Basic English Grammar

Compiled and Prepared

By Sarif Syamsu Rizal

English Literature Study Program Faculty of Humanities

Universitas Dian Nuswantoro
Semarang
 Basic English Grammar

Compiled and Prepared

By Sarif Syamsu Rizal

English Literature Study Program Faculty of Humanities

Universitas Dian Nuswantoro
Semarang
ii
 PREFACE

This book is organised as student handout learning materials of Basic English

Grammar. Competency of this level is that students are able to use the following
sentence structure patterns containing grammatical forms covered in this term such
as English Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, Pronouns, Prepositions, Articles,
Conjunctions, Interjections, and Verbals.

Using this handout, the students are guided to understand English Grammar through
structural discussion and related quizzes.

The compiler realizes that the handout is far from being perfect so that constructive
suggestions are welcome.

Semarang, 7 September 2016

The Compiler

iii
 LIST OF CONTENTS

PREFACE.............................................................................................. i
LIST OF CONTENTS............................................................................ ii

Unit I English Verbs………….......................................................................... 1

Unit II English Nouns …………………..…….................................................... 9
Unit III English Adjectives……........................................................................... 26
Unit IV English Adverbs..................................................................................... 37
Unit V English Pronouns………………………………………............................. 41
Unit VI English Prepositions……....................................................................... 43
Unit VII English Articles…………………………………………………………….. 52
Unit VIII English Conjuctions............................................................................... 55
Unit IX English Interjections.............................................................................. 61
Unit X English Verbals...................................................................................... 64

REFERENCES ..................................................................................... 73

iv
 Lesson Plan Unit I
Term : 1st
Subject : English Verbs

Topic: English Verbs in lesson.

• Realizing English verbs in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use verbs in the right situation.
• Choose English verbs in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate English verbs;
• Identify English verbs in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English verbs from sentence to other sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English verbs.
Materials: • Teaching English verbs.
• English verbs websites or another explanation of verbs.

• Introduce about verbs in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of verbs in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English verb constructions, a style that is more awkward than it
is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English verbs. It can provide students with more details
on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best language
for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English verbs.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English verbs.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English verbs from the page(s) they're exploring,
divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English verbs.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English verbs.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether verbs are appropriate for the
Understanding: particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or complete
the revisions as homework.

1
1.1 English Verbs
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-
word sentence with a verb, for example: Stop! You cannot make a one-word sentence with
any other type of word. Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true.

Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight,
do and work all conveys action. But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the
idea of existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all
convey state.

A verb always has a subject. In the sentence "John speaks English", (=John is the subject
and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell
us what a subject does or is; they describe:
• action (Ram plays football)
• state (Ram is English)

There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words (adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although can have singular and plural
forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For example, the verb to work has five forms:
• to work, work, works, worked, working
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
• Helping verbs (also called "auxiliary verbs")
These are verbs that have no real meaning. They are necessary for the grammatical
structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. For example, will,
would, may are helping verbs. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They
"help" the main verb.
• Main verbs (also called "lexical verbs")
These are verbs that really mean something, they tell us something. For example,
love, make, work are main verbs.

1.2 Types of Main Verb:

1.2.1 Transitive and intransitive verbs
Transitive verbs can take a direct object (subject + verb + object). Intransitive verbs do not
take a direct object (subject + verb [+ indirect object]). Many verbs can be transitive or
intransitive.
2
 A. Transitive:
• He speaks English.
• We are watching TV.
• I saw an elephant.
B. Intransitive:
• He has arrived.
• She speaks fast.
• John goes to school.

1.2.2 Linking verbs

Linking verbs are always intransitive. A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It
"links" the subject to what is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=)
or a change to a different state or place (>).
• Mary is a teacher. (Mary = teacher)
• Tara is beautiful. (Tara = beautiful)
• That sounds interesting. (that = interesting)
• The sky became dark. (the sky > dark)
• The bread has gone bad. (bread > bad)

1.2.3 Dynamic and static verbs:

Some verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can be used with continuous
Nouns. Other verbs describe state (non-action, a situation). They are called "static", and
cannot normally be used with continuous Nouns (though some of them can be used with
continuous Nouns with a change in meaning).

A. Dynamic verbs: examples

• hit, explode, fight, run, go
B. Static verbs: examples
• be
• like, love, prefer, wish
• impress, please, surprise
• hear, see, sound
• belong to, consist of, contain, include, need
• appear, resemble, seem

3
1.2.4 Regular and irregular verbs:
This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference between
regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past tense and past
participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is
always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle
ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.
A. Regular verbs: base, past tense, and past participle
• look, looked, looked
• work, worked, worked
B. Irregular verbs: base, past tense, and past participle
• buy, bought, bought
• cut, cut, cut
• do, did, done

1.3 Forms of Main Verbs

Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs".
English main verbs—except the verb "to be"—have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. "To be" has 9
forms.
V1 V2 V3
past past present present simple,
Infinitive base
simple participle participle 3rd person singular
regular (to) work work worked worked working works
(to) sing sing sang sung singing sings
(to) make make made made making makes
(to) cut cut cut cut cutting cuts
(to) do* do did done doing does
irregular (to) have* have had had having has
past past present
Infinitive base present simple
simple participle participle
was,
(to) be* be been being am, are, is
were

In the above examples:

• to cut has 4 forms: to cut, cut, cutting, cuts

4
• to work has 5 forms: to work, work, worked, working, works
• to sing has 6 forms: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing, sings
• to be has 9 forms: to be, be, was, were, been, being, am, is, are

Note that the infinitive can be with or without to. For example, to sing and sing are both
infinitives. We often call the infinitive without to the "bare infinitive".
The verb to be is always an exception, in many ways!

At school, students usually learn by heart the base, past simple and past participle
(sometimes called V1, V2, V3, meaning Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3) for the irregular verbs. They
may spend many hours chanting: sing, sang, sung; go, went, gone; have, had, had; etc.

They do not learn these for the regular verbs because the past simple and past participles
are always the same: they are formed by adding "-ed" to the base.
They do not learn the past participle and 3rd person singular present simple by heart—
for another very simple reason: they never change.

The present participle is always made by adding "-ing" to the base, and the 3rd person
singular present simple is always made by adding "s" to the base (though there are some
variations in spelling).
* Note that "do", "have" and "be" also function as helping or auxiliary verbs, with exactly
the same forms (except that as helping verbs they are never in infinitive form).

1.3.1 Forms of Main Verbs: Examples

A. Infinitive
• I want to work
• He has to sing.
• This exercise is easy to do.
• Let him have one.
• To be, or not to be, that is the question:

B. Base - Imperative
• Work well!
• Make this.

5
 • Have a nice day.
• Be quiet!
C. Base - Present simple (except 3rd person singular)
• I work in London.
• You sing well.
• They have a lot of money.
D. Base - After modal auxiliary verbs
• I can work tomorrow.
• You must sing louder.
• They might do it.
• You could be right.
E. Past simple
• I worked yesterday.
• She cut his hair last week.
• They had a good time.
• They were surprised, but I was not.
F. Past participle
• I have worked here for five years.
• He needs a folder made of plastic.
• It is done like this.
• I have never been so happy.
G. Present participle
• I am working.
• Singing well is not easy.
• Having finished, he went home.
• You are being silly!
H. 3rd person singular, present simple
• He works in London.
• She sings well.
• She has a lot of money.
• It is Vietnamese.

