energies

Review
Hybrid Battery Thermal Management System
in Electrical Vehicles: A Review
Chunyu Zhao , Beile Zhang, Yuanming Zheng, Shunyuan Huang, Tongtong Yan
and Xiufang Liu *
School of Energy and Power, Xi’an JiaoTong University, Xi’an 710049, China;
zcy1041085222@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (C.Z.); zbeile@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (B.Z.); z18760661517@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (Y.Z.);
hsy50288@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (S.H.); ytt2174420426@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (T.Y.)
* Correspondence: liuxiufang@mail.xjtu.edu.cn




Received: 4 September 2020; Accepted: 9 November 2020; Published: 27 November 2020


Abstract: The Li-ion battery is of paramount importance to electric vehicles (EVs). Propelled by the
rapid growth of the EV industry, the performance of the battery is continuously improving. However,
Li-ion batteries are susceptible to the working temperature and only obtain the optimal performance
within an acceptable temperature range. Therefore, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) is
required to ensure EVs’ safe operation. There are various basic methods for BTMS, including forced-air
cooling, liquid cooling, phase change material (PCM), heat pipe (HP), thermoelectric cooling (TEC),
etc. Every method has its unique application condition and characteristic. Furthermore, based on
basic BTMS, more hybrid cooling methods adopting different basic methods are being designed to
meet EVs’ requirements. In this work, the hybrid BTMS, as a more reliable and environmentally
friendly method for the EVs, will be compared with basic BTMS to reveal its advantages and potential.
By analyzing its cost, efficiency and other aspects, the evaluation criterion and design suggestions are
put forward to guide the future development of BTMS.

Keywords: electric vehicles; Li-ion battery; hybrid battery thermal management system

1. Introduction
As a substitute for fossil-fueled vehicles, electric vehicles (EVs) have advantages such as low
pollution and high efficiency [1]. The Li-ion battery is a crucial component of EVs. The inappropriate
working temperature (high temperature, low temperature, and high differential temperature) will
affect batteries’ performance and lifespan [2], which seriously affects EVs’ capability.
At high temperature, capacity/power fade, self-discharging and other adverse effects will cause
a massive loss of batteries’ available energy [3,4]. In extreme situations like excessive ambient
temperature, high temperature will contribute to the thermal runaway and threaten EVs’ safety
when overheating from the short circuit is out of control. Low temperature is detrimental to charge
acceptance [5], capacity/power [6], lifespan and round-trip efficiency [7]. Data show that when the
temperature falls to −40 ◦ C, the power that can be supplied is only 1.25% compared with the battery at
20 ◦ C. Furthermore, due to the differences in electrochemical properties during charging or discharging
processes caused by the non-uniformity in temperature distribution in the cell, module or pack, the
cell performance and cycle life deteriorate [8]. Experiments show that when the temperature difference
(∆T) rises by 5 ◦ C, power supply capacity suffers 1.5–2% more loss [9]. To hold batteries’ working
temperature within an appropriate range and improve temperature uniformity are the primary goals of
a battery thermal management system (BTMS) in EVs. Researchers and manufacturers have designed
and tested different kinds of BTMS to solve this problem.

Energies 2020, 13, 6257; doi:10.3390/en13236257 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 6257 2 of 18

The temperature on the battery surface needs to be evaluated combined with the temperature
profile inside the battery. To obtain a more accurate simulation of BTMS, heat-transfer models of
outer cooling structures should be built. Combined with the electrochemical and thermal model,
many battery models serve to deduce the inner situation of battery cells [10–14]. Because it is not easy to
obtain the temperature inside the battery cells, the internal temperature could mostly be calculated by
measuring the temperature profile on the surface of batteries [15]. Mahamud and Park [16] developed a
spatial-resolution, lumped-capacitance thermal model which could quickly predict the cell temperature
under different working cycles.
The principal evaluations for each BTMS are based on the range of operating temperature and
device temperature uniformity. The ideal BTMS could maintain the battery temperature within an
appropriate scope as well as obtain uniform temperature to ensure the long-time safe and efficient
operation of the battery. Since temperature adjustment has hysteresis, the BTMS with fast response
speed is required to respond to the change of battery temperature quickly and control the temperature
within a reasonable range within a short time. In order to achieve optimal BTMS, more factors such
as system weight, volume, response speed and stability, etc. [17] should be taken into consideration
for the comprehensive evaluation. Performance evaluation index (PEI) and standard test conditions
are needed.
The temperature uniformity of battery cells is also sensitive to the discharge rate and boundary
condition [18]. As a consequence, BTMS needs to be tested and compared in different working
environments, especially in a harsh external environment and a heavy workload, such as deserts and
polar regions. It is necessary to design BTMS to achieve stable temperature distribution of battery
modules in various settings. One thorny issue of EVs is hotspots on the surface of battery cells, which is
dangerous, especially under extreme driving situations [19–21]. In the overcharging test, thermal
runaway may happen so that the temperature is out of the appropriate scope. Reducing pressure
inside the cell could prevent an accident to some extent [22].
The basic types of BTMS use air, liquid, heat pipe (HP) and phase change material (PCM) as
heat conduction fluids or structures to deliver the waste heat from the battery to the outer space.
Previous literature [23–27] has given a very detailed description and discussion of each basic BTMS,
including designing, performance, development trends and applications, etc. Although many review
articles include a discussion of hybrid BTMS, there are a lack of systematic and targeted discussions.
BTMS could be classified by different criteria [25]. Generally, BTMS could be divided into the active or
passive system by the use of extra energy source. For active BTMS, extra energy is consumed to power
fans or pumps, which commonly exists in the air [28] and liquid cooling systems [29]. For passive
BTMS, particular structures will be attached on the battery surface to achieve a higher heat transfer
capacity between the battery and the outer space, such as PCM [30] and heat pipe [31]. Active BTMS
shows a significant difference from passive BTMS, such as stability and complexity. Active BTMS has a
more powerful heat dissipation capacity by consuming more energy and adopting complex devices.
Passive BTMS could achieve some particular targets like uniform temperature (PCM-based BTMS)
and quick response (Heat pipe-based BTMS). However, if there is a greater heat load for the system,
active BTMS always acts as a preferred method. In many situations, several basic BTMSs should be
combined together to reach different goals simultaneously. Research increasingly focuses on hybrid
BTMS, and the integration method has been widely applied in many situations.
In this article, a new classification criterion is provided to analyze the existed BTMS systematically
(as shown in Figure 1). Besides basic BTMS, hybrid BTMS are divided into five groups. A common
characteristic is the combination of active and passive methods. Unlike basic BTMS, hybrid BTMS
emphasizes combination and integration. With higher requirements of BTMS, more attention and
systematic evaluation methods are needed for hybrid BTMS. Furthermore, BTMS is not separate from
vehicle thermal management. For further researches, the investigation of BTMS should take VTM into
consideration due to the interaction between them.
Energies 2020, 13, 6257 3 of 18
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

Figure 1. Classification of battery thermal management systems (BTMS).

