EUBT606 - Research and Research methods Assessment 1: Essay This essay describes three research methodologies or, styles

of research; Action research, survey research and historical research. It discusses what each methodology is, the purposes of each methodology and the methods each methodology uses to gather data. It also includes appropriate and inappropriate topics for each methodology as well as paradigms which may influence them. Finally, it provides examples of real research done using each methodology. Action research is a research methodology that combines action, the process of doing something, (Collins English Dictionary, 2003, p.5), with research, systematic investigation to discover facts or collect information, (Ibid, p.422). It is the process of developing greater skills, understandings and knowledge through active investigation and reflection that can be used to improve and modify ones practice. Hopkins (1985) proposes that the collaboration of action and research renders that action a form of disciplined inquiry, in which a personal attempt is made to understand, improve and reform practice, (Hopkins, 1985, p.32). Action research is an effective and versatile tool for change as it can be used in a multitude of settings to solve problems involving people, tasks or processes and promote positive growth. It can be used not only to form links between theories and practices but to question them as well. Action research is generally lead by questions such as, how can I/we improve x. Kemmis and McTaggart (1992) state that to do action
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research is to plan, act, observe and reflect more carefully, more systematically, and more rigorously than one usually does in everyday life, (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1992, p.10). While action research can be conducted by an individual, it can also be a collaborative venture embarked on by a community of practice, a group of people developing and sharing their knowledge while working towards the same goals; for example, a group of early childhood teachers striving to provide the highest quality care and education. Zuber-Skerritt (1996) suggests that the aim of any action research project or programme are to bring about practical improvement, innovation, change or development of social practice, and the practitioners better understanding of their practices, (Zuber-Skerritt, 1996, p.83). It does need to be noted however, that whether action research is undertaken by an individual or group, collaboration is still a key feature in the sense that everyones view is considered important to understanding the situation. Action research is cyclic, as Kemmis and McTaggart (1992) state action research develops through the self-reflective spiral: a spiral of cycles of planning, acting (implementing plans), observing (systematically), reflecting and then replanning, further implementation, observation and reflecting, (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1992, p.21). The methods used to gather data for action research are observations, reflective journaling and interviews. These methods reflect the participative nature of action research as they require the researcher to be present, involved and
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interactive with those they are working with, observing and interviewing during the research process. Given that the methods used to gather data for action research involve a large amount of human interaction/involvement and personal accounts, the types of results/conclusions gained from action research are mostly qualitative. They also usually discuss what changes were able to be made in light of the research. In order for research to be successful it is vital that the topic of the research is appropriate to the methodology one plans to use. For example, Action research would be an appropriate methodology to use if an early childhood teacher wanted to develop the knowledge and skills to improve their ability to build secure attachment relationships with infants, the topic of the research being building attachment relationships. This is because the nature of the topic reflects one the fundamental elements of action research, to gain new perspectives and understandings in order to improve and refine ones practice through active investigation. Ebbutt (1985) regards, action research as a systematic study that combines action and reflection with the intention of improving practice, (Ebbutt, 1985, p.156). Additionally, the topic requires the teacher to reflect on their current (and emerging as the research progresses) practices and knowledge, undertake observations, seek out relevant literature and collaborate with those who hold knowledge on the topic; all of which are also key elements of action research.