6
1.3.2 Forms of Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".
All helping verbs are used with a main verb (either expressed or understood*). There are 2
groups of helping verbs:
• Tense helping verbs, used to change the tense of the main verb.
• Modal helping verbs, used to change the "mood" of the main verb.
Tense helping verbs Modal helping verbs
Do (to make simple Nouns) can Could
Be (to make continuous Nouns) may Might

Have (to make perfect Nouns) will would

shall Should
must
ought (to)
"Do", "be" and "have" as helping verbs have exactly the
Modal helping verbs are
same forms as when they are main verbs (except that
invariable. They always have
as helping verbs they are never used in infinitive
the same form.
forms).
"Ought" is followed by the
main verb in infinitive form.
Tense helping verbs are followed by the main verb in a Other modal helping verbs are
particular form: followed by the main verb in
• do + V1 (base verb) its base form (V1).
• be + -ing (present participle) • ought + to...
• have + V3 (past participle) (infinitive)
• other modals + V1
(base verb)
Modal helping verbs cannot
"Do", "be" and "have" can also function as main verbs.
also functions as main verbs.

Sometimes we make a sentence that has a helping verb and seems to have no main verb. In fact, the main verb
is "understood". Look at the following examples:
• Question: Can you speak English? (The main verb speak is "expressed".)
• Answer: Yes, I can. (The main verb speak is not expressed. It is "understood" from the context. We
understand: Yes, I can speak English.

But, If somebody walked into the room and said "Hello. I can", we would understand nothing!

7
 Lesson Plan Unit II
Term : 1st
Subject : English Nouns

Topic: English Nouns in lesson.

• Realizing English nouns in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use nouns in the right situation.
• Choose English nouns in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate English nouns;
• Identify English nouns in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English tense from sentence to other sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English nouns.
Materials: • Teaching English nouns.
• English nouns websites or another explanation of nouns.

• Introduce about nouns in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of nouns in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English nouns constructions, a style that is more awkward than
it is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English nouns. It can provide students with more details
on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best language
for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English nouns.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English nouns.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English nouns from the page(s) they're exploring,
divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English nouns.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English nouns.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether nouns are appropriate for the
Understanding: particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or complete
the revisions as homework.

8
2.1. English Nouns
It is not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things" (and verbs are
"actions"). Like food. Food (noun) is something you eat (verb). Or, happiness. Happiness
(noun) is something you want (verb). Or, human being. A human being (noun) is something
you are (verb).
What are Nouns?
The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some examples:
• person: man, woman, teacher, John, Mary
• place: home, office, town, countryside, America
• thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey
The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love" is a noun but can also
be a verb.
Another (more complicated) way of recognizing a noun is by its:
1. Ending
2. Position
3. Function

2.1.1. Noun Ending

There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, for example:
• -ity > nationality
• -ment > appointment
• -ness > happiness
• -ation > relation
• -hood > childhood

But this is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the noun "spoonful" ends
in -ful, but the adjective "careful" also ends in -ful.

2.1.2. Position in Sentence

We can often recognize a noun by its position in the sentence.
Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the, this, my, such):
• a relief
• an afternoon
• the doctor
• this word
9
 • my house
• such stupidity

Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:

• a great relief
• a peaceful afternoon
• the tall, Indian doctor
• this difficult word
• my brown and white house
• such crass stupidity

2.1.3. Function in a Sentence

Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:
• subject of verb: Doctors work hard.
• object of verb: He likes coffee.
• subject and object of verb: Teachers teach students.

But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a pronoun or a
phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is "doctor" but the subject is "My
doctor".

2.1.4. Countable and Uncountable Nouns

English nouns are often described as "countable" or "uncountable".
In this lesson we look at:

A. Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example:
"pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Here are some more
countable nouns:
• dog, cat, animal, man, person
• bottle, box, litre
• coin, note, dollar
• cup, plate, fork
• table, chair, suitcase, bag

10
Countable nouns can be singular or plural:
• My dog is playing.
• My dogs are hungry.
We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:
• A dog is an animal.
When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:
• I want an orange. (not I want orange.)
• Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?)
When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:
• I like oranges.
• Bottles can break.
We can use some and any with countable nouns:
• I've got some dollars.
• Have you got any pens?
We can use a few and many with countable nouns:
• I've got a few dollars.
• I haven't got many pens.
"People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". We can count people:
• There is one person here.
• There are three people here.

B. Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate
elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count
"bottles of milk" or "litters of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some more
uncountable nouns:
• music, art, love, happiness
• advice, information, news
• furniture, luggage
• rice, sugar, butter, water
• electricity, gas, power
• money, currency
We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:
• This news is very important.

11
 • Your luggage looks heavy.
We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an
information" or "a music". But we can say a something of:
• a piece of news
• a bottle of water
• a grain of rice
We can use some and any with uncountable nouns:
• I've got some money.
• Have you got any rice?
We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns:
• I've got a little money.
• I haven't got much rice.

C. Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns".

Here are some more examples of countable and uncountable nouns. When you learn a new
word, it's a good idea to learn whether it's countable or uncountable.

Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable

Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of
meaning.

Countable Uncountable

There are two hairs in my coffee! hair I don't have much hair.

There are two lights in our bedroom. light Close the curtain. There's too much light!

Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise. It's difficult to work when there is too much
noise
noise.

Have you got a paper to read? (= I want to draw a picture. Have you got some
paper
newspaper) paper?

Our house has seven rooms. room Is there room for me to sit here?

We had a great time at the party. time Have you got time for a coffee?

Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's greatest I have no money. I need work!

work
works.

12
Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually uncountable. But if we are thinking of a cup
or a glass, we can say (in a restaurant, for example):
• Two teas and one coffee please

Proper Nouns (Names)

A proper noun is the special word (or name) that we use for a person, place or organization,
like John, Marie, London, France or Sony. A name is a noun, but a very special noun - a
proper noun. Proper nouns have special rules.

common noun proper noun

man, boy John

woman, girl Mary

country, town England, London

Company Ford, Sony

shop, restaurant Maceys, McDonalds

month, day of the week January, Sunday

book, film War & Peace, Titanic

In this lesson we look at the uses of proper nouns, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding:

Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns

We always use a Capital Letter for the first letter of a proper noun (name). This includes
names of people, places, companies, days of the week and months. For example:
• They like John. (not *They like john.)
• I live in England.
• She works for Sony.
• The last day in January is a Monday.
• We saw Titanic in the Odeon Cinema.

