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GROUPS AND SUBGROUPS

Definition 1: Binary Operation

A binary operation  on a set S is a function  : S  S → S . For each ( a, b )  S  S , we will denote the

element  ( ( a, b ) ) of S by a  b .

Remark 1: To define a binary operation  on a set S we must be sure that:

1. A binary operation  on a set S is to be defined for every ordered pair ( a, b ) of elements of S ,

2. Exactly one element a  b is assigned to each possible ordered pair ( a, b ) of elements of S ,
3. For each ordered pair ( a, b ) of elements of S , the element assigned a  b is again in S .

Example 1: The usual addition '+ ' and multiplication ' ' are binary operations on the set because the
sum and product of two real numbers is again a real number. In this example, we could replace by any of
the sets , , + , or + .

Example 2: Subtraction is not a closed binary operation on + . Although both 5 and 7 are in + but
5 − 7 = −2 is not in + . Also note that subtraction is a binary operation on because the difference
between any two integers is again an integer.

Remark 2: Historically, it was the necessity for subtraction to be a binary operation that led to the
introduction of negative numbers and zero.

Q.1. Let H = n 2 | n  +
 then H is closed under ________.
(A) Addition (B) Multiplication (C) Subtraction (D) All of these

Solution: For option (A) we observe that 12 , 22  H , but 12 + 22 = 1 + 4 = 5  H . Thus H is not closed under
addition. For option (B) we observe that r , s  H implies r = n 2 , s = m 2 and rs = n 2 m2 = ( nm )  H . Thus H
2

is closed under multiplication. Thus (B) is the right option.

Number of Binary Operations on a Set

Consider a binary operation  : S  S → S such that S = n , then S  S = n  n = n 2 . Therefore, the total

number of binary operation on S = Total number of functions from S  S to S = n n .
2

Q.2. Let A = 2 , then the number of binary operations on A are:

(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 8 (D) 16

Solution: The total number of binary operation on S = n n . Therefore with n = 2 , we have 22 = 24 = 16

2 2

binary operations on A . Thus (D) is the right option.

Definition 2: A binary operation  on a set S is commutative if a  b = b  a for all a, b  S . The operation

is associative if ( a  b )  c = a  ( b  c ) for all a, b, c  S .

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Definition 3: A binary operation  on a set S is associative if ( a  b )  c = a  ( b  c ) for all a, b, c  S .

Remark 3: The associative law just says that when adding three numbers, we can add either the first two or
the second two together first; either way, we get the same answer.

Example 3: Consider the operation of subtraction on . We can see that it is not commutative since, say,
3 − 1 is not equal to 1 − 3 . Also, subtraction is not associative since, for instance, ( 7 − 3) − 1 is not equal to
7 − ( 3 − 1) .

Example 4: Consider the binary operation addition on , and . The addition is commutative and
associative.

Example 5: If is our set, and we define an operation  by a  b = 5ab , then  is associative, since
( a  b )  c = ( 5ab )  c = 25abc and a  ( b  c ) = a  5bc = 25abc . Also, a  b = 5ab = 5ba = b  a , so  is
commutative.

Example 6: Let S be the set of all 2  2 matrices with entries in and let  be matrix multiplication.
Then  is associative since ( AB ) C = A ( BC ) but not commutative since AB  BA .

Definition 4: Group

A group ( G , ) is a set G together with a binary operation  such that:

1. (G1) G is closed under the operation  .

2. (G2) The operation  is associative in G .
3. (G3) There is an element e (called the Identity element) such that a  e = e  a = a for all a  G .
4. (G4) For each a  G , there is an element a ' (called the Inverse of a ) such that a  a ' = a ' a = e .

Remarks 4: The use of e originates from “einheit”, the German term.

Example 7: ( , + ) is a group. It is straightforward to check the operation + is closed and associative on Z .

