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REPRODUCTION OF FUNGI

INTRODUCTION

A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms

such as yeasts and molds (British English: moulds), as well as the more familiar mushrooms.
These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and
bacteria. One major difference is that fungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin, unlike the
cell walls of plants, which contain cellulose. These and other differences show that the fungi form
a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a
common ancestor (a monophyletic group).

Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within
this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more
than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated
stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph and the anamorph. Environmental
conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of
specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by
efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules.

Reproduction

Reproduction is the biological process by which new "offspring" individual organisms are
produced from their "parents". Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each
individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. The known methods of reproduction are
broadly grouped into two main types: sexual and asexual.

TYPES OF FUNGAL REPRODUCTION

Fungi also have 3 types of reproductions:

A. Vegetative
B. Asexual
C. Sexual
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VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

It is the type of reproduction which involves the somatic portion of the fungal thallus where new
individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores by meiosis or syngamy.

FIGURE: THE VEGETATIVE HYPHAE

Vegetative reproduction takes place by the following methods:

1. Fragmentation
2. Fission
3. Budding
4. Oidia
5. Chlamydospores
6. Rhizomorphs and
7. Sclerotia.

Fragmentation
In fragmentation, which may result from accidental severing of the mycelium into bits or
fragments or by mechanical injuries or otherwise, the mycelium breaks into segments of hyphae.
Each segment by further division of cells and apical growth develops into a new mycelium under
favorable conditions.

FIGURE: FRGMENTATION
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Fission
In unicellular fungi like the fission yeast, the single cell multiplies by fission. Here, the parent cell
elongates and divides transversely into two daughter cells. First, the nucleus divides, followed by
the division of the cytoplasm and wall formation, thus dividing the parent cell into two. The two
daughter cells separate and lead independent lives.

FIGURE: FISSION

Budding
In budding yeast, the cells reproduce by a process called budding. Here, the parent cell puts out a
small outgrowth which is called a bud. The bud gradually enlarges and finally gets separated from
the parent cell by a cross wall. This end develops into new individual yeast. Sometimes the bud
before separation from the parent cell may produce a new bud and in this way a chain of buds
may be produced which finally get separated.
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Oidia
In some filamentous fungi, the hyphae break up into individual cells which are called oidia or
arthrospores. The cells become rounded or oval in shape and appear like the beads of a rosary.
Each oidium or arthrospore develops into a new mycelium.

FIGURE: OIDIA

Chlamydospores
The chlamydospores are one-celled fragments, which function as perennating bodies. They are
formed either singly or in chains in the vegetative hyphae. The chlamydospores develop thick,
resistant walls and accumulate food materials and thus help the fungus to tide over unfavorable
conditions. With the return of favorable conditions each chlamydospores develops into a new
mycelium. e.g. Mucor, Fusarium.

FIGURE: CHLAMYDOSPORES
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Rhizornorphs
In some higher fungi, several hyphae may become interwoven to form rope-like structures called
rhizomorphs. Under favourable conditions, they resume growth to give rise to new mycelia. These
fine, root-like strands, usually dark brown in colour called rhizomorphs, serve as a means of
perennation. Under unfavourable conditions rhizomorphs remain dormant but with the onset of
favourable conditions the rhizomorphs resume growth and may also give rise to fruiting bodies.

FIGURE: RHIZORNORPHS

Sclerotia
In some cases, as in Claviceps, the hyphae become interwoven to form a compact mass and get
surrounded by a hard covering or rind. Such structures are called SCLEROTIA. They remain
dormant under unfavourable conditions and germinate into new mycelia on the return of
favourable conditions. They serve as a means of perennation and vegetative propagation. They
may be rounded, cylindrical. Cushion-shaped or irregularly shaped with a dense mass of thick
walled hyphae. The hyphae form a compact, pseudoparenchymatous tissue. With the return of
favourable conditions a sclerotium germinates to form a new mycelium.
e.g. Claviceps (ergot).

FIGURE: SCLEROTIA
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

In fungi asexual reproduction is a more common method than sexual reproduction. It is usually
repeated several times in a season. It takes place by the formation of special reproductive cells
called spores. The formation of spores in fungi is called sporulation. Each spore develops into a
new mycelium. These spores are produced as a result of mitosis in the parent cell and hence they
are also called mitospores. The spores vary in colour, shape and size, number, arrangement on
hyphae and in the way in which they are borne. They may be hayline, green, yellow, orange, red,
brown to black in colour and are minute to large in size. In shape they vary from globose to oval,
oblong, needle-shaped to helical. Thus an infinite variety of spores can be observed in fungi and
you will find them very fascinating under the microscope.

Usually the spores are unicellular. They may be uninucleate or multinucleate. In some fungi like
Alternaria and Curvularia they are multicellular.

The mitospores produced in fungi are of three types-

1. Sporangiospores
2. Zoospores
3. Conidiophores

Sporangiospores
The sporangiospores are produced inside a sac-like structure called sporangium. The hypha
bearing a sporangium is called sporangiophore. They are characteristically branched. The
sporangiospores may be motile or non-motile. The non-motile sporangiospores are called
aplanospores. These are characteristic of terrestrial species like Mucor and Rhizopus.

