synchro-
nization performance using 20 embedded systems was less than 1 ms. The cycle
time of real-time messages is also less than 1 ms. Both performance metrics are
expected to improve in HW implementation.
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Architecture for Secure Tablet
Integration in Automotive Network
James Joy, Anurag Raghu and Jestin Joy
Abstract The need for better technologies and features prompted vehicle man-
ufactures to use specialized hardware devices in vehicle. Improved functionality as
always comes with increased cost. Manufacturers look at giving better function-
ality at reduced cost. The driver information and entertainment features in the
vehicle are closely in line with consumer electronics, which is growing at a very
fast rate than the vehicle. It is always better to provide the connectivity to the
consumer devices. One good alternative in In-vehicle infotainment is using a tablet
in place of traditional inbuilt mechanism. The tablet will provide the technology
advancements in the area of entertainment, connectivity and a development
environment, on top of which the OEM can trademark their infotainment system.
Present embedded systems on vehicles are developed to address the safety and not
security requirements. But connecting third party equipment to the vehicle system
causes serious security concerns. We need a full proof security mechanism for
connecting tablets to our vehicle network. This integration could also pave way for
a new business model in the automotive industry, something on the lines of ‘‘App
Stores’’. Any application from the OEM store can be downloaded and installed in
the vehicle. This paper proposes architecture for secure tablet integration in
automotive network.
Keywords Gateway Tablet Security Infotainment Architecture
F2012-D06-015
J. Joy (&) A. Raghu

Tata Elxsi, Bengaluru, India
e-mail: jamesjoy@gmail.com
J. Joy
Federal Institute of Technology, Angamaly, India
684 J. Joy et al.
1 Introduction
Automotive systems become increasingly dependent on embedded computers. The

use of embedded computers provides better processing capabilities within the
vehicle. The modern day luxury cars have multiplicity of ECUs on board. During
the introduction of electronic control in vehicles, isolated single board solutions
were used. Later the scope changes to vehicle level solutions, with the use of
distributed control units in the automotive network. The future trend is traffic level
solutions, which are mainly addressed by the infotainment and telematic systems.
The infotainment systems are of great interest in modern automotive market. As
far as a customer is concerned they need better performance, convenience, reduced
cost and security for the system. Using tablets as an alternative for infotainment
reduces cost and increases functionality. The tablet Connectivity will keep the
technology up to date. The OEM can provide different utility applications that
enhance the driving comfort. It also provides opportunity for an individual to
explore the possibility of newer applications that makes the driving comfortable,
informative and fun. But the downside is that an attacker could control the vehicle
from ‘‘air’’ [1, 2]. Attacker, after successful intrusion could try to read or write data
from the vehicle network.
A wide variety of communication systems are available in today’s automotive
network, for different applications, ranging from body systems, engine control,
driving assistances and safety systems to a wide variety of infotainment applica-
tions. Most of the communication systems are protected against different technical
interferences. But these systems are mostly unprotected against the malicious
attacks where attacker tries to inject unauthorized packets into the network. The
increased connectivity provided by the automotive systems especially in the
infotainment area is vulnerable to the malicious attacks [3, 4]. The tablet inte-
gration shall provide a secure and reliable connectivity with the in-vehicle
network.
The communication buses in the automotive network are classified as listed in
Table 1, based on the technical properties and the application areas [5]. None of
these automotive bus technologies are providing option for secure communication
in the protocol definition.
Embedded security is one of the active areas within security [6]. Current
automotive systems do not have inbuilt security mechanisms. Embedded security
involves security against physical tampering, data security inside the device,
authentication of the external devices connected and the secure communication
with external authentic devices. In the case of intra-vehicle communication
involving a tablet, the tablet needs to be authenticated before the connection is
accepted by the vehicle. The best way of providing security is through public key
cryptographic mechanism, which will address the secure communication with the
tablet. Since the vehicle and the tablet are not trusted it is very difficult to introduce
a reliable authentication mechanism. The approach here is certificate based
authentication.
Architecture for Secure Tablet Integration 685
Table 1 Automotive bus comparison

Com. system Sub network Event triggered Time triggered Multimedia
Buses LIN CAN FlexRay MOST
I2C VAN TTP D2B
SPI PLC TTCAN GigaStar
K-Line ByteFlight USB
UART
The rest of the paper is organized as three sections, the first section deals with
the connectivity solution and the second part address the security and last part
deals with the proof of concept implementation.
2 Connectivity
The fundamental technology for this revolution in the human-automotive interface

is the gateway module, which act as a central access point for wired and wireless
networks [7]. By using standard hardware interfaces and communication protocols,
it provides a technology independent platform for building applications, which
unleashes the potential that already exists in computer and cellular network.
Vehicle level data exchange in automotive systems is facilitated by intercon-
nection of different bus technologies. Gateways are used to transfer messages
among each other, without taking into consideration, different physical and logical
operating properties. Usually Gateways provide protocol conversion, error pro-
tection and message verification. The so called ‘Smart Gateways’ provide inter-
connection of all kind of buses in the automotive network that are relevant for the
external communication and additionally act as an access point for other external
devices to the vehicle [8]. The external devices include the tester and consumer
devices. Access to external device is restricted by device authentication. Smart
Gateways shall be embedded computers capable of establishing secure commu-
nication with the external devices. The proposed network topology is shown in
Fig. 1.
In the proposed topology, the different kind of networks inside the vehicle are
connected to a central gateway module, Smart Gateway. There can be multiple
CAN and LIN networks, HSCAN from the chassis network, MSCAN from the
body network, LIN, K-line from the sensors and many sub nods. Additionally there
will be MOST/Ethernet from the infotainment network [9, 10], FlexRay from the
safety critical X-by-wire systems, are connected to the Smart Gateway.
The infotainment system shall also contain some in-vehicle entities like the
vehicle speakers, vehicle cameras, parking sensors and the high-end DSP audio
processing modules. Those modules are also connected to the Smart Gateway. We
have identified the wireless link as the best option for the external device com-
munication which provides a lot of flexibility. WiFi is the suggested wireless
686 J. Joy et al.
Fig. 1 Network topology
network which can provide high bandwidth and the sufficient security for com-
munication. Audio and video of sufficient quality can be communicated over WiFi.
The necessary modules inside the smart gateway are shown below in Fig. 2.
The Smart Gateway shall contain the authentication module which will provide
certificate based authentication to the external connecting device. The secure
communication module will provide secure data exchange between the external
device and the vehicle. The Application includes a firewall and vehicle specific
applications implemented in Smart Gateway. The firewall will restrict the data
exchange with the external world. Its not wise to accept all data/signals from the
user applications in an authenticated external device. There can be already com-
promised external devises. The firewall will act as secondary security mechanism.
3 Security
Security is not part of the popular CAN protocol and it is difficult to introduce
security in CAN as it is a proprietary protocol introduced by Robert Bosch. Here we
are trying to address the security when the CAN network communicate with an
external device [11, 12]. In an environment where wireless connectivity and third
party tablet is used, security is a cause of great concern. Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
[13] can be used to provide security to the packets. SSL protocol uses asymmetric
key cryptography to exchange keys and then use symmetric key cryptography to
Fig. 2 Smart gateway block
exchange data. So the performance overhead is less. There are versions of SSL
available for embedded systems with low computation requirement.
SSL is an industry standard for establishing a secure link between a server and a
client. This secure link establishes integrity and security of the messages sent. This
is proven and widely accepted secure communication method. It is wise to use the
proven security mechanism, SSL in the vehicles.
The proposed architecture for the security is based on certificate based authen-
tication and SSL based secure communication. The different modules inside the
tablet are described in Fig. 3. In the tablet side there will be a secure proxy module
which will handle the authentication and secure communication between the Smart
Gateway and the Tablet. OEM_App will contain the infotainment system that can be
installed in the Tablet. This OEM_App will contain all standard infotainment
applications, navigation applications, HVAC interface, etc. The standard audio and
video applications in the tablet can communicate with the speakers and the other
infotainment entities in the vehicle. The User_App is the any user application signed
by the OEM and available in app store, which can be installed in the tablet.
The proposed security framework involves authentication of the tablet, data
integrity during the communication between the tablet and the vehicle and
application authenticity for the applications downloaded and installed in the tablet.
3.1 Authentication
Secure identification of the device to the vehicle is a major cause of concern.

Authentication makes sure that only valid devices are attached to the Smart
Gateway. Certificate based protection mechanism provides a better way of
688 J. Joy et al.
Fig. 3 Tablet software modules
authenticating device with Smart Gateway. SSL has features to provide client
authentication. Client certificate contains information that identifies the user and it
can be used to authenticate him.
3.2 Integrity
Using WiFi connectivity to the automotive system enables attackers to access

packets from the air and manipulate it. So the data should be exchanged securely
when passed through air. Secure Socket Layer provides better security to packets
sent through wireless channels. SSL provides data integrity by calculating digest
of the message. At the receiver side digest is re-calculated and checked against the
digest received. SSL uses HMAC for providing message authentication.
3.3 Software Security
A malicious application installed in the system can certainly break the whole
security functionalities provided. In Order to counter that attack, signature based
methods are used. In the proposed framework all applications shall be signed by
OEM. The secure proxy will allow application connection only for applications
signed buy the OEM.
Fig. 4 Eco system
4 Design
Authentication for all sender applications is needed to be ensuring that only valid
applications from a valid device are able to communicate with the automotive
network via the Smart Gateway. The Smart Gateway will not allow connection
from an unauthorised tablet. The Proxy application will not allow any unauthor-
ised application to connect to the proxy in the tablet.
The major components/parties involved in communication are:

Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)—This is usually the vehicle manufac-
turer, who will issue the certificate.
Application—The application available in the OEM App store.
Tablet—The tablet of the customer that can be connected to the vehicle.
Proxy Application—This is available in the tablet.
Smart Gateway—The gateway in the vehicle which runs an OS that can handle
SSL connections and control the access to vehicle network.
As shown in the above Fig. 4, the Tablet connects to the vehicle through WiFi
connectivity. The Smart Gateway resides in the vehicle and connects to the Tablet
over WiFi. The infotainment OEM trademark application which runs in the tablet
is provided by the OEM. OEM also provides a proxy which tunnels the request
from different application to the Smart Gateway server over a secure channel.
It is the duty of the proxy application to check the authenticity of the installed
applications. It is done by verifying the signature. Every application should be
signed by the OEM and Proxy application verifies the signature using the public
key of the OEM.
The tablet could be any modern day tablets running iOS, Android etc. The user
access vehicle information through installed applications provided by the vehicle
690 J. Joy et al.
manufacturers. This increases trust in customer. The communication between

proxy application in Tablet and the gateway server is established through SSL over
WiFi. SSL is also entrusted with the job of client authentication. SSL has built in
features for that. Ones a secure channel is established all the communication is
done through that secure channel. The main advantage of SSL is that it is already
used in internet communication and is trusted worldwide. The disadvantage is that
the performance overhead is high. But there are implementations available with
low performance overhead.
The Smart Gateway module also maintains a list which holds information about
which applications are allowed to access what vehicle information. This should be
stored in a trusted platform module so that an attacked could not manipulate it.
This will act as the secondary security mechanism. This is the firewall imple-
mentation in the Smart Gateway.
5 Implementation
We have implemented a proof of concept in PC based environment which gives

very good results. The Smart gateway is implemented in a Debian based PC and
the vehicle network is simulated in another PC using the bus master and connected
to the Smart Gateway using CAN-USB converter. The modules in the tablet are
implemented in a third Debian based PC. The Tablet modules and the Smart
Gateway modules are implemented in C language. Open SSL is used to provide
the secure layer. There are a lot of SSL libraries that works in embedded envi-
ronment like PolarSSL, yaSSL, MatrixSSL, SharkSSL etc. The performance may
be bit different in embedded implementation [14]. But modern computing power
of the embedded systems is increasing day by day and the performance will not be
a limiting factor in the near future.
6 Conclusion
This paper presents an architecture for secure tablet integration in intra vehicle
communication network. With the cheap availability of tablets, customers can use
their personal tablet itself in the vehicle instead of the present day costlier
mechanisms. The use of SSL over WiFi protects the communication against
eavesdropping. The possibility of installing additional applications into vehicle
introduces a different concept of our vehicles.
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Applying AUTOSAR Network
Management in OSEK/VDX
for Compatibility of AUTOSAR
and OSEK/VDX
Y. H. Lee, Jin Ho Kim and Jae Wook Jeon
Abstract AUTOSAR and OSEK/VDX are automotive software platforms;

OSEK/VDX is widely used, and AUTOSAR is newly developed. Currently, the
world’s leading automotive companies that are participating in the AUTOSAR
consortium are executing a migration plan to AUTOSAR from OSEK/VDX. In the
migration process, AUTOSAR-based devices and OSEK/VDX-based devices can
be used simultaneously. However, some problems can be caused by the difference
between the two platforms. One of them is incompatible network management
modules. In this paper, we solve this problem by applying AUTOSAR NM on
OSEK/VDX. We analysed the two network management modules, and we
implemented AUTOSAR NM on OSEK OS. Finally, we applied this system on a
real embedded system for verification.
Keywords AUROSAR OSEK/VDX Network Management Compatibility

Migration
1 Introduction
Recently, the function required in vehicles has been increasing. To meet these
demands, car manufacturers use many electronic devices in cars. Automotive
systems are becoming more complex according to the steady increase of these
F2012-D06-017
Y. H. Lee (&) J. H. Kim J. W. Jeon

Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea
e-mail: jhony@live.co.kr
694 Y. H. Lee et al.
electronic devices. Automotive electronics are a distributed and safety–critical

system that must guarantee high reliability. Software platforms are required to
guarantee the reliability and robustness of distributed systems. Accordingly, the
OSEK/VDX software platform was developed.
The term OSEK/VDX means ‘‘open systems and the corresponding interfaces
for automotive electronics’’ and ‘‘vehicle distributed executive’’ [1]. OSEK/VDX
started as joint project of German automotive industries to develop ‘‘an industry
standard for an open-ended architecture for distributed control units in vehicles.’’
It offers a standard interface for hardware-independent software development for
increased reusability.
AUTOSAR software platform is now being developed in order to support
development of more complex and reliable automotive systems [2]. The term
AUTOSAR means ‘‘automotive open system architecture.’’ It is being developed
by the AUTOSAR consortium, in which the world’s leading automotive compa-
nies are participating. It is an automotive real-time operating system that has a
more widely standard range than OSEK/VDX. It standardizes the tool-based
methodologies that can be used to for model-based development, and guarantees
interoperability by offering standardized documents about development outcomes.
Thus, new services can be developed quickly and reliably.
The automotive companies participating in the AUTOSAR consortium are each
executing their own migration plan [3] to allow AUTOSAR and OSEK/VDX-
based devices to be used in the same network simultaneously. Problems can occur
due to the difference between the two platforms, since the network management
module and the diagnosis module of the two platforms are not compatible [4].
In this paper, we discuss issues with the network management module. We
solved this problem by applying AUTOSAR NM on OSEK OS. First, we analysed
previous studies. Next, we studied ‘‘AUTOSAR CAN NM’’ and ‘‘OSEK NM.’’
Then, we analysed the difference between two network management modules.
Finally, we implemented AUTOSAR CAN NM on OSEK OS. After that, we
applied this system on a real embedded system for verification.
2 Related Work
There was one study to solve the compatibility problem of Network Management
Modules [4] by adding a Protocol Gateway. The Protocol Gateway consists of two
network management modules and a Wrapper module. The Wrapper module is a
translator or an interaction layer between the network management module and the
communication stack (Figs. 1, 2).
There are two studies about migration to AUTOSAR. The first case does not
cover the network management module in detail, but the problem caused by the
network management module was mentioned [4]. They solve the problem by
limiting or changing the AUTOSAR NM functions. The second case covers the
Applying AUTOSAR Network Management 695
Fig. 1 Position of protocol

gateway
Fig. 2 Structure of protocol

gateway
migration by the BMW automotive company. They did not cover the network
management module, but they discussed how to solve the compatibility problem.
They used AUTOSAR basic software as much as possible [5].
3 OSEK NM
OSEK NM is one of the components of the OSEK platform. The function of NM is

disabling or enabling the network [6]. It periodically monitors the network for
reliability. The main concept is monitoring network messages, and it checks the
deadline time of messages. OSEK NM has two modes.
3.1 Indirect NM
The indirect NM monitors the application message. It is used in conditions in

which every node in the network sends application messages periodically.
It decides the conditions of the network depending on whether the message is
received. A detailed sleep mechanism is not defined. Therefore, the developer has
to define a sleep request mechanism for sleep mode of the network. The states of
Fig. 3 Indirect NM concept
Fig. 4 Indirect NM state
NM can be divided into Normal Mode, Sleep Mode, and Limphome Mode.
Normal Mode is the typical operation mode. In Sleep Mode, the bus is not used.
Limphome Mode is an error mode (Figs. 3, 4).
Fig. 5 Direct NM ring topology
3.2 Direct NM
Direct NM monitors network messages. It is similar to Indirect NM, but it uses

dedicated NM messages. The transfer mechanism constructs virtual ring topology,
and the NM messages work like tokens in the token ring topology. Reset mode is
added to Direct NM to construct the virtual token ring. If a node requires bus sleep
mode, the mode has to receive agreement from every node by an NM message
(Fig. 5).
4 AUTOSAR NM
AUTOSAR NM is one of the modules of the AUTOSAR platform. AUTOSAR

supports various networks like CAN, FlexRay, Lin, and Ethernet. AUTOSAR has a
dedicated NM for each network. There is an upper layer NM for integration among
different dedicated NMs [7]. In this paper, we used only the CAN NM. AUTOSAR
CAN NM has three modes. Network Mode is the normal operating mode. The
network is not used in Bus Sleep Mode. Prepare Bus Sleep Mode offers delay time
for transition between Network mode and Bus Sleep Mode. The Network Mode has
three states. The Repeat Message State starts the NM mechanism. The Normal
Operation State keeps the network alive. The Ready Sleep State offers delay time to
transition Prepare Sleep Mode from Network Mode. The main concept is monitoring
the dedicated NM messages until deadline time. If a node receives an NM message,
the network is needed. If there is no NM message until deadline time, the network
moves to Sleep Mode (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 AUTOSAR NM concept
5 Difference of NM
The main difference of the two NMs is the different means of message timeout.
OSEK NM interprets message timeout as a device error, but AUTOSAR NM
interprets message timeout as requesting Bus Sleep Mode.
5.1 Network Monitoring
OSEK NM can detect errors of a network node, because when a node requires
sleep mode, it has to send or receive request messages. A timer that expires
without a sleep message indicates a node error. On the other hand, AUTOSAR NM
does not define sleep requests or a notification message mechanism. If a node
wants to change the network state to sleep mode, it just stops sending NM mes-
sages. Thus, if a developer wants to obtain network information, an extra protocol
must be defined. AUTOSAR NM can offer network information on the initiali-
zation state, because AUTOSAR supports Bus Load Reduction function. If there is
a message in the network, every node cannot enter Sleep Mode. The Bus Load
Reduction function uses this rule. In this mode, only two nodes send NM messages
to keep the network alive.
5.2 Bus Sleep Mode
OSEK Direct NM messages have a sleep indication bit (request bit) and an
acknowledge bit. If a node wants to enter sleep mode, it sets the sleep indication
bit and sends an NM message. If the next node also wants to enter Sleep mode, the
node forwards the sleep indication bit to the next node. But if the received node
does not want to enter sleep mode, it resets the indication bit and sends an NM
Fig. 7 OSEK direct NM bus-sleep mechanism
CAN
Network
Test USB-CAN
System Converter
Fig. 8 Implemented hardware
message. When the NM message comes back to the first request node with an
indication bit, the node sets the acknowledge bit and sends an NM message. When
a node receives an acknowledge bit, the node prepares for sleep mode. After a pre-
defined time, every node enters sleep mode.
Fig. 9 EB tresos
Fig. 10 Freescale code warrior

Fig. 11 UML state chart diagram
OSEK Indirect NM is similar to Direct NM, but the detailed mechanism is not
defined in a standard document.
The sleep mode transition mechanism of AUTOSAR NM is simple. A node
stops sending NM messages if the node wants to enter sleep mode. If there is no
NM message on the network, every node enters Prepare Bus Sleep mode after a
pre-defined time. After one more sleep delay, the nodes enter Bus Sleep mode
(Fig. 7).
Fig. 12 Monitoring CAN message
6 Implementation
6.1 Hardware Environment
We used an MPC5668GKITJ embedded system, a development kit of the Free-

scale MPC5668G MCU. CAN 1ch, SCI 1ch, buttons and LEDs were used. A CAN
network was made with three boards. Kvaser Leaf Lighe HS and Kvaser CanKing
were used for CAN message monitoring (Fig. 8).
6.2 Software Environment
We used Electorbit AUTOSAR OS 3.0 and MCAL for the CAN driver. AUTO-
SAR OS was made based on OSEK OS, and AUTOSAR OS and OSEK OS have
backward compatibility. Therefore, if we use only OS in the AUTOSAR platform,
we can have the same functions of OSEK OS [8–10]. MCAL is a device driver.
OSEK/VDX does not define a data link layer detail. Only the required functions of
the interaction layer are defined. Thus, we can use the MCAL CAN driver as a data
link layer [11, 12].
We used EB tresos and Freescale CodeWarrior as development tools. EB tresos
is a configuration tool, and Freescale CodeWarrior is a coding, compile, and
debugging tool (Figs. 9, 10).
6.3 Implementation and Verification
We implement the core function only. The standard document offers a UML State
Chart diagram. For implementation, we use 4 alarms and 5 tasks. The 2 buttons
and 4 LEDs are used for monitoring node state and setting. Button 1 is a Request
Network command, and Button 2 is a Release Network command. Each LED
indicates each NM state, which can be Repeat Message State, Normal Operation
State, Ready Sleep State, or a Prepare Bus Sleep Mode order. Bus Sleep Mode
turns on every LED.
The verification point is the transition of state on the UML State Chart diagram
(Figs. 11, 12).
7 Conclusion
AUTOSAR NM and OSEK NM have different basic concepts in network moni-

toring. Thus, we cannot have compatibility by changing parameters or correcting
small parts.
AUTOSAR NM does not support real-time fault detection explicitly. Thus, that
function must be implemented by the developer on an application layer. On the
other hand, AUTOSAR NM has simple structure for implementation. Also,
AUTOSAR NM supports improvement of the bus load reduction characteristics
and partial network function.
Correction of AUTOSAR-based software is not recommended, because
AUTOSAR’s aim is model-based development to maximize reusability. There-
fore, we have to use a protocol gateway or AUTOSAR NM on existing systems.
As can be seen in this paper, applying AUTOAR NM on existing systems is an
alternative solution for compatibility.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Ministry of Knowledge Economy and the
Korea Institute for Advancement in Technology through the Workforce Development Program in
Strategic Technology.
References
1. OSEK VDX Portal. http://portal.osek-vdx.org

2. AUTOSAR development partnership. http://autosar.org
3. Kunkel B (2011) AUTOSAR-CP exploitation plans. AUTOSAR open conferencce
4. Kum D (2008) AUTOSAR migration from existing automotive software. ICCAS, pp 558–562
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electronics news, http://johndayautomotivelectronics.com
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in europe conference and exhibition, pp 256–258
7. OSEK/VDX network management, V2.5.3 (2004) http://portal.osek-vdx.org/

8. Specification of CAN network management V3.3.0 R3.2 Rev 1 (2011) http://autosar.org
9. OSEK/VDX operating system, V2.2.3 (2005) http://portal.osek-vdx.org/
10. Specification of operating system, V3.2.0 R3.2 Rev 1 (2011) http://autosar.org
11. Behnam M (2009) Towards hierarchical scheduling in AUTOSAR. ETFA pp 1–8
12. OSEK/VDX communication, V3.0.3 (2004) http://portal.osek-vdx.org/
Performance Analysis of Ethernet Power
link Applied to Ethernet of In-Vehicle
Network
Hoe Young Chung, Jin Ho Kim and Jae Wook Jeon
Abstract Recently, LIN, CAN, and Flex Ray have most often been used in
In-Vehicle Networks (IVNs). Automotive manufacturers are applying active safety
systems, Infotainment devices, entertainment devices, etc., and those systems
communicate large amounts of data. However, CAN or Flex Ray cannot handle a
large amount of data with real-time performance, so applied research on Ethernet as
an alternative to the existing network of IVNs is actively underway. In recent
research, many manufacturers have studied Switched Full Duplex Ethernet (SFDE).
However, SFDE supports few network topologies and is expensive for imple-
menting in networks. Ethernet Power link (EPL) is presented as an alternative for
SFDE field bus network protocol based on Ethernet. The protocol stack of EPL is
open source, and it supports standard Ethernet chips (not ASIC). Also, EPL guar-
antees high real-time performance and supports various topologies. The perfor-
mance of EPL is analyzed and its suitability for Ethernet in IVNs is evaluated.
Keywords Ethernet Power link Ethernet In-Vehicle Network Performance

Analysis
F2012-D06-018
H. Y. Chung (&) J. H. Kim J. W. Jeon

Sungkyunkwan University, Mokpo, Republic of Korea
e-mail: startosea@hotmail.co.kr
706 H. Y. Chung et al.
Table 1 Frame of EPL

Bit Offset Entry defined by
Octet offset 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0…5 Destination MAC address Ethernet II
6…11 Source MAC address
12…13 Ether type
14 res Message type Ethernet
15 Destination POWER LINK
16 Source
17… n Data
n ? 1… n ? 4 CRC32 Ethernet II
1 Introduction
Low-bandwidth protocols like LIN, CAN and Flex Ray are primarily used in
In-Vehicle Networks(IVNs). However, the number of ECUs and the amount of
data communications are rising, and these protocols are not suitable for satisfying
real-time performance requirements. Thus, applied research of Ethernet as an
alternative to the existing network in IVNs is actively underway. Ethernet will be
one of the primary protocols in IVNs [1].
Protocols based on Ethernet, like Time-Triggered Ethernet (TTE), can satisfy
real-time performance requirements using dedicated network controllers and
switch devices. Dedicated controllers and switches are very expensive, so it is not
easy to construct low-cost IVN’s using this approach. Therefore, a new Ethernet
solution, EPL, is suggested.
EPL was originally developed for factory automation [2]. The most powerful
feature of EPL is that it does not need a dedicated controller and switch, so it
completely satisfies real-time performance safety by software. In addition, it is
totally open source, so there is no additional cost to implement networks based on
EPL.
The performance of EPL applied to IVNs is analyzed. In addition we compare
performance of EPL with one of other protocols based on Ethernet, we evaluate
suitability with Ethernet of IVNs.
2 EPL
EPL is based on Ethernet, and it is primitively developed for industrial networks.