Since 0 + a = a + 0 = a , 0 is an identity for ( , + ) . Also, a + ( −a ) = ( −a ) + a = 0 , so −a is the inverse a .
Therefore ( , + ) is a group.
Example 8: ( +
, ) , where ' ' denotes ordinary multiplication, is not a group because the inverse of 2 is 1/ 2

and 1 / 2  +
. Thus ( +
, ) is not a group.
Example 9: ( 2 , + ) is a group, where 2Z = 0, 2, 4, 6,  , here 0 is the identity element and inverse of
each element exists. Whereas ( 2 ,) is not a group because inverse of each element does not exist.

Example 10: Let n = 0,1, 2, , n − 1 be the set of first n − 1 positive integers together with 0 is a group
under binary operation addition modulo n which is defined as

a + b if a + b  n
a +n b =  .
a + b − n if a + b  n
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Q.3. Which of the following is a solution of x + 8 x + 8 x = 1 in 8 ?

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5

Solution: Since 3 +8 3 +8 3 = 6 +8 3 = 9 = 1 . Thus (B) 3 is the right option.

Example 11: Let U =  z  | z = 1 is a group under complex multiplication. This group is called the circle
group because it consists of the points on the unit circle. The elements of this group will be of the form:

U = e i |    = cos + i sin  where   .

Example 12: Let U n =  z  | z n = 1 is a group under complex multiplication. The group is called the nth
roots of unity. The elements of this group will be of the form:

2 k 2 k
U n = e2 k i / n | k = 0,1, 2, , n − 1 = cos + i sin for k = 0,1, 2, , n −1 .
n n
Example 13: Let M n ( ) be the set of n  n matrices with entries in . Then M n ( ) is not a group with
matrix multiplication. If we let M n ( ) be the subset of nonzero matrices in Mn ( ) , it is still not a group
under the matrix multiplication. A square matrix has a multiplicative inverse if and only if its determinant is
nonzero. There are plenty of nonzero matrices whose determinant is zero.

Example 14: Suppose that m and n are positive integers. Let M mn ( ) be the set of m  n matrices with
entries in . For A =  aij  and B = bij  in ( M mn ( ) , + ) , define A + B = aij + bij  . Then ( M mn ( ) , + ) is
a group.

Example 15: Let GLn ( ) =  A  M nn ( ) | detA  0  be the set of non-singular n  n matrices with real
entries in , then GLn ( ) is a group under usual matrix multiplication, called the general linear group
over . The special linear group SLn ( ) is defined as SLn ( ) =  A  M nn ( ) | det A = 1 . Note that
GLn ( ) and SLn ( ) are closed under the matrix multiplication since det ( AB ) = ( det A )( det B ) .

Example 16: Let C  0,1 be the set of all real-valued functions continuous on  0,1 =  x 0  x  1 . If f and
g are in C  0,1 , then we define f + g by ( f + g )( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x ) , then ( C  0,1 , + ) is a group.

Q.4. In the group ( , ) where a b = a + b + 1 for all a, b  , what is the identity element in ( , )?
(PPSC 2011)
(A) −3 (B) −2 (C) −1 (D) 0

Solution: Let e be the identity element of ( , ) , then e a = a implies e + a + 1 = a which gives e = −1 .

Thus (C) −1 is the right option.

Q.5. In the group ( , ) where a b = a + b + 1 for all a, b  , the inverse of −3 is: (PPSC 2015)
(A) −3 (B) 0 (C) 3 (D) 1
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Solution: First we find the identity element of ( , ) . Let e be the identity element in ( , ) , then e a=a
implies e + a + 1 = a which gives e = −1 . If a is the inverse of −3 , then −3 a = −1 implies −3 + a + 1 = −1
which gives a = 1 . Thus (D) 1 is the right option.

( , ) where a  b = ( , ) ?
+ ab +
Q.6. In the group for all a, b  + , what is the identity element in
2
(A) 2 (B) −2 (C) −1 (D) 1

( , ) , then e  a = a implies
ea
Solution: Let e be the identity element of +
= a which gives e = 2 . Thus
2
(B) 2 is the right option.

