GROUPS

GROUP

A group (G, ∗) consists of a set

G and a binary operation ∗ on G,
satisfying the following 3 axioms:
AXIOM # 1

* is associative. This means that

(∀ x, y, z ∈ G) x ∗ (y ∗ z) = (x ∗ y)
∗z .
AXIOM #2

G contains an element e (or ) which

is an identity for the binary operation
  

∗.
(∀x ∈ G) x ∗ e = x = e ∗ x.
AXIOM # 3

Each element x ∈ G has an inverse

in G.
  

x ∗ = = ∗ x.
DEFINITION :

A group (G, ∗) is said to be abelian if the

binary operation ∗ on G is commutative.
This means that
(∀ x, y ∈ G) x ∗ y = y ∗ x.
EXAMPLES OF GROUPS

1.(Z, +) is a group.
Certainly, the sum of two integers is an integer, so +
is a binary operation on Z (ie. Z is closed with
respect to +). We also know that addition of numbers
satisfies the associative rule. The integer 0 plays the
role of the identity element:
n + 0 = n = 0+ n ∀ n ∈ Z.
Finally, if n is an integer, then the integer −n plays
the role of its inverse: n + (−n) = 0 = (−n) + n.
Hence (Z, 0) satisfies all the axioms, so it is a group.
This group is abelian, since addition of numbers is
commutative.
2. (Q, +), (R, +), (C, +) are
groups.
These groups are also abelian.
3. (N, +) is not a group. It does not
satisfy the inverse axiom; for
example, 5 ∈ N has no inverse in
N with respect to +.
4. The one-element set {e} is a group
with respect to the unique binary
operation (e, e) → e on it.
This is called the trivial group.
trivial group is the group whose underlying set is the singleton, hence whose
only element is the neutral element.
5. The cyclic group of order n is a
group denoted ( +).
  

As a set, = {0, 1,...,n − 1}.

TAKE NOTE!
The binary operation + is not the
usual addition of numbers, but is
addition modulo n.
To compute a + b in this group, add
the integers a and b, divide the result
by n, and take the remainder.
The axioms for this group are easy to check.
The operation + is associative, because
addition of numbers is associative. The
element 0 acts as an identity.
0 is also the inverse of 0, and for a ≠ 0 the
inverse of a is just n − a.
The group (, +) is finite,
so we can write down its
Cayley
  table.
 Here is what it looks
like when n = 5:
the group (, +) is abelian, since addition of
 
numbers is commutative.
6. The unit circle := {z ∈ C : |z| = 1} in the
complex plane is a group with respect to
multiplication
  of complex numbers.
The identity is the complex number 1, and the
inverse of z ∈ is its complex conjugate.
7. The general linear group (R) is the set of all
invertible n × n matrices with real entries.
   It forms a group with respect to the binary

operation of matrix multiplication. The product AB
of two invertible matrices is invertible, with inverse
=.
CAYLEY TABLES OF
GROUPS
If ∗ is a binary operation on a
finite set S, then properties of ∗
often correspond to properties of
the Cayley table.
 EXAMPLE
∗ is commutative if x ∗ y = y ∗ x for all x, y ∈
S.
This means that the (x, y)- entry in the Cayley
table is equal to the (y, x)-entry. In other words,
the Cayley table is symmetric (assuming that the
rows and columns are labelled in the same order).
Conversely, if ∗ is not commutative,
then the Cayley table will not be
symmetric. So the Cayley table of an
abelian group is symmetric, while that
of a non abelian group is not
symmetric
For example, it is the
Cayley tables of the non
abelian group , also known
as the symmetry group of
  
the equilateral triangle. Here
e denotes the identity map,
σ, τ are rotations, and α, β, γ
are reflections.
 HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS
Here are the Cayley tables of two
groups. In the group on the left, the
elements are the two numbers +1
and −1, and the binary operation is
multiplication. In the group on the
right, the elements are the two
residues 0, 1 modulo 2, and the
binary operation is addition modulo
2.
DEFINITION :

