Module No.

4
Hydrostatics
Fluid Mechanics
SCI 103

This course deals with the science of fluids (liquids and gases). It discusses aerodynamics,
the study of air and gases in motion; and hydrodynamics – the study of liquids in motion. It also
explains the fundamental concepts and principles relating to speed, pressure and forces particularly
Bernoulli, Pascal and Archimedes’. It allows students to gain knowledge of how this topic is
applied to daily activities and solve practical problems.

Total Learning Time: 3 hours per week

In the previous module, you learned about the nature of fluids and its properties. Fluid is
any substance that flows and offers little resistance to a change in its shape. The type of fluid that
will be discussed focus mainly on fluid at rest.

Are you aware that force is one of the major and most important considerations in building
an airplane or putting up a towering building? Force affects movement and it is also capable of
altering the shape or form of an object. In fact, tremendous force can actually cause permanent
deformation on objects which cannot able to withstand this force. This is the reason why engineers
make sure that the materials they use for airplanes, bridges, buildings and the like are able to
withstand forces that may act on them. Careful studies on the properties of matter are done by
these engineers to ensure that the panes will not break apart or that the building will not collapse to
the ground when subjected to huge amount of force.

In everyday life, you are beset by various challenges especially during this trying times, the
time of pandemic where many routines and tasks seemed unnatural but they tend to become part of
the normal course of life. Pressure is everywhere. How do you cope up with these “pressures”?

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. discuss the nature of hydrostatics

2. solve pressure exerted by solid, liquid and gas
3. describe how a barometer and manometer measure fluid pressure
4. differentiate and calculate gauge pressure from absolute pressure
5. identify the different pressures in human body
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 6. describe the various pressure measuring devices and its application
7. construct a simple open – tube manometer
8. apply equations to solve related problems

1. Nature of Hydrostatics
2. Solid Pressure
3. Liquid Pressure
4. Atmospheric Pressure
5. Pressure in Humans
6. Pressure Measuring Devices

Nature of Matter

Nature of Hydrostatics

Hydrostatics or fluid statics is a branch of physics that deals with the characteristics
of fluids at rest, particularly with the pressure in a fluid or exerted by a fluid (gas or liquid) on an
immersed body. It is also the study of fluids in which there is no relative motion between fluid
particles. In applications, the principles of hydrostatics are used for problems relating to pressure
in deep water (pressure increases with depth) and high in the atmosphere (pressure lessens with
altitude).
Several experiments have been performed to determine how fluids at rest behaves. The
following results were obtained:
1. Fluid exert pressure in all directions. This is well known to swimmers and divers who feel
water on all parts of their bodies.
2. Fluid pressure is dependent on its depth and density.

There is no relative motion, no shearing stresses exist, since velocity gradients are required
for shearing stresses to be present. The only stress that exists is a normal stress, the pressure, so it
is the pressure that is of primary interest in fluid statics. Hydrostatic equilibrium takes place when
nothing moves anymore and all fields become constant in time.
The Physics of Fluids at Rest
A. Density
 In discussing distributions of matter such as solids or fluids, it is convenient to define a
quantity called the density p (rho) as the mass per unit volume or,
 The most common units used for density are kilograms per cubic meter.
 Under normal conditions, the densities of solids and liquids are about 1 000 times
greater than the densities of gases. This difference implies that the average spacing
between molecules in a gas under such conditions is about ten times greater than in a
solid or liquid.

𝒎 𝒌𝒈
= = 𝟑
𝑽 𝒎

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B. Pressure, Forces & Depth
 The deeper you go, the higher the pressure The force exerted by a fluid
 The force exerted by a fluid on an object is always on a submerged object at any
perpendicular to the surfaces of the object, as shown point is perpendicular to the
in Figure 1. surface and increases with depth.
 The force exerted by a pressure is the same in all
directions.
 If F is the magnitude of a force exerted perpendicular
to a given surface of area A, then the average
pressure P is the force divided by the area:

𝑭
P=
𝑨

 SI unit: Pascal (Pa= N/𝑚2 ) named after Blaise Figure 1

Pascal, a French physicists and mathematician
for his experimental works on the pressure exerted by liquids and gases.
 Calculating the pressure of a fluid with a given depth

𝑷 = 𝝆×𝒈×𝒉
 Change in pressure by some depth.