Q.7. The set C n of all nth roots of unity for a fixed positive integer n is a group under: (PPSC 2011)
(A) Addition (B) Addition modulo n
(C) Multiplication (D) Multiplication modulo n
th
Solution: The set C n of all n roots of unity for a fixed positive integer n is a group under multiplication.
For example, C3 = 1,  ,  2  is a group of cube roots of unity under multiplication. Thus (C) Multiplication
is the right option.

Remark 5: In future, we will write G in place of ( G , ) and whenever we say that G is a group it will be
understood that there exists a binary operation on G and it satisfies all the axioms in the definition of a
group. In fact, we will simply write ab in place of a  b .

ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF GROUPS

Theorem 1: Cancellation Law

Let G be a group and a, b, x  G such that

(a) ax = bx then a = b (b) xa = xb then a = b .

Theorem 2: Unique Solution of Equation

Let G be a group and a, b  G then

(a) the equation ax = b has a unique solution x = a −1b ,

(b) the equation xa = b has a unique solution x = ba −1 .

Theorem 3: A group G has a unique identity.

Theorem 4: Every element of a group G has a unique inverse.

Theorem 5: If G is group, then ( a −1 ) = a for all a  G .

−1

Theorem 6: If G is a group then ( ab ) = b −1a −1 for all a, b  G .

−1

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Definition 5: A group G is said to be finite if it has a finite number of elements. The number of elements in
G is called the order of G and is denoted by G or O (G) · A group with infinitely many elements is said to
have infinite order and we write G =  .

GROUPS OF SMALLER ORDER

Example 17: Group of Order 1

Let G = e be a set with a single element. Then G is a group with the operation
e  e = e . Clearly, this is the only possible operation in G .

As a concrete example of this group we have 1 as a multiplicative group.

Example 18: Group of Order 2

Let G = e, a be a set with two elements. Let us define the binary operation as
a 2 = a , then using cancellation law, we have a = e which is not possible. Thus
a 2 = e . There is basically only one way to construct a group of order 2 .

As a concrete example of this group we have 1, −1 as a multiplicative group.

Example 19: Group of Order 3

Let G = e, a, b be a set with three elements. We can define the binary operation as ab = a or ab = b , then
using cancellation law, we have b = e or a = e which is not possible. Thus ab = e and hence b = a −1 and so
also ba = e . But each row and column must contain distinct elements; therefore we fill up the table.

As a concrete example of this group, the set of matrices

 1 0 0   0 1 0   0 0 1  
     
 0 1 0  ,  0 0 1  ,  1 0 0  
 0 0 1   1 0 0   0 1 0  
     

forms a group with the same table if we put

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
     
e = 0 1 0, a = 0 0 1,b = 1 0 0 .
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
     

Example 20: Group of Order 4

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Let G = e, a, b, c be a set with four elements. We can consider two cases:

Case 1: Suppose there exists an element a in G which is not its own inverse, that is, a −1  a . Let a −1 = b
so ab = ba = e . Now if ac = a or ac = c then by using cancellation law, we get c = e or a = e which is
impossible. Hence we must have ac = b and so also ca = b . We now obtain the incomplete table:

Now the elements in the second row must necessarily be distinct and so we have a 2 = c . Also ac = b implies
bac = b 2 and so, as ba = e , we obtain c = b 2 . Thus we may fill up the remaining
table as:

As a concrete example of this group we have 1, i, −1, −i as a multiplicative

group.

Case 2: Suppose now that every element is its own inverse, then
a 2 = b 2 = c 2 = e . Therefore ab  e, a, b and so ab = c , also ba  e, a, b and so ba = c . Similarly we deduce
that ac = ca = b and bc = cb = a . The table can be fill up as:

This abstract group is known as the Klein four-group in the honour of

mathematician F. Klein (1849 - 1925).

As a concrete example of this group, the set of matrices, namely

 1 0   −1 0   0 1   0 −1 
 , , ,  .
 0 1   0 −1  1 0   −1 0  

Definition 6: Idempotent Element

An element a in a group G is called an idempotent if a 2 = a .