Proper Nouns without THE

We do not use "the" with names of people. For example:

13
first names Bill (not *the Bill)

Hilary

surnames Clinton

Gates

full names Hilary Clinton

Bill Gates

We do not normally use "the" with names of companies. For example:

• Renault, Ford, Sony, EnglishClub.com
• General Motors, Air France, British Airways
• Warner Brothers, Brown & Son Ltd

We do not normally use "the" for shops, banks, hotels etc named after a
founder or other person (with -'s or -s). For example:

Shops Harrods, Marks & Spencer, Maceys

Banks Barclays Bank

hotels, restaurants Steve's Hotel, Joe's Cafe, McDonalds

churches, cathedrals St John's Church, St Peter's Cathedral

We do not normally use "the" with names of places. For example:

Towns Washington (not *the Washington), Paris, Tokyo

states, regions Texas, Kent, Eastern Europe

countries England, Italy, Brazil

continents Asia, Europe, North America

Islands Corsica

mountains Everest

Exception! If a country name includes "States”, “Kingdom", "Republic" etc, we use "the":

States the United States, the US, the United States of America, the USA

14
Kingdom the United Kingdom, the UK

Republic the French Republic

We do not use "the" with "President/Doctor/Mr etc + Name":

the president, the king President Bush (not *the President Bush)

the captain, the detective Captain Kirk, Detective Colombo

the doctor, the professor Doctor Well, Dr Well, Professor Dolittle

my uncle, your aunt Uncle Jack, Aunt Jill

Mr Gates (not *the Mr Gates), Mrs Clinton, Miss Black

Look at these example sentences:

• I wanted to speak to the doctor.
• I wanted to speak to Doctor Brown.
• Who was the president before President Kennedy?

We do not use "the" with "Lake/Mount + Name":

the lake Lake Victoria

the mount Mount Everest

Look at this example sentence:

• We live beside Lake Victoria. We have a fantastic view across the lake.

We do not normally use "the" for roads, streets, squares, parks etc:

streets etc Oxford Street, Trenholme Road, Fifth Avenue

squares etc Trafalgar Square, Oundle Place, Piccadilly Circus

parks etc Central Park, Kew Gardens

Many big, important buildings have names made of two words (for example, Kennedy
Airport). If the first word is the name of a person or place, we do not normally use "the":

People Kennedy Airport, Alexander Palace, St Paul's Cathedral

15
Places Heathrow Airport, Waterloo Station, Edinburgh Castle

Proper Nouns with THE

We normally use "the" for country names that include "States","Kingdom", "Republic" etc:

States the United States of America/the USA

Kingdom the United Kingdom/the UK

Republic the French Republic

We normally use "the" for names of canals, rivers, seas and oceans:

Canals the Suez Canal

Rivers the River Nile, the Nile

Seas the Mediterranean Sea, the Mediterranean

oceans the Pacific Ocean, the Pacific

We normally use "the" for plural names of people and places:

people (families, for example) the Clintons

countries the Philippines, the United States

island groups the Virgin Islands, the British Isles

mountain ranges the Himalayas, the Alps

Look at these sentences:

• I saw the Clintons today. It was Bill's birthday.
• Trinidad is the largest island in the West Indies.
• Mount Everest is in the Himalayas.

We normally use "the" with the following sorts of names:

hotels, restaurants the Ritz Hotel, the Peking Restaurant

Banks the National Westminster Bank

cinemas, theatres the Royal Theatre, the ABC Cinema

16
museums the British Museum, the National Gallery

buildings the White House, the Crystal Palace

newspapers the Daily Telegraph, the Sunday Post

organisations the United Nations, the BBC, the European Union

We normally use "the" for names made with "of":

• the Tower of London
• the Gulf of Siam
• the Tropic of Cancer
• the London School of Economics
• the Bank of France
• the Statue of Liberty

Possessive’s/ Possessive Noun

When we want to show that something belongs to somebody or something, we usually
add an ’s to a singular noun and an apostrophe ' to a plural noun, for example:
• the boy's ball (one boy)
• the boys' ball (two or more boys)

Notice that the number of balls does not matter. The structure is influenced by the possessor
and not the possessed.

one ball more than one ball

one boy
the boy's ball the boy's balls

more than one boy

the boys' ball the boys' balls

The structure can be used for a whole phrase:

• the man next door's mother (the mother of the man next door)
• the Queen of England's poodles (the poodles of the Queen of England)

17
Although we can use of to show possession, it is more usual to use
possessives. The following phrases have the same meaning, but #2 is more
usual and natural:
1. the boyfriend of my sister
2. my sister's boyfriend
Proper Nouns (Names)
We very often use possessive’s with names:
• This is Mary's car.
• Where is Ram's telephone?
• Who took Anthony's pen?
• I like Tara's hair.

When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like any other singular noun, and add the ’s:
• This is Charles's chair.(Ragu)
But it is possible (especially with older, classical names) to just add the apostrophe’
• Who was Jesus' father?

Irregular Plurals
Some nouns have irregular plural forms without s (man > men). To show possession, we
usually add the 's to the plural form of these nouns:

singular noun plural noun

my child's dog my children's dog

the man's work the men's work

the mouse's cage the mice's cage

a person's clothes people's clothes

Noun as Adjective
As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a word that describes a
noun:
adjective noun

clever teacher

18
small Office

black Horse

Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun "acts as" an
adjective.
noun
as adjective noun

history teacher

ticket Office

race Horse

The "noun as adjective" always comes first

If you remember this it will help you to understand what is being talked about:
• a race horse is a horse that runs in races
• a horse race is a race for horses
• a boat race is a race for boats
• a love story is a story about love
• a war story is a story about war
• a tennis ball is a ball for playing tennis
• tennis shoes are shoes for playing tennis
• a computer exhibition is an exhibition of computers
• a bicycle shop is a shop that sells bicycles

The "noun as adjective" is singular

Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It is usually in the singular
form.
Right Wrong

boat race boat races NOT boats race, boats races

Toothbrush toothbrushes NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes

shoe-lace shoe-laces NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces

cigarette packet cigarette packets NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes packets

19
In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only.
A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for example news, billiards,
and athletics). When we use these nouns "as adjectives" they are unchanged:
• a news reporter, three news reporters
• one billiards table, four billiards tables
• an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers

Exceptions:
When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs, accounts, arms), we
use them in the plural form:
• clothes shop, clothes shops
• sports club, sports clubs
• customs duty, customs duties
• accounts department, accounts departments
• arms production

How do we write the "noun as adjective"?

We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different ways:
• two separate words (car door)
• two hyphenated words (book-case)
• one word (bathroom)

There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in two or all three
different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster)
How do we say the "noun as adjective"?
For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word:
• shoe shop
• boat-race
• bathroom
Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"?
Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun as adjective" together.
Look at these examples:
car production costs: we are talking about the costs of producing cars

20
noun as noun as Noun
adjective adjective

Costs

production Costs

car production Costs

England football team coach: we are talking about the coach who trains the team that
plays football for England
noun as noun as noun as Noun
adjective adjective adjective

Coach

Team Coach

football Team Coach

England football Team Coach

Note: in England football team coach can you see a "hidden" "noun as adjective"? Look at
the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns (foot+ball) have developed into a single noun
(football).
This is one way that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "noun as adjective"
are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their own dictionary definition. But not all
dictionaries agree with each other. For example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a
noun and other dictionaries do not.
government road accident research centre: we are talking about a centre that researches
into accidents on the road for the government

noun as noun as noun as noun as noun

adjective adjective adjective adjective

centre

research Centre

accident research Centre

road accident research Centre

government road accident research Centre

21
Newspapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space. Look at this
example:

BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY

To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. The above headline is
about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in a CENTRE for RESEARCH into the HEALTH
of BIRDS.