∆𝑷 = 𝝆 × 𝒈 × ∆𝒉

P = 𝝆𝒉𝒈
where P = pressure; ρ = density; h = height/depth g = acceleration due to gravity
This means that the higher the column of liquid, the greater its pressure and the more dense
the liquid is, the greater too is the pressure. Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by
the fluid at equilibrium at any given point within the fluid due to the fore of gravity. Hydrostatic
pressure increases in proportion to depth.

Applications of Hydrostatics
1. Water tower
 Technical implementation that uses the hydrostatic pressure or the striving for a
common liquid level in communicating vessels is the water tower.
 In principle, a water tower is
an elevated tank that is filled
with water by pumps. Due to
the resulting hydrostatic
pressure, the water can be
forced into the lower-lying
households without additional
pumps.
2. Hoists used to lift vehicles
(Hydraulic Lifts)
 In motor vehicle maintenance
stations and service stations as
the one shown in Figure 2, is a
Figure 2
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 machine constructed to operate based on the principle of pressure transmission.

3. Water Reservoir
 Construction of a dam and filling of the
reservoir behind it create load stresses on the
floor and sides of a valley that did not exist
previously.
 The material at the bottom must resist a much
higher pressure than the material on the top
and that is the reason why the base of the
dam wall is thicker than the top and it has a
triangular form.

Figure 3

Table 1. Units and conversion Factors for Pressure

1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Example 1 1 mmHg = 1 torr
1 mmHg = 133 N/m2
If a boy weight 660N and stands on one foot 1 atm = 1.013 x 10 5 Pa
with a surface area of 0.05m2 in contact with =760 torr
the floor, how much pressure does the boy exert = 14.70 psi
on the floor? Express your answer in SI units. 1 bar = 105 Pa
Given: 1 millibar = 100 Pa
F = 660N A = 0.05m2 P=?
𝐹 660𝑁
P= 𝐴 P = 0.5𝑚2 P = 13200 Pa

Example 2
Calculate the pressure on a scuba diver at a depth of 45.0 m.
Given:
h = 45 m ρ = 1.03x103 kg/m3 g = 9.8 m/s2 P=?
P = ρhg = (1.03x103 kg/m3) (45 m) (9.8 m/s2) = 4.54 x 10 3 Pa

Atmospheric Pressure

The atmosphere is a deep ocean of gases piled several kilometers above us. The weight of
all those gases causes a downward pressure on us. The pressure of the atmosphere helps you to sip
your drink using a straw. By emptying your mouth of air, you create a partial vacuum, allowing the
atmosphere to push your drink up the straw and making the liquid move against the flow of
gravity.
The pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is about 1.013 x 10 5 Pa. This means that every
square meter on the earth’s surface is weighed down by a force of 101.3 kilonewtons (kN). This is
like being squashed under the weight of two male elephants.
The pressure at any point in the Earth’s atmosphere maybe expressed in a nonstandard unit
called atmosphere (atm). Other nonstandard units of pressure are bar, millimeter of mercury
0mmHg), which is also known as torr and pound per square inch (lb/in 2 or psi). The bar and
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millibar (mbar) are widely used in meteorology and by diving enthusiasts in many parts of the
world. The unit mmHg is used in measuring blood pressure and is derived from the use of mercury
barometer, a pressure gauge invented by an Italian inventor Evangelista Torriceli in whose honor
the unit torr was named. The pound per square inch is an old unit associated with the British
system of units and is still used in the USA. In the Philippines, you can still find pressure gauges
and tires with pressures specified in psi.
Atmospheric pressure is monitored closely by meteorologists (people who study the
weather) because when it gowns down it is a sign that a bad weather is coming. The eye of a storm
is a region of extremely low pressure in the center of swirling clouds of either a typhoon or a
hurricane. The 2005 US hurricane named Wilma set the lowest recorded pressure of 882 mbars or
0.87 atm, making it the most intense hurricane ever observed in the Atlantic basin.

