AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL.

39(1) 2006

CONTROL OF COCCIDIOSIS AND DIFFERENT COCCIDIA OF CHICKEN

IN SELECTED TECHNOLOGIES USED IN TROPICS AND SUBTROPICS

BADRAN I., LUKEŠOVÁ D.

Abstract

Coccidia are common protozoan parasites. In the past, most broiler producers have controlled coccidiosis by
providing anticoccidial drugs in poultry feed, this approach is becoming less desirable in light of growing
public concern about food safety. Presently, vaccination consist of infecting young poultry with a known dose of
live coccidian parasites. This vaccination will immunize poultry against the disease, The probiotic
(Enterococcus faecium) is a common component of intestinal microbial of normal human and animals. The
objectives of this study are: to compare the effect of additive and nonadditive of probiotic feed supplement
(Enteroccus faecium) in the: diet contains anticoccidia on performance of broiler, diet without anticoccidia or
vaccine (control) on performance of broiler, diet contains coccidia vaccine on performance of broiler.

Key words: broiler, anticoccidial, vaccine, probiotic, bacteria.

INTRODUCTION

Coccidia
Coccidiosis is recognized as the parasitic disease that Eimeria have a direct life cycle (only one host), are
has the greatest economic impact on poultry production. very specific to hosts, to sites of development
Williams (1998) reported that the annual world wide (intestine) and to cell types (epithelial cells of the
cost is estimated at about 800 million $ and that for intestina villi or cells of the crypts). Nine species of
American broiler industry about $ 45 million. The Eimeria have been described in chickens; seven are
estimates include the costs of prophylactic in feed currently recognized as valid:
medication for broilers and broiler breeders, alternative Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria praecox, Eimeria maxima,
treatments (e.g. with amprolium) if the medications fail, Eimeria mitis, Eimeria necatrix, Eimeria tenella,
and losses due to mortality, morbidity, and poor feed Eimeria brunetti.
conversion of birds that survive out breaks.
Lillehoj and Okamura (2003) reported that intestinal These seven species are specific to chickens and cannot
parasitism is a major stress factor that can lead to infect other type of fowl or birds or mammals
malnutrition and lowered performance. They are distinguished by:
Coccidiosis are ubiquitous, they are every where 1. The morphology of their oocyst, the form of
chickens are reared (traditional, industrial, label or resistence and of dissemination of the parasite in
organic/bio farms). Their survival is assured by a highly the external environment.
resistant form of transmission - the oocysts - which may 2. Their intestinal location for endogenous
survive for several months in the environment. Coccidia development.
are obligatory parasite (sporozoa) belonging to the 3. Their pathogenicy: characteristic intestinal lesions
phylum of the Apicomplexa characterized by the and type of diarrhea (e.g. with or without blood).
presence of an apical complex in the free stages of the After an out break of a specific species of coccidian the
cycle (sporozoites and merozoites) which invade the flock will develop a resistance to the exposed coccidia
epithelial cells. The disease is the result of a breakdown species but remain resistant to other infective species.
in the balance between: Although there may be some differences between
1) The parasites: their number, their pathogenicity poultry management systems regarding the degree of
and their ability to promote immunity in the host. risk from coocidia, it is generally accepted that the
2) The host: its susceptibility, including its protection disease may be found in most systems, both indoor and
by anticoccidials, and its ability to regenerate from outdoor. Williams (1995) reported that oocysts
the damage caused by the parasite. Chickens sporulate readily in poultry house litter. However, they
selected for their zootechnical performance are can be damaged by bacteria, other organisms, and
particularly sensitive to coccidia. ammonia that are also present, and their viability can
3) The environment: intensive rearing particularly begin to diminish after 3 weeks.
predisposes conditions for coccidiosis.