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If the same early childhood teachers research topic was males in early childhood education, and the aim of their investigation was to find out the number of male early childhood teachers in New Zealand from 1985-2010, it would be inappropriate to use action research as the style of research to do so. This is because the topic is focusing on answering a question and gaining statistical knowledge. Action research can be influenced by the Kaupapa Maori Paradigm. The Kaupapa Maori paradigm is a, Localised viewpoint which draws on key assumptions of critical theory but situates them within a Maori world-view. In this sense it is a view point which not only engages critically with colonial Pakeha culture but also with Maori culture, with questions of social justice at heart, (Grant, Lynne & Giddings, 2002, p.22). The Kaupapa Maori paradigm sees the researcher become a part of the community, this membership then continues even after the research is finished. Other characteristics of the kaupapa Maori paradigm include its relation to Maori philosophy and principles, recognition of the customs and practices in Maori culture and is its concern with the struggle for autonomy over [Maoris] own cultural well being. An example of a real action research project is Promoting a Culture of Thinking in the Young Child. It was conducted by Angela, K Salmon who was Conscious of the interplay between nature and nurture in determining a childs individuality and success in life, (Salmon, 2008, p. 470). She
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embarked a group of teachers in an action research project towards nurturing a culture of thinking in young children. At the beginning and throughout the action research project the teachers undertook self-reflection in regards to their values and beliefs. They also continuously documented their students at work and met with the research team on a weekly basis to revisit the documentation. The children were also invited to revisit their work using thinking routines, (Salmon, 2008, p.465). Survey research is a research methodology that is used to describe and interpret what is, or conditions or relationships that exist, practices that prevail; beliefs, points of views, or attitudes that are held; processes that are going on; effects that are being felt; or trends that are developing, (Best, 1970, p.22) using information gathered through various forms of surveys. According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007) survey research looks at individuals, groups, organisations, processes and resources and is generally used to examine a wide range of issues, programmes and populations. It involves asking people about their thoughts, feelings, beliefs and opinions with the intention of describing the nature of existing conditions, or identifying standards against which existing conditions can be compared, or determining the relationship between specific events, (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.205). The scope of survey research enables the researcher to gather factual information on a large-scale (lots of respondents) that can be processed statistically, and from

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which they can make generalisations, broad statements which reflect recurring themes present within the amassed data. The types of methods used in survey research to collect information typically include one or more of the following data gathering systems: structured or semi-structured interviews, self-completion or postal questionnaires, telephone interviews, internet surveys, standardized tests of attainment or performance, and attitude scales, (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.209). These methods tend to remain the same, whether the survey research is being conducted by a sizeable corporation on a large scale or by an individual on a smaller-scale. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies are also methods used in survey research. While the methods discussed in the previous paragraph refer specifically to the different forms of surveys used to collect data, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies are methods which refer to the style in which the process of gathering data is conducted. According to Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2007) there is a clear distinction between the two methods; longitudinal studies refer to survey research that is conducted over a long period of time and often focus on the same individuals for the duration of the study. They can range from short term studies which may take several weeks to long term studies which extend over a number of years. This allows researchers to gather quality statistical information from which they can accurately,

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Analyse the duration of social phenomena; highlight similarities, differences and changes over time in respect of one or more variables or participants (within and between participants); identify long-term (sleeper) effects; and explain changes in terms of stable characteristics, e.g. sex, or variable characteristics, such as income, (Ruspini, 2003, p.3). Other benefits of longitudinal studies include the ability to gather quantitative and qualitative data and observe the intricacies of human behaviour. Additionally, they enable researchers to create behavioural models that are more complex than those developed using cross-sectional studies. It is clear that longitudinal studies have a number of strengths however they also have weak points. The weaknesses of longitudinal studies include the fact they can be expensive, both in monetary terms and the time they take to conduct; they rely on the continued participation of respondents and the research can be affected by both staff and participants leaving given that some studies span several years. Cross-sectional studies are studies that produce a snapshot of a population at a particular point in time, (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.213). Cohen, Manion & Morrison also discuss that a national census is a perfect example of a crosssectional study as it involves using a representative sample of the population that consists of individuals from a wide range of different ages, occupations, levels of education and income that live in different areas of the country who are all
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interviewed on the same day. They provide researchers with information that can be used for either a potential investigation or retrospective enquiry. Also, they generally less expensive that longitudinal studies, provide researchers with data more quickly; do not require respondents continued involvement over time which means people are more likely to participate and can generally include more subjects. The downfalls of using cross-sectional studies are that they are inappropriate for studying patterns and changes over time. As Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2007) state, the cross-sectional study is a less effective method for the researcher who is concerned to identify individual variations in growth or to establish casual relationships between relationships, (Ibid, p.217). An appropriate topic for survey research would be attitudes towards immunisation in New Zealand. This is because it relates to gathering information on a large scale through asking people their opinions in order to develop an understanding of the attitudes that exist, the reasons behind them and to identify current or developing trends; all of which are core elements of survey research, a researcher using this model typically will be seeking to gather large-scale data from as representative a sample population as possible in order to say with a measure of statistical confidence that certain observed characteristics occur with a degree of regularity, or that certain factors cluster together, or that they correlate with each other, or
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that they change over time, (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.207). An inappropriate topic for survey research would be technology used by ancient Egyptians because it concerns what was in a previous time, or historically and has no relevance to current or existing conditions, trends or attitudes/beliefs held by the current population. The Positivist paradigm can influence survey research in the sense that there is something to be discovered that can be used in a way to benefit that person/profession. Within a positivist paradigm, Knowledge is to be discovered so people (or professions or policy makers) can explain, predict or control events. When such facts or evidence are found through using various experimental or nonexperimental methodologies, they are combined to create a specific body of knowledge. This in turn guide professional decision making, (Grant & Giddings, 2008, p.462). Another element of the positivist paradigm is that researcher is expected to keep an objective position in relation to the subjects of the research, in terms if survey research this involves the participants. This is to ensure the researcher does not bias the collected data. An example of a real survey research project is Women and the Public Library: Using Technology, Using the Library (Fidishun, 2007). The survey research project surveyed 184