Pressure in Human Body

There are many pressures in the humans. As before, pressures are quoted as gauge pressures.
Whenever pressures differ significantly from these typical values, a problem is indicated. The
pressures in various parts of the body can be measured and often provide valuable medical
indicators. For that reason, pressure measurement is an important diagnostic tool in medicine. In
this topic, we will discuss the following examples of pressure in humans which include:
 Bladder Pressure
 Cerebrospinal Pressure
 Pressure in the Eye
 Pressure in the Gastrointestinal System
 Pressure in the Skeleton; and
 Blood Pressure

BLADDER PRESSURE
One of the most noticeable of bodily pressures, bladder pressure varies over quite a large
range. It is zero when the bladder is empty and climbs steadily to about 25 mm Hg when the
bladder reaches its normal capacity of some 500cm 3.
Micturition reflex is triggered by a bladder pressure of about 25 mm Hg. That reflex
stimulates the feeling of needing to urinate, and it further triggers muscle contractions around the
bladder that can raise bladder pressure to 110 mm Hg, accentuating the sensation. Coughing,
straining, sitting up, tight clothes, and simple nervous stress also can increase bladder pressure and
trigger the micturition reflex long before the bladder is full. Students studying for exams and
authors striving to meet deadlines make many trips to toilet. Pregnant women experience increase
bladder pressure due to weight of the fetus resting on the bladder and find it necessary to urinate
frequently. The capacity of their bladders is also less than the normal 500cm 3 because of the space
that the fetus occupies.
Table 1. TYPICAL FLUID PRESSURES (in mm Hg) IN HUMANS

Arterial Blood Pressure

Maximum (Systolic):
Adult 100-140
Infant 60-70
Minimum (Diastolic):
Adult 60-90
Infant 30-40
Venous Blood Pressure
Venules 8-15
Veins 4-8

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 Major Veins (CVP) 4
Capillary Blood Pressure
Arteriole end 35
Venule end 15
Bladder
Average 0-25
During Micturition 110
Brain lying down (CSF) 5-12
Eye, aqueous humor 15-24
Gastrointestinal 10-20
Intrathoracic -4 to -8
Middle ear <1

Bladder pressure while urinating is normally 15-30 mm Hg, but an obstruction of the
urinary tract, such as from a swollen prostate gland, can necessitate pressures as large as 70 mm
Hg. The larger the resistance of a tube, the larger is the pressure difference needed to cause the
same flow rate.
Bladder pressure can be measured by catheterization through the urinary tract or by
insertion of a needle through the abdominal wall into the bladder (called direct cytometry). Both
techniques transmit bladder pressure through a liquid to measuring device commonly a water
manometer. Because it most convenient to use water to transmit the pressure and to fill the
manometer, bladder pressures are normally given in centimeters of water. The normal range is
from 0 to 30 cm of water, rising to 150 cm of water during the micturition reflex.

CEREBROSPINAL PRESSURE
The skull and spinal column contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The SCF supports the
weight of the brain with buoyant force, acts as a protective cushion, and supplies nutrients filtered
from the blood. Cerebrospinal fluid is generated in the skull and circulates around the brain,
through cavities in the brain called ventricles, and down the central canal of the spinal cord.
Normally, CSR is absorbed in the spinal column as fast as it is generated in the skull. However, the
narrow ventricle called cerebral aqueduct can become blocked, causing pressure to build inside the
skull. This is a moderately common problem in infants called hydrocephalus (literally “water
head”) and can cause an enlarge head, mental retardation, or death. When detected early, the
pressure and its effects can be minimized surgically.
Pressure in the CSF can be measured. Unfortunately, this method does not detect
hydrocephalus, because the blockage in the aqueduct prevents the excess pressure in the brain from
detect hydrocephalus, because the blockage in the aqueduct prevents the excess pressure in the
brain from being transmitted to the spinal column. It is not convenient to measure pressure in the
brain directly because of its bony structure, so other methods of detecting hydrocephalus are
generally used. These include shining a light through the soft skull of an infant, ultrasonic scans,
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and x-ray.