EPL is based on standard Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) and real-time capable Ethernet-
based field buses (IEC 61784-2). In addition, it supports CAN open Profile. EPL
provides good safety based on open SAFETY. It is certified SIL 3 according to
IEC 61508 [3]. Table 1 is description of frame of EPL. The length of data is from
45 to 1499 byte [4].
Performance Analysis of Ethernet 707
Fig. 1 Cycle time of EPL
The cycle time of EPL is divided into two phases. The first phase is isochronous
phase, and the second is asynchronous phase. Isochronous phase is based on time-
triggered method. An Isochronous Managing Node (MN) controls the transmission
time of the Controlled Node (CN). The asynchronous phase is based on event-
triggered method. In this phase, the MN and CNs can transmit and receive
asynchronous messages that are not time critical [5]. Figure 1 describes the cycle
time of EPL.
The most powerful character of EPL is that it is totally based on software. It
means that EPL doesn’t need to add dedicated controller and switch. EPL’s
software stack is open source, constructing network based on EPL is very
inexpensive.
One of EPL’s characteristics is topology flexibility. It supports free choice of
star, tree, ring, or daisy chain [3]. Also, there is no difference in performance
among topologies, so a developer can construct networks flexibly.
EPL supports cross traffic function cross traffic is very useful for network
distributed control systems like IVNs. Using this function, messages from CNs do
not need to pass through the MN. This means CNs communicate directly with
other CNs. Fig. 2 depicts the cross traffic of EPL.
3 Related Work
Lim analyzed the performance of Switched Full Duplex Ethernet in IVNs in [6].
A realistic environment of an IVNs was constructed. Some scenarios were made
and a simulation was executed. All of the traffic in IVNs was categorized, and
priorities were given for achieving real-time performance. The end-to-end delay of
all traffic was analyzed, and the real-time performance of SFDE was evaluated
with priority.
G. Cena analyzed the performance of EPL networks for distributed control and
automation systems in [7]. A network system based on EPL was simulated, and
suitable equations for an adapted network were calculated. In addition, the real-
time performance of the network was analyzed.
Fig. 2 Cross traffic of EPL
Rainer Steffen designed and realized IP-based IVNs architecture, and an

IP-based IVNs was implemented in [8]. Several categories of traffic with QoS were
classified. There were three traffic categories. One is real-time control data. QoS of
real-time control data was defined, and the IVNs based on IP was simulated.
As a result, we refer to those papers and construct an IVNs based on EPL for
simulation. Also, we analyze the real-time performance and evaluate its suitability
for IVNs.
4 Performance Evaluation
4.1 Topolgy
Several topologies based on EPL were constructed for simulation. There are two
kinds of topologies. The first topology is based on star, and the second on daisy-
chain. EPL recommends a hub rather than a switch [9]. Because switches based on
Ethernet can add more jitter and decrease determinism. EPL also has a Master–
Slave network structure [4]. The Control Unit is replaced by a Managing Node (MN
of EPL). Figure 3 describes the topologies of a simulation network based on EPL.
4.2 Traffic Characteristics
We define traffic characteristics for simulation. All CNs communicate only real-
time control data. The maximum time of end-to-end delay between two ECUs is
currently 2.5 ms, and the limitation of end-to-end delay time is mostly more than
10 ms [8]. In our opinion, EPL has to satisfy this requirement. The characteristics
of real-time control data are described in Table 2.
Fig. 3 Network topologies for simulation
Table 2 Characteristics of real-time control data

Classification Value
Payload length 45, 64, 128, 256 … 1490 byte
End-to-end delay time \10 ms
Table 3 Assumption for simulation

EPL bandwidth 100 Mb/s
Wire length Star topology 29 m
Daisy-chain topology 22 m
Cycle phase Isochronous phase (Refer to Fig. 1)
Hub delay 0.460 us [4]
Table 4 Cycle time of EPL in star and daisy-chain topologies

Classification Equation
Star Topology Tstar = 1.2a 9 (Tsoc ? Ncn 9 (Tsq ? Tqs) ? 2 9 0.08 9 L 9 Ncn
? 2 9 Ncn 9 Thub) ? 203.38 usb
Daisy-Chain Tdaisy = 1.2a 9 (Tsoc ? Ncn 9 (Tsq ? Tqs) ? 2 9 0.08 9 L 9 Ncn ? 3
9 2 9 Ncn 9 Thub) ? 205.58 usb
a
Safety margin
b
Time of asynchronous phase, one Asnd message and SoA[Payload : 1490 byte]
4.3 Assumption
To simulate an IVNs based on EPL, we make some assumptions. Real-time control

data is assigned in isochronous phase, because time-triggered method is safer than
event-triggered [10]. In addition, MN transmits one message in isochronous phase.
Table 3 depicts the assumptions of the simulation environment.
4.4 Simulation
For analyzing performance of EPL in an IVNs, we define equations for end-to-end

delay time and cycle time.
4.5 Cycle Time
The first equation is for cycle time. There are two topologies in this simulation, so
we calculate two equations. The first is for star topologies, and the second is for
daisy-chain topology. The two cases have the same number of CNs, but the
number of hubs is different (Refer to 3). Table 4 depicts the equation of EPL cycle
time in each case.
The reason why asynchronous phase is different between star topology and
daisy-chain topology is that the number of hub is different.
Table 5 is description about all variables.
4.6 End-to-End Delay Time
End-to-end delay time is composed with three elements: propagation delay,

transmission delay, and hub delay. Table 6 is a description of end-to-end delay
time.
Table 5 Description of variables

Classification Explain
Tsoc SoC time, 45 us[4]
Tsq 1 us[4]
Tqs 8 us[4]
L Length of messages(unit : byte)
Thub Hub delay time, 0.46 us[4]
Ncn The number of CNs
Tsq is that MN sends the PReq to next CN after receiving PRes from previous CN. Tqs is that CN
receives PReq from MN after transmitting PRes to MN
Table 6 End-to-end delay time

Propagation delay time Length of wire v propagation speed (propagation speed :
2.1 9 108 m/s)
Transmission delay time Duration until transmitting one message
(Length of Message/Transmission speed)
Hub delay time Hub latency delay time (0.46 us)
Table 7 Wire length of star Classification Value(m)

topology
Ethernet HUB—[CN 1, 2, 7] 2
Ethernet HUB—[CN 3, 4, 5, 6] 5
MN(Control)—Ethernet HUB 3
Table 8 Wire length of Classification Value(m)

daisy-chain topology
Ethernet HUB 1—[CN 1, 2, 7] 2
Ethernet HUB 2—[CN 3, 6] 2
Ethernet HUB 3—[CN 4, 5] 3
MN—Ethernet HUB 1 2
Ethernet HUB 1—Ethernet HUB 2 2
Ethernet HUB 2—Ethernet HUB 3 2
We have to set the value of wire length for simulation of propagation delay.
Table 7 shows the wire length of star topology. Table 8 depicts the wire length of
daisy-chain topology.
We define the equation of end-to-end delay time for the two topologies.
Tdelay star = Thub + Ttransmission + Lwire / Ps
Fig. 4 Cycle time (star topology, unit: ms)
Fig. 5 Cycle time (daisy-chain topology, unit: ms)
In star topology, all messages of CNs have to pass through Ethernet hubs.
Therefore, the value of end-to-end delay time is the same for all nodes.
However, in daisy-chain topology, end-to-end delay time is different among
CNs. Because the number of Ethernet hubs is different from star topology,
messages of some CNs like CN 5 have to pass three Ethernet hubs. We define an
equation of end-to-end delay time in daisy-chain topology.
Tdelay daisy = Nhub v Thub + Ttransmission + Lwire / Ps
Table 9 Result of end-to-end delay time

Classification Source—Destination Payload(bytes) End-to-end delay(us)
Star topology CN 1, 2, 7—MN 1490 121.38
CN 3, 4, 5, 6—MN 1490 121.40
CN 1, 2, 7—MN 45 21.564
CN 3, 4, 5, 6—MN 45 21.578
CN 1, 2, 7—MN 18 3.604
CN 3, 4, 5, 6—MN 18 3.618
Daisy-chain topology CN 1, 2, 7—MN 1490 121.38
CN 3, 6—MN 1490 121.85
CN 4, 5—MN 1490 122.32
CN 1, 2, 7—MN 45 21.56
CN 3, 6—MN 45 22.03
CN 4, 5—MN 45 22.50
CN 1, 2, 7—MN 18 3.599
CN 3, 6—MN 18 4.069
CN 4, 5—MN 18 4.543
5 Result
In the simulation environment, we obtain the get real-time performance of EPL.

Cycle time is simulated first. We changed the length of the payload and checked
the results of the simulation. Figure 4 shows a cycle time graph in daisy-chain
topology. Figure 5 depicts a cycle time graph in star topology.
In addition, using the relevant equations, we calculate the end-to-end delay time
and its average. Table 8 depicts the results of end-to-end delay time of the two
topologies and different payload lengths.
As we compare with real-time performance of SFDE in [6]. we set payload
length to 18 byte and get simulation results. As a result daisy-chain topology based
on EPL in IVNs consumes more end-to-end delay. Because there are more hubs in
daisy-chain topology it makes more delay time. The most important thing is that
EPL’s end-to-end delay time is suitable for ethernet of IVNs. In addition EPL’s
end-to-end delay time is much better than SFDE in our simulation. In our opinion
delay time of hub is much better than ethernet switch, performance of EPL is
better than SFDE (Table 9).
6 Conclusion and Future Work
We made a simulation environment for EPL, and executed a simulation. EPL is

suitable for real-time control data communication, and is a much better solution
than SFDE for such purposes.
However, structure of EPL network is based on master–slave control structure.

Actually distributed network system is more reliable than master–slave control
structure in. IVNs. Therefore, we will consider the way to construct reliable net-
work based on EPL for IVNs safety.
In the future, we will construct a real IVNs based on Ethernet Power link and
analyze its performance.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by Priority Research Centers Program through the
National Research Foundation of Korea(NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology(2012–0005861) and the program for the Development of a Real-Time Ethernet-
Based Fieldbus Gateway System for Controlling Multi-Axis Systems (C1820–1102–0020),
funded by the National IT Industry Promotion Agency.
References
1. Nobauer J (2011) Is ethernet the rising star for in-vehicle networks? ETFA
2. Vaclav K (2011) Ethernet power link asynchronous phase examination, Recent Researches in
Communications and IT:152–157
3. POWER LINK Basics brochure, Ethernet Power link Standard Group(EPSG), 2008, http://
www.ethernet-powerlink.org/
4. EPSG DS 301 V1.1.0—Communication Profile’’, EPSG, http://www.ethernet-powerlink.org/
5. Introduction to Ethernet Power link, IXXAT, http://www.ixxat.com/
6. Hyung-Taek L (2011) Challenges in a future IP/ethernet-based In-Car Network for
Real-Time Applications. In: DAC, pp 7–12
7. Cena G (2009) Performance analysis for ethernet powerlink networks for distributed control
and automation systems. Comp Stand Interfaces 31(3):566–572
8. Steffen R (2008) Design and realization of an IP-based In-car network architecture. In:
ISVCS
9. Paula Doyle, ‘‘Introduction to Real-Time Ethernet II’’, the EXTENSION, 2004, Volume 5
Issue 4
10. Steve CT (2009) Comparison of field bus systems, CAN, TTCAN, Flex Ray and LIN in
passenger vehicles. In: ICDCSW, pp 26–31
Performance Analysis of Gateway
Embedded System with Function Actively
Controlling CAN Messages
Hoe Young Chung and Jae Wook Jeon
Abstract Automotive manufacturers are trying to replace mechanical control

systems with electronic control systems. Steer-by-wire and brake-by-wire systems
are among those to be replaced. As a result, Electronic Control Unit (ECU) usage
is increasing sharply. The In-Vehicle Network (IVN) is more complex now than in
the past, and the amount of communication data is increasing rapidly. Many kinds
of network protocols (LIN, CAN, FlexRay, MOST, Ethernet) use IVN. Therefore,
a flexible gateway embedded system is both important and necessary. The gateway
embedded system can improve IVN reliability and compatibility. This paper
presents a CAN, FlexRay Gateway Embedded System with function actively
handling CAN messages. This gateway has specific functions of automatically
reducing CAN frame overhead and relieving CAN bus traffic, yield many
advantages for the real-time performance of the IVN.