39
AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 39(1) 2006

Anticoccidial (coccidiostat) in feed additives Williams and Catchpole (2000) reported that because
The effective use of anticoccidial feed additives over live vaccines are multivalent (controlling more than one
the past 50 years has played a major role in the growth species), tests of their efficacies require a different
of the poultry industry and has allowed the increased approach from tests of the efficacies of anticoccidial
availability of high quality, affordable poultry products compounds.
to the consumer. Williams (1994) reported an advantage of attenuated
These anticoccidial can be classified as: vaccines is that they have low reproductive potentials,
1. Chemicals which has specific modes of action against thus avoiding crowding in the specific mucosal areas of
parasite metabolism, such as amprolium, clopidol infection and resulting in the development of optimal
decoquinate, halofuginone. immunity with minimal tissue damage.
2. Polyether ionophore such as monensin, lasalocid, It is believed that the drug-sensitive, attenuated strains
salinomycin, narasin, and maduramycin), which act and wild, native strains interbred, reducing both
throw general mechanisms of altering ion transport virulence and drug resistance in local population. Thus
and disrupting osmotoic balance. Chapman (1994, the useful period of anticoccidial drugs could be
1998) and Ruff and Danforth (1996) reported that extended by rotating their application with live vaccine
some degrease of resistance to all anticoccidial drugs, (Williams, 1998a).
including ionophores, has developed.
Williams (1998a) reported that to minimize the effects Recombinant vaccine
of resistance, poultry producers rotate the use of various Over the past 10 years, much research effort has been
anticoccidial with successive flocks, combine chemical spent on the development of recombinant vaccines.
and ionophore treatments, or employ shuttle programs Although none are in commercial use, this research has
during a flock growth. served to highlight the complex nature of the avian
Application of these treatment programs depend on host-coccidia interaction. A major hurdle to overcome
seasonal conditions and prevalence of various species in the development of a recombinant vaccine is the lack
of coccidia. In recent years, pharmaceutical companies of cross - species immune protection. Other factors
have not brought new anticoccidial to market. However impeding the development of a successful vaccine have
two potential drug targets, enzymes of the sporozoite been recently reviewed (Jenkins, 1998; Vermeulen,
mannitol cycle (Allocco et al., 1999; Schmatz, 1997) 1998), the most important of which is the identification
and trophozoite host one deacetylase, have been of protective antigens. Many potential coccidial
recently identified (Schmatz, 1997). antigens have been characterized and cloned.
Jenkins (1998) reported that a total of 29 DNA
Vaccination sequences encoding immunity-stimulating Eimeria
Avian coccidia are highly immunogenic, and primary proteins from various species and developmental stages
infections can stimulate solid immunity to homologous have been listed in a recent review.
challenges. Therefore, it would seem obvious that Many of these antigens are surface proteins or internal
vaccines could offer excellent alternatives to drugs as a antigens associated with organelles such as micronemes
means controlling coccidiosis, efforts to develop (Tomley et al. 1996, 1991), rhoptries (Tomely, 1994)
various types of vaccines (Lillehoj and Trout, 1993). and refractile bodies (Vermeulen et al., 1993, 1994).
Recently (Tennyson and Barta, 2000) a low-molecular-
Live vaccine weight immunogenic antigen with a single
Live vaccine for coccidiosis control have been used to a immunodominant epitope was reported to be present in
limited degree by the poultry industry for about 50 all endogenous stages of E. tenella.
years, their effectiveness hinges on the recycling of Metabolic antigens from developing sporozoites
initially very low doses of oocyst, and the gradual (Jenkins et al 1991, 1993), merozoite antigens (Brake et
buildup of solid immunity. They have been used al., 1997 and Vermeulen, 1998), and gamete antigen
primarily to protect breeder and layer flocks (Shirley et (Wallach et al., 1992, 1995) all elicit various degree of
al., 1995). However, their use, particularly in broiler protective immunity.
flocks, is increasing. Live vaccine contains attenuated A delivery mechanism for coccidial vaccines that
or virulent coccidial strains. Paracox (consisting of produces optimum resistance to challenge infection has
precocious strains of all seven species of chicken yet to be determined.
coccidia) and Livacox (consisting of precocious and Immunogenic Eimeria antigens have been administered
egg-passage lines) are attenuated vaccine. as isolated proteins with adjuvants (Brake et al., 1997
All coccidial strains in these vaccines are drug and Vermeulen, 1998), as recombinant antigens in live
sensitive. Coccivac and Immucox are each composed of vectors such as nonpathogenic strains of Escherichia
several virulent species. All four vaccines are coli, Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium,
commercially available. All of these vaccines are poxviruses, fowlpox virus, and turkey herpesvirus
administered during the first week after hatch and will (Tomely et al., 1991) and by direct plasmid DNA
produce solid immunity when they are used carefully injection (Jenkins et al., 1998, Kopko et al., 2000 and
under good rearing condition (Danforth, 1998). Lillehoj et al., 1997) with various degree of success.