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women library users about why and how they used the library and information technology and how they learned to do so. A trend that was discovered from the research was that women are still the ones who bring children to the libraries and encourage the use of books, (Fidishun, 2007, p.329). Historical research is a research methodology that involves the investigation of the past, history, what has already occurred. Borg (2007) defines historical research as the systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events, (Ibid, p.334). It is different from other styles of research in that it deals with information that already exists. The purpose of historical research is to create, as accurately as possible, an account, or reconstruction, of a previous age. In this attempt to recreate what was lies one of the defining characteristics of historical research, a comprehensive approach which seeks to encompass then explain the whole realm of mans past in a perspective that greatly accents his social, cultural, economic and intellectual development, (Hill & Kerber, 1967, p.189). This comprehensive approach refers to a focus on the wider picture as opposed to specific details which bought it about. In saying this, however, it must also be noted that the finer details are often the areas of discussion which play a pivotal role in the formation of the wider picture. According to Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2007), historical research allows researchers to develop new knowledge and understandings about the past and its significance to the present and future. They discuss the following values and
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types of conclusions that are able to be gained through historical research, It enables solutions to contemporary problems to be sought in the past; it throws light on present and future trends; it stresses the relative importance and the effects of the various interactions that are to be found within all cultures; it allows for the revaluation of data in relation to selected hypotheses, theories and generalisations about the past, (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.192). Conclusions drawn from historical research are mostly qualitative, in the form of research reports, although can include quantitative results. The methods of data collection in historical research are what set it apart from other forms of research due to the fact that historical research must rely on the data, facts and information that already exist. It is the historians job to base judgements on evidence, weighing, evaluating and judging the truth of the evidence of others observations until the hypothesis explains all the relevant evidence, (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.193). The sources of data used in historical research are categorized as either primary or secondary sources. According to Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2007), Primary sources are the livelihood of historical research; they are those items which are original to the problem that is being studied and can be divided into two main categories. The first being relics and remains which have been discovered belonging to a certain
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period and can be useful in providing good evidence about the past. They include skeletons, fossils, weapons, tools, utensils, buildings, pictures, furniture, coins and artwork. The second category of primary sources includes items that had direct physical relationships with the events being reconstructed: this category would include not only the written and oral testimonies provided by actual participants in, or witnesses of, an event, but also the participants themselves, (Ibid, p.194). Secondary sources are sources which do not have an immediate physical relationship to the event that is being studied, they are not considered original. Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007) state they can include quoted material, textbooks, encyclopaedias, other reproductions of the material or information, prints of paintings or replicas of art objects, (Ibid, p.194). They can also include descriptions of events from people who were not physically there but who were told about it from other people or sources. Unfortunately, the nature of secondary sources means they can only hold so much value given the inaccuracies that occur when information is passed on to one person, then the next and so on. An appropriate topic for historical research would be food sources for Maori in 1822 because it refers to the past and would require the researcher to examine research and data that already exists; two key features of historical research, the historian, like the archaeologist, has to interpret past events by the traces which have been left, (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.193).

