UNIT 3 SAMPLING : CONCEPT,

SIGNIFICANCE AND TYPES

Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sampling : Concept and Significance
3.3 Elements of Sampling
3.4 Rationale for Sampling
3.5 Qualities of Good Sampling
3.6 Meaning and Significance of Methods of Sampling
3.7 Types of Sampling .
3.8 Determination of Sample Size
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Key Words
3.1 1 Suggested Readings
3.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

.3.0 OBJECTIVES
,On the completion of this Unit, you would be able to:
define the terms, elements, sample and population;
describe the characteristics of a good sample;
define a probability sample and describe the various types of probability
sample;
define a non-probability sample and describe the various types of non-
probability sample; and
decide Sample Size.

For a research study you need to collect data. Let us suppose that as a
researcher, you want to study the association between role model of parents
and undesirable behaviour of children in a home for street children. For this,
you have to select a few representative cases from the home. The process
of selection requires thorough knowledge of various sampling techniques. In
this Unit, you will learn the concepts of sample and population. We shall also
discuss the characteristics of a good sample and the various methods of
sampling.

3.2 SAMPLING: CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE

Sampling is a process, which allows us to study a small group of people
from the large group to derive inferences that are likely to be applicable to
all the people of the large group.

Sometimes it is not feasible to study a whole group. For example, social

work researchers might be interested in studying the problems of the mentally
challenged children, mentally ill, prison inmates, street children or some other Sampling: Concept,
Significance and Types
large group of people. It would be difficult rather impossible to study all
members of these groups. That is the reason the researcher selects a sample
(small group) of mentally challenged children and collects data for his study.

3.3 ELEMENTS OF SAMPLING

A single unit of study is referred to as an element of population. When we
select a group of elements for the purpose of study of a particular phenomenon,
we refer to that group of elements as a sample. The aggregate of all the
elements that conform to some defined set of definitions is called population.
Thus, by the term college students of a city we define a population consisting
of all the students studying in various colleges of the city. We may similarly
define populations consisting of all the mentally challenged children in the city,
all the women workers in a particular slum in a city, all the child workers
in a given community under sixteen years of age who work in hotels, or all
the case records in a file.

3.4 RATIONALE FOR SAMPLING

Why we should study a sample? The rationale is, the results obtained from
a sample are more precise and correct than the results from the study of
the whole group. Costs involved in studying all units of a large group is yet
another factor which suggests us to study a small group of people instead.
Associated with cost, there are certain other factors such as time available
for the study and accessibility of the units of study. Above all, the point
to be kept in mind is, if we can get almost same results by studying a
carefully selected small group of people why should we study the large group
at all.

For instance, suppose we want to know what percentage of a population

agrees with a statement: "Child labour should be banned". We might put the
statement to a sample, compute the percentage that agrees, and take this
result as an estimate of the percentage of the population who agrees.

3.5 OUALITIES OF GOOD SAMPLING

A good sampling plan carries the assurance that our sample estimates will
not differ from the corresponding true population parameters by, say, more
than 5 percent; or the estimates will be correct within the limit of 5 per cent
(commonly known as "margin of error" or "limit of accuracy") or 95 percent
of the time (commonly termed as the "probability" or "confidence level").
Alternatively, we'can say that a good sampling procedure is one, which produces
results within the limits of one per cent 99 per cent of the time.

The sampling plan, which ensures that the sample statistics will be correct
within certain limits, are referred to as "a good or representative sampling
plan." Here the usage of the word "representative" does not qualify sample,
but sampling plan. A representative sampling plan ensures that the selected
sample is sufficiently representative of the population to justify our running
the risk of taking it as representative (Kidder, 1981).
Basics of Social Work Research
Check Your Progress I
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of this unit.
1) What is the meaning of representative sampling plan?
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3.6 MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE OF

METHODS OF SAMPLING
There are two methods of sampling, namely, probability and non-probability.
The "chance " of being included in the sample is commonly known as probability.
The probability of an element to be included in a sample can be ascertained
on the basis of the theories of probability. The essential characteristic of
probability sampling is that one can specify for each element of the population
the chance of being included in the sample. In the simplest case, each bf
the elements has the same probability of being included, but this is not a
necessary condition. What is necessary is that for each element there must
be some specific chance that it will be included. In non-probability sampling,
there is no way of estimating the probability that each element has the chance
of being included in the sample and no assurance that every element has some
chance of being included (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1977).