2. Basic Battery
2. Basic Battery Thermal
Thermal Management
Management System
System (BTMS)
(BTMS)
A
A basic
basic BTMS
BTMS adopts
adopts aa single
single type
type of
of BTMS
BTMS individually
individually soso that
that the
the way
way to
to increase
increase the
the single
single
BTMS performance becomes the primary issue. When adopting forced air or liquid
BTMS performance becomes the primary issue. When adopting forced air or liquid as heat-transfer as heat-transfer fluid
(HTF), flow channel design is an important part, including the channel shape,
fluid (HTF), flow channel design is an important part, including the channel shape, position position of channel inlet
of
and outlet, channel parameter and flow direction. The work aims to obtain
channel inlet and outlet, channel parameter and flow direction. The work aims to obtain the the optimized parameters
according
optimized toparameters
different operating
according environments
to differentand requirements.
operating For thermoelectric
environments cooling (TEC),
and requirements. For
BTMS cannot be used individually without the assistance of other basic
thermoelectric cooling (TEC), BTMS cannot be used individually without the assistance BTMSs to cool downofthe hot
other
side
basicnear
BTMSsthe to
battery surface.
cool down theTherefore,
hot side nearTECtheis battery
an auxiliary device
surface. used inTEC
Therefore, hybrid
is anBTMS to improve
auxiliary device
the battery module surface’s local heat transfer capability. The discussion
used in hybrid BTMS to improve the battery module surface’s local heat transfer capability.about TEC is in the section
The
on hybrid BTMS.
discussion about Different
TEC is in kinds
the of basic BTMSs
section on hybrid haveBTMS.
different characteristics,
Different kinds ofand theyBTMSs
basic are applied
have
to different
different situations andand
characteristics, batterytheypacks. More importantly,
are applied to differentthe disadvantages
situations of basic
and battery BTMSMore
packs. and
corresponding solutions will be summarized.
importantly, the disadvantages of basic BTMS and corresponding solutions will be summarized.

2.1. Active BTMS

2.1. Active BTMS
An active BTMS mainly includes forced-air cooling, liquid cooling and TEC. An active BTMS
An active BTMS mainly includes forced-air cooling, liquid cooling and TEC. An active BTMS
needs to balance the benefit and cost of consuming extra energy. At relatively low temperature,
needs to balance the benefit and cost of consuming extra energy. At relatively low temperature,
forced-air BTMS could satisfy heat dissipation requirements without complex devices and high energy
forced-air BTMS could satisfy heat dissipation requirements without complex devices and high
consumption compared with liquid-based BTMS. Under the condition of a high charge rate or high
energy consumption compared with liquid-based BTMS. Under the condition of a high charge rate
heat generation, liquid cooling is necessary and energy-saving. The system needs to minimize energy
or high heat generation, liquid cooling is necessary and energy-saving. The system needs to
consumption while achieving necessary thermal management purposes.
minimize energy consumption while achieving necessary thermal management purposes.
2.1.1. Forced-Air Cooling
2.1.1. Forced-Air Cooling
There are two kinds of air-based BTMS: one is based on natural convection of air, and the other
There are two kinds of air-based BTMS: one is based on natural convection of air, and the other
on air-forced convection. Due to the thermophysical properties of air (the low heat capacity and low
on air-forced convection. Due to the thermophysical properties of air (the low heat capacity and low
thermal conductivity), it is nearly impossible to use natural air to cool down the battery individually.
thermal conductivity), it is nearly impossible to use natural air to cool down the battery individually.
For the forced-air BTMS, a higher flow rate is needed to obtain a similar cooling performance of the
For the forced-air BTMS, a higher flow rate is needed to obtain a similar cooling performance of the
liquid-based BTMS. Due to low heat capacity, the forced-air cooling system’s temperature distribution
liquid-based BTMS. Due to low heat capacity, the forced-air cooling system’s temperature
is more uneven, which is a vital problem that needs to be solved. Two factors contribute to the uneven
distribution is more uneven, which is a vital problem that needs to be solved. Two factors contribute
temperature distribution. On the one hand, the air temperature changes along the flow channel. On the
to the uneven temperature distribution. On the one hand, the air temperature changes along the flow
other hand, the gaps between cells have different distances to the inlet and outlet so that the flow rate in
channel. On the other hand, the gaps between cells have different distances to the inlet and outlet so
different gaps varies. To solve this problem, symmetrical systems with uneven cell-spacing distribution
that the flow rate in different gaps varies. To solve this problem, symmetrical systems with uneven
and tapered cooling ducts were used in air-based BTMS [32]. Figure 2a–f shows “Z-type” and “U-type”
cell-spacing distribution and tapered cooling ducts were used in air-based BTMS [32]. Figure 2a–f
flow channels, which have symmetrical modification and a tapered ducts design. Figure 2c,f presents
shows “Z-type” and “U-type” flow channels, which have symmetrical modification and a tapered
a more uniform temperature distribution and could achieve higher performance with symmetrical
ducts design. Figure 2c,f presents a more uniform temperature distribution and could achieve higher
designs. Except for the flow channel and cell arrangement, it is practical to enhance the heat dissipation
performance with symmetrical designs. Except for the flow channel and cell arrangement, it is
of battery cells where the heat dissipation condition is poor. Figure 2g shows the design of adopting an
practical to enhance the heat dissipation of battery cells where the heat dissipation condition is poor.
extra duct to cool down the battery module center directly. Figure 2h shows reciprocating air flow in
Figure 2g shows the design of adopting an extra duct to cool down the battery module center
two directions could make the temperature more uniform. Both designs could be applied in poor local
directly. Figure 2h shows reciprocating air flow in two directions could make the temperature more
cooling environments.
uniform. Both designs could be applied in poor local cooling environments.
Although air-based BTMS has many disadvantages compared with liquid-based BTMS,
forced-air BTMS is simple and has a low cost. Different research works focus on different aspects of
Energies 2020, 13, 6257 4 of 18

Although air-based BTMS has many disadvantages compared with liquid-based BTMS, forced-air
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18
BTMS is simple and has a low cost. Different research works focus on different aspects of forced-air
BTMS. Generally,
forced-air BTMS.itGenerally,
can be concluded
it can beasconcluded
the geometry of geometry
as the flow channels, cellchannels,
of flow arrangement and air flow
cell arrangement
configuration [33]. These factors are interlinked so that researchers usually focus
and air flow configuration [33]. These factors are interlinked so that researchers usually focus on two oron
more
two
factors together to investigate their influence on the performance of BTMS. By considering
or more factors together to investigate their influence on the performance of BTMS. By considering some factors
together with experimental
some factors together with or numerical
experimentalmethods, we can optimize
or numerical methods,thewe
existing structuresthe
can optimize to enhance
existing
cooling performance.
structures to enhance cooling performance.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 2.2. Designs

Figure Designs of of the
the flow channel and
flow channel and flow
flow pattern
pattern (a,b,d,e)
(a,b,d,e) “Z-type”
“Z-type” flow
flow channel,
channel,
Symmetrically modified
Symmetrically modified “Z-type”,
“Z-type”, “U-type”
“U-type” flow
flowchannel,
channel,Symmetrically
Symmetricallymodified
modified“U-type”
“U-type”[1],[1],
(c)
Tapered
(c) Tapered“Z-type”
“Z-type”[2],[2],
(f) (f)
Tapered
Tapered“U-type”, (g) Additional
“U-type”, duct,duct,
(g) Additional Reprint withwith
Reprint permission [34]; 2020,
permission [34];
Elsevier.
2020, (h) Reciprocating
Elsevier. (h) Reciprocatingair flow in two
air flow directions.
in two Reprint
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with [35];
permission 2020,
[35]; Elsevier.
2020, Elsevier.