Keywords Gateway Embedded System CAN FlexRay In-Vehicle Network
Real-Time Performance
1 Introduction
Many ECUs (Electronic Control Units), sensors, and actuators are now being
applied to vehicle manufacture. In addition, many mechanical control parts have
been replaced with ECUs. Thus, the In-Vehicle Network (IVN) is more complex,
F2012-D06-019
H. Y. Chung (&) J. W. Jeon

SungKyunKwan University, Mokpo, Republic of Korea
716 H. Y. Chung and J. W. Jeon
and the volume of communication data is increasing. Interconnection of ECUs is

usually organized in a complex hierarchical network that has evolved with the
rising number of ECUs [1]. Each application needs differing performance, so many
kinds of network protocols are used in IVNs. Typical IVN protocols are LIN,
CAN, FlexRay, and MOST.
Controller Area Network (CAN) is the primary IVN protocol. This communi-
cation is ideal for Power train and Body electronic applications, such as
Acceleration Skid Control (ASC), which require communications between
multiple devices, including engine timing and carburetor control units, to reduce
torque when drive wheel slippage occurs [2].
However, vehicle manufacturers need higher–quality performance IVN proto-
cols. The ECU has to transmit a large amount of data due to quite a number of
sensors and actuators connected and working with one ECU. CAN protocol cannot
satisfy manufacturers’ needs, so requirements for new–generation IVN protocols
are on the rise. Initiatives by automobile manufacturers and suppliers have led to
the creation of FlexRay, an open standard for a new deterministic, fault–tolerant,
and high–speed bus system [3].
FlexRay is developed for next-generation safety systems, like x-by-wire
system. At the early stages when FlexRay was developed, applications and devices
were very expensive. As the cost of FlexRay production drops, the functional and
safety critical features of FlexRay can be used to create the next generation of
automotive safety systems [4].
In the future, CAN and FlexRay will be the primary IVN protocols. The
gateway embedded system is one of the important techniques for the next–gen-
eration vehicle network. Its performance also critically impacts IVN performance.
Since the payload of FlexRay messages is larger than those of CAN, when a
gateway converts FlexRay messages to CAN messages, the messages are over-
filled. As a result, the gateway can increase CAN bus traffic, bus share, and priority
delay, so the real-time performance of the CAN bus is negatively affected.
A CAN, FlexRay Gateway Embedded System with CAN message active
handling is suggested. The special function can improve the real-time performance
of the gateway, because it reduces the conversion and transmission time of CAN
messages, CAN bus occupation, and priority delay. In addition, a test bench is
made and the real-time performance of gateway is analyzed.
2 Concept of the Network Protocol
2.1 CAN
CAN was first developed by Robert Bosch GmbH for Mercedes vehicles that
required a network system between ECUs in In-Vehicle Networks [5]. CAN is a
serial communication, and it is very useful for distributed operating systems that
have a high level of data integrity. CAN supports a 1 Mb/s maximum transmit
Performance Analysis of Gateway Embedded System 717
Fig. 1 Format of CAN message frame
Fig. 2 FlexRay communication cycle
speed and has a multi-master network structure, so all CAN nodes can equally
access the CAN bus. CAN is able to avoid message collision in the bus due to this
characteristic. CSMA/CR is used so that each message has an ID. The CAN
network gives priority by referring to the ID, and if message collision occurs, the
CAN network node waits until there is no message in the CAN bus. Figure 1
depicts the format of a CAN message frame.
2.2 FlexRay
The operational method of CAN is ‘Event-triggered’. Arbitration of bus conflicts is

realized by CSMA/CR. However, overhead traffic in the CAN bus leads to
deterioration in real-time performance of the CAN protocol. Manufacturers
developed ‘FlexRay’ to solve this problem. FlexRay is more reliable, and has
faster transmission speed and higher scalability than the CAN protocol. The
FlexRay protocol will be used in next–generation safety systems, and is already
used in x-by-wire systems. FlexRay has a high bandwidth of up to 10 Mb/s. It is
organized with a Static Segment (SS) with TDMA operation and a dynamic
segment with FTDMA [6]. Figure 2 shows a communication cycle of a FlexRay
network.
3 Gateway Embedded System
The MCU of the proposed gateway system is an MC9S12XF512 made by Free-

scale. Software to actively handle CAN messages was also implemented.
Fig. 3 Hardware of the

gateway embedded system
3.1 Hardware of Gateway Embedded System
The hardware of the CAN, FlexRay Gateway Embedded System consists of the
MC9S12XF512, Flex Ray transceiver, and CAN transceiver.
The MCU supports the CAN, FlexRay network using the built-in CAN, Flex-
Ray module, as well as one channel of msCAN2.0A, B and Flex Ray Dual
channels [7]. The Interface of CAN networks is based on an AMIS-41682, a
low-speed CAN transceiver that supports up to 125 kb Baud Rate. The FlexRay
network interface is based on a TJA1080, which supports from 1 to 10 Mb/s.
Figure 3 shows the hardware of the gateway embedded system.
3.2 Software of Gateway Embedded System
The gateway’s software has two applications. The first application is converts
message format, and the second is combines CAN messages.
3.3 Application of Converting Frame Format
The application for converting frame format extracts data from messages (FlexRay and
CAN) and converts the frame format to the other protocol (CAN or FlexRay). There are
two cases. The first case is that the gateway converts from a FlexRay message to a CAN
message, and the other is from a CAN message to a FlexRay message.
The payload length of a static slot is constant and longer than one of CAN
(Payload length, 1–8 bytes), so the gateway receives several CAN signals when it
converts from Static Slot. The gateway sorts the signals in the received static slot.
After sorting the signals, the gateway makes a number of CAN messages and
Table 1 Advantage of application of combining CAN messages

Classification Advantage
Overhead Reduce Header and Tailer of CAN frame(Refer to Fig. 1)
Loverhead = n 9 (44 bit ? 8 bit)—(44 bit ? n 9 8 bit)
; Loverhead = (n-1) 9 44 bit
(n = the number of CAN messages)
InterFrame Space Reduce the number of IFS
Ideal IFS length = 3 bit
MC9S12XF512 * 112 us(Refer to Fig. 5)
; TIFS = (n-1) 9 112 us
Conversion and Transmission Converts and transmits CAN message in same
Time FlexRay communication Cycle
Priority Delay Time Shorten Priority Delay Time
Bus Occupation Decrease Bus Occupation of Gateway ;
Boccupation = Tbus occupation/Taunit
a
Tbus occupation = Transmission Time/Message ? 2 9 IFS/Message 9 Number of Message
copies the signals to the payload of the CAN messages. If the gateway receives a
number of CAN messages, it copies the CAN signals to the payload of the static
slot. After that, the gateway sends the contents of the static slot at the next
communication cycle.
3.4 Application of Combining CAN Messages
The application for combining CAN messages combines several CAN messages
which the same destination ECU (CAN node) into one message. This is necessary
because some ECUs receive several messages in normal functioning. However, if
a gateway embedded system simultaneously transmits several CAN messages to
one node, problems such as overhead and traffic overload can result. Therefore, if
the gateway can combine several messages into one, such problems can be
relieved. Table 1 shows the advantages of application of combining CAN
messages.
By reducing overhead, we expect that the real-time performance of the gateway
will be improved, and the gateway will be able to convert and transmit converted
CAN messages in the same FlexRay communication cycle. In addition, trans-
mission time is related to the time of CAN bus occupation and the CAN bus
occupation time of the gateway will be decreased. This application can also reduce
the priority delay time, because the number of CAN messages and the transmission
time are reduced, so the CAN messages with low priority can transmit earlier than
before. Figure 4 depicts the gateway applications.
Fig. 4 Gateway applications
Fig. 5 Test Bench of Gateway Embedded System
4 Experiment
To analyze the performance of the gateway, a test bench was constructed. Figure 5
depicts the test bench for analyzing the real-time performance of the gateway.
In the test bench, virtual ECUs (FlexRay nodes and CAN nodes) are generated
by an In-Vehicle Network Simulator(Vector CANoe). The virtual ECUs support
FlexRay communication with the gateway, and gateway converts the FlexRay
messages to CAN messages. The gateway also converts CAN messages to Flex-
Ray messages and sends them to the virtual ECUs (FlexRay nodes). In addition, an
oscilloscope is used to obtain real-time data for analyzing the performance of the
gateway. Table 2 shows the conditions of the experiment.
Table 2 Conditions of experiment c

Classification Condition
FlexRay
Baud rate 10 Mb/s
Cycle Time 5 ms
Payload Length(Static Slot) 32 byte
CAN(without Application of Combining CAN message)
Baud rate 100 kbps
The number of messages Payload length(bytes) The number of messages
1 8
2 4
4 2
CAN(with Application of Combining CAN message)
Baud rate 100 kbps
The number of messages Payload length The number of messages
8 byte 3a
a
14 messages combined into three messages
Table 3 Result of Measurement

Classification Performance
Overhead reduction 528 bit
Conversion and transmission time 5.49 ms(9.32 ? 3.83 ms)
Priority delay reduction 6.33 ms(Minimum)
Bus occupation reduction 48.55 %(89.2 % ? 37.05 %, unit time : 10 ms)
Fig. 6 Conversion and transmission time

By adapting these elements in experiment, we analyze the real-time perfor-

mance of the gateway in regard to overhead reduction, conversion and transmis-
sion time, priority delay reduction and bus occupation reduction.
5 Result
The proposed Gateway Embedded System was tested on the test bench. Table 3
depicts the results of simulation.
The performance of the gateway with active CAN message handling has better
real-time performance than the gateway without the function. As the overhead of
CAN messages is highly reduced, the real-time performance is rapidly improved.
Further, the conversion and transmission time are reduced, so the gateway can
handle received data from FlexRay nodes in the same FlexRay communication
cycle. As a result, the gateway can process a number of data in real-time. Figure 6
represents conversion and transmission time.
6 Conclusion and Future Work
A CAN, FlexRay Gateway Embedded System with CAN message active handling
was implemented, and the performance of the gateway was analyzed and
compared to a gateway without the handling functionality. As a result, the gateway
with the CAN message active handling function worked better than the one
without the function, and its real-time performance satisfies the requirements of
In-Vehicle Networks. The proposed Gateway Embedded System is more suitable
for low-speed CAN networks.
In the near future, we will test the implemented gateway with real ECUs (not
virtual) and analyze the real-time performance. In addition, we will strengthen the
test environment to obtain more realistic data on performance.
References
1. Sander O (2008) Reducing latency times by accelerated routing mechanisms for an FPGA
gateway in the automotive domain 97–104
2. Jan T (2005) Gateway concept for automotive networks. Automotive 2005 Special Edition
FlexRay, Munchen
3. Suk Hyun S development of network gateway between CAN and FlexRay protocols for ECU
embedded system 2256–2261
4. Shankar D Designing FlexRay-based driver assistance system using early hardware-software
architecture exploration 354–359
5. Paret D (2007) Multiplexed networks for embedded system’’, John Wiley and Sons Ltd
Chichester, England
6. Schmidt K, Schmidt G (2009) Message scheduling for the FlexRay protocol : the static
segment. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 58(5):2170–2179
7. S12XF : 16-bit Automotive Microcontroller, http://www.freescale.com/
Network Architecture Design
for Reliability Based on ECU Power
Supply and Location
Maoyuan Cui, Dongfeng Zhao, Libo Zhang, Youen Li, Boxiang Ma

and Dongyang Ma
Abstract To improve the network communication reliability, the influence of

ECU power supply and location on network architecture is analyzed in this chapter
and some scenarios are presented. For ECU power supply, the network with KL15-
ECUs and the network with KL30-ECUs, and the network mixed KL15-ECUs and
KL30-ECUs are evaluated separately according to network management and
physical layer characteristic. The relevant requirements for the network
architecture are obtained for different scenarios. For ECU location, some ECUs
will result in risks for the network communication during collisions. In this study,
adaptive cruise control (ACC), and active frontlight system (AFS) are analyzed.
The corresponding optimization solution is given by designing separated network
architecture. The results are applied to a C class passenger car successfully.
Keywords Network architecture Design for reliability ECU Power supply

Location
1 Introduction
The electronic and electrical (E/E) architecture of modern vehicles is getting

complex as more and more E/E equipments are used in vehicles. The network
architecture of a C class passenger car is shown in Fig. 1 as a typical example.
F2012-D06-020
M. Cui (&) D. Zhao L. Zhang Y. Li B. Ma D. Ma

Automotive Electronic Development, China FAW Co. Ltd R&D Center, Changchun, China
e-mail: cuimaoyuan@rdc.faw.com.cn
726 M. Cui et al.
Fig. 1 Network architecture of a C class passenger car
More than 30 Electronic Control Units (ECU) communicate with each other on
Controller Area Network (CAN) and Local Interconnect Network (LIN). As a
result, the design difficulty of network architecture is increased [1, 2].
One of the challenges for network architecture design is how to improve the
reliability of network communication. Usually communication reliability of net-
work architecture can be improved by decreasing the busload of network or
reducing the number of network ECUs or shorting the length of communication
wiring harness. However, the communication reliability of network architecture
also could be affected by ECU power supply mode and ECU location.
The affection of ECU power supply mode and ECU location on network
architecture is evaluated and relevant technical specification is defined in this
chapter. Based on these research works, the network architecture of the C class
passenger car mentioned above has been optimized and good result achieved.
2 The Influence of ECU Power Supply on Network

Architecture
2.1 ECU Power Supply Type
ECU power supply can be divided into three types.