3.7 TYPES OF 'SAMPLING

Major types of probability sampling are: simple random sampling, stratified
random sampling and cluster sampling.
Simple Random Sampling
A process that gives each element in the population an equal chance of being
included in the sample is termed as simple random sampling. The elements
are selected, using a list of random numbers appended with most textbooks
of research and statistics. Before using the table of random numbers, it is
first necessary to number all the elements in the population to be studied.
Then the table is marked at some point and the cases whose numbers come
up as one from this point down the column of numbers are taken into the
sample until the desired number of elements is obtained. The selection of any
given element places no limits on other element being selected, thus making
equally possible the selection of any one of the many possible combinations
of elements.
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into strata. The
strata may be based on a single criterion or on a combination of two or more
criteria. After, stratification a simple random sample is taken from each stratum,
and the sub samples are then joined to form the total sample.
In case the researcher is interested in the study of some characteristics of Sampling: Concept,
Significance and Types
a phenomenon he uses a proportionate stratified random sampling plan. Of
course, this sampling design presupposes that the investigator has some knowledge
concerning the population characteristics such as age, sex, marital status etc.
In the sampling plan the sample will have specified characteristics in exact
proportion to those same characteristics which are distributed in the population.
To understand this sampling plan we will consider the following example.

Let us consider the students of a College of Social Work. The researcher

wishes to have proportionate stratified random sample of them taking year
of study in the college as basis of stratification. Let us suppose that the
students at this college are distributed as is shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Distribution of Students According to Year in College

Population Proportion of each class

.25
BSW I1 40 .20
BSW I11 30 .15
MSW I 40 .20
MSW I1 40 .20
200 1.oo

Further, we suppose that the researcher decides to have a sample of 60

students. First, he determines the proportion of students in each class (as
shown in the second column). Then he calculates the composition of the
sample taking each proportion of the stratifying characteristics in the population
and multiplying it by the desired size of the sample. Thus, he multiplies 60,
the desired sample size by .25, the proportion of BSW first year students
in the population or

(60) (.25) = 15

As such, he has to include 15 students from the BSW first year in his sample.
This precedence is repeated for each year as described below:

(60) (.20) = 12

(60) (.20) = 12

Sample Size (N) = 60

Table 3.2: Distribution of Students by Proportion

Sample Break-up Proportion

15 .25
BSW I1 12 .20
BSW 111 9 .15
12 .20
MSW I1 12 .20

Total Sample (n) 60 1.00

Basics of Social Research After having determined the sample size from each subcategory, the researcher
uses simple random sampling for drawing the desired number of elements
from each category.
Disproportion'ateStratified Random Sampling
This sampling plan is almost similar to proportionate stratified random sampling
except that the sub samples are not necessarily distributed according to their
proportionate weight in the population from which they were drawn. It is
possible that some sub samples are over represented while other sub groups
are under represented.

Let us suppose that the researcher stratifies the population into two sub strata
using sex as the criteria. He would get the following break-up of the population:

Table 3.5: Distribution of Students by Sex

Sex No. of Students Percentage

Male
Female
Total 200 100

If the researcher -wants to draw a disproportionate stratified random sample

of 60 from this population, stratified by sex, then he has to draw 30 from
each substrata, this means male students (30) will be under represented and
female students (30) will be over represented in the sample. In other words
disproportionate sampling gives equal weights to each substrata.

There is a clear improvement over simple random sampling when the sampling
is based on a stratification of population by sex. With this kind of stratification
we get a marked increase in the size of samples that yields statistics very
close to the population parameters. On the contrary, a reduction in the size
of sample may yield statistics that might deviate widely from the population
parameters.
Cluster Sampling
In case the area of study is wide spread, a large expenses are involved if
simple and stratified random sampling are used. For example, in the preparation
of sampling frame from the population and in covering the widespread areas
by interviewers, a large amount of expenditure is required. The more widely
spread the area of study, the greater are the travel expenses, the greater is
the time spent in travelling, and hence expensive -and the tasks of administering,
monitoring and supervision of the research project and in particular supervising
the field staff become more complicated. For the reasons mentioned above
and few other reasons, large-scale research studies make use of the methods
of cluster sampling.