2.1.2.
2.1.2.Liquid
LiquidCooling
Cooling
More
MoreBTMSs
BTMSs areare
based on liquid
based due todue
on liquid its high heat-transfer
to its efficiencyefficiency
high heat-transfer compared compared
with forced-air
with
cooling systems, which means liquid cooling systems consume much less
forced-air cooling systems, which means liquid cooling systems consume much less energy than energy than forced-air
cooling systems,
forced-air especially
cooling systems,under the high
especially heat the
under loadhigh
of battery cells of
heat load [36]. The liquid
battery cells cooling
[36]. The method
liquid
also has some
cooling disadvantages,
method also has someincluding complex
disadvantages, devices,complex
including high costdevices,
and long startup
high period.
cost and longA00/A0
startup
class electric
period. vehicles
A00/A0 classusually
electric adopt
vehiclesair-based
usuallyBTMS
adoptdue to highBTMS
air-based price sensitivity.
due to highA-class EVs have
price sensitivity.
higher
A-classrequirements for endurance
EVs have higher requirements andfor
adopt liquid-based
endurance BTMS.
and adopt It is estimated
liquid-based BTMS.thatIt the price of
is estimated
liquid-based
that the priceBTMS is 40% moreBTMS
of liquid-based than that of air-based
is 40% more than BTMSthat [37]. Active BTMS
of air-based BTMSbased
[37]. on the liquid
Active BTMS
can be categorized as the direct contact mode and the indirect contact mode [2]. The
based on the liquid can be categorized as the direct contact mode and the indirect contact mode [2]. classification of
liquid cooling and of
The classification examples are shown
liquid cooling and in Figure 3.are shown in Figure 3.
examples
 used in extreme situations like high charge rate and high-power Li-ion batteries. However, a
significant disadvantage of direct liquid cooling is that it is hard to integrate heating into the thermal
management, which means that if the ambient temperature is below 0 °C, other types of BTMS
should be adopted [29].
EnergiesThe direct
2020, contact mode could be divided into the phase change and single phase. If the boiling
13, 6257 5 of 18
point of HTF is lower than the maximum temperature (T ) of batteries, the cooling process will be
accompanied by the phase change process. This is also called boiling cooling. If liquid cooling
•involves
Directthe contact
phasemode
change process, the temperature rise near the boiling point would be significantly
slowed down due to the high latent heat. One practical way to utilize the phase change is to employ
In this mode, the battery surface is always directly immersed in the liquid. It brings the significant
porous materials like hydrogel [38] or film materials like thin sodium alginate film (SA-1 film) [39].
advantage of this mode—high heat-transfer efficiency. The convection always takes place on the surface
In this way, a small amount of water can form a water film attached on the battery surface. If the
of batteries or most of it. Although the direct contact mode is not so practical, it can be used in extreme
direct contact mode only involves a single phase, it is similar to forced-air cooling. The flow channel
situations like high charge rate and high-power Li-ion batteries. However, a significant disadvantage
design like the symmetrical design is key to achieve optimal heat transfer performance.
of direct liquid cooling is that it is hard to integrate heating into the thermal management, which means
• ifIndirect
that the ambientcontact mode
temperature is below 0 ◦ C, other types of BTMS should be adopted [29].
The direct contact
Compared mode
with the couldcontact
direct be divided
mode, intothe
theindirect
phase change
contactand single
mode is phase. If the boiling
more practical and
point of HTF is lower than the maximum temperature (T max ) of batteries, the
commonly used in commercial EVs because of its safety and stability. The core concept is conducting cooling process will be
accompanied
heat to the outer by the phase
space bychange
setting process. This is alsoorcalled
a plate exchanger tube boiling cooling.
exchanger onto If liquid
the batterycooling
cells’involves
surface.
the
Basically, a liquid cold plate (LCP) is suitable for prismatic cells or pouch cells due to its largeslowed
phase change process, the temperature rise near the boiling point would be significantly contact
down due to the high latent heat. One practical way to utilize the phase
area and simple structure. The LCP or corrugated channel could be categorized as the surface change is to employ porous
materials like hydrogel
thermal contact mode,[38] or film
which materials
means like channel
the flow thin sodium alginateto
is attached film
the(SA-1
cells’film) [39]. In
surface. In the
thisother
way,
amode,
small theamount of water can form a water film attached on the battery surface.
flow channels go through a thermal conductive structure (TCS) that attaches to the battery If the direct contact
mode only involves
cells. Therefore, we acan
single
namephase, it is similar
this mode to forced-air
the channel thermal cooling.
contactThe flow channel design like the
mode.
symmetrical design is key to achieve optimal heat transfer performance.

Figure 3. Classification of liquid cooling and corresponding classic examples [40–43].

Figure 3. Classification of liquid cooling and corresponding classic examples [40–43].
• Indirect contact mode

Compared with the direct contact mode, the indirect contact mode is more practical and commonly
used in commercial EVs because of its safety and stability. The core concept is conducting heat
to the outer space by setting a plate exchanger or tube exchanger onto the battery cells’ surface.
Basically, a liquid cold plate (LCP) is suitable for prismatic cells or pouch cells due to its large contact
area and simple structure. The LCP or corrugated channel could be categorized as the surface thermal
contact mode, which means the flow channel is attached to the cells’ surface. In the other mode,
the flow channels go through a thermal conductive structure (TCS) that attaches to the battery cells.
Therefore, we can name this mode the channel thermal contact mode.
Energies 2020, 13, 6257 6 of 18

2.2. Passive BTMS

2.2.1. Phase Change Material (PCM)

PCM is a recurring composite of BTMS. This section only discusses the solid-liquid material,
which is used in BTMS. Sharma et al. [44] made a very detailed classification and investigation of PCMs.
There are many kinds of material that can be used in PCM-based BTMS, including organic materials
(paraffin wax, alkane and organic acid), inorganic materials (aqueous solution, salt hydrate and molten
salt) and eutectic [30]. It is not sufficient for pure PCM to transfer heat from the batteries to the outer
space due to its low heat conductivity. Many kinds of composite phase change materials (CPCM)
are designed for heat transfer enhancement to solve this problem. Usually, the thermal conductive
enhancement materials used in pure PCM are graphite [45], metal foam and carbon fiber [46]. Moreover,
the enhancement method like attaching fins on the surface of battery cells is also adopted in PCM-based
BTMS enhancing heat transfer due to the larger contact area.
Using PCM has many significant improvements for the overall performance of BTMS. One of the
improvements is to improve thermal uniformity due to its fluidity, which is similar to the direct liquid
cooling mode. Another distinctive advantage is the high efficiency of energy utilization because of
the latent heat of the phase change. PCM is also widely used in the pre-heating process for EVs to
save energy. BTMSs based on PCM are flexible because PCM’s melting point could be changed with
different components. By adjusting its melting point, the BTMS could work in different situations,
and its latent heat helps BTMS work in extreme cases longer.
PCM is considered a practical method to replace forced-air cooling and simplify the structure of
BTMS [47]. However, due to the low latent heat of phase change for many kinds of PCM, the heat
saturation always happens with long-time working under extreme situations of the BTMS. To solve
this problem, the PCM usually is coupled with active cooling strategies that can recover the PCM’s
thermal energy storage capacity. It is a common type of hybrid BTMS.