Theorem 7: If G is a finite group and a  G , show that there exists a positive integer n such that a n = e .

Q.8. In a group G , the number of elements a belongs to G such that a 2 = a is:

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) None of these

Solution: In a group G , the identity is the only element such that e 2 = e . Thus the option (B) is correct.

Q.9. If G is a finite group and a  G , show that there exists a positive integer n such that _______.
(A) a n = a (B) a n = e (C) a n −1 = e (D) a n −1 = a
Solution: Theorem: If G is a finite group and a  G , show that there exists a positive integer n such that
a n = e . Thus (B) a n = e is the right option.

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ABELIAN GROUPS AND NON-ABELIAN GROUPS

Definition 6: A group G is said to be commutative or abelain if it satisfies ab = ba for all a, b  G .

Otherwise G is said to be non-commutative or non-abelian.

Remark 6: A commutative group is names as abelian group after Niels Henrik Abel, a brilliant Norwegian
mathematician who died of poverty and tuberculosis at age 27.

Example 21: The groups ( , + ) and ( n , + ) are abelian groups while ( GLn ( ) , ) is not an abelian group for
n2.

Example 22: Let S be a set and let G be the set of subsets of S . If A and B are subsets of S , then define
A  B = ( A  B ) − ( A  B ) , that is, the subset of all elements in A or in B , but not in both, then ( G , ) is an
abelian group.

ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF ABELIAN GROUPS

Theorem 8: A group G is abelian if and only if ( ab ) = a −1b −1 for all a, b  G .

−1

Theorem 9: If G is an abelian group and let a, b  G , then ( ab ) = a nb n for all positive integers n .
n

Theorem 10: Let G be a group Let G be a group such that a 2 = e for all a  G , then G is abelian.

Q.10. Let G be a group such that a 2 = e for all a  G , then G is a/an_______ group.
(A) Cyclic (B) Abelian (C) Non-abelian (D) Not a group
Solution: Using the theorem “If G be a group such that a = e for all a  G , then G is abelian group”.
2

Thus (B) abelian is the right option.

SUBGROUPS

We have explored some immediate consequences of the definition of the group G. We now wish to look
more closely at the structure of G and we begin by examining various sub-structures.

Definition 1: Let H be a non-empty subset of a group G which is also a group under the binary operation
of G , then H is called a subgroup of G .

Remark 1: Two obvious subgroups of G are G itself and e .

Definition 2: The subgroup H of the group G is said to be a proper subgroup if H  e and H  G .

Example 1: ( 2 , + ) is a subgroup of ( , + ) . Both ( 2 , + ) and ( , + ) are subgroups of ( , +) .

Example 2: Note that +

is a subset of , but ( +
, ) is not a subgroup of ( , + ) since the operations are
different.

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Theorem 1: Subgroup Criterion-I

A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup if and only if for all a, b  H , ab  H and a −1  H .

Theorem 2: Subgroup Criterion-II

A nonempty subset H of the group G is a subgroup of G if and only if for all a, b  H , ab −1  H .

Theorem 3: Finite Subgroup Test

If H is a finite nonempty subset of a group G . Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if H is closed

under the binary operation of G .

Example 3: Determine all subgroups of the Klein 4 − group V = e, a, b, c , where a 2 = b 2 = c 2 = e and the
product of two of a, b, and c is the third.

Solution: Each of H a = e, a , H b = e, b and H c = e, c is a subgroup by Theorem (Finite Subgroup
Test) because a 2 = b 2 = c 2 = e . Any of these subsets e, a, b , e, b, c or e, a, c is not a subgroup because
these are not closed. For example, e, a, c is not a subgroup because ac = b  e, a, c . Thus, the complete
list of subgroups is e , H a , H b , H c and V .

Example 4: Determine all subgroups of C4 = e, a, a 2 , a 3  , a 4 = 1 .