Example:
If pressure in the CSF is measured, using a spinal tap with the patient sitting erect, then the
pressure due to the weight of the CSF in the spinal column increases the pressure. (a) What
pressure is measured in centimeters of water if the pressure around the brain is 10 mm Hg, and the
tap is at a point 60 cm lower than the brain? (b) What pressure in centimeters of water is measured
if the patient lies down? The density of CSF is 1.05 g/cm³.

Solution.
(a) Since the bottom of the manometer is at the same vertical height as the needle, the pressure
measured in the manometer is
P= hρg + Pь
where Pь is the pressure in the brain and hρg is the pressure due to the 60-cm column of CSF.
Putting everything into SI units yields a pressure (in N/m²) that can be converted to centimeters of
water:
P= (0.60m) (1.05x10³kg/m³) (9.8 m/sec²) +(0.01m) (13.6 x 10³ kg/m³) (9.8m/sec²)
=7.51 x 10³ N/m²
To convert this to centimeters of waters, we use P= h wρ wg, or h w = P
7.51𝑥 10³ N/m³
ℎ𝑤 = = 7.66 cm H2O
(10³ kg/m³) (9.8 m/sec²)

(b) If the patient lies down, then there is no excess pressure due to gravity and the pressure
measured will be equivalent to 10 mm Hg. That is,
P= Pb; h wρ wg = hHg ρHg g ; hw = hHg ρHg / ρw
= (10 mm) (13.6 x 10³ kg/m³)
(1.0x 10³ kg/m³) hw = 13.6 cm H2O
So there is an extra pressure of 63 cm of water (1.05 x 60 cm) when the person sits erect, due to
the weight of the fluid in the spinal column.
Spinal taps are performed for many reasons: to administer anesthetics; to introduce dye for
contract on an x ray, or to withdraw CSF for density measurements, for example. One side effect
of spinal taps is severe headache. Patients are instructed to lie motionless on their backs for several
hours following spinal taps to prevent loss of CSF at the entry point of the needle. As seen in the
example above, pressure at the entry point is significantly less if the person lies down, reducing the
chance of leakage. The skull and spinal column contain only about 125 cm³ of CSF, so even a
small loss is significant. Because the brain is deprived of some of its buoyant force support and of
its protection from physical blows, headaches ensue. The CSF is slowly replenished over a period
of four or five days, and in the meantime lying down distributes the remaining CSF evenly.

PRESSURE IN THE EYE

The shape of the eye is maintained by fluid pressure, called intraocular pressure, which is
normally in the range of 12.0 to 24.0 mm Hg. The eye has two fluid-filled chambers:
 Front chamber contains aqueous humor.
Aqueous Humor is similar in character
to cerebrospinal fluid and carries
nutrients to the lens and cornea of the
eye, neither of which has blood vessels.
Pressure created by the aqueous humor is
transmitted throughout the vitreous
humor.
 Rear chamber contains vitreous humor.
Vitreous Humor is a jellylike substance
that does not circulate and is not
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 replenished. Pressure in the vitreous humor holds the retina flush against the interior parts
of the eyeball and helps to maintain the shape of the eye.
When the drainage canal for the aqueous humor is partially blocked, the canal has a higher
resistance to flow, so fluid pressure rises. Excessive intraocular pressure can lead to a build-up in
pressure, a condition called glaucoma. The net pressure can become as great as 85.0 mmHg, an
abnormally large pressure that can permanently damage the
optic nerve.
People ages 40 years up are at greatest risk of
developing glaucoma and should have their intraocular
pressure tested routinely. Most measurements involve exerting
a force on the (anesthetized) eye over some area (a pressure)
and observing the eye’s response. A noncontact approach uses
a puff of air and a measurement is made of the force needed to
indent the eye. If the intraocular pressure is high, the eye will
deform less and rebound more vigorously than normal.
Excessive intraocular pressures can be detected reliably and
sometimes controlled effectively. The intraocular eye pressure
can be read with a tonometer.