In cluster sampling, first the whole research area is divided into sub area,
more commonly known as "clusters". The simple random or stratified method
is used to select clusters. Finally, researcher arrives at the ultimate sample
size to be studied by selecting sample from within the clusters, which is
carried out on a simple or stratified random sampling basis.
Let us suppose, for example, that we want to do a survey of beggars in urban Sampling: Concept,
Significance and Types
areas of a state. We may proceed as follows: prepare a list of districts and
group them into clusters, and select a simple or stratified random sample from
each clusters. For each of the districts included in the sample, list the cities1
towns and take a simple or stratified random sample of them. If some or
all of the townslcities thus selected for the sample have more numbers of
beggars that can be studied, we may take a sample of these townslcities .in
each district. The beggars in these townslcities will be the sample of the
beggars.

Characteristically, the procedure moves through a series of stages-hence the

common term, "multistage" sampling-from more inclusive to less inclusive
sampling units until we finally arrive at the population elements that constitute
the desired sample.

The four important types of non-probability sampling are accidental sampling,

quota sampling, snowball sampling and purposive sampling.
Accidental Sampling
Accidental sampling refers to a method of selecting respondents who happen
to meet the researcher and are willing to be interviewed. Thus, a researcher
may take the first hundred people he meets who are willing to be interviewed.

For example, let us consider the situations where a programme director,

wishes to make some generalisation about the programme in progress, selects
beneficiaries who have come to the agency for a service or a community
organiser, trying to know how "the people" feel about health status in that
community, interviews available community dwellers like shop-keepers, daily
wage earners, barbers and others who are presumed to reflect public opinion.
In both the situations those who are available for study are included in the
samples. This is exactly what we call accidental sampling. It is very obvious
that the sample so collected are biased and there is no known way (other
than by doing a parallel study with a probability sample) of evaluating the
biases introduced in such samples. However, in the situation illustrated above,
most probably, accidental sampling is the only way out because of the reason
that the population parameters of the beneficiaries or the community people
are not available with the researcher.
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling insures inclusion of diverse elements of the population in the
sample and make sure that these diverse elements take account of the proportions
in which they occur in the population. For example, we take a sample from
a population with equal number of boys and girls, and that there is a difference
between the two groups in the characteristic we wish to study and we fail
to interview any girl, the results of the study would almost certainly be extremely
misleading generalisations about the population. In practice, elements in small
numbers are frequently under represented in accidental samples. In anticipation
of such possible exclusion of small groups, quota sampling ensures inclusion
of enough cases from each stratum in the sample. It should be noted here
that the major goal of quota sampling is the selection of a sample that is a
replica of the population to which one wants to generalise.

Hence it should be clear that the critical requirement in quota sampling is

Basics of Social Work Research not that the various population strata be sampled in their correct propottions,
but rather than there be enough cases from each stratum to make possible
an estimate of the population stratum value (Kidder, 1981, p. 426). Quota-
sampling, however, is more or less similar to the earlier described accidental
sampling procedure except that it insures the inclusion of diverse elements
of the population.
Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is based on the presumption that with good judgment one
can select the sample units that are satisfactory in relation to one's requirements.
A common strategy of this sampling technique is to select cases that are
judged to be typical of the population in which one is interested, assuming
that errors of judgment in the selection will tend to counterbalance each other.
For example, if a researcher is conducting a study of patients who are not
regular in attending out patient department it might be desirable to choose
patients for the sample from among those who are frequently irregular. The
causes of irregularity can be described by irregular patients only. If he selects
a random sample he would have got patients who are regular and that might
influence the findings of the study. It is also possible that in a truly random
sample, the regular patients would nu.llify the effects of irregular patients.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is externally helpful in studying some special sampling
situation like getting a sample of drug abusers, or alcoholics or pickpockets.
In snowball sampling we start with a few respondents of the type we wish
to include in our study and who in turn are expected to guide us to get more
respondents and so on. Like the rotating snowball, sample increases in its
size as we continue to get more units of study. The technique is especially
useful in the investigation of sensitive topics mentioned above because this
sampling technique depends on sampled cases having knowledge of other
similar cases. Another argument in favour of using this sampling technique
is that, the victims might be hesitant to identify themselves if approached by
a stranger but might be friendly to someorre who they know and share their
experiences or deviant status (Gelles, 1978).
Special Applications of Non-probability Sampling
In general, the major advantages of non-probability sampling are convenience
and economy. However, in social work research, most often we have no
option other than non-probability sampling. For example, a social worker
who is interested to study why cancer out-patients are not regular in reporting
to the doctor or what are the problems of the parents of the mentally challenged
children and the like, will have to use any one of the non-probability sampling
plan. It is likely, therefore, that many sampling operations in social work
research will be conducted according to non-probability principles. Social
work researchers are convinced that these sampling procedures work reasonably
well, despite the fact that they do not provide any basis for estimating how
far the sample results are likely to deviate from the true population figures.
Social work researchers, in other words, will continue to use non-probability
methods and to justify their use on the grounds of practical experience, even
while conceding the representativeness in principle of probability sampling.
Moreover, many researchers argue that, many a times, this so-called
representativeness exists only on paper. They believe that there is a difference
between the sampling pIan and its actual implementation; there can be many
a slip in the implementation of the plan, which would nullify its theoretical Sampling: Concept,
Significance and Types
merits.