Let (G, ∗) and (H, †) be groups. A

homomorphism from (G, ∗) to (H, †) is a map
f : G → H such that

(∀ x, y ∈ G) f(x ∗ y) = f(x)†f(y).
An isomorphism from (G, ∗) to (H, †) is a bijective
homomorphism f : G → H.
 If an isomorphism from (G, ∗) to (H, †) exists, then we
say that the groups (G, ∗) and (H, †) are isomorphic,
which is denoted (G, ∗) ≅ (H, †),
or sometimes just G ≅ H.
EXAMPLES

1. Let V,W be two vector spaces.

Then any linear map φ : V → W is a
homomorphism from (V, +) to (W, +).
2. The set := {x ∈ R; x > 0} of positive real numbers
forms a group with respect to multiplication.
Moreover, the exponential map exp : R → is an
isomorphism from (R, +) to (R+, ·). It is certainly a
  

bijection, with inverse ln : → R. The fact that is a

homomorphism is just the familiar property
exp (x + y) = exp (x)exp (y) of exponentials.
3. If (G, ∗) is any group, then the identity
map G → G is an isomorphism from (G, ∗)
to (G, ∗).
4. The inclusion map Z ,→ R, n →
n,is a homomorphism from (Z, +)
to (R, +).
5. The map f : Z → , f(k) = k mod n,
is a homomorphism from (Z, +) to (,
  

+)
6. The set R\{0} of nonzero real numbers is a
group with respect to multiplication.
The determinant map det : (R) → R\{0} is a
 
homomorphism.
(This is just the familiar property
det(AB) = det (A)det (B) of determinants.
7. The map x → is an
isomorphism from (, +) to
  

({±1}, ·).
8. If m ∈ Z, then the map f : Z →
Z, f(n) = mn, is a homomorphism
from (Z, +) to (Z, +).
9. If x ∈ R {0}, then the map f : R → R, f(y) =
xy,
  is an isomorphism from (R, +) to (R, +).
The inverse isomorphism is the map y → .
 LET 1 ≤ N ≤ 3.
THEN ANY TWO GROUPS
CONTAINING EXACTLY N
ELEMENTS ARE ISOMORPHIC
 ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF GROUPS AND HOMOMORPHISMS

Let (G, ∗) be a group. Then

1. the identity element of (G, ∗) is unique; and
2.
   for each x ∈ G, the inverse x of x in (G, ∗) is unique.
3. (Cancellation laws) If a, b, c ∈ G with a ∗ c = b ∗ c,
then a = c. Similarly, if x, y, z ∈ G with z ∗ x = z ∗ y,
then x = y.
 Let (G, ∗) and (H, †) be groups, and let f : G → H be a homomorphism
from (G, ∗) to (H, †). Then
1. f() = , where , are the identity elements for (G, ∗) and (H, †)
  
respectively.

2. 2. If ∈
̅ G is the inverse of x ∈ G in (G, ∗), then f() is the inverse of
f(x) in (H, †).
 THE RELATION OF ISOMORPHISM BETWEEN GROUPS IS AN
EQUIVALENCE RELATION.

Proof. We need to check the three properties of equivalence relations: reflexivity

(G ≅ G for any group G), symmetry (G ≅ H ⇒ H ≅ G), and transitivity
(G ≅ H ≅ K ⇒ G ≅ K).
R If G is a group, then the identity map i: G → Gis an isomorphism, so G ≅G.
  

S If G ≅ H, then there is an isomorphism α : G → H, so α−1 : H → G is also an

isomorphism, and hence H ∼= G.
T If G ≅ H and H ∼= K, then there exist isomorphism α : G → H and β : H →
K, so β ◦ α : G → K is also an isomorphism, and hence G ≅ K
 EXERCISES

Below is a partially completed Cayley table of a

group. Fill in the missing parts of the table.
SUBGROUPS
 LET G BE A GROUP. A SUBSET H OF G IS A
SUBGROUP OF G IF:
(a) (Closure) H is closed under the group operation: If a, b ∈ H,
then a · b ∈ H. 
(b) (Identity) 1 ∈ H. 
(c) (Inverses) If a ∈ H, then a−1 ∈ H. 