(a) KL30 is used as ECU power supply and KL15 is used to control ECU on/off as
shown in Fig. 2a;
Network Architecture Design for Reliability Based on ECU 727
ECU ECU ECU
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2 a Power supply type. b Power supply type. c Power supply type
(b) KL15 is used as ECU power supply and ECU on/off control as shown in
Fig. 2b;
(c) KL30 is used as ECU power supply and ECU on/off control as shown in
Fig. 2c;
2.2 The Influence of ECU Power Supply Mode

on Network Architecture
Based on the ECU power supply mode, 3 types of network can be defined.
(1) The network with KL15-ECUs
The main feature of the network is that all ECUs in the network start communi-
cation when KL15 is ON and stop communication when KL15 is OFF. Therefore,
no sleeping and wake up function is required to transceivers of all ECUs in the
network and no leakage current exists in the network. For this network, KL15 is
used as power supply or control ECU on/off. So the ECU power supply mode in
the network can be type (a) or type (b), refer to Sect. 2.1.
OSEK indirect network management [3] can be used in the network as shown in
Fig. 3.
(2) The network with KL30-ECUs
The feature of the network is that all ECUs in the network can still keep com-
munication when KL15 is OFF. Therefore, sleeping and wake up function is
required to transceivers of all ECUs in the network. For this network, KL30 is
necessary as power supply or control ECU on/off. So the ECU power supply mode
in the network can be type (a) or (c), refer to Sect. 2.1.
OSEK direct network management [3] can be used in the network as shown in
Fig. 4.
(3) The network mixed with KL15-ECUs and KL-30-ECUs
The feature of the network is that some ECUs in the network can not communi-
cation and some ECUs can still keep communication when KL15 is OFF. The
former ECU power supply mode is type (a) or type (b), the latter ECU power
728 M. Cui et al.
Fig. 3 Indirect network management
Fig. 4 Direct network management
supply mode is type (a) or (c), so it is the mixed network with KL15-ECUs and
KL-30-ECUs as mentioned above.
In the mixed network, no sleeping and wake up function is required to the
transceivers of ECUs which stop communication when KL15 is OFF, and OSEK
indirect network management is used. Sleeping and wake up function is required
to the transceivers of ECUs which still keep communication when KL15 is OFF,
and OSEK direct network management is used.
For the mixed network, one key problem needs to be resolved is that unpowered
ECUs mustn’t influence the communication of other powered ECUs. For the ECUs
Ignition Key
KL30 KL15
CAN
leakage current
Fig. 5 Leakage current in the mixed network
Fig. 6 Voltage step caused by leakage current
which stop communication when KL15 is OFF, the leakage current is produced
when the powered ECUs send signals in the network as shown in Fig. 5 because
the power supply on Vcc is turned off when KL15 is OFF.
If there are many unpowered ECUs in the high speed CAN bus and the
leakage current of each ECU is large ([200 uA), the recessive voltage will be
pulled to ground (\0.5 Vcc) and asymmetric bias of common mode signals are
generated as shown in Fig. 6. This asymmetric bias will lead to a larger voltage
step when powered ECUs send signals in the network, and probably cause EME
problem.
To improve the situation, the transceiver leakage current of unpowered
ECUs must be as lower as possible, the recommended value should be less
than 25 uA [4] and CAN interface with split termination should be used, as
shown in Fig. 7.
730 M. Cui et al.
Fig. 7 CAN interface with split termination
LAFS
ACC
RAFS
Fig. 8 ECU layout
3 The Influence of ECU Location on Network Architecture
Some ECUs are easy to be damaged when crash happened because of ECU
location, which will probably cause the communication problem. For example, the
ECU of Adaptive Cruise Control system (ACC) and Active Frontlight System
(AFS) usually mounted at the forefront of vehicle as shown in Fig. 8 (LAFS is Left
AFS motor control system and RAFS is Right AFS motor control system).
Fig. 9 Original network PT CAN

architecture
EMS TCU ESP ACC
Fig. 10 Optimized network

architecture ACC
PT2 CAN
PT1 CAN Gateway
EMS TCU ESP
3.1 Separated CAN Bus by ACC ECU
To realize the ACC, the ACC ECU gets the distance information from front radar
and communicates with EMS and ESP system on real time. Therefore, they are
usually located in the same bus as shown in Fig. 9.
But the ACC ECU could be damaged easily when the front crash happened
because of it’s location, which will probably cause the communication problem,
and vehicle can not be drove under serious conditions. In order to avoid the
unexpected result, ACC ECU could be separated from original bus and be put in a
new bus as shown in Fig. 10. In this way, the communication among EMS, TCU
and ESP will not be affected even when the crash accident happened and ACC
ECU damaged. As a result, the network reliability is improved.
3.2 Separated LIN Bus by AFS ECU
Similar to ACC ECU, the vehicle network communication also will be affected by
AFS ECU when damaged by a front crash, and vehicle can not be drove under
serious conditions as shown in Fig. 11. A possible solution to the problem is using
LIN network, in which the AFS ECU could be a master node and communicates
with slave node LAFS and RAFS. The vehicle information such as steering angle
is routed by AFS ECU to LAFS and RAFS as shown in Fig. 12. After the adap-
tation, AFS ECU could be mounted in the cab and protected from the crash, so the
network reliability is improved.
732 M. Cui et al.
Fig. 11 Original network PT CAN

architecture
EMS TCU ESP AFS
Fig. 12 Optimized network PT CAN

architecture
EMS TCU ESP AFS

LIN
LAFS RAFS
4 Conclusion
The influence of ECU power supply and location on the CAN network architecture
are analyzed in this chapter. For ECU power supply, the network with KL15-ECUs
and the network with KL30-ECUs, and the network mixed KL15-ECUs and
KL30-ECUs are evaluated separately based on the network management and
physical layer characteristics. The requirement to each network architecture is
defined. For ECU location, ACC and AFS system is analyzed separately. The
corresponding optimization solution is given by designing separated network
architecture. The results are applied to a C class passenger car successfully.
References
1. Stolz W, Kornhaas R, Krause R, Sommer T (2010) Domain control units—the solution for
future E/E architectures?. SAE Technical Paper 2010-01-0686
2. Saad A, Bauer W, Haneberg M, Schiffers J (2006) Intelligent automotive system services—an
emerging design pattern for an advanced E/E-architecture. SAE Technical Paper 2006-01-
1286 (2006 SAE World Congress Detroit, Michigan)
3. OSEK/VDX (2000) OSEK/VDX network management concept and application programming
interface [M] v 2.5.1
4. ISO (2007) Road vehicles—controller area network (CAN)—Part 5: high-speed medium
access unit with low-power mode. ISO 11898-5
Part VII
Multi-Media/Infotainment System
Innovative Software Architecture
for Next-Generation Infotainment System
Jianming Zhou, Kerun Xu, Minjie Tian, Chendong Wang

and Mingshi Xie
Abstract This paper studies new innovative infotainment software architecture

for the development of next-generation infotainment system. Hardware indepen-
dent design rule is developed to support mainstream hardware in the market.
Native Application Framework is developed for the architecture that allows native
app executives to be grouped and configured to meet the different system feature
requirements. Ethernet based communication methodology is designed for flexible
extension of system modules. Study shows that this software architecture helps to
shorten the development timing and dramatically reduce the cost.

Keywords Ethernet Infotainment Application framework Virtual network
Software architecture
With the rapid evolution of information technology, more and more concepts and
features have been introduced to the vehicle infotainment system to improve user
experience and convenience. Connectivity, add-in applications and telematics are
the most attractive innovations among the new features that may dramatically
change the life style of people in the near feature, while, on the same time, bring
great challenges to the OEMs. OEMs need to tightly keep pace with the trend of
new technologies and applications, rapidly integrate the new software and devices
into the vehicle to consolidate the leadership in this market. This paper has studied
new innovative software architecture (IISA) that is about to support the devel-
opment of next-generation infotainment system.
F2012-D07-004
J. Zhou (&) K. Xu M. Tian C. Wang M. Xie

Pan Asia Technical Automotive Center Co., Ltd, Shanghai, China
e-mail: Jianming_Zhou@patac.com.cn
736 J. Zhou et al.
Fig. 1 Brief system architecture of IISA
First of all, the IISA supports the hardware independent software development.
All the development is done on a PC and seamlessly integrated to embedded
system without any difficulty. Secondly, a Native Application Framework (NAF)
is introduced to support quick system reconfiguration by add or removal of
application executives. Last but not least, an Ethernet based interconnection
methodology is applied to enable a smooth extension from tradition all-in-one
solution to star topology based multi-module system. All these technologies play a
key role to the delivery of next gen infotainment system with a relative low cost.
1 Hardware Independence
The IISA is designed to be run on different mainstream hardware platform by

introducing an OS abstract layer (OSAL). The OSAL acts as an adaptor [1] between
the operation system and the middleware so that all upper level software modules are
independent to any specific operation system. This guarantees all upper level mod-
ules be able to develop and quickly debug on a PC and easily (bug-freely) deployed to
the embedded system. The OSAL contains 2 software modules, the BasicLib and the
GraphicsLib. Figure 1 shows the block diagram of the system architecture.
The BasicLib encapsulates most of the OS level services, including memory
management, file system, process and thread synchronization, etc. to the C++
classes and interfaces. Upper modules only call the interfaces exposed by Basic-
Lib. In doing so, the upper modules are independent to the OS and will be easy to
be adapted to different OS/hardware platform without any extra effort. Only the
BasicLib need to be re-implemented for particular platform.
The GraphicsLib encapsulates all the 2D graphics rendering functions used for
screen presentation. There is a fact that high-end hardware platform provides
hardware accelerated graphic rendering features while low-end hardware provides
‘‘framebuffer’’ that only supports software level rendering implementation. To fill
the gap between high-end and low-end, the GraphicsLib implements not only the
software rendering, which directly ‘‘calculate’’ each pixel in system memory and
flush it to the ‘‘framebuffer’’, but also support the hardware accelerated rendering
by utilizing the hardware capability as well.
Innovative Software Architecture for Next-Generation 737
Fig. 2 Reconfiguration of infotainment system
With the help of OS Abstract layer, it is possible to port the IISA to a main-
stream hardware without half a week. The OEMs do not need to worry about any
problem of porting IISA to any supplier’s hardware platform.
2 Native Application Framework
The traditional process of developing an infotainment system is started from

definition of system features, development of specifications, supplier hardware and
software development, and end up with validation and approval from the OEM. It
is easy to see the disadvantages in this process such as: (1) long time development
without agility (2) never embrace requirements changes (3) no configurability and
less reuse of software modules in final product (4) reinvent the wheel multiple
times.
As studied, the best way to improve configurability and scalability is to develop
features as modules and construct an infotainment system by selecting and com-
bining different software modules. Figure 2 shows the concept.
There are 2 types of software modules: the software building block and the
software application executives. A software building block is a black box pro-
viding particular features with well-defined exported interfaces. A building block
needs to be referred by other ‘‘modules’’ to provide its features. A building block
may be provided in source code form. Source code level integration may be
needed for particular platform. DLLs on Windows platform and so libraries on
Linux platform can be regarded as a software building block. An application
executive is an OS native executive entity that can directly run on specific OS
platform. An application executive is in binary form, directly providing features,
738 J. Zhou et al.
Table 1 Difference between the building block and application executives

Items Software building blocks Software application
executives
Executive Cannot directly run. A building block must work Executive entity that can
attribute together with other executives execute directly
Published Source code level (C/C++) interfaces RPC (remote procedure call)
interface level interfaces
Reuse Source code level reuse. Recompile and re-link is Binary level reuse,
needed for new system seamlessly integrated to
new system
and working together with other application executives to provide a complete

service to the end user. Table 1 shows the difference between the building block
and application executives.
Software executives are highly recommended to be the basic modules for
configuration of infotainment system. It is necessary to define and implement a
NAF to support the running, termination, inter-application communication and
lifecycle management of all applications. In the NAF prospective, all the features,
services are implemented as app executives. The NAF consists of basic software
modules that provide interfaces for NAF applications and reserved management
executive that manages all user configured applications.
The basic software modules provide the following key services: (1) Application
lifecycle management; (2) Update management; (3) IPC and RPC mechanism;
(4) published interfaces (5) Application Executive Rapid development support.
The lifecycle management service (LMS) monitors all the apps by listening and
collecting the ‘‘heart beat’’ messages from each apps for every second. Each app
needs to register itself to the NAF when launched and send ‘‘heart beat’’ message
once per second to prove that ‘‘I’m still alive’’. The NAF will recognize that an app
has stopped responding while ‘‘heart beat’’ message is no long received for more
than 5 s. Countermeasures, such as killing and cleaning up the zombie of app, or
restart app, shall be taken for failsoft and recovery. The service may also attempt
to calculate the workset [2] of each process and kill some of which in accordance
with the LRU algorithm to balance the system memory usage. The LMS service
plays a key role in strengthening the app management and improving the system
robustness.
The Update management service is responsible for downloading, installing,
updating and removal of all apps. This makes it possible for a user to update the
system by downloading and installing software packages from OEM owned back
office. The Update management service implements the ‘‘synchronization’’ oper-
ation, which automatically downloads the ‘‘remote app list’’ (representing the apps
user ordered) of particular account from the back office to the infotainment system
and compare it with the one (called local app list) stored in local system storage to
determine which app need to be updated or removed. The pseudo code in Fig. 3
Fig. 3 Mechanism of synchronization for update management service
shows how system checks each item in app list and determines what action the
system shall take.
The NAF also provides published interfaces for the convenience of apps. The
key points is to allow the interfaces continue evolving while on the same time keep
it backwards compatible. The COM [3] style interface definition has been intro-
duced to meet this goal. All the interfaces have been defined in an abstract class
form and derive from a common base IUnknown as follows:
interface IUnknown {
virtual LONG AddRef(void) = 0;
virtual LONG Release(void) = 0;
virtual HRESULT QueryInterface(GUID rid, void **ppv) = 0;
};
The QueryInterface method is designed for querying all the interfaces that the
component supports. A smart app can determine if the latest version of interface is
supported or not by calling the QueryInterface, and then make sure which interface
the app shall use. For example:
interface IPerson : public IUnknown { interface IPersonVer2 : public IUnknown {

virtual String& GetName(void) = 0; virtual String& GetName(void) = 0;
virtual int32 GetAge(void) = 0; virtual int32 GetAge(void) = 0;
}; virtual String& GetNationality(void) = 0;
};
The IPersionVer2 is an extension of IPerson. The app can call:

hResult = pPerson-[QueryInterface(IID_PPV_ARG(IPersonVer2,
&pPersonVer2));
740 J. Zhou et al.
and check the validity of pPersonVer2 to determine which interface shall be

used. This allows coexistence of different versions of interfaces which improves
the backwards compatibility.
The NAF provides IPC and RPC services for application communication, which
will be described in detail in Chap. 3. The NAF also implements the basic
framework of an application executive in a shared library. This is used to support
rapid application development. Any developer can quickly create applications with
basic functionalities by deriving the ‘‘INativeApp’’ base class.
The NAF itself provides the following reserved apps:
• AppMgr: the executives for app lifecycle management, update management, and
communication gateway
• AvModules: the Audio/Video player implementation in the system
• DefaultIME: the system default input method
• Mpmgr: the media player manager
3 Ethernet Based Interconnection Methodology
Almost all OEMs maintain several series of infotainment platform ranging from
all-in-one solution for emerging markets to networked multi-module system for
developed markets. How to apply similar software architecture to different hard-
ware architecture becomes a key problem of sharing and reusing software assets to
different infotainment platform. In order to solve this problem, the NAF imple-
ments an Ethernet based virtual interconnection methodology (EVIM). Basically,
the EVIM implements a virtual network that supports seamlessly inter-connection
among software modules regardless of their physical location. The EVIM is the
key part of NAF.
3.1 Communication Patterns
In the virtual Ethernet prospective, each module is regarded as a physical node

with uniquely assigned IP address, while each application is regarded as a virtual
node that is able to communicate with other nodes. Each virtual node contains an
(physical node) IP address and a port identifier. All the nodes located in the same
module share the same host IP address. Different port number will be allocated to
nodes who share the same IP address. A virtual node can communicate to another
by sending/receiving TCP/IP packages regardless of where the node is located at.
The TCP/IP layer will handle the request from app (virtual node) and determine if
it is only an inter-process communication or a remote communication, thus,
automatically select a proper way to transfer the package. Figure 4 illustrates this
concept.
Fig. 4 An example of internal communication and remote communication of virtual nodes
Fig. 5 Request–reply pattern
This EVIM design concept will be very helpful for the reconfiguration of a
module. For example, nothing need to be changed if we attempt to move the App2
from physical module 1 to physical module 2, as shown in Fig. 4, since the TCP/IP
layer will exactly understand where the App2 located at and bypass the packages
to the correct ‘‘sink’’. Under this concept, a client even does not need to know
where the server locates at. On the other hand, the EVIM concept even helps to
accelerate the development and system integration. The developer can deploy and
debug multiple software executives on one physical module (or even on a PC)
while the system integrator redeploys released executives to different modules and
makes the final validation.
In EVIM concept, pairs of virtual nodes (apps) must conduct ‘‘handshake’’
before start of communication. The earlier launched node, as called ‘‘initiator’’,
shall continuously broadcast ‘‘probe frame’’, in which the IP address and port
identifier are encapsulated, to all the nodes until the later launched node, as called
‘‘client’’, responds a ‘‘handshake frame’’ to the ‘‘initiator’’ once ‘‘probe frame’’
received. After the handshake, the couple know each other well and is ready for
communication. An ‘‘initiator’’ can handshake with multiple ‘‘client’’, thus provide
services to multiple apps in the same time.
In order to simplify the design of interconnected apps, the EVIM concept has
introduced 3 types of classical communication patterns, the Request–Reply pat-
tern, the Publish–Subscribe pattern, and the Pipeline pattern.
The Request–Reply (or REQ–REP) pattern allows the ‘‘client’’ to send a request
to a ‘‘server’’ and wait reply from the ‘‘server’’. Note that a reply is a must in Req–
Rep pattern, which guarantees the validity of the communication. Figure 5 shows
the Req–Rep pattern.
The Publish–Subscribe (Pub-Sub) pattern allows the ‘‘publisher’’ to broadcast
messages to all the ‘‘subscribers’’. The ‘‘subscriber’’ shall take action in
742 J. Zhou et al.
Fig. 6 Publisher–subscriber pattern
accordance with the received messages. The ‘‘subscriber’’ does not need to reply
any message to the publisher in Pub–Sub pattern. The Pub-Sub pattern is always
used for notification of some system events such as ‘‘USB connected’’ or ‘‘system
error’’ (Fig. 6).
The pipeline, or PUSH–PULL pattern, is used to push the requests to the
‘‘workers’’ and ‘‘works’’ do the works in accordance with the requests and push the
result to the ‘‘sink’’. The sink ‘‘reaps’’ all the result. The message queue system
will automatically balance the network load among all the ‘‘workers’’.
3.2 Message Definition Language
Tons of message types have been defined in a traditional infotainment system. This
makes the system very difficult to maintain. Message definition may update and
lose backwards compatibility during the update of communication protocol.
Applications source code become more and more complicated because of sup-
porting multiple versions of messages.
The EVIM concept introduces a google protobuf [4] based lightweight message
definition language (MDL) to define all the messages for communication protocol.
To make the message definition extendable and backwards compatible, the MDL
defines three keywords: required, optional, and repeat to describe the attribute of a
member variable in a message. A simple message may looks like:
message Persion { message Person {

required string Name; extend to required string Name;
required uint32 Age; required uint32 Age;
}; optional string Nationality;
};
Any extension of a message definition shall be marked as ‘‘optional’’. The

message parser will automatically determine if the optional field really exists
during the deserialization and then construct the correct content. This is trans-
parent to the apps so the application message handler can handle different versions
of message definition without any extra effort.
Fig. 7 Process of module development using MDL
On the other hand, the MDL is platform independent. This means all the
supplier can easily understand MDL and convert MDL to specific source code (C,
C++, python, java, or any other) they want with the help of MDL compiler. The
MDL compiler consists of MDL syntax parser and source code generator that can
support multiple programming languages. A typical development process will be:
the OEM releases the MDL definition of message protocol to different suppliers
and the suppliers convert the MDL definition to source code by MDL compiler.
The supplier develops the software system and the OEM conducts the integration
and validation. Figure 7 shows this development process.
4 Conclusions
This paper describes a new innovative Infotainment software architecture that can
support the rapid application development for next-generation infotainment sys-
tem. A demo based on this architecture has been developed, tested and proved a
55 % cost reduction and a 35 % improvement of development timing, while on the
same time, bring great flexibility.
For the next steps, more efforts shall be taken on the study of making the IISA
works more efficient on Ethernet based multi-module system. The Ethernet
bandwidth shall be carefully allocated for not only Audio/Video streaming but also
bulk data transmission. Some new technology, such as AVB, etc. may be intro-
duced to optimize the system performance.
References
1. Gamma E, Helm R, Johnson R, Vlissides J (1995) Design patterns, elements of reusable

object-oriented software [M]. Addison Wesley
2. Davis WS, Rajkumar TM (2005) Operation systems: a systematic view[M]. Addison Wesley
3. Box D (1998) Essential COM[M]. Addison Wesley
4. Protocol Buffers—Google’s data interchange format: http://code.google.com/p/protobuf/
Part VIII
Other
The Design of Invariant Wiring Harness
Network in Full Electronic Automobile
Shicen Zheng, Wenqiang Chen, Xingmin Wei and Fuquan Zhao
Abstract In recent years, with a growing number of intelligent electronic modules

applied in automobile, the design of automotive wiring harness is becoming
increasingly complicated. The Full Electronic Automobile are designed with the
original design idea of the invariant wiring harness network, which bring about the
design’s total universalization of the whole car wiring harness and connector. It
enables that the same harness and connector perfectly be applied to all cars. More
importantly, it decreases the weight and the cost of the single car wire in a large degree.

Keywords Full electronic automobile Invariant wiring harness network Power

network Intelligent communication network Universalization
1 Introduction
With the development of the Automobile electronic technology, an increasing

number of electronic components have been used in the car. The automobile
harness, used to connect these components, is getting more and more complicated,
in particular after the emergence of the In-Vehicle Network. The mixed type of
auto harness is formed by attaching the In-Vehicle Network harness to the tradi-
tional auto harness, which leads to the increase of the number of the harness to
connect the electronic components and the complexity of the harness design.
F2012-D08-003
S. Zheng (&) W. Chen X. Wei F. Zhao

Zhejiang Geely Automobile Research Institute Co., Ltd, Mainland, China
e-mail: zhengshicen@163.com
748 S. Zheng et al.
Fig. 1 The development of auto electrical control system. a The point-to-point connection
system. b The central connection system. c The local area distributed connection system. circle
in-vehicle appliances, square in-vehicle electric control unit
The application of in-vehicle bus technology changes the design of auto elec-
trical system, from the point-to-point connection system to the central connection
system, then to the local area distributed connection system. The three systems’
structures are shown in Fig. 1 at a, b and c respectively.
The point-to-point connection system, as shown in Fig. 1 at a, is easy to con-
nect. However, with the updated electrical equipment, the harness is getting more
and more complicated. Thus the coordination function among the electrical
equipment is hard to achieve. The central connection system, as shown in Fig. 1b,
can achieve the coordination function well. But in this system, the signals are still
connected by wires and the coordination mechanism is finished in the central
controller. The local area distributed connection system, as shown in Fig. 1c,
features the multiple distributed control module in the system. The control mod-
ules transfer signals with each other through the bus. Without the central control
unit, the coordination controls of the car are distributed in each module, which has
a wide coupling. It does not help to the upgrades, renovation and the cooperative
production. In general, the following flaws in the auto electrical equipment and the
electrical system structure bring the new challenge to the car harness design.
1. The digital communication interfaces in the sensors and actuators or in-vehicle
assembly are not uniform. The most intelligent electrical equipments do not
have the interfaces for information exchange with other in-vehicle equipments.
At present, the interface of the intelligent electrical equipments has many kinds,
such as CAN bus, LIN bus, USB bus, I2C, SPI and etc. There is no uniform
standard. As the design of the intelligent sensors and the actuators are not
viewed in terms of the vehicle system integration, lots of the intelligent com-
ponents cannot be applied in the car immediately. And the interconnects cannot
be achieved directly among them.
2. The most in-vehicle electrical control systems, which based on the bus, run
through the mode of control module, which still needs many wires to connect
with each other. Thus it could not solve the problem of the car harness
effectively.
3. There is not a formula of network design to follow up. According to the actual
function requirements and the distribution of the electrical equipments, most
systems adopt the different buses and the network framework, e.g. some sys-
tems use three buses, which are HS-CAN [1], LS-CAN and LIN BUS [2]; some
The Design of Invariant Wiring Harness Network 749
Fig. 2 Intelligent electrical

appliances and standard
connectors Sensor Control
Motor Circuit
Relay
Standard
Connector
systems use the CAN bus and LIN bus; some other systems use M-BUS,
Assembly Line Communication Link (ALDL), POWER BUS and K-BUS in
terms of actual function.
4. The in-vehicle electrical devices need higher power but without the effective
and safe management and monitoring. The structure of power supply in the
traditional power is simple. The on–off control of the electrical devices is
achieved by the switch, relay, dispenser and other components. The power is
supplied to the vehicle electrical through some panels with many plug-type
fuses, which leads to the wiring mess of the panels. Each electrical device is
protected by the simple relay. But the electricity use and control lack the
effective and safe management and monitoring.
2 The Overall Design of the Full Electronic
2.1 The Intelligent Electrical Devices in the Full

Electronic Car
The full electronic car design scheme is put forward by the researchers of Tsinghua
University [3]. It is a fully distributed intelligent electrical control system. In this
system, all the in-vehicle appliances are the standardized intelligent electrical
appliances. Intelligent electrical appliance is a kind of device which can realize
self control and make use of the in-vehicle bus to exchange information. Its basic
structure is as shown in Fig. 2.
2.2 The Main Content of the Full Electronic Car Scheme
In the full electronic car, every intelligent electrical appliance is the network node in
the electrical structure, which can realize information interaction and mutual coor-
dinative control through the main network. It realizes the whole distributed control of
electrical system in the car. The new design scheme of the electrical structure in the
full electronic car mainly includes the following several points:
750 S. Zheng et al.
1. The Network Design of Automobile Electrical System

The network designed is for the overall structure of intelligent electrical dis-
tributed control system. Because of the variance of the importance of electrical
appliance for the electrical system, a reasonable classification is needed for these
appliances, and then organize them in a networked way. At the same time, the
communication network and power network need to be built to meet communi-
cation need and power supply requirements of all the intelligent electrical
appliance.
2. The Design of the Invariant Harness [4]
The full electronic car scheme proposed a new concept of ‘‘invariant harness
nets’’ for the simplified design of automotive harness. The key of simplifying
harness is how to realize the standardization of connectors, making the definition
of harness have nothing to do with electrical appliances. For only independent
connectors can realize the wide range of generalization and avoid mistake in
operation, meanwhile, it also can provide possibility to increase and decrease the
carrying load for the vehicle system with different configuration.
3. The Design of the Intelligent Power Network
The in-vehicle intelligent power network needs to realize the electricity monitor
and over-currency protection, so an intelligent power box need to be designed in
order to realize the on/off control and over-currency protection, and other func-
tions, thus ensuring the safety of the car.
4. The Intelligent Design of the Electrical Equipment
The key of intelligent design is to add controller over the electrical appliances.
Due to the differences in the amount and category of electrical appliances, the
design of the controller involves a lot of design problems of different kinds of
controller hardware and software. Therefore, we need to adopt modular design
method to improve the reusability and reduce the workload of designing and
testing.
2.3 The Invariant Harness Network of the Full Electronic Car
Compared with the traditional harness design scheme, the invariant harness of the
full electronic car is designed with three features, which are the assimilation of the
interfaces, the standardization of connectors and the normalization of the
topological.
1. The Assimilation of the Interface
Universally define all kinds of the electrical interfaces of the intelligent elec-
trical in the full electronic car as the interface of digital power, power source and
Table 1 Similar interfaces of the CAN intelligent appliances