Note, too, that we can still use a real adjective to qualify a "noun as adjective" structure:
• empty coffee jar
• honest car salesman
• delicious dog food
• rising car production costs
• famous England football team coach

22
 Lesson Plan Unit III
Term : 1st
Subject : English Adjectives

Topic: English Adjectives in lesson.

• Realizing English adjectives in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use English adjectives in the right situation.
• Choose English adjectives in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate English adjectives;
• Identify English adjectives in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English adjectives from sentence to other sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English adjectives.
Materials: • Teaching English adjectives.
• English adjectives websites or another explanation of adjectives.

• Introduce about adjectives in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of adjectives in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English Adjectives constructions, a style that is more awkward
than it is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English Adjectives. It can provide students with more
details on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best
language for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English adjectives.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English adjectives.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English adjectives from the page(s) they're exploring,
divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English adjectives.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English adjectives.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether adjectives are appropriate for
Understanding: the particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or
complete the revisions as homework.

23
3.1 English Adjectives
It is said that the adjective is the enemy of the noun. That may be true, but adjectives are still
very useful words. They add information to a sentence, and tell us more about nouns.

3.1.1 Determiners: A, An or The?

When do we say "the dog" and when do we say "a dog"? (On this page we talk only about
singular, countable nouns.)
The and A/An are called "articles". We divide them into "definite" and "indefinite" like this:
Articles
Definite Indefinite
The A, An

We use "definite" to mean sure, certain. "Definite" is particular. We use "indefinite" to mean
not sure, not certain. "Indefinite" is general. When we are talking about one thing in
particular, we use the. When we are talking about one thing in general, we use a or an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky there is 1 moon and millions of stars. So normally we
could say:
• I saw the moon last night.
• I saw a star last night.

Look at these examples:

The A, An
• The capital of France is Paris.
• I was born in a town.
• I have found the book that I lost.
• John had an omelette for lunch.
• Have you cleaned the car?
• James Bond ordered a drink.
• There are six eggs in the fridge.
• We want to buy an umbrella.
• Please switch off the TV when you
• Have you got a pen?
finish.

Of course, often we can use The or A/An for the same word. It depends on the situation.
Look at these examples:
• We want to buy an umbrella. (Any umbrella, not a particular umbrella.)
• Where is the umbrella? (We already have an umbrella. We are looking for our
umbrella, a particular umbrella.)

24
This little story should help you understand the difference between The and A, An:
• A man and a woman were walking in Oxford Street. The woman saw a dress that she
liked in a shop. She asked the man if he could buy the dress for her. He said: "Do you
think the shop will accept a cheque? I don't have a credit card."

3.1.2 Determiners: Each, Every

Each and every have similar but not always identical meanings. Verbs with each and every
are always conjugated in the singular.
Each = every one separately.
Every = each, all.
Sometimes, each and every have the same meaning:
• Prices go up each year.
• Prices go up every year.
But often they are not exactly the same.
Each expresses the idea of 'one by one'. It emphasizes individuality.
Every is halfway between each and all. It sees things or people as singular, but in a group or
in general.
Consider the following:
• Every artist is sensitive.
• Each artist sees things differently.
• Every soldier saluted as the President arrived.
• The President gave each soldier a medal.
• Each soldier received a medal from the President.
Each can be used in front of the verb:
• The soldiers each received a medal.
Each can be followed by 'of':
• The President spoke to each of the soldiers.
• He gave a medal to each of them.
Every cannot be used for 2 things. For 2 things, each can be used:
• He was carrying a suitcase in each hand.
Every is used to say how often something happens:
• There is a plane to Bangkok every day.
• The bus leaves every hour.

25
3.1.3 Determiners: Some and Any
Some = a little, a few or a small number or amount
Any = one, some or all
Usually, we use some in positive (+) sentences and any in negative (-) and question (?)
sentences.
Some Any Example
I have
+ some I have $10.
money.
I don't have any I don't have $1 and I don't have $10 and I don't
-
money. have $1,000,000. I have $0.
Do you have any
? Do you have $1 or $10 or $1,000,000?
money?

In general, we use something/ anything and somebody/ anybody in the same way as
some/any.

Look at these examples:

• He needs some stamps.
• I must go. I have some homework to do.
• I'm thirsty. I want something to drink.
• I can see somebody coming.
• He doesn't need any stamps.
• I can stay. I don't have any homework to do.
• I'm not thirsty. I don't want anything to drink.
• I can't see anybody coming.
• Does he need any stamps?
• Do you have any homework to do?
• Do you want anything to drink?
• Can you see anybody coming?

We use any in a positive sentence when the real sense is negative.

• I refused to give them any money. (= I did not give them any money)
• She finished the test without any difficulty. (= she did not have any difficulty)

26
Sometimes we use some in a question, when we expect a positive YES answer. (We could
say that it is not a real question, because we think we know the answer already.)
• Would you like some more tea?
• Could I have some sugar, please?

3.1.4 Adjective Order

There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1. before the noun
2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)
adjective noun verb adjective
1 I like big cars.
2 My car is big.

3.1.5 Adjective before Noun

We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:
• I like big black dogs.
• She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.
What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?
1 The general order is: opinion, fact:
• a nice French car (not 'a French nice car')
('Opinion' is what you think about something. 'Fact' is what is definitely true about
something.)
2 The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour, material, origin:
• a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table
3 Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:
• articles (a, the)
• possessives (my, your...)
• demonstratives (this, that...)
• quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)
• numbers (one, two, three)

Here is an example with opinion and fact adjectives:

adjectives noun
determiner opinion fact

27
 age shape colour
Two nice old round red candles.

When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with 'and':
• Newspapers are usually black and white.
• She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.
These rules are not always rigid. Consider the following conversations:
Conversation 1
A 'I want to buy a round table.'
B 'Do you want a new round table or an old round table?'
Conversation 2
A 'I want to buy an old table'.
B 'Do you want a round old table or a square old table?'

3.1.6 Adjective after Verb

We can use an adjective after certain verbs. Even though the adjective is after the verb, it
does not describe the verb. It describes the subject of the verb (usually a noun or pronoun).
For example:
subject verb adjective
• Ram is English.
• Because she had to wait, she became impatient.
• Is it getting dark?
• The examination did not seem difficult.
• Your friend looks nice.
• This towel feels damp.
• That new film doesn't sound very interesting.
• Dinner smells good tonight.
• This milk tastes sour.

3.1.7 Comparative Adjectives

When we talk about 2 things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are the same or
different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways.