Solution: Let H = e, a 2  then H is a subgroup by Theorem (Finite Subgroup Test) because ( a 2 ) = a 4 = e .
2

Suppose that K is a subgroup different from e and H , then either a  K or a 3  K . If a  K , then
(because K is closed) each power a, a 2 and a 3 is in K and so K = C4 . Similarly, if a 3  K then because

(K is closed) each power a 3 , ( a 3 ) = a 2 and ( a3 ) = a are in K and again K = C4 . Thus the complete list of
2 3

subgroups is e , H = e, a 2  and C 4

Q.11. Which of the following is not a subgroup of Klein 4-group V ?

(A) e, a (B) e, b (C) e, c (D) e, a, b

Solution: Since e, a, b is not closed under binary operation as ab = c  e, a, b , therefore it is not a
subgroup of V . Thus (D) is the right option.

Definition 3: For any group G , the set of all elements that commute with every element of G is called the
centre of G and is denoted by Z ( G ) :

Z ( G ) = a  G | ax = xa for every x  G .

The elements in e  Z ( G ) are said to be central in G .

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Remark 2: Notice that e  Z ( G ) which means Z ( G ) is non-empty and Z ( G ) = G if and only if G is

abelian. If G is non-abelian, then Z ( G )  G .

Remark 3: The notation Z ( G ) comes from “zentrum,” the German word for centre.

Theorem 4: If G be a group then Z ( G ) is an abelian subgroup of G .

a b 
Example 5: If G =    | a, b, c  , a  0, c  0 , find Z ( G ) .
0 c  

x y  x y  a b a b  x y   ax bx + cz   ax ay + bz 
Solution: Let    Z ( G ) , then  0 z   0 c  =  0 c   0 z  implies  0 =
cz   0 cz 
0 z        
which gives bx + cz = ay + bz for all a, b, c .If we take a = c = 0 and b = 1 , we get x = z . Now take a = 1 and
b = c = 0 , we get y = 0 . Hence

 x 0 
Z ( G ) =   | 0  x .
0 x  

Definition 4: For a fixed element a of a group G , the set of all elements in G that commute with a is
called the centralizer of a in G and is denoted by CG ( a ) :

CG ( a ) =  x  G | ax = xa .

Theorem 5: Let a be an element of a group G then CG ( a ) is a subgroup of G .

We now turn to two important ways of manufacturing new subgroups from old ones.

Theorem 6: Let H and K be subgroups of a group G , then H  K is a subgroup of G and it is the largest
subgroup of both H and K in the sense that it contains every subgroup contained in both H and K , that
is, if X is a subgroup of both H and K then X  H  K .

Remark 4: The intersection of any collection of subgroups is again a subgroup. However, we do not have
what might be thought to be the analogous result for the union of two subgroups; we may note the following
result in passing.

Theorem 7: Let H and K be subgroups of the group G , then H  K is a subgroup of G if either H  K

or K  H .

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CYCLIC GROUPS

In this section, we classify groups consisting of all powers of a particular element and determine all
subgroups of such groups. These groups are building blocks for all sufficiently "small" abelian groups
(including all finite ones). We begin by showing that the set of all powers of an element of a group G is an
important subgroup of G.

Theorem 1: Let G be a group, let a be an element of G , and let H be the set of all elements of the form
a n , where n is an integer. That is, H =  x  G | x = a n for n   , then H is a subgroup of G .

Remark 1: If a is an element of a group G , the subgroup H =  x  G | x = a n for n   is called the cyclic

subgroup of G generated by a . Motivated by this, we define the cyclic group in the following definition.

Definition 1: The group G is said to be cyclic if every element of G is a power of some given element of
G . This given element is said to generate, or to be a generator of, the group G . If G is a cyclic group
generated by a we write G = a = a n | n  .
Remark 2: If a group G is an additive group, the above definition may be stated as:

The group G is said to be cyclic if every element of G is a multiple of some given element of G . This
given element is said to generate, or to be a generator of, the group G . If G is a cyclic group generated by
a we write G = a = na | n   = a .