2.2.2. Heat Pipe (HP)

Compared with other BTMS, the heat pipe has many obvious advantages, including high
thermal conductivity, contact structures, flexible geometry [48], etc. The working principle of a HP is
simple—working medium evaporates at the heating side (heat source) and condenses at the cooling
side (heat sink). In the heat sink, the waste heat is transferred to the outer space. The shape of HP
has significant effects on the thermal performance of BTMS. In particular, a flat HP has good thermal
performance [49]. A microscale HP could be used for internal cooling, which is more efficient than
external cooling [50].
Compared with a traditional HP, pulsating (oscillating) heat pipe (PHP or OHP) has some excellent
characteristics, including the simple structure, low cost, small size, high heat flow density and flexibility.
After optimizing its structure and design parameters, its operating performance is basically not affected
by gravity. Another available method to improve performance is to improve heat transfer conditions
in the heat sink (condenser) by adopting forced-air cooling or liquid cooling. In this way, HP could
achieve accurate and rapid heat transfer between the area close to the battery surface and the outer
environment. It is also a common type of hybrid BTMS.

3. Hybrid BTMS
Hybrid BTMS means the combination of two or more basic BTMSs. Different basic BTMSs have
their advantages and disadvantages, respectively. The hybrid BTMS can combine these advantages
and reach higher thermal performance. However, hybrid BTMS may involve some problems with
volume, weight and energy consumption. The main types of hybrid BTMSs and their remarks are
listed in Table 1.
Energies 2020, 13, 6257 7 of 18

Table 1. Main types of hybrid BTMS.

Type Hybrid BTMS Remark

HP+Air 1. Active cooling methods enhance the heat transfer process in

HP coupled with air or liquid passive cooling methods. Combining them is the basic idea of
active cooling hybrid BTMS.
HP+Liquid
2. The enhanced effect of liquid cooling is more robust than air, but
PCM+HP forced air cooling is enough if the heat load is low.
PCM coupled with HP PCM+HP+Air 3. Adding PCM increases the thermal uniformity and overall
PCM+HP+Liquid thermal performance due to the substantial latent heat. Active
cooling methods solve the heat saturation problem in
PCM coupled with air or liquid PCM+Liquid pure PCM-BTMS.
active cooling PCM+Air
4. HP and TEC enhance the local heat transfer significantly quickly.
TEC+Air+Liquid A combination of HP/TEC and PCM has better performance and
TEC coupled with other BTMS stability. HP can increase the performance by adjusting the shape
PCM+TEC
of its heat sink.
Liquid coupled with air Liquid+Air

3.1. HP Coupled with Air- or Liquid-Cooling Method

Compared with HP-based BTMS in a passive cooling system, a hybrid BTMS obviously has better
thermal performance with extra power consumption and a complicated structure. In this system, HP
is always assisted by active cooling methods, including forced-air cooling (see Figure 4a) and liquid
cooling (see Figure 4b). The BTMS in Figure 4a adopts an ultra-thin micro heat pipe (UMHP) coupled
with a fan. Adding a UMHP can decrease Tmax by 7.1 ◦ C from the beginning of discharging at a 2 C
rate compared with that without HP and Tmax can be kept below 40 ◦ C with a fan speed of 4 m/s [48].
Liu et al. [51] and Gan et al. [52] estimated and proved the necessity of employing cooling fluid in
specific working experiments, respectively (see as Figure 4c). Hybrid BTMSs in these works could
significantly reduce the temperature by about 14 ◦ C in the 5C discharge rate compared with the natural
cooling method. Jouhara et al. [53] (see as Figure 4d) applied a flat heat pipe (heat mat) in BTMS
and used it to transfer the waste heat to an external liquid cooling medium. It was shown that the
Tmax in the cell was kept below 28 ◦ C. Wei et al. [54] (see as Figure 4e) developed a proof-of-concept
plug-in pulsating heat pipe (PHP) with a flat-plate evaporator and tube condenser and found that
PHP charged with ethanol-water mixtures had a quicker response and achieved superior thermal
performance. Under the condition that the power input is 56 W, the battery pack’s average temperature
can be kept below 46.5 ◦ C.
Before using these systems, the enhancement of assisting active cooling methods should be
evaluated. Liang et al. [31] found that when the ambient temperature is under 35 ◦ C, reducing coolant
temperature has a limited influence on the thermal performance, which means there is no need to use
hybrid cooling methods. Another point is that the low temperature of the coolant could be harmful
to the battery. Although decreasing the coolant temperature could lower Tmax , the inhomogeneity
of temperature distribution reaches the peak and will be higher with the lower coolant temperature.
The result is that the battery module’s available capacity and voltage decrease by nearly 1.17% and
0.88% when the coolant temperature is reduced by 10 ◦ C at 5 C discharge [55].
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
Energies 2020, 13, 6257 8 of 18
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d) (e)

