Chapter 4 - Fluid Mechanics

Objective
Characteristics of Fluids and Solids
Fluids and solids share certain characteristics. Both can exert forces perpendicular
to their surface, although only solids can withstand shear (tangential) forces. Fluids
can impose large perpendicular forces; falling into water from a significant height
can be just as painful as falling onto a solid surface.
Qn: Find the specific gravity of benzene, given that its density is 877 kg/m3 .
Sol -
Pressure and Pressure measurement
Pressure is a ratio of the force per unit area. Pressure is a scalar quantity, the
equation for pressure is
where P is pressure, F is the magnitude of the normal force vector, and A is

the area.
Unit of Pressure
• The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is equivalent to theN/m2 .
• Commonly used units of pressure are millimeters of mercury (mmHg), torr, and the
atmosphere (atm). Millimeters of mercury and torr are identical units.
• The unit of atmosphere is based on the average atmospheric pressure at sea level.
• The conversions between Pa, mmHg, torr, and atm are as follows:
1.013 × 105 Pa = 760 mmHg ≡ 760 torr = 1 atm

Qn : The window of a skyscraper measures 2.0 m by 3.5 m. If a storm passes by and lowers the
pressure outside the window to 0.997 atm while the pressure inside the building remains at 1
atm, what is the net force pushing on the window?
Sol -
Absolute Pressure
Absolute (hydrostatic) pressure is the total pressure that is exerted on an object

that is submerged in a fluid.The equation for absolute pressure is
P = P0 + ρgz
where P is the absolute pressure, P0 is the incident or ambient pressure (the

pressure at the surface) or atm pressuure, ρ is the density of the fluid, g is
acceleration due to gravity, and z is the depth of the object.
Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure is the amount of pressure in a closed space above and beyond atmospheric
pressure. This is a more common pressure measurement than absolute pressure, and the
equation is -
Pgauge = P – Patm = (P0 + ρgz) – Patm

Pgauge = Pabsolute – Patm = (P0 + ρgz) – Patm
Case : when P0 = Patm, then Pgauge = P – P0 = ρgz at a depth z.

Qn : A diver in the ocean is 20 m below the surface. What is the gauge pressure at her depth?
What is the absolute pressure she experiences? (Note: The density of sea water is 1025
Kg/m3 )
Sol -
Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics is the study of fluids at rest and the forces and pressures
associated with standing fluids.
Pasacal’s Law or Pascal Principle
Pascal’s principle, also called Pascal’s law, in fluid

(gas or liquid) mechanics, statement that, in a fluid
at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in
one part is transmitted without loss to every portion
of the fluid and to the walls of the container.
Qn:A hydraulic press has a piston of radius 5 cm, which pushes down on an enclosed fluid. A
50 kg weight rests on this piston. Another piston in contact with this system has a radius of 20
cm. what force is needed on the larger piston to keep the press in equilibrium?
Sol -
Archimedes Principle
• Archimedes’ principle deals with the buoyancy of objects when placed in a
fluid. It helps us understand how ships stay a float and why we feel lighter
when we’re swimming.
• The principle states that a body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid will be
buoyed upwards by a force equal to the weight of the fluid that it displaces.
• If the object becomes completely submerged and the volume of displaced

fluid still does not exert a buoyant force equal to the weight of the object,
Qn : A wooden block floats in the ocean with half its volume submerged. Find the density of the
wood ρb. (Note: The density of sea water is 1025 kg/m3
Cohesion and Adhesion Force
• Cohesion occurs between molecules

with the same properties. In a
container of both water and oil, the
water molecules will be cohesive with
other water molecules, and the oil will
be cohesive with other oil molecules.
• Adhesion, which is the attractive force

that a molecule of the liquid feels
toward the molecules of some other
substance.
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
Poiseuille’s Law
With laminar flow through a pipe or confined space, it is possible to calculate the rate of flow
using Poiseuille’s law:
where Q is the flow rate (volume flowing per time), r is the radius of the tube, ΔP is
the pressure gradient, η (eta) is the viscosity of the fluid, and L is the length of the
pipe.
Turbulence and Speed
• Turbulent flow is rough and disorderly. Turbulence causes the formation of eddies, which are
swirls of fluid of varying sizes occurring typically on the downstream side of an obstacle
• In unobstructed fluid flow, turbulence can arise when the speed of the fluid exceeds a certain
critical speed.When the critical speed for a fluid is exceeded, the fluid demonstrates complex
flow patterns, and laminar flow occurs only in the thin layer of fluid adjacent to the wall, called
the boundary layer.
• The flow speed immediately at the wall is zero and increases uniformly throughout the layer.
STREAMLINES
• Streamlines indicate the pathways followed