Example 1: If G is any group, e = e is a cyclic subgroup of G.

Example 2: Show that the group G = 1, −1, i, −i is cyclic.

Solution: Since i 2 = −1 , i 3 = −i and i 4 = 1 . This shows that G = i . Similarly, G = −i , so both i and − i
are generators. Note that −1 is not a generator, because all positive and negative powers of −1 are either 1
or −1 . Hence −1 = 1, −1  G .

Example 3: Show that ( , + ) is cyclic and that 1 and −1 are the only generators.
Solution: Let k  then k = k 1 1 , so = 1 . Similarly, k = ( − k )  ( −1)  −1 , so = −1 . Clearly
n  , if n  1 and n  −1 . Therefore, we have proved that ( , + ) is cyclic and that 1 and −1 are the only
generators.

Example 4: Show that ( n , + ) is a cyclic group.

Solution: Let k  n then k = k 1 1 , so n = 1 . Similarly, k = ( − k )  ( −1)  −1 , so = −1 . Clearly
n  , if n  1 and n  −1 . Therefore, we have proved that ( , + ) is cyclic and that 1 and −1 are the only
generators.

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ORDER OF AN ELEMENT

Definition 2: Let a  G , then a is said to have finite order if a n = e for some positive integer n . If a does
not have finite order then a is said to have infinite order.

Example 5: Find the order of each element in 

8 = 1,3,5, 7 . Is 
8 cyclic?

Solution: We have O (1) = 1 . Since 32 = 9 = 1 in 

8 , it follows O ( 3) = 2 . Similarly, 52 = 25 = 1 and
7 2 = 49 = 1 in 
8 , therefore O ( 5 ) = 2 and O ( 7 ) = 2 . Hence no element of 
8 has order 4 , so 
8 is not
cyclic.

PROPERTIES OF CYCLIC GROUPS

Theorem 2: Every cyclic group is abelian, but the converse does not hold.

Theorem 3: Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Theorem 4: If G is a finite group, every element a  G has finite order.

Remark 3: Note that if all elements of a group have finite order it does not necessarily follow that the group
is finite.

HOW TO FIND ORDER OF THE ELEMENT

The following theorem will help us to find the order of the element of a finite cyclic group.

Theorem 5 Let G be a group and let a  G if O ( a ) = n , then a k = e if and only if n | k .

Example 6: Find the order of (a) 2 and (b) 7 in ( 

18 , ) .


Solution: (a) We compute in 19 : 23 = 8 , so 26 = 64 = 7 and 29 = 56 = −1 . Hence
218 = 29  29 = ( −1)  ( −1) = 1 , so O ( 2 ) divides 18 by Theorem. Thus, O ( 2 ) is either 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 or 18. We
have already checked 3, 6 and 9, we compute now: 21 = 2 and 2 2 = 4 , the only possibility remaining is
O ( 2 ) = 18 .

(b) We compute in 
19 : 73 = 343 = 1 , so 7 4 = 196 = 6 and 78 = 56 = 17 . Hence 218 = 29  29 = ( −1)  ( −1) = 1 ,
so O ( 7 ) divides 3 by Theorem. Thus, O ( 2 ) is either 1 or 3. Since 71 = 7 , the only possibility remaining is
O (7) = 3.

HOW TO FIND NUMBER OF GENERATORS OF A FINITE CYCLIC GROUP

The following theorem helps us to find all the generators of a finite cyclic group.

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Theorem 6: Let G = a be a cyclic group, where O ( a ) = n . Then G = a k if and only if gcd ( k , n ) = 1 .

Example 7: Find the number of generators of the cyclic group ( 12 , +) .

Solution: Note that 12 = k for all k such that gcd ( k ,12 ) = 1 .Since 1, 5, 7, and 11 are relatively prime to
12, so there are 4 generators of the cyclic group ( 12 , +) .

Example 8: Find the number of generators of the cyclic group ( 60 , +) .