40
AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 39(1) 2006

Probiotic 3. Parabiotics-additives protecting the intestinal mucosa

Probiotic are live microorganisms that, when and stimulating the immune system (glutamine).
administered through the digestive route, are favorable Nowadys, active ingredients of many probiotic
to the host's health (Guillot, 1998). preparations are bacterial strains Enterococcus facium
The microorganisms used in animal feed are mainly M-74 or C-68, as a result of continuous
bacterial strains of Gram-positive bacteria belonging to supplementation of these bacteria to chicken broiler
the types Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, Pediococcus and diets significantly (p<0.05) higher body weight (by 4-
Bacillus. Some other probiotics are microscopic fungi 5%) were observed in comparison with control, and
such as strains of yeasts belonging to the also reported up to 2.5 time higher cellulase activity in
Saccharomyces cerevisiae species (Guillot, 1998, caecal contents at p <0.01 was observed in broilers that
Thomke and Elwinger, 1998). were fed diets supplementation with these bacteria. The
Because among the probiotics are microorganisms that advantages of these bacteria are higher resistance
are usual host of the digestive tract (Lactobacillus and against extreme internal and external conditions.
Enterococcus) and others that are not (Bacillus, Lindgren, (1978); reported that the protype strains
Saccharomyces). Guillot (1998) studied the ability of Enterococcus facium M-74 shows several characteristic
some strains of probiotics to colonize the gut of axenic features. It is non-pathogenic, non-haemolytic, and non-
and gnotoxenic chickens and he reported that, a proteolitic and has an excellent propagation potential.
probiotic strain of Enterococcus faecium is able to Its generation time varies between 18 and 20 min.
colonize the axenic and gnotoxenic gut after a single Further virtues include a high adaptability to
administration. environmental conditions (particularly changes of
The population size of the strain in the intestines of temperature PH) and an intensive homofermentative
gnotobiotic animals is similar to the population size of conversion of a number of Sacharide into L-Lactic acid.
the resident Enterococcus. The Enterococcus facium is cultured commercially and
The different mechanisms of action suggested are: is used as a component of a number of probiotic
(i) Nutritional effect products of which Lactiferm is the best known. The
1. Reduction of metabolic reactions that produces exclusive manufactures of this product are the Swedish
toxic substances. company AB Medipharm and its production unit
2. Stimulation of indigenous enzymes. Medipharm CZ Ltd., Starovice near Hustopeče, Czech
3. Production of vitamins or antimicrobial substances. Republic.
(ii) Sanitary effect
1. Increase in colonization resistance. CONCLUSION
2. Stimulation of the immune response.
Guillot et al. (1990) in gnotobiotic breeding conditions, Coccidia are common protozoan parasites. They are
they have carried out a controlled caecal coccidiosis present in all most all chicken and turkey flocks. Heavy
with Eimeria tenella associated with Salmonella infection of coccidia cause serious disease and will kill
carriage and tested the eventual effect linked to the many chickens.
administration to the chickens of a strain of Bacillus. Chickens of all ages can come down with coccidiosis,
They have observed a reduction of the clinical but 4-16 week old chickens are most commonly
symptoms linked to a better growth in the groups affected.
receiving Bacillus spores. The results obtained were In the past, most broiler producers have controlled
reproducible and statistically significant. coccidiosis by providing anticoccidial drugs in poultry
However, this efficiency is not to be compared to the feed, this approach is becoming less desirable in light of
effect of anticoccidial drugs or antibiotics and no growing public concern about food safety. Presently,
differences against Salmonella carriage was observed vaccination consists of infecting young poultry with a
between treated or untreated animals in this experiment. known dose of live coccidian parasites.
This vaccination will immunize poultry against the
Enterococcus facium disease. The probiotic (Enterococcus faecium) is a
Kumprecht and Zobač (2000) reported that the common component of intestinal microbial of normal
additives with probiotic include: bioplexes, human and animals. The advantages of these bacteria
mannanoligosacchrides, bacteria, live yeast. are higher resistance against extreme internal and
According to their specific effects on the intestinal external conditions. It is non-pathogenic, non-
microflora the above additives can be divided into three haemolytic, and non-proteolitic and has an excellent
subgroups (PPP): propagation potential.
1. Probiotic-preparations containing stabilised culture of
exactly defined microorganisms as active ingredients. REFERENCES
2. Probiotics-biological additives facilitating fast
growth of favourable intestinal microflora (protein ALLOCCO, J. J., H. PROFOUS-JUCHELKA, R. W. MYERS,
hydrolysates from fish and yeasts, fructo B. NARE AND SCHMATZ, D. M. (1999): Biosynthesis
oligosaccharides, etc.). and catabolism of mannitol is developmentally