PRESSURE IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

Food, drink and waste products moving through
the 6-m-long digestive tract or gastrointestinal (GI)
system are fluid or fluid like in character. Their flow is
regulated by pressure and especially by valves and
sphincter muscles in the system. the pressures in the GI
system are usually positive. The esophagus is an
exception; its pressure is directly related to thoracic
(chest) cavity pressure and is negative. Thoracic cavity
pressure is sometimes monitored by measuring pressure
in the esophagus. A sphincter is needed at the junction
of the esophagus and stomach to prevent backflow of
stomach fluids, the most common cause of “heartburn.”
During swallowing, muscle action in the esophagus
forces fluids into the stomach.
Pressures in the GI system are increased by
swallowed air or by flatus produced by bacterial action,
causing cramps. This is very noticeable in infants, who
often swallow air while eating. Blockages in the GI also
cause pressures to increase, even to the point of rupture,
due to the buildup of fluids.
The stomach is elastic, so pressure in it increases
gradually, becoming large only when the stomach is
overfilled. The sensation of hunger occurs when stomach pressure occurs when the stomach
pressure is low. The pressure is dependent on the capacity of the stomach, which can change with
eating habits. The stomach stretches considerably when a person consistently overeats, and a large
stomach’s relative emptiness triggers the sensation of hunger before the person really needs more
food.
A method of feeding moderately ill patients is shown in figure 7.4. a tube is inserted
through the patient’s nose and down the esophagus into the stomach (called nasogastric tube).
Liquid can be fed down the tube by gravity since pressure in the stomach is not very large. This
feeding method is useful for patients who have difficulty swallowing but re not liable to vomit.

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PRESSURE IN THE SKELETON
Pressures in the skeletal system are the largest in the body being as large as 7600 mm Hg
under ordinary circumstances, due both to the high values of
initial force, and the small areas to which this force is applied,
such as in the joints. Based on the image beside, (a) shows
the knee joint surface at the upper end of the lower leg bone
(the tibia). The surface of the joint is larger than the cross-
sectional area of the bone. This large area reduces the pressure
at the joint and prevent its deterioration. In (b), a cross-section
of the finger bone is shown. The bone is flat on the gripping
side. The large flat area reduces pressure on the tissues
covering the bone when forces are exerted by the hand.
Pressure in the skeletal system is the force carried by a
bone or joint divided by the area on which it is exerted. For
example, when a person lifts an object improperly, a force of
5000 N may be created between vertebrae in the spine, and
this may be applied to an area as small as 10 cm2.
The pressure created is: 𝑃 = 𝐹/𝐴 = (5000 𝑁)/(10−3 𝑚2 ) = 5.0 × 106 𝑁/𝑚2 or
about 50 atm.
This pressure can damage both the spinal discs (the cartilage between vertebrae), as well as
the bony vertebrae themselves. Even under normal circumstances, forces between vertebrae in the
spine are large enough to create pressures of several atmospheres. Most causes of excessive
pressure in the skeletal system can be avoided by lifting properly and avoiding extreme physical
activity.