FIGURE: ALL ARE SPORANGIOSPORES

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Zoospores
In aquatic fungi like Pythium of the Division Oomycota motile biflagellate sporangiospores are
produced. These are called zoospores and the sporangium bearing them is called zoosporangium.
A zoospore is a motile spore lacking a cell wall. After a swarming period it secretes a wall and
germinates to form a germ tube. In contrast to zoospores, the aplanospores have a definite spore
wall and are dispersed by wind and insects.

FIGURE: ZOOSPORES

Conidiophores
The conidia are non-motile, deciduous mitospores formed externally as single separate cells. They
develop either directly on the mycelium or on morphologically differentiated hyphae called
conidiophores. The conidiophores may be simple or branched, septate or aseptate. The conidia
are produced singly e.g., Phytophthora or in chains at the tips of the conidiophores e.g.
Aspergillus or at the tips of their branches e.g., Penicillium. Often the conidiophores arise singly
and are scattered in the mycelium. Sometimes they arise in specialised structures called fruiting
bodies. According to their appearance they are termed as synnema, sporodochia, acervuli
(saucer-shaped), pycnidia (flask-shaped, globular) or pustules.

FIGURE: CONIDIOPHORES
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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

The sexual stage in fungi is called the perfect state in contrast to the imperfect state which is the
asexual stage. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two compatible sex cells or gametes of
opposite strains. Fungal sex organs are called gametangia. They may be equal in size. In many
higher ascomycetes morphologically different gametangia are formed. The male gametangia are
called antheridia and the female ones ascogonia.

The fungus may be homothallic, that is, the hsing gametes come from the same Mycelium or may
be heterothallic, that is, the fusing gametes come from different strains of mycelia.

In fungi, sexual reproduction involves the following three phases:

1. Plasmogamy
2. Karyogamy and
3. Meiosis
These three processes occur in a regular -sequence and at a specific time, duriug the sexual stage
of each species.

FIGURE: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

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Plasmogamy
It is the union of protoplasts of reproductive hyphae or cells, one from the male and the other from
the female to bring about the nuclei of the two parents close together as a pair. However, the two
nuclei do not fuse with each other. Such a cell is called a dikaryon. The dikaryotic condition is
unique to fungi and may continue for several generations as the two nuclei (dikaryon) divide
simultaneously during cell division. These are passed on to the daughter hypha.

Karyogamy
The fusion of the two nuclei which takes place in the next phase is called karyogamy. It may
immediately follow plasmogamy as in lower fungi, or it may be delayed for a long time as in
higher fungi.

Meiosis
Karyogamy which eventually occurs in all sexually reproducing fungi is sooner or later followed
by meiosis producing four genetically different spores.

Different Methods of Plasmogamy

Planogametic Copulation
It involves fusion of two gametes. Like in algae sexual union in fungi may be isogamous,
anisogamous or oogamous. Anisogamy and oogamy are together called heterogamous sexual
reproduction. Isogamy is the simplest type of sexual reproduction, where the fusing gametes are
morphologically similar e.g. Olpidium and Catenaria. Anisogamy, where the fusing gametes are
dissimilar is found in one genus, Allomyces, a chitrid. In oogamy as you may recall the motile
antherozoid enters oogonium and unites with egg or oosphere forming a zygote. Oogamy is seen
in fungi like Pythium and Albugo.

FIGURE: PLANOGAMETIC COPULATION

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Gametangial Contact
The male gamete is not a separate entity but the nucleus in the antheridium represents the gamete.
As you can see in the Fig. 9.6 the oogonium and antheridium form a contact through a tube and
one or more nuclei, inside the antheridium migrate into the oogonium. You may note that in this
case the two gametangia do not fuse. It is observed in Penicllium.

FIGURE: GAMETANGIAL CONTACT

Gametangial Copulation
The Go gametangia make contact and the entire contents of the two fuse together and become one
e.g., Mucor and Rhizopus. In some fungi the entire protoplast of one gametangia flows into the
other through a pore. Among the two, the recipient is the female and the donor is the male.

FIGURE: GAMETANGIAL COPULATION

Spermatization
This mode is quite remarkable as the minute conidia like gametes called spermatia are produced
externally on special hyphae called spermatiophore. Spermatia may develop inside the cavities
called spermatogonia. The female cell may be a gametangium, a specialised receptive
hypha or even a vegetative hypha.

FIGURE: SPERMATIZATION
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Somatogamy
In higher fungi like Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes there is a progressive degeneration of
sexuality. The entire process is very much simplified by the fusion of two mycelia which belong
to opposite strains. The post-fertlization changes result in the production of a fruiting body which
is called ascocarp in Ascomycetes and basidiocarp in Basidiomycetes.

FIGURE: SOMATOGAMY

CONCLUSION

In most fungi, cells are haploid. The body of a fungus is called the mycelium and it grows
underground. The mycelium is made up of many individual filamentous hyphae, threadlike strings
of cells, in a tangled mass. This structure makes it possible for every cell to be relatively
unspecialized and in close contact with the environment. Hyphae are often surrounded by a cell
wall made of tough chitin. Hyphae are often divided by walls (septa) which contain holes,
allowing materials to pass through the body of the fungus. It is thought that some fungi mycelia
may be the biggest living organisms on the planet, covering a span of several states in the soil.
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