Biophysics

Ch.1
Fluid Mechanics
by
Asst. Lec Amera Kanan Asst. Lec Ali A. Sallal
Viscosity
Real fluids (especially liquids) exhibit a kind of internal friction called viscosity.
Fluids that flow easily (like water and gasoline) have a fairly low viscosity;
liquids like molasses that are “thick” and flow with difficulty have a high
viscosity.
There are two different types of viscosity defined. The more common is dynamic
viscosity; the other is kinematic viscosity.
Dynamic Viscosity
When a body is placed under transverse (shear) stress s = Ft/A, the resulting
strain e is the tangential displacement x divided by the transverse distance l :

where S is the shear modulus. Fluid flow undergoes a similar kind of shear
stress; however, with fluids, we find that the stress is not proportional to the
strain, but to the rate of change of strain:
Dynamic Viscosity
where v is the fluid velocity. The proportionality constant , which takes the place
of the shear modulus, is the dynamic viscosity. The SI units of dynamic
viscosity are Pascal-seconds (Pa s). Other common units are the poise (1 P =
0.1 Pa s) and the centipoise (1 cP = 0.001 Pa s).
Viscosity, especially liquid viscosity, is temperature dependent. You’ve probably
noticed this from everyday experience: refrigerated maple syrup is fairly thick
(high viscosity), but if you warm it on the stove it becomes much thinner (low
viscosity).
Kinematic Viscosityn.
The kinematic viscosity is defined as
the dynamic viscosity divided by
the density:

SI units for kinematic viscosity are

m2/s. Other common units are
stokes (1 St = 10-4 m2/s) and
centistokes (1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s).
 Surface tension
A fluid is matter that has no definite shape and adjusts
to the container that it is placed in.
Gases and liquids are both fluids. All fluids are made
of molecules. Every molecules attracts other
molecules around it.
Liquids exhibit surface tension. A liquid has the
property that its free surface tends to contract to
minimum possible area and is therefore in a state of
tension.
The surface tension of the water allows the insect to
walk on the water without sinking.
The molecules of the liquid exerts attractive forces on
each other, which is called cohesive forces. Deep
inside a liquid, a molecule is surrounded by other
molecules in all directions. Therefore there is no net
force on it. At the surface, a molecule is surrounded
by only half as many molecules of the liquid,
because there are no molecules above the surface.
Surface tension, definition
The force of contraction is at right angles to an imaginary line of unit length,
tangential to the surface of a liquid, is called its surface tension:

. Here F is the force exerted by the "skin" of the Liquid. The SI unit of the surface
tension is N/m.

Why are soap bubbles spherical?

Generally, a system under the influence of forces moves towards an equilibrium
configuration that corresponds to minimum potential energy. The sphere
contains the most volume for the least area ⇒ minimum surface potential
energy. There are no cubic raindrops.
 Capillary Action
The molecules of the liquid exerts attractive forces on each
other, which is called cohesive forces.
When liquids come into contact with a solid surface, the
liquid's molecules are attracted by the solid's molecules
(called adhesive forces).
If these adhesive forces are stronger than the cohesive
forces, the liquid's molecules are pulled towards the solid
surface and liquid surface becomes curved inward (e.g.
water in a narrow tube).
If cohesive forces are stronger the surface becomes curved
outwards (e.g. with mercury instead).
This also explains why certain liquids spread when placed on
the solid surface and wet it (e.g., water on glass) while
others do not spread but form globules (e.g., mercury on
glass).
The behavior of the liquids in both Figures is called capillary
action.
150

Pressure
The pressure P of the fluid at the level
to which the device has been
submerged is the ratio of the force to
the area.

Pressure is a scalar quantity.