by tiny fluid elements (sometimes called
fluid particles) as they move. The velocity
vector of a fluid particle will always be
tangential to the streamline at any point.
Streamlines never cross each other.
Continuity Equation
The product of linear speed and cross-sectional area is equal to the flow rate.
We’ve already said that the volumetric rate of flow for a fluid must be constant
throughout a closed system.
Q = v1A1 = v2A2
where Q is the flow rate, v1 and v2 are the linear speeds of the fluid at points 1
and 2, respectively, and A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas at these points.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
where P is the absolute

pressure of the fluid, ρ is the
density of the fluid, v is the
linear speed, g is acceleration
d u e t o g r a vi t y, a n d h i s t h e
height of the fluid above some
datum.
Qn : An office building with a bathroom 40 m above the ground has its water supply enter the
building at ground level through a pipe with an inner diameter of 4 cm. If the linear speed at the
ground floor is 2 m/s and at the bathroom is 8 m/s . determine the cross-sectional area of the
pipe in the bathroom. If the pressure in the bathroom is 3 × 105 Pa, what is the required
pressure at ground level?
Sol -
Pressure Measuring Devices-
1. Pitot tube
2. Venturimeter
3. Orrifcemeter
Fluids in Physiology
• The movement of blood, lymph, and air throughout the body and lungs follow
basic principles of fluid dynamics and pressure, with some minor alterations
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• The circulatory system is a closed loop that has a nonconstant flow rate. This nonconstant
flow is a result of valves, gravity, the physical properties of our vessels (elasticity, in
particular), and the mechanics of the hear
• blood volume entering the heart is always equal to blood volume leaving the heart during a
single cycle - Continuity Equation
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• During inspiration, there is a negative pressure gradient that moves air into the lungs. During
expiration, this gradient reverses. An additional point to note is that when air reaches the
alveoli, it has essentially no speed.
Practice Qn
1. Objects A and B are submerged at a depth of 1 m in a liquid with a specific gravity of
0.877. Given that the density of object B is one- third that of object A and that the gauge
pressure of object A is 3 atm, what is the gauge pressure of object B? (Note: Assume
atmospheric pressure is 1 atm and g = 9.8 m/s2
1. 1 atm
2. 2 atm
3. 3 atm
4. 9 atm
2. An anchor made of iron weighs 833 N on the deck of a ship. If the anchor is now
suspended in seawater by a massless chain, what is the tension in the chain? (Note: The
density of iron is 7800 kg/m3 and the density of seawater 1025 kg/m3
1. 100 N
2. 724 N
3. 833 N
4. 957 N
3. Two wooden balls of equal volume but different density are held beneath the surface of a
container of water. Ball A has a density of 0.5 g/m3 and ball B has a density of 0.7 g/cm3 When
the balls are released, they will accelerate upward to the surface. What is the relationship
between the acceleration of ball A and that of ball B?
1. Ball A has the greater acceleration.

2. Ball B has the greater acceleration.
3. Balls A and B have the same acceleration.
4. It cannot be determined from information given.
4. Water flows from a pipe of diameter 0.15 m into one of diameter 0.2 m. If
the speed in the 0.15 m pipe is 8 m/s . what is the speed in the 0.2 m pipe?
1. 3 m/s
2. 3.7 m/s
3. 4.5 m/s
4. 6 m/s
1. 4 N
2. 16 N
3. 32 N 4. No force
needs to be applied.
1. Ball A
2. Ball B
3. The forces will be equal.
4. It is impossible to know without
knowing the exact volume of each
ball.
1. 1%
2. 10%
3. 0.33 %
4. 30%

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Objective

Characteristics of Fluids and Solids

where P is pressure, F is the magnitude of the normal force vector, and A is

• The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is equivalent to theN/m2 .

1.013 × 105 Pa = 760 mmHg ≡ 760 torr = 1 atm

Absolute (hydrostatic) pressure is the total pressure that is exerted on an object

where P is the absolute pressure, P0 is the incident or ambient pressure (the

Pgauge = P – Patm = (P0 + ρgz) – Patm

Case : when P0 = Patm, then Pgauge = P – P0 = ρgz at a depth z.

Pascal’s principle, also called Pascal’s law, in fluid

• If the object becomes completely submerged and the volume of displaced

• Cohesion occurs between molecules

• Adhesion, which is the attractive force

• Streamlines indicate the pathways followed

where P is the absolute

1. Ball A has the greater acceleration.

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