The notation H < G means that H is a subgroup of G.

LET G BE A GROUP. THEN {1} AND G ARE SUBGROUPS OF G.

 {1} is called the trivial subgroup.

Proof.
Consider
  
{1}. The only possible multiplication is 1 · 1 = 1,
which shows {1} is closed.
{1} obviously contains the identity 1.
{1} is closed under taking inverses, since = 1
 EXAMPLE
(The integers as a subgroup of the rational) Show
that the set of integers Z is a subgroup of Q, the
group of rational numbers under addition.
If you add two integers, you get an integer: Z is
closed under addition. The identity element of Q is 0,
and 0 ∈ Z. Finally, if n ∈ Z, its additive inverse in Q
is −n. But −n is also an integer, so Z is closed under
taking inverses. Therefore, Z is a subgroup of Q
EXAMPLE.

(A subgroup under multiplication)

Let e the group of nonzero integers under
  

multiplication. Consider the set ⎮ m ∈ Z }

DEFINITION
If G is a group and g is an element of G, the subgroup
generated by g (or the cyclic subgroup generated by g) is
〈g⟩ = {| k ∈ Z}.
In other words, 〈g⟩ consists of all (positive or negative)
  
powers of g. This definition assumes multiplicative
notation; if the operation is addition, the definition reads
〈g⟩ = {k · g | k ∈ Z}. In this case, you’d say that 〈g⟩
consists of all (positive or negative) multiples of g.
 IF G IS A GROUP AND G ∈ G, THEN 〈G⟩ IS A SUBGROUP OF G.

Proof.
For closure, note that if ∈ 〈g⟩ ,
  
then g m · g n = ∈ 〈g⟩.
1 = ∈ 〈g⟩. Finally, if g n ∈ h 〈g⟩, its inverse is , which
is also in 〈g⟩. Therefore, 〈g⟩ is a subgroup of G.
 EXAMPLE

 (Subgroups of a finite cyclic group) List

the elements of the subgroups generated
  

by elements of
IT SAYS THAT THE SUBGROUP RELATIONSHIP IS TRANSITIVE.

(Subgroup transitivity) If H < K and K <

G, then H < G: A subgroup of a subgroup
is a subgroup of the (big) group
Let G be a group, and let H be a nonempty subset of G.
H < G if and only if a, b ∈ H implies a · ∈ H.
Proof. (⇒) Suppose H < G, and let a, b ∈ H. Then ∈ H
  

(since H is closed under inverses), hence a · ∈ H.

(since H is closed under products).
(⇐) Suppose that a, b ∈ H implies a · ∈ H.

Since
 
H≠ ∅ , take a ∈ H. Then 1 = a · a −1 ∈
H. If a ∈ H, then = ∈ H This shows H is
closed under taking inverses.
suppose a, b ∈ H. Then ∈ H, so ab = a · ∈ H. Therefore, H <
G

  
Note: In order to use this criterion, you have to show that the set
in question is nonempty before doing the “a · ∈ H” check.
Usually you show the set is nonempty by showing that it
contains the identity element
  (A subgroup of a matrix group)
EXAMPLE
 Let GL(2, R) be the set of invertible 2
× 2 matrices with real entries.
Therefore, AB is invertible, so matrix multiplication is
a binary operation on GL(2, R). (The point is that the
set is closed under the operation.) From linear algebra,
I know that matrix multiplication is associative. The 2
×
  
2 identity matrix is invertible, so it’s in GL(2, R). It’s
the identity for GL(2, R) under matrix multiplication.
Finally, if A ∈ GL(2, R), thenexists.
 It’s also an element of GL(2, R), since its inverse is A.
This proves that GL(2, R) is a group under matrix
multiplication.
DEFINITION

Let G be a group. a, b ∈ G commute if ab = ba.