 Because it is proportional to the
magnitude of the force.
If the pressure varies over an area,
evaluate dF on a surface of area dA as
dF = P dA.
Unit of pressure is pascal (Pa)
1Pa  1 N/m2
Density Notes
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of the substance.
where r is the density, m is the mass of the substance and V is the Volume. The
unit of density in SI unit system is kg/m3.
The values of density for a substance vary slightly with temperature since volume
is temperature dependent.
The various densities indicate the average molecular spacing in a gas is much
greater than that in a solid or liquid.
 152

Variation of Pressure with Depth

If a fluid is at rest in a container, all portions of the fluid must
be in static equilibrium.
All points at the same depth must be at the same pressure.
Examine the darker region, a sample of liquid within a
cylinder.
 It has a cross-sectional area A.
 Extends from depth d to d + h below the surface.
Three external forces act on the region.
The liquid has a density of r
 Assume the density is the same throughout the fluid.
The three forces are:
 Downward force on the top, P0A
 Upward on the bottom, PA
 Gravity acting downward, Mg
 The mass can be found from the density: M = ρ V = ρ A h.
Pressure and Depth, final
Since the net force must be zero:

 F  PAˆj  P Aˆj  Mgˆj  0

o
 This chooses upward as positive.
Solving for the pressure gives
 P = P0 + r g h
The pressure P at a depth h below a point in the liquid at which the pressure is P0
is greater by an amount r g h.

Atmospheric Pressure
If the liquid is open to the atmosphere, and P0 is the pressure at the surface of
the liquid, then P0 is atmospheric pressure.
P0 = 1.00 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
Pascal’s Law

The pressure in a fluid depends on depth and on the

value of P0.
An increase in pressure at the surface must be
transmitted to every other point in the fluid.
This is the basis of Pascal’s law.
 Named for French science Blaise Pascal.
Pascal’s Law states a change in the pressure Applications to Pascal’s Law:
applied to a fluid is transmitted undiminished to
Hydraulic brakes
every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container. Car lifts
F1 F2 Hydraulic jacks
P1  P2 
A1 A2
Forklifts
155

Pascal’s Law, Example

An important application of Pascal’s Law is a
hydraulic press. The volume of liquid pushed
down on the left must equal the volume
pushed up on the right.
Since the volumes are equal, A1Dx1  A2 Dx2
Combining the equations,
 F1Dx1  F2 Dx2 which means Work1 =
Work2. This is a consequence of
Conservation of Energy.
Example
In a hydrochloric piston of radius 5cm and 50cm for the small and large pistons
respectively. Find the weight of a car that can be elevated if the force exerted by
the compressed air is (F1 = 100N).
Solution F1 F2 A  (0.05 ) 2
P  F2  1 F1 F2  100  10000 N
As shown in Figure A2 A1 A2  (0.005 ) 2
 156

Pressure Measurements:
Barometer Invented by Torricelli
A long closed tube is filled with mercury and inverted in a
dish of mercury.
 The closed end is nearly a vacuum.
Measures atmospheric pressure as Po = ρHg g h
One 1 atm = 0.760 m (of Hg)
Manometer
A device for measuring the pressure of a gas contained in
a vessel.
One end of the U-shaped tube is open to the atmosphere.
The other end is connected to the pressure to be
measured.
Pressure at B is P = Po+ρgh
The height can be calibrated to measure the pressure.
Manometer
The difference in height, "ℎ," which is the sum of
the readings above and below zero, indicates
the gauge pressure (𝑝 =ρ gℎ().
When a vacuum (low pressure) is applied to one
leg, the liquid rises in that leg and falls in the
other.
The difference in height, "ℎ," which is the sum of
the readings above and below zero, indicates
the amount of vacuum.
The manometer is a part of a device
called a sphygmomanometer
Absolute vs. Gauge Pressure
P = P0 + r g h
P is the absolute pressure.
The gauge pressure is P – P0.= r g h. This is what you measure in your tires.
Example: Calculate the pressure at an ocean depth of 500m. Assume the density of
water is 103kg/m3 and the atmospheric pressure is 1.01×105Pa..
Solution

Example: What is the pressure on a swimmer 5 𝑚 below the surface of a lake?