BLOOD PRESSURE
Common arterial blood pressure measurements
typically produce values of 120 mm Hg and 80 mm Hg,
respectively, for systolic and diastolic pressures. Both
pressures have health implications. When systolic pressure
is chronically high, the risk of stroke and heart attack is
increased. If, however, it is too low, fainting is a problem.
 Systolic pressure is the maximum arterial
blood pressure and indicator for the blood
flow. It increases dramatically during
exercise to increase blood flow and returns
to normal afterward. This change produces no ill effects and, in fact, may be
beneficial to the tone of the circulatory system.
 Diastolic pressure is the minimum arterial
blood pressure and can be an indicator of
fluid balance. When low, it may indicate
that a person is hemorrhaging internally and
needs a transfusion. Conversely, high
diastolic pressure indicates a ballooning of
the blood vessels, which may be due to the
transfusion of too much fluid into the
circulatory system. High diastolic pressure
is also an indication that blood vessels are
not dilating properly to pass blood through. This can seriously strain the heart in its
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 attempt to pump blood.
Blood leaves the heart at about 120 mm Hg but its pressure continues to decrease (to almost 0) as it
goes from the aorta to smaller arteries to small veins.
The pressure difference in the circulatory system are
caused by blood flow through the system as well as
the position of the person. For a person standing up,
the pressure in the feet will be larger than at the heart
due to the weight of the blood (P= hg).
Standing a long time can lead to an
accumulation of blood in the legs and swelling. This is
the reason why soldiers who are required to stand still
for long periods of time have been known to faint.
Elastic bandages around the calf can help prevent this
accumulation and can also help provide increased
pressure to enable the veins to send blood back up to
the heart. For similar reasons, doctors recommend
tight stockings for long-haul flights.
Blood pressure may also be measured in the
major veins, the heart chambers, arteries to the brain,
and the lungs. But these pressures are usually only
monitored during surgery or for patients in intensive
care since the measurements are invasive. To obtain these pressure measurements, qualified health
care workers thread thin tubes, called catheters, into appropriate locations to transmit pressures to
external measuring devices.
The heart consists of two pumps—the right side forcing
blood through the lungs and the left causing blood to flow
through the rest of the body. Right-heart failure, for example,
results in a rise in the pressure in the vena cava and a drop in
pressure in the arteries to the lungs. Left-heart failure results in
a rise in the pressure entering the left side of the heart and a
drop in aortal pressure.

Pressure Measuring Devices

Fluid pressure is the force acted on or by the fluid per unit area (force acting perpendicular
to the area). This pressure is the result of molecular collisions in fluids. There are many ways to
measure pressure under different circumstances. The most commonly used are the following:
1. Barometer is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure. Because atmospheric pressure
changes with distance above or below sea level, a barometer can also be used to measure
altitude. There are two main types of barometers: mercury and aneroid. The barometer is a
device meant for measuring the local atmospheric pressure.

a. Aneroid Barometer

This device consists of a

partially evacuated corrugated
box prevented from collapsing
by a strong spring. Pressure
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variations cause the front part of the box to deform inwards or
outwards so that the pull of the spring will just resist the force due
to the pressure of the atmosphere. These small displacements are
amplified and move a pointer provided over a calibrated scale.

b. Siphon Barometer

This instrument is conveniently used as a household

barometer. This device consists of a glass tube bent at the lower
part to form a U-tube. The open end of the U-tube is enlarged.
This enlarged part takes the place of the bowl or reservoir of
the ordinary barometer. An iron block of small weight is
supported on the mercury surface partly by up thrust of
mercury on it and partly by a counterweight.

The iron block and the counterweight are connected by

a string taken over a pulley. Variation of atmospheric pressure
brings about rise and fall of the mercury surface in the open
end of the U-tube which in turn causes the pulley to rotate by
some angle. A pointer attached to the pulley will move over a
circular scale from which the atmospheric pressure may be
read.

c. Mercury barometer
The mercury barometer is a device used to measure
atmospheric pressure. It consist of a glass tube sealed at one
end, a container filled with mercury, and a slide with a
vernier scale. All the air is removed from the tube, and the
open end is inserted into the pool of mercury. The air of the
atmosphere pushes down on the surface of the mercury
causing it to rise. Mercury continues to rise in the column
until the weight of the column of mercury pushes down with
the pressure equal to the pressure with which the air pushes
down the rest of the mercury in the container. In this
instrument the atmospheric pressure is expressed in terms of
cmHg or mmHg. Under normal atmospheric conditions, the
mercury rises to a height of 76 cm or 760 mm. a drop in the
barometric reading indicates that atmospheric pressure is
low. This drop is usually accompanied by bad weather. The slide with a vernier scale is attached to
the device to measure the pressure more accurately.