(c) (d) (e)
Figure 4. Examples for HP-based hybrid BTMS coupled with active cooling methods. (a) Hybrid
Figure
BTMS
Figure 4. 4.Examples
with Examples
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sandwiched module
by batteryis
with cylindrical battery cells, Reprint with permission [52]; 2020, Elsevier., (d) Battery module
is set above the heat mat [3], (e) Plug-in oscillating heat pipes (OHPs) are sandwiched by battery
packs. Reprint
set above withmat
the heat permission [54]; 2020,
[3], (e) Plug-in Elsevier.
oscillating heat pipes (OHPs) are sandwiched by battery packs.
packs. Reprint with permission [54]; 2020, Elsevier.
Reprint with permission [54]; 2020, Elsevier.
3.2. PCM Coupled with Air or Liquid Active Cooling Method
3.2.PCM
3.2. PCMCoupled
Coupledwith
withAir
Airoror Liquid
Liquid Active Cooling
CoolingMethod
Method
Pure passive BTMS based on PCM or CPCM is always not enough to maintain the temperature
Purepassive
Pure passiveBTMS
BTMSbasedbased on
on PCM
PCM oror CPCM
CPCM isisalways
alwaysnot notenough
enoughtotomaintain
maintainthethe
temperature
temperature
of of
thethe
battery
battery
pack
pack
ininananappropriate
appropriate
range
range
because
because
of heat
of
heat accumulation
accumulationcaused
causedbybythethe inefficient
inefficient
of the battery pack in an appropriate range because of heat accumulation caused by the inefficient
cooling
cooling ofofnatural
natural air
aircooling.
cooling. In
In this
this way,
way, active
active cooling strategies
cooling strategiesplay
playananessential
essentialrole role
in in
cooling of natural air cooling. In this way, active cooling strategies play an essential role in recovering
recovering the thermal energy storage capacity of PCMs. The BTMS in Figure 5a adopts CPCM
therecovering the thermal energy storage capacity of PCMs. The BTMS in Figure 5a adopts CPCM
thermal energy storage capacity of PCMs. The BTMS in Figure 5a adopts CPCM (copper mesh and
(copper
(copper mesh
mesh and
andenhanced
enhancedparaffin/expanded
paraffin/expanded graphite)
graphite) andandcopper
copperfins
finsexposed
exposedfromfrom thethe CPCM
CPCM
enhanced paraffin/expanded graphite) and copper fins exposed from the CPCM to enhance the heat
to to
enhance
enhance the
theheat
heattransfer
transfer[57].
[57].The
TheBTMS
BTMS in
in Figure
Figure 5b5b adopts
adoptscooling
coolingwater
waterpipes
pipesandand PCMPCM [58].
[58].
transfer [57]. The BTMS in Figure 5b adopts cooling water pipes and PCM [58]. The structures of this
TheThe structures
structuresofofthis
thiskind
kindofofhybrid
hybrid BTMSs
BTMSs are like thethe indirect
indirectcontact
contactmode
modeininthe
the liquid-based
liquid-based
kind of hybrid BTMSs are like the indirect contact mode in the liquid-based BTMS.
BTMS.
BTMS.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Examples for PCM-based hybrid BTMS (a) PCM+Air. Reprint with permission [57]; 2020,
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Examples
Examples for
for PCM-based
PCM-based hybrid
hybrid BTMS
BTMS (a)
(a) PCM+Air.
PCM+Air.Reprint
Reprintwith
withpermission
permission[57];
[57];2020,
2020,
Elsevier., (b) PCM+Liquid. Reprint with permission [58]; 2020, Elsevier.
Elsevier.,
Elsevier., (b)
(b) PCM+Liquid.
PCM+Liquid.Reprint
Reprintwith
withpermission
permission[58];
[58];2020,
2020,Elsevier.
Elsevier.
Cooling liquid pipes and LCP are the most common types, while PCM is filled between the
Cooling liquid
Cooling liquid pipes
pipes andand LCP areare the
the most
most common
common types,
types, while
while PCMPCM is is filled
filled between
between the
pipe/LCP and battery cells. LCP
A common combination of PCM and liquid cooling adopts thethe
pipe/LCP
pipe/LCP and battery
and through cells.
battery the A
cells. common
A in combination
common of
combination PCM and liquid
of with
PCMPCM. cooling
and Raoliquidadopts the mini-channel
mini-channel PCM which HTF transfers heat et al.cooling adopts the
[59] investigated
through the
mini-channel PCM
throughin which
the PCMHTFin transfers
which HTF heat with
transfers PCM.
heat Rao
with et al.
PCM. [59]
Rao investigated
et
the effects of fluid flow rate, the number of channels, melting point and thermal conductivity of al. [59] the effects
investigated
of fluid
thePCM flow
effects rate, the number of
of fluid flow rate, the number
on mini-channel/PCM-based channels,
BTMS. Bai melting
of channels, point and thermal
melting point
et al. [60] developed conductivity
and(see
a BTMS thermal
as Figure 6a).PCM
of They on
conductivity of
mini-channel/PCM-based
PCM on mini-channel/PCM-based
found BTMS.
that PCM composed of 20% Bai et
BTMS. al. [60] developed
Bai et al. [60]
n-octadecane a BTMS
developed aand
microcapsules (see
BTMS as Figure
80%(see 6a).
as Figure
water They
6a).found
has superiorThey
that PCM
found thatcomposed
PCM composedof 20% n-octadecane microcapsules
of 20% n-octadecane and 80% water
microcapsules and has80%superior
water has performance,
superior
6f) developed a novel BTMS based on PCM, and adopted a new way to enhance heat dissipation in
the PCM by using copper grids. The two AI plates are on the two sides of the PCM and the battery
cells. A fan was used to ventilate.
The geometry of heating has a remarkable influence on thermal performance. Typical shapes of
battery cells are cylindrical, prismatic and pouch. If PCM is adopted in BTM, there is a need to
Energies 2020, 13, 6257 9 of 18
design the shape of PCM to cover the battery cells, which achieves better thermal performance and
less energy consumption. Safdari et al. [68] studied the effects of different shapes of container
cross-sections,
especially in the including circular,
high target rectangular
temperature whenandthehexagonal,
mass flow rateon the
doesthermal performance
not exceed (seelevel.
the threshold as
Figure
On the 7a). Thehand,
other conclusion
like theis surface
that a circular
thermalPCM container
contact mode inachieves superiorthe
liquid cooling, performance
flow channelswithcan
high
also
latent heat, and rectangular PCM configuration is the most efficient due to its uniform
be attached to the PCM plate [61]. The cells, PCM and cooling plates are set in alignment [62] under air channel.
Qin et al. [69] put
compression. forward
Bai et a novel hybrid
al. [63] designed a BTMSBTMS
(see asusing
Figureforced airthe
6b), and and PCMof(see
effects as Figure
different 7b).
parameters
Compared with the passive
were investigated. The LCP BTMS, the near-electrode
near the maximum ∆T reduces by battery
area of the 1.2 °C and T
dissipates drops by 16 °Cofin
the majority the
the hybrid BTMS under a 3 C rate, respectively.
heat generated by battery cells. At the same time, PCM increased thermal uniformity considerably.

(a) (b)

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

FigureFigure 6. Classic
6. Classic structures
structures of hybrid of BTMS
hybridcombining
BTMS combining
PCM withPCM air or with
liquidair or liquid
active coolingactive cooling
method.
method. (a) of
(a) Combination Combination
phase change of phase
slurrychange slurry
and mini and mini
channel channel
liquid cold liquid cold plate
plate (LCP). (LCP).
Reprint Reprint
with
permission [60]; 2020, [60];
with permission Elsevier.
2020, (b) Combination
Elsevier. of PCM with
(b) Combination LCP.with
of PCM Reprint
LCP.with permission
Reprint [63];
with permission
2020, [63];
Elsevier.
2020,(c) PCM-based
Elsevier. BTMS assisted
(c) PCM-based BTMS with air cooling.
assisted with airThe phaseThe
cooling. change
phasestorage
change energy unit
storage energy
(PCSEU)
unit is(PCSEU)
made upisofmadea copper
up offoam and n-Eicosane.
a copper foam and Reprint with Reprint
n-Eicosane. permissionwith[64]; 2020, Elsevier.
permission [64]; 2020,
(d) Integration of CPCM
Elsevier. (d) consisted
Integration of CPCM of expanded
consistedgraphite and paraffin
of expanded graphiteand
andforced
paraffinairand
cooling Reprint
forced air cooling
with permission
Reprint with [65]; 2020, Elsevier.
permission [65]; (e) BTMS
2020, with a(e)
Elsevier. novel
BTMSquaternary PCM and
with a novel DCM Reprint
quaternary PCM andwithDCM
permission
Reprint [66]; 2020,
with Elsevier..[66];
permission (f) PCM-based BTMS(f)with
2020, Elsevier.. copper grids.
PCM-based BTMSReprint with permission
with copper [67]; with
grids. Reprint
2020, permission
Elsevier. [67]; 2020, Elsevier.