Solution: Using the depth of the swimmer is ℎ = 5 𝑚𝑚,
the density for water is 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘g𝑚−3, and
the atmospheric pressure is 1.013×105 𝑃a.
So using equation 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ to calculate the pressure on the swimmer to be:
Example
A simple U-tube that is open at both ends is partially filled
with water. Kerosene ( rk= 0.82×103kg/m3) is then
poured into on arm of the tube, forming a column 6cm
height, as shown in Figure. What is the difference h in
the heights of the two liquid surfaces?
Solution
160

Buoyant Force and Archimedes’s Principle

The buoyant force is the upward force exerted by a fluid on
any immersed object.
The magnitude of the buoyant force always equals the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
 This is called Archimedes’s Principle.
The pressure at the bottom of the cube is greater than the
pressure at the top of the cube.
The pressure at the top of the cube causes a downward
force of Ptop A.
The pressure at the bottom of the cube causes an upward
force of Pbot A.
B = (Pbot – Ptop) A = (ρfluid g h) A
B = ρfluid g Vdisp
 Vdisp = A h is the volume of the fluid displaced by the cube.
B=Mg
 Mg is the weight of the fluid displaced by the cube.
Archimedes's Principle: Totally Submerged Object
An object is totally submerged in a fluid of density rfluid.
The volume Vdisp of the fluid is equal to the volume of the object, Vobj.
The upward buoyant force is B = rfluid g Vobject
The downward gravitational force is Fg = Mg = = robj g Vobj
The net force is B - Fg = (rfluid – robj) g Vobj

If the density of the object is less than the density

of the fluid, the unsupported object accelerates
upward.
If the density of the object is more than the
density of the fluid, the unsupported object sinks.
If the density of the submerged object equals the
density of the fluid, the object remains in
equilibrium.
The direction of the motion of an object in a fluid
is determined only by the densities of the fluid
and the object.
Archimedes’s Principle: Floating Object
The density of the object is less than the density of the fluid.
The object is in static equilibrium.
The object is only partially submerged.
The upward buoyant force is balanced by the downward force of gravity.
Volume of the fluid displaced corresponds to the volume of the object beneath
the fluid level.
The fraction of the volume of a floating object that is below the fluid surface is
equal to the ratio of the density of the object to that of the fluid.
Archimedes’s Principle, Iceberg Example
What fraction of the iceberg is below water?
The iceberg is only partially submerged and so
Vdisp / Vice = rice / rseawater applies
About 89% of the ice is below the water’s
surface.
Archimedes’s Principle, Crown Example
Archimedes was (supposedly) asked, “Is the crown
made of pure gold?”
Crown’s weight in air = 7.84 N
Weight in water (submerged) = 6.84 N
Buoyant force will equal the apparent weight loss
 Difference in scale readings will be the buoyant
force
Categorize the crown as a particle in equilibrium.
SF = B + T2 – Fg = 0
B = Fg – T 2
(Weight in air – apparent “weight” in water)
Archimedes’s principle says B = rgV
 Find V
Then to find the material of the crown, rcrown = mcrown in air / V
Example
A solid object has a weight of 5N. When it is suspended from a spring scale and
submerged in water, the scale reads 3.5N as shown in Figure. What is the density
of the object?
Solution
The buoyant force (B) = the weight of the water displaced (Wwater)
B = 5 – 3.5 = 1.5N
Wwater = mg = r V g
hence, r V g = 1.5
Example
A cube of wood 20cm on a side and having a density of 0.65×103kg/m3floats on
water. What is the distance from the top of the cube to the water level?
Solution
(a) According to Archimedes principle
B = rw V g = (1g/cm3)×[20×20×(20-h)]g
but
B = weight of the wood = mg = rwood Vwood g = (0.65g/cm 3)(20) 3 hence,
(1g/cm3)×[20×20×(20-h)]g = (0.65g/cm3)(20) 3
20 – h =20×0.65 then h = 20(1-0.65) = 7cm
(b) B = W + Mg where M is the mass of lead
1(20)3 g = (0.65)(20)3 g + Mg
M = 20 3(1- 0.65) = 2800 g = 2.8kg
 Types of Fluid Flow
Laminar flow
 Steady flow
 Each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path.
 The paths of the different particles never cross each other.
 Every given fluid particle arriving at a given point has the same velocity.
Turbulent flow
 An irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-like regions.
 Turbulent flow occurs when the particles go above some critical speed.