2. Piezometer or Pressure Tube

The piezometer is used to

measure the static pressure head of a
liquid flowing at any section of a pipe.
It consists of a tube whose open lower
end is mounted flush with the inside
wall of the pipe. The other end of the
tube is exposed to the atmosphere.

The piezometer may also be so shaped

and connected to the pipe so that the
pressure head at the level of the centre
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of the pipe may be directly obtained. The piezometer has limitations. It is very difficult or
impracticable to measure high pressures. Particularly for liquids of low specific gravity, the height
of the liquid column in the piezometer will be inconveniently high requiring a very long
piezometer tube.

3. Manometers

a. The U-Tube Manometer (The Double Column Manometer):

Manometers are pressure gauging devices using

columns of different liquids. The fluid whose pressure is to
be determined is called the metered fluid while the other
fluid is called the manometer fluid. The manometer fluid
may be of higher density or lower density than that of the
metered fluid. These devices can be used to gauge pressures
of liquids as well as gases. Manometers have connecting U-
shaped tubes containing different fluids. In a manometer
when one limb of the device is open to the atmosphere it
records the pressure of the source connected to the other
limb. When both the limbs are connected to pressure
sources, the manometer records the difference of pressure
between the two pressure sources. Accordingly, these
manometers are called simple manometer and differential
manometer.

b. Inverted U-Tube Manometer:

Inverted U-Tube manometer consists of an inverted U –

Tube containing a light liquid. This is used to measure the
differences of low pressures between two points where
better accuracy is required. It generally consists of an air
cock at top of manometric fluid type.

Pressure difference can be calculated from equation

P1 – ρ1*g*H1 – ρm*g(H2– H1) = P2 – ρ2*gH2
c. Sensitive Manometers like Single Column Manometer
The single column manometer shown in Fig. 2.55
is a modified form of the ordinary U-tube manometer.
This manometer also has two limbs, one of which is made
very large in area compared with the other. The area of
the larger limb (also called the basin) may be made 100
times the area of the other limb. The manometer contains
a heavy liquid like mercury. The pipe in which the
pressure is to be determined is connected to the larger
limb.
Any pressure change in the pipe may only produce
a very small change in level of the manometer liquid
surface in the basin. This change in level may be
neglected. Hence the reading in the narrow tube only is to
be taken. Since there is no need to take any reading
corresponding to the liquid surface in the basin, it need not be made transparent. Usually it is made
of iron. The other limb i.e., the narrow tube may be vertical or inclined, to make it more sensitive.
d. The Inclined Tube Manometer:

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 This is an improvement over the single column manometer. In this case the manometer
tube is made inclined in order to make it more sensitive. Fig. 2.56 shows this type of manometer.
In this case the displacement of the heavy liquid in the narrow tube is relatively greater and hence
readings can be taken more accurately.

4. The Bourdon Gauge:

This device consists of a metallic tube of
elliptical section closed at one end A, the other end
B being fitted to the gauge point where the pressure
is to be measured. As the fluid enters the tube, the
tube tends to straighten.
By using a pinion-sector arrangement the
small elastic deformation of the tube is
communicated to a pointer in an amplified manner.
The pointer moves over a graduated dial. The
device is calibrated by subjecting it to various
known pressures.

The Bourdon gauge is suitable for measuring not

only high pressures such as those in a steam boiler or a water main but also negative or vacuum
pressures. A gauge which is so devised to measure positive as well as negative pressures is called a
compound gauge.

5. The Diaphragm Pressure Gauge:

This device is based on the same principle as that of the
Bourdon gauge. In this case a corrugated diaphragm is provided
instead of the Bourdon tube. When the device is fitted to any
gauge point, the diaphragm will undergo an elastic deformation.
This deformation is communicated to a pointer which moves on
a graduated scale indicating the pressure. It may be noted that
this device works on the same principle as that of the aneroid
barometer. This device is found suitable for measuring relatively
low pressures.

6. Micro Manometer (U-Tube with Enlarged Ends):

In order to increase the sensitivity of the U- tube gauge enlarged
ends are provided as shown in Fig. 2.59. Such an arrangement is
called a micro manometer. In this device we use two immiscible
manometer liquids.