28
AB
We can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences. "A is bigger than B."
Formation of Comparative Adjectives
There are two ways to form a comparative adjective:
• short adjectives: add '-er'
• long adjectives: use 'more'

Short adjectives
• 1-syllable adjectives old, fast
• 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule: add '-er' old > older
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add –r late > later
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel,
big > bigger
consonant, double the last consonant
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the -y
happy > happier
to -i
Long adjectives
• 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y modern, pleasant
• all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
modern > more modern
Normal rule: use 'more'
expensive > more expensive

Tip With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more':

• quiet > quieter/more quiet
• clever > cleverer/more clever
• narrow > narrower/more narrow
• simple > simpler/more simple
Exception! The following adjectives have irregular forms:
• good > better
• well (healthy) > better
• bad > worse
• far > farther/further

29
Use of Comparative Adjectives
We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or 1,000,000 things,
only 2 things).
Often, the comparative adjective is followed by 'than'.
Look at these examples:
• John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John.
• America is big. But Russia is bigger.
• I want to have a more powerful computer.
• Is French more difficult than English?

If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them like this:
Earth Mars
Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790 Mars is smaller than Earth.
Distance from Sun (million km) 150 228 Mars is more distant from the Sun.
A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day on
Length of day (hours) 24 25
Earth.
Moons 1 2 Mars has more moons than Earth.
Surface temperature (°C) 22 -23 Mars is colder than Earth.

3.1.8 Superlative Adjectives

Comparison is between 2 things: "A is bigger than B."

AB
But the superlative is the extreme between 3 or more things. "A is the biggest."

AB C

Formation of Superlative Adjectives

As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective:
• short adjectives: add '-est'
• long adjectives: use 'most'

We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.

30
 Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in –y happy, easy
Normal rule: add '-est' old > the oldest
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add
late > the latest
–st
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant,
big > the biggest
vowel, consonant, double the last consonant
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change
happy > the happiest
the -y to –i
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in –y modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
modern > the most modern
Normal rule: use 'most'
expensive > the most expensive

Tip With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':

• quiet > the quietest/most quiet
• clever > the cleverest/most clever
• narrow > the narrowest/most narrow
• simple > the simplest/most simple
Exception! The following adjectives have irregular forms:
• good > the best
• bad > the worst
• far > the furthest

3.1.9 Use of Superlative Adjectives

We use a superlative adjective to describe 1 thing in a group of 3 or more things.

Look at these examples:

• John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest.
• America, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest.
• Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use superlatives like this:

31
 Earth Mars Jupiter
Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790 142,800 Jupiter is the biggest.
Distance from Sun Jupiter is the most distant
150 228 778
(million km) from the Sun.
Length of day (hours) 24 25 10 Jupiter has the shortest day.
Moons 1 2 16 Jupiter has the most moons.
Surface temperature
22 -23 -150 Jupiter is the coldest.
(°C)

When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":

• England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest)

32
 Lesson Plan Unit IV
Term : 1st
Subject : English Adverbs

Topic: English Adverbs in lesson.

• Realizing English adverbs in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use English adverbs in the right situation.
• Choose English adverbs in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate English adverbs;
• Identify English adverbs in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English adverbs from sentence to other sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English adverbs.
Materials: • Teaching English adverbs.
• English adverbs websites or another explanation of adverbs.

• Introduce about adverbs in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of adverbs in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English adverbs constructions, a style that is more awkward
than it is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English adverbs. It can provide students with more
details on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best
language for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English adverbs.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English adverbs.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English adverbs from the page(s) they're exploring,
divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English adverbs.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English adverbs.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether adverbs are appropriate for the
Understanding: particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or complete
the revisions as homework.

33
4.1 English Adverbs
An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. An adverb "qualifies" or "modifies" a
verb (The man ran quickly). But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful),
or even other adverbs (It works very well).

4.2 What Adverbs

Many different kinds of word are called adverbs. We can usually recognize an adverb by its:
1. Function (Job)
2. Form
3. Position
4.2.1 Function
The principal job of an adverb is to modify (give more information about) verbs, adjectives
and other adverbs. In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the word that it
modifies is in italics.
• Modify a verb:
- John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
- Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
- She never smokes. (When does she smoke?)
• Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome.
• Modify another adverb:
- She drives incredibly slowly.

But adverbs have other functions, too. They can:

• Modify a whole sentence:
- Obviously, I can't know everything.
• Modify a prepositional phrase:
- It's immediately inside the door.

4.2.2 Form
Many adverbs end in -ly. We form such adverbs by adding -ly to the adjective. Here are
some examples:
• quickly, softly, strongly, honestly, interestingly
But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. "Friendly", for example, is an adjective.
Some adverbs have no particular form, for example:
34
 • well, fast, very, never, always, often, still

4.2.3 Position
Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence:
• Front (before the subject):
- Now we will study adverbs.
• Middle (between the subject and the main verb):
- We often study adverbs.
• End (after the verb or object):
- We study adverbs carefully.

4.3 Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of Frequency answer the question "How often?" or "How frequently?" They tell
us how often somebody does something.
Adverbs of frequency come before the main verb (except the main verb "to be"):
• We usually go shopping on Saturday.
• I have often done that.
• She is always late.

Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end
of a sentence:
• Sometimes they come and stay with us.
• I play tennis occasionally.
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):
• We see them rarely.
• John eats meat very seldom.

100 % always
usually
frequently
often
50 % sometimes
occasionally
rarely
seldom
Hardly ever
0% never

35
 Lesson Plan Unit V
Term : 1st
Subject : English Pronouns

Topic: English Pronouns in lesson.

• Realizing English pronouns in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use English pronouns in the right situation.
• Choose English pronouns in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate the be gong to;
• Identify English pronouns in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English pronouns from sentence to other sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English pronouns.
Materials: • Teaching English pronouns.
• English pronouns websites or another explanation of pronouns.

• Introduce about pronouns in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of pronouns in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English pronouns constructions, a style that is more awkward
than it is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English pronouns. It can provide students with more
details on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best
language for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English pronouns.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English pronouns.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English pronouns from the page(s) they're exploring,
divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English pronouns.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English pronouns.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether pronouns are appropriate for the
Understanding: particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or complete
the revisions as homework.

36
5.1 English Pronouns
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a
noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, and each... If we didn't
have Pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
• Do you like the President? I don't like the President. The President is too pompous.
With Pronouns, we can say:
• Do you like the President? I don't like her. She is too pompous.

5.1.1 Personal Pronouns

This summary of personal pronoun includes possessive adjectives for convenience and
comparison.
Pronouns Possessive
Number Person Gender* Subject Object Possessive Reflexive Adjectives
1st m/f I me mine Myself My
2nd m/f you you yours Yourself Your
singular M he him his Himself His
3rd F she her hers Herself Her
N it it its Itself Its
1st m/f we us ours Ourselves Our
plural 2nd m/f you you yours Yourselves Your
3rd m/f/n they them theirs Themselves Their
* m=male f=female n=neuter
Examples:
Pronoun Subject She likes homework.
Object The teacher gave me some homework.
Possessive This homework is yours.
Reflexive John did the homework himself.
Possessive adjective The Teacher Corrected Our Homework.

37
 Lesson Plan Unit VI
Term : 1st
Subject : English Prepositions

Topic: English Prepositions in lesson.