The center Z(G) of G is the set of elements which
commute with everything in G:
Z(G) = {g ∈ G | gh = hg for all h ∈ G}.
 EXAMPLE.
(Subgroups generated by elements)
Let G = , the cyclic group of order 6. Show 〈2⟩ = {0, 2, 4}, but
〈2,3⟩ = .
The first statement is easy: 2 + 2 = 4, 2 + 2 + 2 = 0. What about
  
the second? By definition, 〈2,3⟩is the smallest subgroup which
contains 2 and 3.. Since subgroups are closed under addition, 2 +
2 + 3 = 1 must be in 〈2,3⟩ as well. But I can make any element of
by adding 1 to itself enough times, so〈2,3⟩i must contain
everything in — that is, 〈2,3⟩ = .
CYCLIC GROUPS
EXAMPLE
In other words, if
you add 1 to itself
repeatedly, you
eventually cycle
back to 0.
 NOTICE THAT 3 ALSO GENERATES
The “same” group can be written using
multiplicative notation this way: = {1, a, , , , , }.
In this form, a is a generator of . It turns out that in
  

= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, every nonzero element

generates the group. On the other hand, in = {0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5}, only 1 and 5 generate.
 Let G = 〈g⟩ be a finite cyclic group, where g has order n.
Then the powers
  

{1, g, . . . , } are distinct.

  
Let G = 〈g⟩ be infinite cyclic. If m and n are
integers and m ≠ n, then ≠ .
Theorem. Subgroups of cyclic groups are cyclic
Proof. Let G = 〈g⟩ be a cyclic group, where g
∈ G. Let H < G. If H = {1}, then H is cyclic
with generator 1. So assume H ≠ {1}
 EXAMPLE.

(Subgroups of the integers)

Describe the subgroups of Z.
Every subgroup of Z has the form nZ for n ∈ Z.
For example, here is the subgroup generated by 13:
13Z = 〈13⟩ = {. . . − 26, −13, 0, 13, 26, . . .}
Let G be a group, and let g ∈ G have order m. Then g n
= 1 if and only if m divides n.
EXAMPLE

 (The order of an element) Suppose an element g in a group G

satisfies g 45 = 1. What are the possible values for the order of
g?
 The order of g must be a divisor of 45. Thus, the order could be
1, 3, 5, 9, 15, or 45.
And the order is certainly not (say) 7, since 7 doesn’t divide 45.
 EXAMPLE.

(Finding the order of an element)

Find the order of the element in the cyclic group
G = {1, a, a2 , . . . a37}. (Thus, G is cyclic of order 38
  

with generator a.)

In the notation of the Proposition, n = 38 and m = 32.
Since (38, 32) = 2, it follows that has order = 19.
 EXAMPLE.

(Finding the order of an element)

Find the order of the element 18 ∈ .
In this case, using additive notation instead of
  
multiplicative notation. The group is cyclic with order n =
30, and the element 18 ∈ . corresponds to in the
Proposition — so m = 18. (18, 30) = 6, so the order of 18
is = 5.
EXAMPLE.

(Finding the generators of a cyclic group)

List the generators of:
(a) .
(b) , where p is prime.
  

(a) The generators of are 1, 5, 7, and 11. These are the elements of
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11} which are relatively prime to 12.
(b) If p is prime, the generators of are 1, 2, . . . , p − 1.
EXAMPLE

(a) List the generators of .

(b) List the elements of the subgroup 〈3⟩ of .
  

(c) List the generators of the subgroup 〈3⟩ of .

(a)The generators are the elements relatively prime to 9, namely 1, 2, 4,
5, 7, and 8.
(b)〈3⟩ = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24}.
  
(c) 〈3⟩= is cyclic of order 9, so its generators are the elements
corresponding to the generators 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, and 8 of . Since 27 = 3 ·
9, I can just multiply these generators by 3. Thus, the generators of
h3i are 3, 6, 12, 15, 21, and 24.