7. Sphygmomanometer

A sphygmomanometer measures human blood pressure. It

consists of a rubber bulb, an inflatable sleeve and a pressure
gauge. In measuring blood pressure, the nurse wraps the upper
arm at a level of the heart with the inflatable sleeve. The sleeve is
inflated by squeezing the rubber bulb until the air pressure is high
enough to compress the main artery in the arm and stop the flow
of blood. The air pressure is slowly reduced to the point where
blood begins to flow. As the blood flows from the heart to the
arm, it spurts slightly each time the heart pumps. The first sound

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(pulse) heard when the blood starts to flow is detected by means of a stethoscope. At this point the
gauge reading is noted. The reading obtained is the air pressure in the sleeve which is equal to the
maximum pressure when the heart is pumping. It is called the systolic pressure. As the pressure in
the sleeve is reduced, the sound pulses came softer and softer until noting is heard in the
stethoscope. At this point the manometer reading is again recorded. The reading is the minimum
pressure of the blood in the artery which is called diastolic pressure. This indicates that the
spurting action has stopped and the blood is flowing smoothly through the artery even at low
pressure.

The systolic and diastolic pressures vary with age but in general the normal systolic
pressure is around 120 mmHg while the normal diastolic pressure is around 80 mmHg. High blood
pressure may result in internal hemorrhage due to bursting of blood vessels. It can also cause many
complications in the functioning of some organs of the body like the heart which might lead to a
heart disease. The flowing blood carries oxygen to the brain and body tissues. If the blood pressure
is too low, this function of blood will be affected and will result in hypoxia – a sickness due to lack
of oxygen in the body tissues.

Solve for the following problems and show your process.

1. A 1.0 m x 1.0 m x 2.0 m block weighs 100 N. Calculate the
pressure under the block when it is lying on its
a. rectangular surface
b. square surface (b)

2. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a swimming pool which is 1.8 m deep.

Part I. Problem Solving: Solve the following problems and show

your process.

1. The figure shows a fish in a lake. Find the

pressure of water exerted on the fish. (Density
of water = 1000kg/m3)

2. The pressure of the atmosphere is 1.013x 105 Pa. How much force does the atmosphere exert on
the roof of a house assuming that it is a flat roof with dimensions 9.0 m x 12.0 m. Will the roof
cave in? Support your answer.

3. How are dams constructed?

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Part II. Output Based
A. Choose one on the following topics and make a power point presentation:
1. Pressure Measuring Devices
2. Pressure in Human Body

B. Construct a simple open – tube manometer

Research on:

1. Blood pressure

a. What is hypertension? Hypotension?

b. How are hypertension and hypotension determined?
c. What are the effects of hypertension and hypotension?
(Note: Cite the references used in your readings.)

a. Books

1. Navaza, D. Science and Technology: You and the Natural World Series; Physics Textbook 2 nd
Edition. Phoenix Publishing House
2. Santisteban, CJ. (2009) Breaking Through Physics; C and E Publishing Inc.
3. Giancoli, S. (2016). Physics Principles with Application. 7 th Ed. Singapore.Pearson
Education
4. Serway, R and Vuille, C. (2013). College Physics 9th Ed, Lorong Chuan, Singapore.
CENGAGE Learning
5. Potter, M., Wiggert, D., & Ramadan, B. (2010), Mechanics of Fluids 4th Ed. Cenage
Learning, MA, USA
6. Urone, Peter Paul. (2013). Physics with Health Science Applications. 7 th Philippine
Reprint Edition

b. Website

a. https://www.tec-science.com/mechanics/gases-and-liquids/applications-and-examples-
of-hydrostatic-pressure/ 2019
b. http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Physics-Vol-2/Pressure-Real-life-
applications.html
c. https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-pressure-exerted-by-solids-and-
pressure-exerted-by-solids -and-pressure-exerted-by-liquids
d. https://www.britannica.com/science/atmospheric-pressure

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