There are some novel designs to increase the performance of hybrid BTMS adopting forced-air
cooling coupled with PCM. Shi et al. [64] (see as Figure 6c) developed a BTMS and built an unsteady
mathematical model. This BTMS is proved to have the ability to hold the battery temperature in an
appropriate scope before the PCM completely melts. Jiang et al. [65] (see as Figure 6d) designed a BTMS
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Energies 2020, 13, 6257 10 of 18

adopting baffles to change the airflow direction in order to enhance its heat transfer. Situ et al. [66]
(see as Figure 6e) developed a novel quaternary PCM plate consisting of paraffin, expanded graphite,
low-density polyethylene and double copper mesh (DCM). Lazrak et al. [67] (see as Figure 6f) developed
a novel BTMS based on PCM, and adopted a new way to enhance heat dissipation in the PCM by using
copper grids. The two AI plates are on the two sides of the PCM and the battery cells. A fan was used
to ventilate.
(e) (f)
The geometry of heating has a remarkable influence on thermal performance. Typical shapes
of battery
Figure cells are cylindrical,
6. Classic structures prismatic
of hybrid andBTMS pouch. If PCM
combining PCMis with
adopted
air orinliquid
BTM,active
therecooling
is a need
to design the shape
method. of PCM to
(a) Combination of cover the battery
phase change slurrycells, which
and mini achieves
channel better
liquid thermal
cold plate performance
(LCP). Reprint
with
and less permission
energy [60]; 2020, Safdari
consumption. Elsevier.et(b)al.Combination
[68] studiedofthe PCM with of
effects LCP. Reprintshapes
different with permission
of container
[63]; 2020, Elsevier. (c) PCM-based BTMS assisted with air cooling. The
cross-sections, including circular, rectangular and hexagonal, on the thermal performance phase change storage energy
(see as
Figureunit
7a).(PCSEU) is made up
The conclusion is of
thata copper foamPCM
a circular and n-Eicosane. Reprint with
container achieves permission
superior [64]; 2020,
performance with
Elsevier.
high latent (d) Integration
heat, of CPCMPCM
and rectangular consisted of expandedisgraphite
configuration the mostandefficient
paraffin and
dueforced
to itsair cooling air
uniform
Reprint
channel. Qin et with permission
al. [69] [65]; 2020,
put forward Elsevier.
a novel hybrid (e)BTMS
BTMSusing
with forced
a novelairquaternary
and PCMPCM (see and DCM 7b).
as Figure
Reprint with permission [66]; 2020, Elsevier.. (f) PCM-based BTMS
Compared with the passive BTMS, the maximum ∆T reduces by 1.2 C and Tmax drops by 16 C ◦with copper grids. Reprint ◦ with
in the
permission [67]; 2020, Elsevier.
hybrid BTMS under a 3 C rate, respectively.

(a) (b)

Figure7.7.The
Figure Thegeometry
geometryininPCM-based
PCM-basedhybrid
hybridBTMS
BTMS(a)(a)Three
Threedifferent
differentshapes
shapesofofthe
thecross
crosssection
sectionfor
for
PCM-basedBTMS
PCM-based BTMS Reprint
Reprint with
with permission
permission [68];[68];
2020,2020, Elsevier.;
Elsevier.; (b) Schematic
(b) Schematic of a PCM-based
of a PCM-based BTMS.
BTMS.with
Reprint Reprint with permission
permission [69];
[69]; 2020, 2020, Elsevier.
Elsevier.

The
Thesystem
system complexity
complexity is aisproblem
a problem for hybrid BTMS,
for hybrid but hybrid
BTMS, BTMS can
but hybrid BTMScut can
down cutthe weight
down the
and increase
weight and the efficiency
increase of pure passive
the efficiency of pure BTMS. Compared
passive with basic active
BTMS. Compared BTMS,
with basic PCMBTMS,
active adds extra
PCM
weight to theweight
adds extra whole structure.
to the whole Considering
structure.the heavier weight
Considering and larger
the heavier volume
weight and of hybrid
larger BTMS,of
volume
Ling et al.BTMS,
hybrid [70] analyzed the[70]
Ling et al. influence
analyzedof the
thecomposition
influence ofof
thePCM, the set ofof
composition the battery
PCM, themodule,
set of theand the
battery
active cooling
module, andconfiguration on theconfiguration
the active cooling heat-transfer oncapacity to minimizecapacity
the heat-transfer the masstoofminimize
PCM usedthe in mass
BTMS.of
They
PCMfound
usedthat the optimized
in BTMS. They founddesign of the
that thisoptimized
hybrid BTMS helps
design ofto save
this up toBTMS
hybrid 94.1% helps
in masstoand
save55.6%
up to
in94.1%
volume of PCM.
in mass and 55.6% in volume of PCM.

3.3.
3.3.PCM
PCMCoupled
Coupledwith
withHP
HPand
andActive
ActiveCooling
CoolingMethods
Methods
PCM
PCMisiseasy easytotointegrate
integrateintointohybrid
hybridBTMS, BTMS,andandthetheadoption
adoptionofofPCM PCMincreases
increasesthethethermal
thermal
uniformity. Similar to the mode “PCM plus active cooling”, HP is
uniformity. Similar to the mode “PCM plus active cooling”, HP is adopted to solve adopted to solve the heat saturation
the heat
insaturation
PCM due in to PCM
its high
due efficiency andefficiency
to its high quick response. PCM
and quick could bePCM
response. filledcould
between HP and
be filled HTF [71]
between HP
(see as Figure 8a) or battery cells. Lei et al. [72] combined PCM, HP and spray cooling
and HTF [71] (see as Figure 8a) or battery cells. Lei et al. [72] combined PCM, HP and spray cooling to manage the
battery packthe
to manage temperature
battery pack (seetemperature
as Figure 8b). (seeThis BTMS 8b).
as Figure controls
This the
BTMStemperature
controls therise of the battery
temperature rise
surface by less than 8 ◦ C, even in 24 A discharge current and a high ambient temperature (40 ◦ C).
of the battery surface by less than 8 °C, even in 24 A discharge current and a high ambient
Amin et al. [73](40
temperature design a BTMS
°C). Amin et(see as Figure
al. [73] design8c) a that
BTMS can(see
maintain the battery
as Figure 8c) thattemperature
can maintain below 50 ◦ C
the battery
attemperature
the maximum heat50
below load°C of
at 50
theW. Huang etheat
maximum al. [74]
loaddesigned
of 50 W.aHuang
BTMS (seeet al.as[74]
Figure 8d), inawhich
designed BTMSHP (see
makes a huge contribution to heat transfer and thermal uniformity. Wu et al. [75]
as Figure 8d), in which HP makes a huge contribution to heat transfer and thermal uniformity. Wu et designed a HP-based
 Energies
Energies 13,13,
2020,
2020, 6257PEER REVIEW
x FOR 1118
11 of of 18