For example, in situations where investigators may fail to follow the instructions
in selecting respondents, or some of the selected respondents may refuse'to
be interviewed or not be available, investigators are allowed to substitute
other respondents when those selected for the sample are not available for
interview. Truly speaking, the sample thus obtained may, hence, not be the
probability sample as it was planned to be.

In fact, there are situations in social work practice, in which probability

sampling is unnecessary or inappropriate. One such situation arises from the
fact that many a times, social work researchers do not necessarily carry out
studies of samples only for the purpose of generalisation to the populations
from which samples have been drawn. If samples are used for other reasons,
ability to evaluate the likelihood of deviations from the population values is
irrelevant.

For example, a social worker who wants to study the problems of parents
of mentally challenged children, would be interested in obtaining ideas, good
insights and critical appraisals rather than assessing the status of opinion
among the parents. In this situation researcher has to select a non-probability
sample most probably a purposive sample. The situation is almost exactly
analogous to one in which a social worker tries to evaluate the effectiveness
of a new technique of educating alcoholic patients. The alcoholics-also a
purposive sample-are not called in order to get an average opinion that
would correspond to the average opinion of the entire alcoholic population.
They are called in precisely because of their special problems.

Another example of sampling for diagnosing the problems of a group of

delinquent children rather than for the estimation of population values is provided
by the single subject research known as evaluative research. The typical
problem of evaluative research is to find out something about motives, attitudes,
and associations that are evoked by certain social conditions, but that may
not be obvious even to the respondents themselves. The results of such
studies are reported to agencies, which make use of them in developing
treatment plans for their inmates. Interestingly the evaluative researchers are
quite happy with accidental samples, or with purposive samples selected in
such a way as to maximize the likelihood of differences among the elements
in the sample. They are looking for causative factors to transmit to the agency
people, not for correct estimates of population distributions.
Combinations of Probability and Non-probability Sampling
If sampling is carried out in a series of stages, it is, of course, possible to
combine probability and non-probability sampling in one design. That is, one
or more of the stages can be carried out according to probability sampling
principles and the balance by non-probability principles.

The investigators may select clusters by probability cluster sampling techniques,

but, at the final stage, select the elements as a quota sample. Thus, it is
possible to select a probability sample of districts in a state, within each of
these districts, a probability sample of towns: and within each of the selected
towns, a quota sample controlled for, say, age and sex.
Basics of Socia1 Work Research The advantage of such a design is the cost of obtaining cases for the sample.
It is relatively inexpensive to select the areas within which the final stage of
sampling will take place by probability sampling, and we thereby gain the
advantages of probability sampling, at least for the areas. There is some
evidence, for instance, that quota samples built up in selected areas are more
successful in controlling such variables as socioeconomic status than quota
samples in which the control of these variables depends on the judgments
of the interviewers (Kish, 1965).

The second example of combining probability and non-probability sampling

involves the opposite strategy. The investigator takes a probability sample
of elements within a non-probability sample of areas. The areas are selected
as a purposive sample. For example, a number of districts may be selected
on the grounds that th'ey have lower rate of literacy, within each of the
"typical" districts, the investigator selects a probability sample of respondents.
Concluding Remarks
Social work researchers do not, generally, engage in sampling process like
those used for conventional research process. Yet, the process of sampling
in social work practice is based on principles of sampling discussed in this
chapter. Though the needs and characteristics of the clientele groups typically
guide the evaluations of social work programmes, the inferences about the
client's problems are guided by research principles.