41
AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 39(1) 2006

regulated in the protozoan parasite Eimeria tenella. J. surface sporozoite protein and oral feeding of
Parasitol. 85, 167–173. baculovirus-expressed Eimeria protein elicit serum
BAYER COMP. (2004) : Station de Pathologie Aviaire et antibodies and reduced oocyst output, In: Proc.
de Parasitologie Institute National, de la Recherche VII. Int. Coccidiosis Conf., p. 105.
Agronomiaue 37380 Nouzilly (France), CD LILLEHOJ, H. S., AND TROUT, J. M. (1993): Coccidia:
presentation. a review of recent advances on immunity and
BRAKE, D. A., STRANG, G. AND LINEBERGER, J. E. vaccine development. Avian Pathol. 22, 3–21.
(1997): Immunogenic characterization of a tissue LILLEHOJ, H.S., OKAMURA, M.(2003): Host immunity
culture-derived vaccine that affords partial protection and vaccine development to coccidia and
against avian coccidiosis. Poult. Sci. 76, 974–983. salmonella infections in chickens. Poultry Sci. 40,
CHAPMAN, H. D. (1998): Evaluation of the efficacy of 151-193.
anticoccidial drugs against Eimeria species in the RUFF, M. D., AND H. D. DANFORTH. (1996):
fowl. Int. J. Parasitol. 28, 1141–1144. Resistance of coccidia to medications, In: Proc.
CHAPMAN, H.D.(1994): Sensitivity of field isolates of XXth World’s Poult. Congr., vol. II., 427–430.
Eimeria to monensin following the use of a SCHMATZ, D. M. (1997): Anticoccidial drug
coccidiosis vaccine in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 73, discovery and design, p.20–21, In: SHIRLEY, M.
476–478. W., TOMLEY, F. M. and FREEMAN, B. M. :
DANFORTH, H.D. (1998): Use of live oocyst vaccines in Control of coccidiosis into the next millennium.
the control of avian coccidiosis: experimental studies Proc. VII Int. Coccidiosis Conf.
and field trials. International Journal for Parasitology, SHIRLEY, M.W., BUSHELL, A.C., BUSHELL, J.E.,
28, 1099-1109. MCDONALD, V., ROBERTS, B. (1995): Alive
GUILLOT, J.F. (1998) : Les probiotiques en alimentation attenuated vaccine for the control of avian
animale. Cahiers Agricultures, 7, 49-54. coccidiosis: trials in broiler breeders and
GUILLOT, J.F., JULÉ, S. AND YVORÉ, P. (1990): Effect of replacement layer flocks in the United Kingdom.
a strain of Bacillus used as a probiotic against Veterinary Record, 137, 453-457.
Salmonella carriage and experimental coccidiosis in TENNYSON, S. A., AND BARTA, J. R. (2000):
chickens. Microecol. and Therapy, 20, 19-22. Localization and immunogenicity of a low
JENKINS, M. C. (1998): Progress on developing a molecular weight antigen of Eimeria tenella.
recombinant coccidiosis vaccine. Int. J. Parasitol. 28, Parasitol. Res. 86, 453–460.
1111–1119. THOMKE, S. AND ELWINGER, K. (1998). Growth
JENKINS, M. C., ALLEN, P. DANFORTH, H. AND promotants in feeding pigs and poultry.
AUGUSTINE, P. (1998): Immunization of chickens III.Alternatives to antibiotic growth promotants.
with plasmid DNA encoding recombinant Eimeria Ann. Zootech., 47, 245-271.
acervulina antigen via jet-gun injection elicits TOMLEY, F. M. (1994): Characterization of rhoptry
immunity against coccidiosis, In: Proceedings 43rd proteins of Eimeria tenella sporozoites: antigenic
Annual Meeting AAVP, p 47. diversity of rhoptry epitopes within species of the
JENKINS, M. C., AUGUSTINE, P. C., DANFORTH, H. D. genus Eimeria and among three asexual
AND BARTA, J. R. (1991): X-irradiation of Eimeria generations of a single species, E. tenella. Infect.
tenella oocysts provides direct evidence that Immun. 62, 4656–4658.
sporozoite invasion and early schizont development TOMLEY, F. M., BUMSTEAD, J. M., BILLINGTON, K. J.
induce protective immune response. Infect. Immun. AND DUNN, P. P. J. (1996): Molecular cloning and
59, 4042–4048. characterization of a novel acidic microneme
JENKINS, M. C., SEFARIAN, P. G., AUGUSTINE, P. C. AND protein (Etmic-2) from the apicomplexan
DANFORTH, H. D. (1993): Protective immunity protozoan parasite E. tenella. Mol. Biochem.
against coccidiosis elicited by radiation-attenuated Parasitol. 79, 195–206.
Eimeria maxima sporozoites that are incapable of TOMLEY, F. M., L. E. CLARK, U. KAWAZOE, R.
asexual development. Avian Dis. 37, 74–82. DIJKEMA, AND J. J. KOK (1991). Sequence of gene
KOPKO, S. H., MARTIN, D. S. AND BARTA, J. R. (2000): encoding an immunodominant microneme protein
Responses of chickens to a recombinant refractile of E. tenella. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 49:277–
body antigen of Eimeria tenella administered using 288.
various immunizing strategies. Poult. Sci. 79, 36– VERMEULEN, A. N. (1998): Progress in
342. recombinant vaccine development against
KUMPRECHT, I., ZOBAČ, P. (2000): Probiotic and coccidiosis. A review and prospects into the next
enzyme preparations. Alternatives to antibiotic and millenium. Int J. Parasitol. 28, 1121–1130.
chemical additives to diets for monogastric VERMEULEN, A., DIJKEMA, R. AND KOK, J. J.(1994):
animals.Vet.Med.Czech, 45, 110-115. Coccidiosis vaccine. European patent 0349071B1.
LILLEHOJ, H. S., CHAI., K. D., HELLER, D., JENKINS, VERMEULEN, A. N., KOK, J. J., VAN DEN BOOGART, P.,
M. C. AND VAKHARIA, V. N. (1997): Naked DNA DIJKEMA, R. AND CLAESSENS, J. A. J. (1993): Eimeria
immunization with a plasmid encoding an Eimeria refractile body proteins contain two potentially