Pin Definition Function
1 D 12 V Digital signal power
2 D GND Digital signal GND
3 CAN H CAN high
4 CAN L CAN low
5 PXV Power supply
6 P GND Power GND
7 D 12 V const Constant digital power
communication signals. And the definition of the terminally electrical interface of

all the intelligent appliances depends on the quantity demand for the interface of
the communication and the digital power. Table 1 is the description of the defi-
nition of the intelligent appliances assimilation through the CAN communication.
2. The Standardization of Connectors
According to the definition of the similar electrical interface, all the electrical
interfaces in the full electronic car are standardized as follows: CAN standard
connectors, LIN standard connectors and other kinds of bus connectors, and the
super-current power supply connectors. For example, according to the definition of
the similar interfaces in Fig. 1, CAN standard connectors can be defined as the
seven-pin standard connector.
3. The Normalization of the Topological
The invariant harness network includes the two independent harness networks:
the intelligent communication network and intelligent power network. Among
them, intelligent communication network is divided into backbone network and
local area network according to the logical relationship between the electrical
parts. Therefore, based on the principle of network for harness section, the harness
design of the whole car includes a smart network harness, a backbone network
harness and several local area network harnesses.
3 The Design of the Invariant Harness Network in Geely

Dihao EC7
According to the requirement of the design scheme of the invariant harness net-
work in the full electronic car, Dihao EC7, produced by the car company Geely,
needs an electronic design and modification. On this car, a validation of the full
electronic auto system will be carried out. This car is a sedan, with 4.6 m long,
1.8 m wide and 1.5 high, and equipped with 1.8 L naturally aspirated engine and
five-speed manual gearbox. As to the electric function, besides the traditional
lights, wiper and electric windows, this car has the electric rearview mirror
752 S. Zheng et al.
regulator, rearview mirror, rear windshield heater, the headlamps, whose height
can be adjusted and the automatic opening and closing headlights. It has the
complete electrical system and the advanced electrical configuration. This kind of
the car has a certain representativeness in the China’s market of the compact
family car. It is beneficial to the further promotion and application of this tech-
nology by using this car to carry the R&D and validation of the full electronic car.
3.1 The Classification of the Original Auto Electrical Assembly
The first step is to classify the original auto electrical equipments, which are
divided into the backbone electrical and the local area electrical in order of the
importance. The network organization of the electrical equipments is realized
through the electrical backbone network (hereafter referred to as backbone net-
work) and the electrical local area network (hereafter referred to as local area
network).
1. The Backbone Electrical Equipment
In the charge system, the generator is the most important electrical equipment.
Thus the generator is the backbone electrical equipment. In the starting system,
starter is the most important electrical equipment. So it is also a backbone elec-
trical equipment. Some other important electrical assemblies, including the engine
management system, instrument system, air conditioning system, ABS control
system, airbags and the combination switch for the drivers to control the electrical
equipments, all should be regarded as the backbone electrical equipments. After
the classification, the backbone electrical equipments of the original car are as
shown in Table 2.
In the Table 2, the central coordinator is used to coordinate the running of the
whole auto’s electrical equipments, and the central microcomputer is the human–
computer interaction platform for system and the driver. These two electrical
equipments are the newly-added backbone electrical in the full electronic auto
system.
2. The Local Area Electrical Equipment
Besides the backbone electrical equipment, all others are the local area elec-
trical equipment. Their distribution areas in the full electronic car are as shown in
Fig. 3.
As shown in Fig. 3, the local area electrical equipments are distributed across
the front, the middle, the behind of the car, the engine compartment, the car door
and so on. The local area electrical equipments affect the local function of the
electrical system. The local area electrical equipments always spread across every
place of the car’s body, which brings lots of difficulties to the arrangement, the
installation and the fault check of the auto harness. The local area electrical
equipments are divided into several groups by the spatial position. Based on the
Table 2 The list of the No Electrical

backbone electrical in full
electronic car 1 Center controller1
2 Center controller2
3 Central computer
4 Instrument Panel Combination_Switch
5 Steering_Column Combination_Switch
6 Engine management system
7 Instrument
8 ABS
9 Airbag controller
10 Air-condition controller
11 Starter
12 Generator
13 OBD connector
14 Immobilizer
Fig. 3 The regional division of the local area electrical equipments in the full electronic car
characteristic distributions of the full electronic auto’s local area electrical

equipments, the space of the cat is divided into seven areas, as shown in the Fig. 3
from A1 to A7. Each electrical equipment in the area is as shown in Table 3.
3.2 The Standard Connectors of the Invariant Harness
There are eight wires in the invariant harness system of the full electronic auto
Dihao Geely. As shown in Fig. 1, the wires, from No. 1 to No. 6, including the
754 S. Zheng et al.
Table 3 The classification of the local area electrical equipment in the full electronic car
Area Description No Electrical equipments
A1 Left-front 7 Left headlamp, daylight, front foglamp, horn, vehicle speed sensor,
back-up lamp switch, brake fluid sensor, wipe motor etc.
A2 Right-front 4 Right headlamp, daylight, front foglamp, washer pump etc.
A3 Left-door 9 Left-front window lift controller&switch door latch, left-rear window lift
controller&switch door latch, door lamp, left outside rear-view
mirror etc.
A4 Right-door 8 Right-front window lift controller&switch door latch, left outside rear-
view mirror, door lamp, left-rear window lift controller&switch door
latch etc.
A5 Middle 13 Reading lamp, hazard warning lamp, audible system, rear fog lamp
switch, brake switch, sun sensor, interior light etc.
A6 Rear 9 Left-rear foglamp, right-rear foglamp, license lamp, left-rear rear
combined lamp, right-rear rear combined lamp, rear hood lamp, stop
lamp, rear window heater etc.
A7 Power 8 Relay 1–7, battery monitor sensor.
supply
Fig. 4 The plug-in view of

the electrical equipment
network signal lines and the controller’s electric wire, have small power. The wire
7 and wire 8, the electricity power lines for the electrical equipments, can let the
large current go through.
The whole car network of the intelligent electrical system in the full electronic
auto includes the backbone electrical equipments and the local area electrical
equipments. Among them, the backbone electrical equipments are the CAN bus
network node, which need to connect seven wires, as shown in Fig. 4 at No. 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 7, and 8. These are the invariant harness of the backbone network. The
local area electrical equipments need to connect five wires, No. 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8,
which are the invariant harness of local area network. In order to save the R&D
expenses, all the harness connectors adopt the 14-pin connectors in this research.
The definitions of the harness and the connector are as shown in Tables 4, 5, 6
and Fig. 4.
Table 4 The general wire list of the electrical system in the full electronic car
No Function Pin name
1 CAN high CAN_H
2 CAN low CAN_L
3 Digital signal GND D_GND
4 Digital signal power D_12V_ctrl
5 Constant digital power D_12V_const
6 LIN BUS LIN_Signal
7 Power Power
8 GND GND
Table 5 The definition of the invariant harness interfaces in backbone electrical equipment
Pin Function Wire gauge (mm2)
1 GND 2.5
2 Constant digital power 0.5
3 NC
4 CAN_H 0.5
5 NC
6 NC
7 POWER 2.5
8 GND 2.5
10 NC
11 CAN_L 0.5
12 NC
13 NC
14 NC
Table 6 The definition of the invariant harness interfaces in the local area electrical equipment
Pin Function Wire gauge (mm2)
1 GND 2.5
2 NC
3 NC
4 NC
5 NC
6 NC
7 POWER 2.5
8 GND 2.5
10 LIN_BUS 0.5
11 NC
12 NC
13 NC
14 NC
756 S. Zheng et al.
Fig. 5 Controller and the connector in electrical equipment. a ECU2 and the interconnected
connectors in local area electrical equipment. b ECU1 and the interconnected connectors in
backbone electrical equipment
3.3 The Other Standard Connectors
The original power devices in the Dihao EC7 could not meet the demand the full
electronic car. Therefore, aimed at every original power device, an ECU, which can
meet the full electronic auto’s demand, is specially designed. In general, this kind of
ECU can be divided into two categories. The first is the ECU 1, which is aimed at
the power devices of existing controllers like ABS and EMS. It takes charge in the
signal exchange between the signal of the original controller and the newly-
designed network of the full electronic auto, namely realizing the function of the
gateway routing. The second is ECU 2, which is aimed at the power devices without
the controller like the light and the switch. It takes charge in controlling the power
supply and the switch closure of the power devices, as well as the signal acquisition
and transformation between the switch and the sensor. These two kinds of ECU are
connected with the backbone and the local area electrical equipments of the original
car by the two types of standard connectors, which are as shown in Fig. 5.
3.4 The Normalized Network Topology
According to the structure of the Dihao Geely EC7, the distribution location of the
electrical equipments and the network partition, the electrical system topology of
the whole auto invariant harness is designed as shown in Fig. 6.
4 The Verification and Reliability Test
On the platform of the Dihao Geely EC7, the scheme of the electronic auto is
designed and realized, including the efficient operation of the intelligent power
network and the intelligent electrical equipments. Based on the testing system of
the electronic auto that is designed by ourselves, we carried out the integrated
validation and the effectiveness analysis of the six parts over the electronic sample
Fig. 6 The topological graph of the electrical system in the full electronic auto
Fig. 7 The real controller of the intelligent electrical equipment
car Dihao Geely, including in-vehicle internet, intelligent electrical equipments

and the invariant harness. Meanwhile, this sample car traveled more than
1,200 km on the testing field and the real road in Beijing, more than 1,600 km
from Beijing to Hangzhou along the highway, national road and other different
levels of roads. The test’s total range reaches 3,000 km. The test was carried under
many different conditions, like the sunny days, the rain and snow, greasy weather
and the night. The system’s reliability is sufficient proved.
4.1 The Intelligent Electrical Equipment
The controller of the intelligent electrical in the electronic auto Dihao Geely is as
shown in Fig. 7.
758 S. Zheng et al.
Fig. 8 The harness of the local area network and the harness of the backbone network
Fig. 9 Invariant connectors
5 The Invariant Harness
The invariant harness physical map of the electronic auto Dihao Geely is as shown
in Fig. 8.
The electrical-independent connector in the invariant harness is as shown in
Fig. 9. The connectors of the local area network’ harness and the backbone net-
work’s harness are standardized.
The invariant harness makes the installation of the harness become easier. The
guide-lines of the harness in the original car are not intuitive to identify where to
go. The traces are in confusion. It does harm to the inspection and maintenance of
the harness. Adopting the standard topological structure, the invariant harness is
simple on the whole. What’s more, the connection relationship between the
electrical equipment and the harness is very intuitive. Above all, compared with
the original type of the car, the weight of the whole car’s harness is reduced by
1.6 kg, the plug-in decreased by 56 kinds. If we reach the idealized situation of the
electronic auto where the electrical equipments are totally intelligent and all the
plug-in standardized, the weight of the harness and the quantity of the plug-in can
better achieve the effect of the lightweight and the generalization.
6 Conclusions
During the reformation of DiHao EC7, the project of the full electronic car does
not accomplished totally on the system of engine wires, cabin wires, dashboard
wires and so on, because the existing part controller on the original type does not
redesign. For example, EMS, ABS, ACU and other relevant wire can not be
reformed completely, but to add the ECU1 to achieve it.
Due to the space limitation of the original part electric devices on DiHao EC7,
the newly-added full electronic controller and the original electric devices can
neither merge perfectly, nor be close to the electric devices without clearance,
which lead to the waste of the connecting wires.
Although the insufficient as above exists, this research is enough to verify the
feasibility of the invariant wire harness network; the new scheme shows the sig-
nificant advantages in the lightweight and the universalization over the traditional
one.
With the higher requirements for comfortableness, economy and security of the
car, the amount of the intelligent electric devices is bound to increase and the
whole car’s wire harness system will be more and more complicated. The constant
wire harness design idea of the full electronic car satisfies the requirement of the
universal whole vehicle wire harness and its connectors. So the design of the
whole vehicle wire harness can be simplified to the difference between the wire
harness scale and the amount of the connectors, which totally meet the design
demand for an era of car intelligence.
References
1. Robert Bosch GmbH CAN specification. Version 2.0, Sept 1991