In social work practice setting most of the times, it is unlikely that we use
probability sampling. Irrespective of whether one's clients are mentally challenged
children, delinquent children, street children, abused children or drug addicts
we have no way of knowing whether all people with such characteristics had
a chance to be in our sample. That much, we are most likely to deal with
non-probability samples with its limitations. Most often we have people who
have happened to come to our agency to have our services. As such, social
work researchers have to be careful while making generalisation about the
findings. Nevertheless, there is no reason to despair. One simply has to keep
in mind the limitations of non-probability samples and use care in generating
the required sample (Monette, et. al. 1986).

3.8 DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE

Determination of sample size is a difficult task. Particularly in social research,
where we consider a set of variables, it becomes really difficult to ascertain
the size of sample. However, it is possible to determine the size of sample
by using a representative sampling procedure.

Based on the assumptions of probability sampling it is possible to select a

sampling procedure which will be representative. This helps researchers to
estimate the extent to which the sample statistics are likely to differ from
population parameters. This means, if probability sampling method is used,
it is possible to ascertain the size of the sample that will be needed if we
want to have a given degree of certainty that their sample results do.not differ
by more than a specified value from those of the population parameters.

There are a number of sampling techniques which decrease the likelihood

of misleading generalisatiorls based on sample statistics. These techniques
assure the inclusion of diverse elements of the population in the sample by Sampling: Concept,
Significance and Types
controlling the proportions of the various types of elements. Alternatively,
statistical procedures are used in the analysis of the data.

Krejcie and Morgan (1970) have given a table in which no calculations are
needed to determine the size of the sample. Table is reproduced here for
your reference.

Note - N is population size, S is sample of size

For example if you want to know the sample size required to be representative
of the opinions of 300 social work students, refer table at N=300. The
sample size representative of the social work students in this case will be
169. The table given above is applicable to any defined population.
Basics of Social Work Research
Check Your Progress I1

1) What are the advantages of accidental sampling?

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2) Under what situations would it be appropriate to use cluster sampling?
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3) What are the applications of snowball sampling?
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3.9 LET US SUM CTP

- - -

The concept of sampling may be defined as a process which allows us to

study a small group of people from the large group to derive inferences that
are likely to be applicable to all the people of the large group. The rationale
for selecting a small group of people (sample) for study is if we can get
almost same results by studying a carefully selected small group of people
why should we study the large group at all.

A single unit of study is referred to as an element of population. The aggregate

of all the elements that conform to some defined set of definitions is called
population.

A representative sampling procedure ensures that the sample statistics will

be correct within certain limits. In other words, a representative sampling plan
ensures that the selected sample is sufficiently representative of the population
to justify our running the risk of taking it as representative.

There are two methods of sampling, namely, probability and non-probability.

The essential characteristic of probability sampling is that one can specify
for each element of the population the chance of being included in the sample.
Major types of probability sampling are: simple random sampling, stratified
random sampling and cluster sampling.

In non-probability sampling, there is no way of estimating the probability that

each element has of being included in the sample and no assurance that every
element has some chance of being included. Sampling: Concept,
Significance and Types

The four important types of non-probability sampling are accidental sampling,

quota sampling, snowball sampling and purposive sampling.

If sampling is carried out in a series of stages, it is possible to combine

probability and non-probability sampling in one design. That is, one or more
of the stages can be carried out according to probability sampling principles
and the balance by non-probability method of sampling. The investigators
may select clusters by probability cluster sampling techniques, but, at the final
stage, select the elements as a quota sample.

To determine the size of a sample is really a difficult task, particularly in social

research where we consider a combination of variables. However, it is possible
to determine the size of sample by using a representative sampling procedure.

3.10 KEY WORDS

Margin of Error : reference in the sample estimates say
maximum up to 5 per cent.
Representativeness of : the sampling plan which ensures that the
Sampling Plan sample statistics will be correct within certain
limits.
Probability Sampling : prohability of an element to be included in
a sample.
Non-Probability Sampling : no assurance that every element has some
chance of being included in the sample.
Cluster Sampling : the whole research area divided into such
area is known as clusters.