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An inappropriate topic for historical research would be current economic climate in New Zealand and its impact on families in low socioeconomic areas as it is dealing with current events. The interpretive paradigm can influence historical research in that the interpretive paradigm attempts to get back to the things themselves, (Grant & Giddings, 2002, p.16) which can influence what historical researchers deem as important. The interpretive paradigm has become associated directly with qualitative methods. Additionally, researchers working within an interpretive paradigm focus on different aspects of experience and use different methods to collect data and interpret it, the researcher stays with the persons story because it is the nearest you can get to the thing itself, (Ibid, p.17). An example of a real historical research project is A Study of the Evolution of Women's Roles in Thai Higher Education Institutions (Raywadeetas, 2008). The study focused on women's roles in Thai higher education institutions, referring to learners in study, student activities, and public services; instructors in academic and social activities, and administrators in management, It covers women's roles in Thai higher education institutions in the context of the economy, society, politics and management, and culture and leads to the identification of the evolutionary trend in higher educational management of women. The findings of this research present historical events, which will
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serve as a basis to improve Thai higher education management, (Raywadeetas, 2008, p.41). In conclusion, action research is a research methodology used to promote change and improve conditions and solve problems involving people and practices. It is cyclic and participative and uses the following methods to gather data; reflection, observations and interviews. Action research is a powerful tool for change and can be used in a multitude of settings proving it to be a particularly effective style of research. Survey research is a research methodology used to explain what is. It involves gathering large-scale data and asking peoples opinions that can then be used to develop behavioural models, make generalisations and identify current and developing trends through the use of a range methods such as; questionnaires, telephone and internet surveys, opinion polls and tests. It enables the researcher to gather both quantitative and qualitative data about the current population through long term (longitudinal) or once off (cross-sectional) studies. Historical research relates to looking back at what was, or issues concerning the past using data that already exists. It enables researchers to use past events to better understand current times and even make predictions about the future. Unfortunately the fact that historical research relies on seeking data from the personal experiences and observations of others, from documents and records, researchers often have to contend with inadequate information so that their

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reconstructions tend to be sketches rather than portraits, (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.191). All three methodologies are effective and valid styles of research which allow researchers to investigate their topic more accurately in order to gain successful results.

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Reference List Best, J. (1970). Research in education. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall; Cited in Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (6th Ed). New York: Routledge. Borg, W. (2007). Applying educational research: A practical guide for teachers. New York: Longman; Cited in Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (6th Ed). New York: Routledge. Collins English Dictionary. (2003). Australia: Harper Collins Publishers. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (6th Ed). New York: Routledge. Ebbutt, D. (1985). Educational action research: Some general concerns and specific quibbles. Cited in Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (6th Ed). New York: Routledge. Fidishun, D.. (2007). Women and the Public Library: Using Technology, Using the Library. Library Trends, 56(2), 328-343. Retrieved October 28, 2010, from ProQuest Education Journals. (Document ID: 1452545061). Grant, B., & Giddings, L. (2002). Making sense of methodologies: A paradigm framework for the novice teacher. Contemporary Nurse, 13(1), 10-27. Hill, J., & Kerber, A. (1967). Models methods and analytical procedures in education research. Detroit: Wayne State University Press; Cited in

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Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (6th Ed). New York: Routledge. Hopkins, D. (1985). A teachers guide to classroom research. Milton Keynes: Open University Press; Cited in Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (6th Ed). New York: Routledge. Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1992). The Action research Planner.(2nd Ed). Victoria, Australia: Deakin University Press; Cited in Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (6th Ed). New York: Routledge. Raywadeetas Robkob. (2008) International Forum of Teaching and Studies. A Study of the Evolution of Women's Roles in Thai Higher Education Institutions, Marietta: Vol. 4, Iss. 1; pg. 39, 7 pgs. Robkob, R. (2008). A Study of the Evolution of Women's Roles in Thai Higher Education Institutions. International Forum of Teaching and Studies, 4(1), 39-45. Retrieved October 28, 2010, from ProQuest Education Journals. (Document ID: 1499577331). Ruspini, J. (2003). Evaluation: A consideration of principles and methods. Brighton: Sussox University Press; Cited in Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (6th Ed). New York: Routledge Salmon, A. (2008). Promoting a Culture of Thinking in the Young Child. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35(5), 457-461. Retrieved October 28, 2010, from Academic Research Library. (Document ID: 1897340401).

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Zuber-Skerrit, O. (1996). New directions in action research. London: Falmer; Cited in Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (6th Ed). New York: Routledge.

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