• Realizing English prepositions in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use English prepositions in the right situation.
• Choose English prepositions in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate the be gong to;
• Identify English prepositions in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English prepositions from sentence to other
sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English prepositions.
Materials: • Teaching English prepositions.
• English prepositions websites or another explanation of prepositions.

• Introduce about prepositions in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of prepositions s in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English prepositions constructions, a style that is more
awkward than it is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English prepositions. It can provide students with more
details on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best
language for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English prepositions.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English prepositions.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English prepositions from the page(s) they're
exploring, divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English prepositions.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English prepositions.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether prepositions are appropriate for
Understanding: the particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or
complete the revisions as homework.

38
6.1 English Prepositions
A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun and
expressing a relation to another word or element, as in:
• She left before breakfast
• What did you come for?
There are more than 100 Prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you
think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words.
We use individual Prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the
Prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English.

Here is a short list of 70 of the more common one-word Prepositions. Many of these
Prepositions have more than one meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning
and usage. For a full list of 150 Prepositions (including one-word and complex Prepositions
with 370 example sentences), try the e-book English Prepositions Listed.

• aboard
• about
• above
• across
• after
• against
• along
• amid
• among
• anti
• around
• as
• at

• before
• behind
• below
• beneath
• beside
• besides
• between
• beyond
• but
• by

• concerning
• considering

• despite
• down
• during
39
• except
• excepting
• excluding

• following
• for
• from

• in
• inside
• into

• like

• minus

• near

• of
• off
• on
• onto
• opposite
• outside
• over

• past
• per
• plus

• regarding
• round

• save
• since

• than
• through
• to
• toward
• towards

• under
• underneath
• unlike
• until
• up
• upon

• versus
• via

• with
• within
• without

40
6.2 English Preposition Rule
There is one very simple rule about Prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no
exceptions.
Rule: A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.
By "noun" we include:
• noun (dog, money, love)
• proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
• pronoun (you, him, us)
• noun group (my first job)
• gerund (swimming)

A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb, we

must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.
Here are some examples:

Subject + verb preposition "noun"

The food is on the table.

She lives in Japan.

Tara is looking for you.

The letter is under your blue book.

Pascal is used to English people.

She isn't used to working.

I ate before coming.

Question:
In the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be impossible,
according to the rule:
• I would like to go now.
• She used to smoke.
Answer:
In these sentences, "to" is not a preposition. It is part of the infinitive ("to go", "to smoke").

41
6.3 Prepositions of Place: at, in, on
In general, we use:
• at for a POINT
• in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
• on for a SURFACE

At in on

POINT ENCLOSED SPACE SURFACE

at the corner in the garden on the wall

at the bus stop in London on the ceiling

at the door in France on the door

at the top of the page in a box on the cover

at the end of the road in my pocket on the floor

at the entrance in my wallet on the carpet

at the crossroads in a building on the menu

at the entrance in a car on a page

Look at these examples:

• Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
• The shop is at the end of the street.
• My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.
• When will you arrive at the office?
• Do you work in an office?
• I have a meeting in New York.
• Do you live in Japan?
• Jupiter is in the Solar System.
• The author's name is on the cover of the book.
• There are no prices on this menu.
• You are standing on my foot.
• There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.
• I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.

42
Notice the use of the Prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:

At in on

at home in a car on a bus

at work in a taxi on a train

at school in a helicopter on a plane

at university in a boat on a ship

at college in a lift (elevator) on a bicycle, on a motorbike

at the top in the newspaper on a horse, on an elephant

at the bottom in the sky on the radio, on television

at the side in a row on the left, on the right

at reception in Oxford Street on the way

6.4 Prepositions of Time: at, in, on

We use:
• at for a PRECISE TIME
• in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
• on for DAYS and DATES

At In On

PRECISE MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG DAYS and

TIME PERIODS DATES

At 3 o'clock in May on Sunday

At 10.30am in summer on Tuesdays

At noon in the summer on 6 March

At dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010

At bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas

43
 Day

on
At sunrise in the next century Independence
Day

At sunset in the Ice Age on my birthday

on New Year's
At the moment in the past/future
Eve

Look at these examples:

• I have a meeting at 9am.
• The shop closes at midnight.
• Jane went home at lunchtime.
• In England, it often snows in December.
• Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
• There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
• Do you work on Mondays?
• Her birthday is on 20 November.
• Where will you be on New Year's Day?

Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:

Expression Example

At night The stars shine at night.

At the weekend I don't usually work at the weekend.

At Christmas/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas.

At the same time We finished the test at the same time.

At present He's not home at present. Try later.

Notice the use of the Prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:

In on

44
In the morning on Tuesday morning

In the mornings on Saturday mornings

In the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoons

In the evening(s) on Monday evening

When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
• I went to London last June. (not in last June)
• He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
• I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)

We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

45
 Lesson Plan Unit VII
Term : 1st
Subject : English Articles

Topic: English Articles in lesson.

• Realizing English articles in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use English articles in the right situation.
• Choose English articles in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate the be gong to;
• Identify English articles in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English articles from sentence to other sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English articles.
Materials: • Teaching English articles.
• English articles websites or another explanation of articles.

• Introduce about articles in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of articles in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English articles constructions, a style that is more awkward
than it is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English articles. It can provide students with more
details on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best
language for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English articles.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English articles.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English articles from the page(s) they're exploring,
divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English articles.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English articles.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether articles are appropriate for the
Understanding: particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or complete
the revisions as homework.

46
7.1 English Article
Indefinite and Definite Articles
The words a, an, and the are special adjectives called articles.

7.1.1 Indefinite Articles—a, an

an—used before singular count nouns beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or vowel sound:
• an apple, an elephant, an issue, an orange
a—used before singular count nouns beginning with consonants (other than a, e, i, o, u):
• a stamp, a desk, a TV, a cup, a book

7.1.2 Uses of Indefinite Article (a, an)

Used before singular nouns that are unspecified:
• a pencil
• an orange
Used before number collectives and some numbers:
• a dozen
• a gallon
Used before a singular noun followed by a restrictive modifier:
• a girl who was wearing a yellow hat
Used with nouns to form adverbial phrases of quantity, amount, or degree:
• I felt a bit depressed.

7.1.3 Definite Article—the

Can be used before singular and plural, count and non-count nouns

7.1.4 Use of Definite Article (the)

Used to indicate a noun that is definite or has been previously specified in the context:
• Please close the door.
• I like the clothes you gave me.
Used to indicate a noun that is unique:
• Praise the Lord!
• The Columbia River is near here.
Used to designate a natural phenomenon:
• The nights get shorter in the summer.
• The wind is blowing so hard.

47
Used to refer to a time period:
• I was very naïve in the past.
• This song was very popular in the 1980s.
Used to indicate all the members of a family:
• I invited the Bakers for dinner.
• This medicine was invented by the Smiths.

Lesson Plan Unit VIII

48
 Term : 1st
Subject : English Conjunctions

Topic: English Conjunctions in lesson.