3.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bailey, Kenneth D. (1978), Methods of Social Research, The Free Press,
London.
Baker, L. Therese (1988), Doing Social Research, McGraw Hill, New York.
Black, James A. and Champion, Dean J. (1976), Methods and Issues in
Social Research, John Wiley, New York.
Festinger. L. and Katz. D. (1953), (ed.) Research Methods in the Behavioural
Sciences, The Dryden Press, New York.
Galtung, John (1970), Theory and Methods of Social Research, George
Allen and Unwin, London.
Gelles, R.J. (1978), Methods for Studying Sensitive Family Topics,American
Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 48, 408-424.
Goode, W.J. and Hatt, P.K. (1952), Methods of Social Research, McGraw
Hill, New York.
Kerlinger, Fred R. (1964), Foundations of Behavioural Research, Surjeet
Publications, Delhi.
Kothari, L.R. (1985), Research Methodology, Vishwa Prakashan, New Delhi.
Basics of Social Work Research ~idder~
, o u i s eH. (1981), Research Methods in Social Relations, Holt,
New York.
Kish, Leslie (1965), Survey Sampling, New York.
Krejcie, Robert V., and Morgan Daryle W. (1970), Determining Small Size
for Research Activities in Educational and Pychological Measurement.
Lakatos, Irnre (1978), The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes,
(Vol. 1) Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
La1 Das, D.K. (20001, Practice of Social Research: A Social Work Perspective,
Rawat Publications, Jaipur.
Monette, Duane R. et. al. (1986), Applied Social Research: Tool For the
Human Services, Holt, Chicago.
Moser, C.A. and Kalton, G. (1975), Survey Methods in Social Investigation,
Heinemann Educational Books, London.
Nachmias D and Nachmias C. (1981), Research Methods in the Social
Sciences, St. Martins press, New York.
Rubin, Allen & Babbie E., Research Methodology for Social Work, Belmont,
Wadsworth, California.
Sellitz, G et: al. (1973), Research Methods in Social Relations, Holt, Rinehart
and Winston (3rdedition), New York.
Stouffer, S.A. (1962), Social Research to Test ideas, Free Press of Glencoe,
New York.
Wilkinson, T.S. and Bhandarkar, P.L. (1977), Methodology and Techniques
of Social Research, Himalayan, Bombay.
Young, P.V. (1953), Scientific Social Surveys and Research, Englewood
Cliff. Prentice Hall (4thedition), N.J.

3.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I
1) The sampling procedures, which ensure that the sample statistics will be
n
correct within certain limits, are referred to as a "a good or representative
sampling plan." Here the usage of the word "representative" does not .
qualify sample, but sampling plan. A representative sampling plan ensures
that the selected sample is sufficiently representative of the population
to justify our running the risk of taking it as representative.
Check Your Progress I1
1) Accidental sampling refers to a method of selecting respondents who
happen to meet the researcher and are willing to be interviewed. Thus,
a researcher may take the first hundred people he meets and who are
willing tobe interviewed. There are a number of advantages of accidental
sampling. To mention a few, this method is cost effective. It also saves
time.
2) When the area of study is wide spread, it would be appropriate to use
cluster sampling. For example, let us assume that we want to do a survey
 districts and group them into clusters, and select a simple or stratified Sampling: Concept,
Significance and Types
random sample from each clusters. For each of the districts included in
the sample, we prepare a list of the cities/towns and take a simple or
stratified random sample of them. If some or all of the towns/cities thus
selected for the sample have more numbers of beggars that can be studied,
we may take a sample of these towns/cities in each district.
3) Snowball sampling is externally helpful in studying the respondents who
might be hesitant to identify themselves if approached by a stranger but
might be friendly to someone who they know and share their experiences
or deviant status. For example, identifying a sample of drug abusers, or
alcoholics or pickpockets is rather difficult if not impossible. In snowball
sampling we start with a few respondents of the type we wish to include
in our study and who in turn are expected to guide us to get more
respondents and so on. Like the rotating snowball, sample increases in
its 'size as we continue to get more units of study. The technique is
especially useful in the investigation of sensitive topics mentioned above
because this sampling technique depends on sampled cases having knowledge
of other similar cases.