42
AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 39(1) 2006

functional characteristice-transhydrogenase and WILLIAMS, R.B. & CATCHPOLE, J. (2000): A new

carbohydrate transport. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., protocol for a challenge test to assess the efficacy
223–230. of live anticoccidial vaccines for chickens.
WALLACH, M., HALABI, A., PILLEMER, G., SAR Vaccine, 18, 1178-1185.
SHALOM, O. MENCHER, D., GILAD, M. BENDHEIM U., WILLIAMS, R.B.(1995): Epidemiological studies of
DANFORTH, H. D. AND AUGUSTINE, P. C. (1992): coccidiosis in the domestic foal (Gallus gallus).
Maternal immunization with gametocyte antigens as Physical condition and survival of Eimeria
a means of providing immunity against Eimeria acervulina oocysts in poultry house liter. Apple.
maxima in chickens. Infect. Immun. 60, 2036– 2039. Parasitol.36, 90-96.
WALLACH, M., N. C. SMITH, M. PETRACCA, C. M. D. WILLIAMS, R.B. (1994): Safety of the attenuated
MILLER, J. ECKERT, AND R. BRAUN. (1995). Eimeria anticoccidial vaccine “Paracox” in broiler
maxima gametocyte antigens: potential use as a chickens isolated from extraneous coccidial
subunit maternal vaccine against coccidiosis in infection. Veterinary Research Communications,
chickens. Vaccine 13, 347–354. 18, 189-198.

Received for publication on March 3 , 2006

Accepted for publication on March 23 , 2006

Corresponding author:

Ing.Iyad Badran
Czech University of Agriculture Prague
Institute of Tropics and Subtropics
165 21 Prague 6 - Suchdol, Czech Republic
E-mail: ebd26@yahoo.com

43
AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 39(1) 2006

44