Solution: Note that 60 = k for all k such that gcd ( k , 60 ) = 1 .Since 1, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37,
41, 43, 47, 49, 53 and 59 are relatively prime to 60, so there are 16 generators of the cyclic group ( 60 , +) .

HOW TO FIND SUBGROUPS OF A FINITE CYCLIC GROUP

The following theorem gives a complete description of all subgroups of a finite cyclic group G. In
particular, it shows that G has a unique subgroup of order k for every divisor k of n, and that these are the
only subgroups of G.

Theorem 7: Fundamental Theorem of Finite Cyclic Groups

Let G = a be a cyclic group of order n ,

(a) If H is a subgroup of G , then H = a d for some d | n . Hence H divides n .

(b) Conversely, if k | n , then a n / k is the unique subgroup of G of order k .

Example 9: Find all the subgroups of ( 18 , +) .

Solution: The order of the group is 18 and the divisors of 18 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 18. Using Theorem, these
divisors give a unique subgroup of:

order 18, 1 = 18 , order 2, 9 = 0,9 , order 3, 6 = 0, 6,12 , order 6, 3 = 0,3, 6,9,12,15 ,
order 9, 2 = 0, 2, 4, 6,8,10,12,14,16 and the trivial subgroup of order 1, 0 = 0 .

HOW TO FIND NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN A CYCLIC SUBGROUP

The following theorem helps us to find the number of elements in the cyclic subgroup generated by an
element.

Theorem 8: Let G = a be a cyclic group of order n . Let b  G and let b = a k . Then b generates a cyclic
n
subgroup H of G containing elements.
gcd ( k , n )

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Example 10: Find the number of elements in the cyclic subgroup of ( 42 , + ) generated by 30.

42
Solution: Since gcd ( 30, 42 ) = 6 , so there are = 7 elements in the cyclic subgroup 30 .
6

Direct Product and Finitely Generated Abelian Groups

One purpose of this section is to show a way to use known groups as building blocks to form more groups.
Employing this procedure with the cyclic groups gives us a large class of abelian groups.

Definition 1: Let ( G , ) and ( H , ) be groups. Define an operation # on G  H by

( g , h ) # ( g ', h ') = ( g  g ', h h ') .

Then G  H is a group. This group is called the direct product of G and H .

Theorem 1: If G and H are groups and G  H is their direct product, then
1. If G and H are abelian, then so is G  H .
2. If G and H are finite, then so is G  H and G  H = G H .
Example 1: The most famous and most used example of direct products is just ( , + )  ( , + ) or 2
the
real plane. The elements are just the pairs ( a, b ) ) with a and b in . Since addition is used as the
operation in each component, we use addition for the direct product. Thus, ( a, b ) + ( c, d ) = ( a + c, b + d ) .

Theorem 2: Let G be a group of order p 2 where p is prime, then G is abelian with p + 1 subgroups of
order p .

Q.12. The number of element in the group V4  3 are:

(A) 4 (B) 8 (C) 12 (D) 16
Solution: Since V4  3 = V4 3 = 4  3 = 12 . Thus (C) 12 is the right option.

Q.13. The number of element in the group  are:

(A) 4 (B) 8 (C) 12 (D) Infinite
Solution: Since the group is of infinite order so  =  . Thus (D) infinite is the right option.
Q.14. The number of subgroups in Klein 4-group are:
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) None of these
Solution: Since V4 = 4 = 2 , therefore it has 2 + 1 = 3 subgroups of order 2 . Thus (B) 3 is the right option.
2

, Gn be groups. For ( a1 , a2 , , an ) and ( b1 , b2 , , bn ) in 

n
Theorem 3: Let G1 , G2 , i =1
Gi , define

( a1 , a2 , , an )( b1 , b2 , , bn ) = ( a1b1 , a 2 b2 , , a n bn ) .


n
Then i =1
Gi is a group under this binary operation. This group is called direct product of the groups Gi .

Theorem 4: The group m  n is cyclic and isomorphic to mn if and only if gcd ( m, n ) = 1 .