• Realizing English conjunctions in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use English conjunctions in the right situation.
• Choose English conjunctions in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate the be gong to;
• Identify English conjunctions in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English conjunctions from sentence to other
sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English conjunctions.
Materials: • Teaching English conjunctions.
• English conjunctions websites or another explanation of conjunctions.

• Introduce about conjunctions in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of conjunctions in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English conjunctions constructions, a style that is more
awkward than it is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English conjunctions. It can provide students with more
details on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best
language for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English conjunctions.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English conjunctions.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English conjunctions from the page(s) they're
exploring, divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English conjunctions.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English conjunctions.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether conjunctions are appropriate for
Understanding: the particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or
complete the revisions as homework.

8.1 English Conjunctions

49
The conjunction is the part of speech used as a “joiner” for words, phrases, or clauses in a
particular sentence. It links these words or groups of words together, in such a way that
certain relationships among these different parts of the sentence will be established, and the
thoughts that all of these convey will be connected.
In the English language, conjunctions come in three basic types: the coordinating
conjunctions, the subordinating conjunctions, and the correlative conjunctions.

8.1.1 Coordinating Conjunction

Among the three types of conjunctions, this is probably the most common one. The main
function of coordinating conjunctions is to join words, phrases, and clauses together, which
are usually grammatically equal. Aside from that, this type of conjunctions is placed in
between the words or groups of words that it links together, and not at the beginning or at
the end.
Examples:
• Pizza and burgers are my favourite snacks.
In the sample sentence above, the underlined word serves as a coordinating conjunction
that links two words together (pizza + burgers).
• The treasure was hidden in the cave or in the underground lagoon.
The example above shows how coordinating conjunctions can join together two (or more)
phrases. The coordinating conjunction “or” in the sentence above links “in the cave” and “in
the underground lagoon.”
• What those girls say and what they actually do are completely different.
In this sentence, you’ll see how the same coordinating conjunction ”and” from the first
sample sentence can be used to link clauses together (“what those girls say” and “what they
actually do”), instead of just single words.

How to Punctuate Coordinating Conjunctions

• In joining two words, phrases, or dependent clauses together, a comma is not
required before the coordinating conjunction.
Examples:
• aliens and predators
• by the beach or on the hill
• what you see and what you get

50
 • If, on the other hand, you are linking more than two words, phrases, and dependent
clauses together, a series of commas must be placed in between the distinct
elements.

Examples:
• spiders, snakes, and scorpions
• in the bedroom, in the garage, or at the garden
• Lastly, for joining together two independent clauses, a comma must be used before
placing the coordinating conjunction.

Examples:
• Cassandra fell asleep, so Joaquin just went home.
• I don’t really like spaghetti, but I can eat lasagne any day.

For you to easily recall the different coordinating conjunctions that you can use, you can just
remember the word “FANBOYS,” which stands for:

8.1.2 Subordinating Conjunction

This type of conjunctions is used in linking two clauses together. Aside from the fact that
they introduce a dependent clause, subordinating conjunctions also describe the relationship
between the dependent clause and the independent clause in the sentence.
List of Common Subordinating Conjunctions:
• while
• as soon as
• although
• before
• even if
• because

51
 • no matter how
• whether
• wherever
• when
• until
• after
• as if
• how
• if
• provided
• in that
• once
• supposing
• while
• unless
• in case
• as far as
• now that
• as
• so that
• though
• since

Sample Sentences:
• It is so cold outside, so I brought you a jacket.
• Because it is so cold outside, I brought you a jacket.

By looking at the sentences above, you will easily notice that a subordinating conjunction
can be found either at the beginning of the sentence or between the clauses that it links
together. Aside from that, a comma should also be placed in between the two clauses
(independent clause and dependent clause) of the sentence.

8.1.3 Correlative Conjunction

The correlative conjunctions are simply pairs of conjunctions which are used to join equal
sentence elements together.
List of Common Correlative Conjunctions:
• either… or
52
 • neither… nor
• not only… but also
• both… and
• whether… or
• so… as

Sample Sentences:
• Both my brother and my father are lawyers.
• I can’t decide whether I’ll take Chemical Engineering or take Medical Technology in
college.

8.1.4 What is a Conjunctive Adverb?

Although a conjunctive adverb is not a real conjunction, this kind of words functions as
conjunctions in a sentence. Some examples of conjunctive adverbs are:
• in addition
• for example
• however
• therefore
• on the contrary
• hence
• in fact
• otherwise
• as a result
• indeed
• still
• thus
• on the other hand
• furthermore
• instead
• incidentally
• after all
• finally
• likewise
• meanwhile
• consequently

53
8.1.5 Final Thoughts
Conjunctions are very essential in speech and in writing. They improve the cohesion
between the different parts of the text and enable you to construct long sentences without
sounding awkward. Although the concept of conjunctions may seem too simple, you should
still take time and make sure that you place the punctuations properly, choose the
appropriate conjunctions, and see to it that you adhere to the standard rules of grammar.

54
 Lesson Plan Unit IX
Term : 1st
Subject : English Interjections

Topic: English Interjections in lesson.

• Realizing English interjections in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use English interjections in the right situation.
• Choose English interjection in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate English interjection;
• Identify English interjection in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English interjections from sentence to other
sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English interjections.
Materials: • Teaching English interjection.
• English interjections websites or another explanation of interjections.

• Introduce about interjections in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of interjections in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English interjections constructions, a style that is more
awkward than it is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English interjections. It can provide students with more
details on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best
language for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English interjections.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English interjections.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English interjections from the page(s) they're
exploring, divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English interjections.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English interjections.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether the Interjections are appropriate
Understanding: for the particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or
complete the revisions as homework.

55
9.1 English Interjections
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um
or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in
speaking than in writing.
When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the
sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.

Here are some interjections with examples:

interjection Meaning example
expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."
expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."
ah
expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be helped."
expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"
alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."
expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
dear
expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"
"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot
asking for repetition
today."
eh expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"
expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"
er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"
hello, hullo
expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"
calling attention "Hey! look at that!"
hey expressing surprise, joy
"Hey! What a good idea!"
etc
hi expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"
expressing hesitation,
hmm "Hmm. I'm not so sure."
doubt or disagreement
expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"
oh, o expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache."
expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"
ouch expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"
uh expressing hesitation "Uh...I don't know the answer to that."
uh-huh expressing agreement "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."

56
um, umm expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5 is...um...17."
expressing surprise "Well I never!"
well
introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"

57
 Lesson Plan Unit X
Term : 1st
Subject : English Verbals

Topic: English Verbals in lesson.

• Realizing English verbals in sentence.

Goals: • Know way to use English verbals in the right situation.
• Choose English interjection in applying into sentence.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Differentiate English interjection;
• Identify English interjection in each sentence;
Objectives: • Rewrite the sentence changing English verbals from sentence to other sentence;
• Appreciate the lesson by showing active participation of the students towards the
lesson.

• Internet Access: any resources based on the topic.

• Basic definitions of English verbals.
Materials: • Teaching English interjection.
• English verbals websites or another explanation of verbals.

• Introduce about verbals in English.

Introduction: • Indicate kinds of verbals in English.