al. [75] designed a HP-based BTMS assisted by PCM and forced-air cooling (see as Figure 8e). Even
BTMS assisted by PCM and forced-air cooling (see as Figure 8e). Even under the highest discharge rate
under the highest discharge rate (5 C), of the battery pack could be controlled below 50 °C. For
(5 C), Tmax of the battery pack could be controlled below 50 ◦ C. For this combination, the necessity of
this combination, the necessity of adopting HP in this kind of BTMS should be discussed. The result
adopting HP in this kind of BTMS should be discussed. The result shows that when the discharge rate
shows that when the discharge rate is low, air velocity doesn’t have a strong connection to the
is low, air velocity doesn’t have a strong connection to the thermal performance due to the PCM.
thermal performance due to the PCM.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Figure
Figure8. Classic examples
8. Classic of hybrid
examples BTMS
of hybrid BTMSassociated
associatedwith PCM
with andand
PCM HPHP(a) (a)
HP-assisted PCM
HP-assisted PCMbased
based
BTMS.
BTMS. Reprint
Reprintwith
withpermission
permission[71];
[71];2020,
2020,Elsevier.
Elsevier. (b)
(b)HP-assisted
HP-assistedPCMPCM associated with
associated spray
with spray
cooling. Reprint
cooling. withwith
Reprint permission [72]; [72];
permission 2020, 2020,
Elsevier. (c) Adopting
Elsevier. ‘L’ type‘L’
(c) Adopting of type
HP and beeswax
of HP PCM
and beeswax
PCM
[73]. (d) [73]. (d) Combination
Combination of PCM of
andPCM
HP and HP assisted
assisted by air/liquid
by air/liquid Reprint
cooling.cooling. with permission
Reprint [74];
with permission [74];
2020,
2020, Elsevier.(e)
Elsevier. (e)Each
EachHPHPwas
wassetset between
between two
two PCM
PCM plates
plates and
and embedded
embedded in in
thethe surface
surface of of PCM
PCM
plates.
plates. Reprint
Reprint withpermission
with permission [75];
[75];2020,
2020,Elsevier.
Elsevier.
3.4. Thermoelectric Cooling Coupled with Other Basic BTMS
3.4. Thermoelectric Cooling Coupled with Other Basic BTMS
Thermoelectric cooling (TEC) does not have a wide application on BTM of EV due to its low
Thermoelectric cooling (TEC) does not have a wide application on BTM of EV due to its low
efficiency. However, it has been widely used in cooling electronics for its compact structure. Researchers
efficiency. However, it has been widely used in cooling electronics for its compact structure.
add TEC in hybrid BTMS to enhance the heat transfer or achieve some special purposes. Figure 9 shows
Researchers add TEC in hybrid BTMS to enhance the heat transfer or achieve some special purposes.
a typical structure of TEC in hybrid BTMS. Lyu et al. [76] combined TEC with active cooling methods.
Figure 9 shows a typical structure of TEC in hybrid BTMS. Lyu et al. [76] combined TEC with active
TEC transfers the heat from the condenser side and forced air assists TEC to move the heat to the outer
cooling methods. TEC transfers the heat from the condenser side and forced air assists TEC to move
space. The result shows that the temperature of the battery surface battery drops to 12 ◦ C from 55 ◦ C.
the heat to the outer space. The result shows that the temperature of the battery surface battery
Song et al. [77] designed a BTMS for standby batteries combining semiconductor thermoelectric device
drops to 12 °C from 55 °C. Song et al. [77] designed a BTMS for standby batteries combining
semiconductor thermoelectric device and PCMs (see as Figure 10) and tested the cooling time (14 h)
and heat preservation (4.15 days) time in a circular way under the ambient temperature (323 K).
Energies 2020, 13, 6257 12 of 18

and PCMs (see as Figure 10) and tested the cooling time (14 h) and heat preservation (4.15 days) time
in a circular
Energies
Energies 2020, way
2020,13,
13, under
xxFOR
FOR PEERthe
PEER ambient temperature (323 K).
REVIEW
REVIEW 12 ofof 18
12 18

Figure9.
Figure
Figure 9.The
9. Theschematic
The schematicdiagram
schematic diagramof
diagram ofTEC
of TECin
TEC inhybrid
in hybridBTMS
hybrid BTMS[78].
BTMS [78].
[78].

Figure
Figure 10.
Figure10. AAclassic
10.A classicexample
classic exampleof
example ofhybrid
of hybridBTMS
hybrid ofof
BTMS
BTMS PCM
ofPCMcoupled
PCM with
coupled
coupled TEC.
with
with Reprint
TEC.
TEC. withwith
Reprint
Reprint permission
with [77];
permission
permission
2020,
[77]; Elsevier.
[77];2020,
2020,Elsevier.
Elsevier.

3.5. Liquid Coupled with Air

3.5.Liquid
3.5. LiquidCoupled
Coupledwith
withAir
Air
It is important to note that for nearly all liquid cooling methods, the hot liquid needs to be cooled
ItIt isis important
important to to note
note that
that for
for nearly
nearly all
all liquid
liquid cooling
cooling methods,
methods, the the hot
hot liquid
liquid needs
needs to to be
be
down in a heat exchanger assisted by forced air. Cooling methods in this paper belong to hybrid BTMS
cooled down in a heat exchanger assisted by forced air. Cooling methods
cooled down in a heat exchanger assisted by forced air. Cooling methods in this paper belong to in this paper belong to
because the forced air cooling is not applied to the battery pack directly. It is not necessary to employ
hybrid BTMS
hybrid BTMS because
because thethe forced
forced airair cooling
cooling isis not
not applied
applied to to the
the battery
battery pack
pack directly.
directly. ItIt isis not
not
both air path and HTF path for their different heat dissipation capacity and devices for most cases.
necessary to employ both air path and HTF path for their different
necessary to employ both air path and HTF path for their different heat dissipation capacity andheat dissipation capacity and
There is no doubt that adding forced air into liquid-based BTMS can enhance the heat transfer in areas
devicesfor
devices formost
mostcases.
cases.There
Thereisisnonodoubt
doubtthat
thatadding
addingforced
forcedair airinto
intoliquid-based
liquid-basedBTMS BTMScan canenhance
enhance
distant from LCP or other HTF channels.
theheat
the heattransfer
transferininareas
areasdistant
distantfrom
fromLCPLCPor orother
otherHTF HTFchannels.
channels.
Few researchers use forced-air cooling and liquid cooling simultaneously. A practical way is to
Few researchers use forced-air cooling and liquid cooling
Few researchers use forced-air cooling and liquid cooling simultaneously. simultaneously.AApractical
practicalway
wayisisto to
combine LCP with forced-air cooling. Wang et al. [79] designed a BTMS under the space environment
combine LCP with forced-air cooling. Wang et al. [79]
combine LCP with forced-air cooling. Wang et al. [79] designed a BTMS under the spacedesigned a BTMS under the space
combining the gas circle and a LCP (see as Figure 11). They investigated the effects of different assembly
environmentcombining
environment combiningthe thegas
gascircle
circleand
andaaLCP
LCP(see (seeasasFigure
Figure11).
11).They
Theyinvestigated
investigatedthe theeffects
effectsof of
structures, the intensity of the gas and liquid cycles on the thermal performance of BTMS. It was found
different assembly structures, the intensity of the gas and liquid cycles on
different assembly structures, the intensity of the gas and liquid cycles on the thermal performance the thermal performance
that the structure with a fan under the LCP could make the flow field fully developed. Compared with
ofBTMS.
of BTMS.ItItwas wasfound
foundthatthatthe
thestructure
structurewithwithaafan fanunder
underthe theLCP
LCPcould
couldmake
makethe theflow
flowfield
fieldfully fully
pure LCP cooling in the vacuum packaged battery, the general ∆T and Tmax are reduced by 3.45 K and
developed. Compared with pure LCP cooling in the vacuum packaged
developed. Compared with pure LCP cooling in the vacuum packaged battery, the general ∆T and battery, the general ∆T and
TT are reduced by 3.45 K and 3.88 K under the condition that the total
are reduced by 3.45 K and 3.88 K under the condition that the total heat generation is 576 W. heat generation is 576 W.
Thedirect
The directcontact
contactmode
modebasedbasedon onliquid
liquidcooling
coolingisishard
hardto tointegrate
integratewithwithforced-air
forced-aircooling.
cooling.
 Energies 2020, 13, 6257 13 of 18

3.88 K under the condition that the total heat generation is 576 W. The direct contact mode based on
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
liquid cooling is hard to integrate with forced-air cooling.