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Example 2: Consider the group 2  3 of order 2  3 = 6 . Since gcd ( 2,3) = 1 , therefore 2  3 is cyclic
and 2  3  6 .

Example 3: Consider the group 3  3 of order 3  3 = 9 . Since gcd ( 3,3) = 3 , therefore 3  3 is not
cyclic.


n
Corollary 1: The group i=1 mi is cyclic and isomorphic to m1m2 mn if and only if the numbers mi for
i = 1, 2, , n are such that the gcd of any two of them is 1 .

Example 4: The group 2  3  5 is isomorphic to 30 because gcd ( 2,3,5 ) = 1 .

Theorem 5: Let ( a1 , a2 , , an )   i =1 Gi . If ai is of finite order ri in Gi , then the order of ( a1 , a2 , , an ) in

n


n
i =1
Gi is equal to the least common multiple of all the ri .

Example 5: Find the order of ( 8, 4,10 ) in the group 12  60  24 .

n
Solution: We will use the formula a r = to the find the order of each element in ( 8, 4,10 ) . So
gcd ( n, r )

12 12 60 60 24 24
8= = = 3, 4 = = = 15 , 10 = = = 12 .
gcd (12,8) 4 gcd ( 60, 4 ) 4 gcd ( 24,10 ) 2

Thus the order of ( 8, 4,10 ) in 12  60  24 will be equal to lcm ( 3,15,12 ) = 3  4  5 = 60 .

Example 6: Find the largest order among the orders of all the cyclic subgroups of 6  8 .

Solution: The largest order of the cyclic subgroup in 6  8 will be equal to lcm ( 6,8 ) = 24 .

Q.15. The cyclic subgroup of 24 generated by 18 has order ________.

(A) 2 (C) 8
(B) 4 (D) 12
24 24
Solution: The order of 18 is calculated as 18 = = = 4 . Thus (B) 4 is the right option.
gcd ( 24,18 ) 6
Q.16. The Klein 4 − group is isomorphic to ________.
(A) 2  2 (B)  3 (C) 4 (D) None of these
Solution: The Klein 4 − group is a non-cyclic group of order 4 . Among the choices given 2  2 is non-
cyclic group because gcd ( 2, 2 ) = 2 and hence non-cyclic. Thus (A) 2  2 is the right option.
Q.17. The element ( 4, 2 ) of 12  8 has order ________.
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 8 (D) 12
12 12 8 8
Solution: Since 4 = = = 3 and 2 = = = 4 , therefore the order ( 4, 2 ) in 
gcd (12, 4 ) 4 gcd ( 8, 2 ) 2
12 8

will be equal to lcm ( 3, 4 ) = 12 . Thus (D) 12 is the right option.

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Theorem 6: The Structure of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups

Every finitely generated abelian group G is isomorphic to a direct product of cyclic groups in the form
S   p Sn
p 1 p 2
S
( 1) ( 2) ( n)

where pi are primes, not necessarily distinct, and the si positive integers. The direct product is unique except
for possible rearrangement of the factors.

Example 7: Find all abelian groups, up to isomorphism, of order 360 .

Solution: Since 360 = 23  32  5 , we get the following possibilities:

2  2  2  3  3  5 , 2  2  2  9  5 , 2  4  3  3  5

2  4  9  5 , 8  3  3  5 , 8  9  5

Thus there are six different abelian groups (up to isomorphism) of order 360 .

Definition 2: A group G is decomposable if it is isomorphic to a direct product of two proper non-trivial

subgroups. Otherwise G is indecomposable.

Theorem 9: The finite indecomposable abelian groups are exactly the cyclic groups with order a power of a
prime.

Theorem 10: If m divides the order of finite abelian group G , then G has a subgroup of order m .

Theorem 11: If m is a square free integer, that is, m is not divisible by the square of any integer  2 then
every abelian group of order m is cyclic.

Online Preparation Classes for PPSC Lecturer Mathematics

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Prof. Sardar Aqib Mahmood (+923222694000) sardaraqibsam@gmail.com