• Choose more formal language; students can adopt a more objective style which can
result in a reliance on English verbals constructions, a style that is more awkward
than it is formal.
Development: • Inviting students to discover the relationship between the actor (or subject) and the
action (or predicate) in using English verbals. It can provide students with more
details on how the constructions work, better enabling students to choose the best
language for their writing situation.

• Give the lesson and ask student to indicate English verbals.

Practice: • Ask student to translate in the different situation with English verbals.
• Do multi choices exercise.

• Once students have identified English verbals from the page(s) they're exploring,
divide students into small groups to explore their findings.
• Ask students to share their findings and use the collected information to draw
Accommodations: conclusions about when they choose English verbals.
• After teacher is satisfied that students have had enough time to explore their findings,
gather as a group and ask students to share their conclusions.
• Ask students to support their conclusions with specific details from the lesson.

• Once the lesson is complete, ask students to explore the pieces that they are writing,
checking for English verbals.
Checking for
• Ask them to revise as necessary, based on whether verbals are appropriate for the
Understanding: particular sentence. Students may work during their in-class writing time or complete
the revisions as homework.

58
10.1 English Verbals
In one sense, the three verbals — gerunds, infinitives, and participles — should not
be covered in this section on verbs. Although formed from verbs, verbals are never
used alone as the action words in sentences; instead, they function as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs. These verbals are important in phrases.

Verbals are words that seem to carry the idea of action or being but do not function as a true
verb. There are sometimes called "non-finite" (unfinished or incomplete) verbs. Because
time is involved with all verb forms, whether finite or non-finite, however, following a logical
Tense Sequence is important.

Sequence of Tenses: The relationship between verbs in a main clause and verbs in
dependent clauses is important. These verb tenses don't have to be identical as long as they
reflect, logically, shifts in time and meaning: "My brother had graduated before I started
college." "My brother will have graduated before I start.

10.1.2 Kinds of Verbal

1. Gerund: a verb form, ending in -ing, which acts as a noun.
• Running in the park after dark can be dangerous.
Gerunds are frequently accompanied by other associated words making up a gerund
phrase ("running in the park after dark").
2. Infinitive: the root of a verb plus the word to.
• To sleep, perchance to dream.
A present infinitive describes a present condition: "I like to sleep." The perfect infinitive
describes a time earlier than that of the verb: "I would like to have won that game.
3. Participle: a verb form acting as an adjective.
• The running dog chased the fluttering moth.
A present participle (like running or fluttering) describes a present condition; a past
participle describes something that has happened: "The completely rotted tooth finally
fell out of his mouth." The distinction can be important to the meaning of a sentence;
there is a huge difference between a confusing student and a confused student.

59
 1. Gerunds
Gerunds are sometimes called "verbal nouns".
When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to
understand that they are not the same.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:
• Fishing is fun.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a
present participle:
• Anthony is fishing.
• I have a boring teacher.

Functions of Gerund
In this lesson, we look at the different ways in which we use gerunds, followed by a quiz
to check your understanding.
Many grammarians do not like to use the expression "gerund". That is because there is
sometimes no clear difference between a gerund and a present participle.
1. Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement
2. Gerunds after Prepositions
3. Gerunds after Certain Verbs
4. Gerunds in Passive Sense

1. Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement

Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.
Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence:
• Smoking costs a lot of money.
• I don't like writing.
• My favourite occupation is reading.
But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole expression
[gerund + object] can be the subject, object or complement of the sentence.
• Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.
• I don't like writing letters.
• My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.

60
 Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other
determiners):
• pointless questioning
• a settling of debts
• the making of Titanic
• his drinking of alcohol
But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct object:
• a settling of debts (not a settling debts)
• Making "Titanic" was expensive.
• The making of "Titanic" was expensive.

2. Gerunds after Prepositions

This is a good rule. It has no exceptions!
If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to
use an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say:
• I will call you after arriving at the office.
• Please have a drink before leaving.
• I am looking forward to meeting you.
• Do you object to working late?
• Tara always dreams about going on holiday.
Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with "real" nouns:
• I will call you after my arrival at the office.
• Please have a drink before your departure.
• I am looking forward to our lunch.
• Do you object to this job?
• Tara always dreams about holidays.

3. Gerunds after Certain Verbs

We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the
infinitive form, for example:
• I want to eat.
But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:
• I dislike eating.

61
This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb in
gerund form:

admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure,
enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve,
leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand,
suggest, understand

Look at these examples:

• She is considering having a holiday.
• Do you feel like going out?
• I can't help falling in love with you.
• I can't stand not seeing you.

Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form without a big
change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start
• I like to play tennis.
• I like playing tennis.
• It started to rain.
• It started raining.

4. Gerunds in Passive Sense

We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the
gerund has a passive sense.
• I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)
• This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)
• The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)

2. INFINITIVES
An infinitive is an uninflected form of a verb usually introduced by 'to'. An infinitive can
serve either as a noun, adverb, or adjective. Examples:
As a noun:
• To Love is Divine.

62
 As an adverb:
• Artists love to create art.
As an adjective:
• He has many tales to tell.
Infinitive is the base form of the verb. The infinitive form of a verb is the form which
follows "to".
For example:
(to) go, (to) be, (to) ask, (to) fight, (to) understand, (to) walk .

Infinitives may occur with or without the infinitive marker "to". Infinitives without "to"
are known as "bare infinitives".
For example:
• Help me open the door.
after: the first, the last, the next
• Gagarin was the first to fly in a spaceship.
• Peter was the last to watch the film.
• He is the next to get his passport.
after: adjectives
• I'm happy to be here. It's better not to smoke.
after: certain verbs (agree, choose, forget, hope, learn, promise, regret, want, …)
• I learn to drive a car.
after: question words
• I don't know what to say.
• Can you tell me how to get to the bus stop?
after: want/ would like
• I want you to help me.
verb + object + to-infinitive
• I helped my dad to clean the car.

3. PARTICIPLES
A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as part of a verb phrase.
There are two participles: The present participle and the past participle. They can both
be used as adjectives.

63
A. Present participle
The present participle is formed by adding "-ing" to the base form of a verb. It is used in:
Continuous or Progressive verb forms
• I'm leaving in five minutes.
• The girl is swimming
As an adjective
• A dying man
• Your mother is a charming person
As a gerund
• He is afraid of flying.

B. Past participle
The past participle is formed by adding "-ed" to the base form, unless it is an irregular
verb. It is used:
As an adjective
• A tired group
• Spoken words cannot be revoked.
With the auxiliary verb "have" to form the perfect aspect
• The gas station has closed
• They've just arrived.
With the verb "be" to form the passive
• He was robbed a couple of days ago.
• The letter was written.

64
References

Books:
Allen, W Stannard. 1987. Living English Structure. London: Longman Group Ltd.
Dixson, Robert J. 1986. Everyday English.USA: Regents Publishing Company Inc.
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Websites:
//owl.english.purdue.edu
//english-grammar-revolution.com
//myenglishpages.com
//englishch-hilfen.de
//englishclub.com
//learnenglishfeelgoof.com
//partofspeech.org

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