2. LIN Consortium. LIN Specification 2.0, 2003
3. Liao Y Yang D G, Lian XM (2006) Global electric electronic system in vehicle. In:
Proceedings of 2006 IEEE international conference on vehicular electronics and safety
conference, Shanghai, China, pp 265–269
4. Xinfeng Z, Dian’ge Y, Wen X, Liang L, Keqiang L, Xiaomin L (2009) Invariant harness
connect system of in-vehicle electrical. Tsinghua Univ (Sci and Tech) 49 (2)
Inertia Compensation Based on Torque
Signal in an Electric Power Steering
System
Xuewu Ji, Ning Sun, Jingguang Ge and Yahui Liu
Abstract Research and/or Engineering Questions/Objective: The dynamic per-

formance of an electric power steering system (EPS) is deteriorated by the inertia of
assistant motor. To improve the dynamic performance of EPS, it is necessary to
compensate the motor inertia. Therefore, the angular acceleration of the motor rotor
is needed. Generally the angular acceleration signal is derived from the differen-
tiation of the estimated angular velocity signal in brush DC motor, which is much
complex in brushless motor. Therefore this chapter attempts to obtain angular
acceleration signal from the torque signal. Methodology: The angular acceleration
signal of the assistant motor in an EPS can be obtained from the angle sensor or the
torque sensor embodied in the system. The dynamic equation of the steering system
was analyzed and the block diagram of inertia compensation was established. This
chapter deduced the transfer function from the torque signal to the angular accel-
eration signal so as to compensate the rotor inertia. Later on, the compensation
effects of the two compensation methods were compared based on the EPS bench
model and the influence of the related parameters on the dynamic performance of
EPS was analyzed. Results: The angular acceleration signal cannot be derived from
direct differentiation of angle signal because of the amplified noise, while the
angular acceleration derived from torque signal is much more reasonable. And the
dynamic performance of the steering system is much improved with inertia com-
pensation. Limitations of this study: A main limitation of the current study is the
acquisition of the parameters included in the transfer function. If this method is put
into practice, the related parameters of the steering system should be available.
F2012-D08-006
X. Ji N. Sun (&) J. Ge Y. Liu

State key laboratory of automotive safety and energy, Tsinghua University,
Beijing, 100084, China
e-mail: sunn10@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
762 X. Ji et al.
What does the paper offer that is new in the field in comparison to other works of the
author: The deduction of transfer function from torque sensor signal to angular
acceleration signal so as to fulfil inertia compensation is new in this chapter.
Conclusion: The influence of the rotor inertia on the steering system increases with
the increase of the moment of rotor inertia and decreases with the increase of
assistant ratio. The method of deriving angular acceleration signal from torque
sensor included in EPS can obtain good effect, and the dynamic performance of the
steering system is much improved with inertia compensation.
Keywords EPS Motor inertia Angular acceleration Inertia compensation

Torque signal
1 Introduction
The steering shaft inertia of an electric power steering system (EPS) is much
augmented because of the assistant motor inertia, thus deteriorating the dynamic
performance of the steering system. Problems such as torque shortage when
starting steering and continuing rotating when stopping steering will appear,
especially when the driver turns the steering wheel rapidly [1, 2]. In order to
improve the dynamic performance of EPS, it is necessary to compensate the effect
of motor inertia, where the angular acceleration of the motor is needed. Generally,
the angular acceleration is derived from the angular velocity estimated from the
motor current in an EPS with a brushed motor [3]. Even though there is an angle
sensor in an EPS with a brushless motor, the angular acceleration could not be
obtained by differentiating the angle signal, for the noise will be amplified. Hence,
this chapter attempts to derive angular acceleration from the torque sensor
included in EPS to take compensation for the motor inertia.
2 EPS Test Bench Model
A column-type electric power steering (C-EPS) test bench is shown in Fig. 1,

mainly consisting of steering wheel, torque sensor, steering column, assistant
motor, gear reducer, EPS controller, spring load device, rack and pinion steering
gear, and battery.
The dynamic equations of the steering system can be given as follows
according to Newton’s second law. Here the stiffness of the motor shaft and
reducer shaft is assumed as infinite and the parameters used in the following
equations are shown in Table 1.

xr
Jsw €
hsw þ Bsw h_ sw þ Ks hsw ¼ Th ð1Þ
rp
Inertia Compensation Based on Torque Signal 763
Fig. 1 C-EPS test bench
Ta ¼ Tm Jm €
hm Bm h_ m ð2Þ

xr
mr €xr þ Br x_ r þ Kr xr ¼ Ks hsw þ GTa =rp ð3Þ
rp

xr
Ts ¼ Ks hsw ð4Þ
rp
Tm ¼ Ka Ts ð5Þ
xr Gxr
hp ¼ ; hm ¼ ð6Þ
rp rp
The block diagram of the test bench model can be obtained from Eqs. (1–6), as
2
shown in Fig. 2. Where: Geq ðsÞ ¼ r12 meq s2 þB1 eq sþKr ; meq ¼ mr þ Gr2 Jm ; Beq ¼ Br þ
p p
G2
rp2 Bm
3 Compensation Control
In order to compensate the effect of the assistant motor inertia on the dynamic
performance of EPS, the inertia torque Jm € hm should be added to the output end of
the assistant motor, where Jm can be measured through experiment [4], and the key
problem is how to get the angular acceleration of the assistant motor €hm : There are
two methods to get € hm ; one is to use the angle sensor signal, and the other is to use
the torque sensor signal.
764 X. Ji et al.
Table 1 Parameter description

Symbols Meanings
Jsw Moment of Inertia of steering wheel and steering shaft
Bsw Damping between steering shaft and steering column
Ks Torsion bar stiffness
Jm Moment of inertia of assistant motor
Bm Assistant motor damping
Mr Rack mass
Br Rack damping
Kr Load spring stiffness
G Reduction ratio
Ka Assistant gain
Th Hand torque
Ta Motor assistant torque
Ts Torque sensor output
Rp Pinion radius
hsw Steering wheel angle
hm Motor shaft angle
hp Pinion angle
Xr Rack displacement
Th 1 θ sw Ts
Ks
J sw s 2 Bsw s
θp
Geq ( s ) GKa
Fig. 2 Block diagram of test bench model
Fig. 3 Compensation control block diagram with angular acceleration signal derived from angle
sensor
A common way to get € hm is to differentiate the angle signal directly, and the
compensation control block diagram is shown in Fig. 3. The block diagram can be
simplified into the form shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Block diagram of simplified compensation control
..
Fig. 5 Transfer function from sensor torque to assistant motor angular acceleration
Considering that the angular acceleration will be polluted by the amplified

noises if the angle signal is differentiated directly, it is attempted to get angular
acceleration signal from the torque sensor. From Fig. 4 the transfer function from
torque sensor signal Ts to motor angular acceleration can be seen clearly, which is
shown in Fig. 5.
From Fig. 5 the transfer function from sensor torque Ts to assistant motor
angular acceleration €hm can be derived, see Eq. (7).
Gð1 þ GKa ÞGeq ðsÞs2

G ðsÞ ¼ ð7Þ
1 G2 ðJm s2 þ Bm sÞGeq ðsÞ
Equation (7) shows the relationship between the torque sensor signal input and
the assistant motor angular acceleration output. When the steering wheel is turned,
the torque sensor will detect the steering torque and the motor rotor will rotate, and
the angular acceleration signal can be derived from the torque sensor signal
through Eq. (7). Thus the inertia compensation block diagram can be changed into
the one shown in Fig. 6.
4 Inertia Compensation Analysis
In simulation, if the angular acceleration signal is derived by differentiating the

angle signal directly, the noise will be amplified so that the angular acceleration
signal is not available. Figure 7 shows the angular accelerations derived from the
angle sensor and the torque sensor, respectively.
It can be seen clearly from Fig. 7 that the angular acceleration signal tends to be
infinite as time goes if it’s derived from direct differentiation of angle signal,
766 X. Ji et al.
Fig. 6 Inertia compensation block diagram with angular acceleration derived from torque sensor
Fig. 7 Angular accelerations

derived from two sensors
therefore inertia compensation cannot be completed using the directly differenti-

ating method; while the angular acceleration signal derived from torque sensor is
much reasonable, so that the following sections will focus on the dynamic per-
formance between with and without inertia compensation using the second
method.
4.1 Compensation at Different Inertias
Generally the inertia of moment of a brushless motor is about one over ten times
that of a brushed motor of the same power, so here the moment of inertia of the
brushless motor is set as Jm1 = 3.0 9 10-4 kg m2, that of a brushed motor is set
as Jm2 = 3.0 9 10-3 kg m2, and GKa is set as 15.4. The step response of torque
signal and motor angular velocity signal between with and without inertia com-
pensation at different motor inertias are shown separately in Figs. 8 and 9.
It can be seen from Figs. 8 and 9 that the torque signal is smoother and the
motor starting speed is higher when inertia compensation is carried out. It can also
be seen that the influence of the assistant motor inertia on steering system varies
Fig. 8 Step response of assistant motor (Jm1 = 3.0 9 10-4 kg m2, GKa = 15.4). a Step
response of torque signal. b Step response of motor angular velocity
Fig. 9 Step response of assistant motor (Jm2 = 3.0 9 10-3 kg m2, GKa = 15.4). a Step
response of torque signal. b Step response of motor angular velocity
from the moment of assistant motor inertia. There’s no significant change in motor
starting speed with small inertia, while the motor velocity is much higher and the
compensation effect is more obvious with larger moment of inertia.
4.2 Compensation at Different Assistant Ratios
The effect of assistant motor inertia is not only closely related to the moment of
assistant motor inertia, but also depends on the assistant ratio. To see the com-
pensation effect at different assistant ratios more clearly, here set Jm = 3.0 9 10-4
kg m2 and GKa = 0, the step response of torque signal and assistant motor angular
velocity signal between with and without inertia compensation are shown sepa-
rately in Figs.10a and b.
It can be seen from Figs. 8 and 10 that as the assistant ratio decreases, the effect
of inertia compensation on system dynamic performance is more significant, even
if the inertia is small. With inertia compensation the torque signal is smoother and
768 X. Ji et al.
Fig. 10 Step response of assistant motor (Jm = 3.0 9 10-4 kg m2, GKa = 0). a Step response of
torque signal. b Step response of motor angular velocity
its dynamic performance is much improved, which means the hand feeling is
better. The rising speed of assistant motor angular velocity is much faster after
inertia compensation, which means the torque shortage at assistant motor starting
stage is much improved.
5 Conclusion
This chapter compared the angular acceleration signal derived from angle sensor
and torque sensor respectively. Simulation shows that the angular acceleration
signal derived from the former is not available, while that form the latter can
achieve the aim of compensating the effect of assistant motor inertia, which
improves the system dynamic performance significantly. The following conclu-
sions have been drawn from the research.
Under the same assistant ratio, the EPS dynamic performance deteriorates with
the increase of the moment of inertia of assistant motor; when the assistant ratio is
small, the effect of assistant motor inertia is much more obvious, and the effect of
inertia compensation on system dynamic performance is more significant, even if
the moment of inertia of the assistant motor is small.
References
1. Xia F (2008) Optimization of control strategy on electric power steering system: automotive
engineering. Tsinghua University, Beijing (in Chinese)
2. Yasuo S, Yoshihiro O (2006) Control for moment of motor inertia on EPS. SAE chapter 2006,
01-1179
3. Shen R, Lin Y, Tai X et al (2007) Research on modeling and compensation control strategy of
electric power steering system. J Agric Mach 7(7):5–9 (in Chinese)
4. Lv y (2011) Fundamental research on PMSM EPS control. Department of Automotive
Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, (in Chinese)

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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering

For further volumes:

Automotive Engineering Societies (FISITA)

Proceedings of the FISITA

ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012948289

Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Part I Engine/Chassis/Body Electronic Control

Battery Monitoring Technology of Micro-Hybrid

Research on Electro Hydraulic Composite Brake System . . . . . . . . . . 13

Analysis and Design of Automotive Body Control Module . . . . . . . . . 25

Scalable Architecture Approach with Platform Products

Gasoline Fuel Injector Selection and Its Effects

The Research of Starting Control Strategies for Common

Study on Twin Modes Pilot Control of Turbocharger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Braking Stability Control Algorithm for Vehicle Based

Lane Keeping System Based on Electric Power Steering System . . . . . 83

Parking Brake Breaking-In Technology Based on EPB . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Engineering Design of TPMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

An Integrated Electric Energy Management System

Modeling on Torque Generation for Turbocharged Diesel

Design of a Versatile Rapid Prototyping Engine

Study on State Parameters Estimation for Commercial Vehicle . . . . . 143

The Research and Implementation of Engine-Timing-Control

Calibration Techniques for Modern Commercial Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . 167

Powertrain Control and System Integration Technology

Part II Electrical and Electronic System

Virtual Development of Engine ECU by Modeling Technology . . . . . . 189

The Research of a Novel High Energy Density Ultracapacitor

Starting System for Stop/Start with Change of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Distributed Diagnostic Monitoring and Fault Tolerant Control

Synthesis and Nox Gas Sensing Properties of In1.82 ni0.18o3

A Novel Concept of High Voltage Auxiliaries and its Feasibility

Small Lights Power Distribution System Improvement

Development Trend Analysis of Automobile Electronic System . . . . . . 261

Automotive ECUs Fault Diagnosis Modeling Based

Secure Microprocessor Architectures: Solutions from the

Research on CAN BUS-Based Electronic and Electric Platform

On the Application Development of 3G Technology

A Typical Application of FlexRay Bus in the Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Development of Controller Diagnostic System Based on ODX . . . . . . . 341

Magnetic Circuit Design for Improving Performance

A Study on the Noise Reduction of Electrical Power Steering

Power Distribution Design of Passenger Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

Part III Software and Hardware Development

Study on the Performance Modeling Approach for Automotive

Knowledge Based Engineering to Support Automotive Conceptual

Development of an AUTOSAR Software Component Based

MDG1: The New, Scalable, and Powerful ECU

Context-Aware Middleware for Vehicular Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Analysis of the Adaptation of a New Method for Four-Wheel-Hub

Design and Implementation of Bootloader for Vehicle Control

Automated Code Generation for Development of Electric

Research on the Development Process for the ECU Control

MCON: Automation Tool for MATLAB Modeling Development

A Model-Based Design for Electronic Control Unit

Model Based Nonlinear Controller Design for Fuel Rail System