Figure 11. A classic example of BTMS based on liquid coupled with air. Reprint with permission [79];
2020,11.
Figure Elsevier.
A classic example of BTMS based on liquid coupled with air. Reprint with permission [79];
2020, Elsevier.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
This paper puts forward a detailed classification rule to cover all existing BTMS and makes a clear
division
This paperof active
putscooling
forward methods
a detailedbased on liquids (direct
classification rule toorcover
indirect, single phase
all existing BTMSorand phase change,
makes a
surface contact or channel contact). With regard to hybrid BTMS, these
clear division of active cooling methods based on liquids (direct or indirect, single phase or phase hybrid methods are divided
into five
change, groups
surface and nine
contact child items.
or channel TheWith
contact). application
regard to and characteristics
hybrid BTMS, these of every
hybrid group
methodsare stated.
are
There are some meaningful discussions about hybrid BTMS including
divided into five groups and nine child items. The application and characteristics of every group arenecessity, design method and
evaluation criterion.
stated. There are some meaningful discussions about hybrid BTMS including necessity, design
methodHybrid BTMS is the
and evaluation main trend in the development of BTMS and will apply to more applications,
criterion.
especially
Hybrid BTMS is the main situations.
for extreme working trend in Hybrid BTMS also has
the development some basic
of BTMS and couples
will applyof single BTMS.
to more
And basically, we combine passive BTMS with active BTMS, which is
applications, especially for extreme working situations. Hybrid BTMS also has some basic couples of shown to have great potential
and BTMS.
single practical Anduse. However,
basically, we not everypassive
combine situation BTMSis suitable
with activefor hybrid
BTMS, BTMS.which is Firstly,
shown wetoneed
have to
great potential and practical use. However, not every situation is suitable for hybrid BTMS. Firstly, to
balance cost and performance. According to the requirements of BTM, passive BTMS corresponds
welow
needrequirement
to balance(low costheat
and load or short run
performance. time), while
According to theactive BTMS satisfies
requirements higher
of BTM, requirements.
passive BTMS
According to the cost sensitivity, forced-air BTMS has a low cost while
corresponds to low requirement (low heat load or short run time), while active BTMS satisfies higher liquid cooling has a high
consumption. For the combination of PCM and HP, if the ambient
requirements. According to the cost sensitivity, forced-air BTMS has a low cost while liquid coolingtemperature is not very high,
natural
has a high convection
consumption. is enough, and forced air
For the combination cooling
of PCM andisHP,unnecessary.
if the ambient We temperature
need to consideris notnatural
very
air, forced air and liquid as a consequence and figure out the application
high, natural convection is enough, and forced air cooling is unnecessary. We need to consider condition of every method.
Hybrid
natural air,BTMS
forced has
airmore
and flexibility.
liquid as a Ifconsequence
the battery output is required
and figure out thefor high stability,
application PCMof
condition should
everybe
integrated
method. to increase
Hybrid BTMS the has thermal uniformity.
more flexibility. TEC
If the and HP
battery couldisimprove
output required thefor
local
high area’s heat transfer
stability, PCM
pertinently and have a fast response velocity. They can operate as an
should be integrated to increase the thermal uniformity. TEC and HP could improve the local area’s auxiliary device during a fast
startup step.
heat transfer pertinently and have a fast response velocity. They can operate as an auxiliary device
during Hybrid BTMSstep.
a fast startup can overcome some disadvantages of basic BTMS, such as the heat saturation of
PCM-based
Hybrid BTMS canSimultaneously,
BTMS. overcome somethey are flexibleofand
disadvantages basicefficient
BTMS,sosuch thatas the mass
the heatofsaturation
HTF or PCM of
can be reduced in basic BTMS. However, there are some new problems
PCM-based BTMS. Simultaneously, they are flexible and efficient so that the mass of HTF or PCM like complexity and large
energy
can consumption.
be reduced in basic We mustHowever,
BTMS. estimate thetherecost
areofsome
hybrid new BTMS and then
problems likedecide whether
complexity andtolarge
adopt
more complicated structures. It is suggested that we evaluate BTMSs
energy consumption. We must estimate the cost of hybrid BTMS and then decide whether to adopt with different indexes and give
comprehensive
more complicated evaluation
structures. scores. The BTMS
It is suggested thatiswetested in different
evaluate BTMSs ways (discharging
with different rates,
indexes test
and time
give
comprehensive evaluation scores. The BTMS is tested in different ways (discharging rates, test time
and charging or cycling), and the evaluation indexes (T or ∆T) are often different, which is not
conducive to obtaining valid results through comparison. A dimensionless number is proposed to
evaluate the performance of different BTMSs.
Energies 2020, 13, 6257 14 of 18

and charging or cycling), and the evaluation indexes (Tmax or ∆T) are often different, which is not
conducive to obtaining valid results through comparison. A dimensionless number is proposed to
evaluate the performance of different BTMSs.

Actual heat accumulation ∆Tb ·Cb ·Mb + ∆To ·Co ·Mo

η= =   (1)
Theoretical heat output I2 α − ∆P·Qv t

here, η, ∆T, C and M are PEI, temperature change, heat capacity and mass. The subscripts “b” and “o”
correspond to the battery and its external structure, including PCM. I is the charge/discharge current,
proportional to the charge/discharge rate. α represents the heating coefficient, and heat generation is
assumed to be proportional to the second power of the current. ∆P is HTF-side pressure drop and Qv
is the volume flow of HTF. t is testing time.
This PEI avoids a complex electrochemical model and takes power consumption and outer
structures into consideration. For the accuracy of the evaluation, standard test conditions are needed,
including standard charge/discharge rate and testing time. Under the same condition, we can compare
BTMS from different research. Hybrid BTMS will occupy a larger proportion in the future BTMS,
and has a broader range of applications other than EVs.

Author Contributions: C.Z. and B.Z. finished the main content of this paper; S.H. and Y.Z. drawed the figures;
T.Y. designed the chart and table; X.L. guided the paper writing and proofreaded it. All authors contributed
equally in the writing and revision of this paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Youth Innovation Team of Shaanxi Universities and the Innovation
and entrepreneurship project of Xi’an Jiaotong University (SJ202010698127).
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Faculty of School of Energy and Power in Xi’an Jiaotong
University, Xi’an, China.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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