Ideal Fluid Flow

 The fluid is non-viscous – internal friction is neglected
 The flow is steady: all particles passing through a point have the same velocity.
 The fluid is incompressible: the density of the incompressible fluid remains
constant.
 The flow is irrotational: the fluid has no angular momentum about any point.
167

Equation of Continuity
Consider a fluid moving through a pipe of non-uniform size
Consider the small blue-colored portion of the fluid.
At t = 0, the blue portion is flowing through a cross section of
area A1 at speed v1.
At the end of Δt , the blue portion is flowing through a cross
section of area A2 at speed v2.
The mass that crosses A1 in some time interval is the same
as the mass that crosses A2 in that same time interval.
m1 = m2 or r A1v1 Δt = r A2v2 Δt
The fluid is incompressible, so r is a constant.
A1v1 = A2v2 = constant
 This is called the equation of continuity for fluids.
The speed is high where the tube is constricted (small A).
The speed is low where the tube is wide (large A).
The product, Av, is called the volume flux or the flow rate.
Example: A water pipe of radius 3cm is used to fill a 40liter bucket. If it takes 5min
to fill the bucket, what is the speed v at which the water leave the pipe?
Solution:
The cross sectional area of the pipe A is

Example: If pipe 1 diameter = 50mm, mean velocity 2m/s, pipe 2 diameter 40mm
takes 30% of total discharge and pipe 3 diameter 60mm. What are the values
of discharge and mean velocity in each pipe?
169

Bernoulli’s Equation, 1
Daniel Bernoulli. (1700 – 1782)
Consider the two shaded segments.
The volumes of both segments are equal.
The net work done on the segment is W =(P1 –
P2) V.
Part of the work goes into changing the kinetic
energy and some to changing the gravitational
potential energy.
The work is negative because the force on the
segment of fluid is to the left and the
displacement of the point of application of the
force is to the right. Part of the work goes into
changing in kinetic energy of the segment of
fluid:
 DK = ½ mv22 - ½ mv12
 The masses are the same since the
volumes are the same.
Bernoulli’s Equation, 2
 There is no change in the kinetic energy of the gray portion since we are
assuming streamline flow.
The change in gravitational potential energy:
 DU = mgy2 – mgy1
The work also equals the change in energy.
Combining:
 (P1 – P2)V =½ mv22 - ½ mv12 + mgy2 – mgy1
Rearranging and expressing in terms of density:
P1 + ½ rv12 + ρgy1 = P2 + ½ rv22 + ρgy2
This is Bernoulli’s Equation as applied to an ideal fluid and is often expressed as
P + ½ r v 2 + r g y = constant
When the fluid is at rest, this becomes P1 – P2 = r g h which is consistent with
the pressure variation with depth we found earlier .
 As the speed increases, the pressure decreases.
Example
A large storage tank filled with water develops a small
hole in its side at a point 16m below the water level. If
the rate of flow from the leak is 2.5×10-3m3/min,
determine (a) the speed at which the water leaves the
hole and (b) the diameter of the hole.
Solution
(a) The top of the tank is open then P1 = Pa
The water flow rate is 2.5×10-3m3/min = 4.167×10-5m3/s
Assuming the speed v1 = 0, and P1=P2=Pa
Example
The diameter of a horizontal blood vessel is reduced from 12 to 4 mm. What is
the flow rate of blood in the vessel, if the pressure at the wide part is 8 kPa
and 4 kPa at the narrow one. (Take the density of blood to be 1060 kgm-3.)
Solution
By applying Bernoulli's equation for horizontal flow and by taking one
point in the wider section and the other at the narrower one, we get:

Using the continuity equation,

Then substitute and solve for 𝑣_narr to get

The flow rate is constant everywhere and can be calculated from the
relation
173

Applications of Fluid Dynamics – Airplane Wing

Streamline flow around a moving airplane wing.
Lift is the upward force on the wing from the air.
Drag is the resistance.
The curvature of the wing surfaces causes the pressure
above the wing to be lower than that below the wing due to
the Bernoulli effect.
The lift depends on the speed of the airplane, the area of
the wing, its curvature, and the angle between the wing and
the horizontal.
In general, an object moving through a fluid experiences lift
as a result of any effect that causes the fluid to change its
direction as it flows past the object.
Some factors that influence lift are:
 The shape of the object
 The object’s orientation with respect to the fluid flow
 Any spinning of the object
 The texture of the object’s surface
174

Golf Ball Example

The ball is given a rapid backspin.
The dimples increase friction.
 Increases lift
It travels farther than if it was not spinning.
The lift gained by spinning the ball more than
compensates for the loss of range due to the effect
of friction on the translational motion of the ball.
Atomizer Example
A stream of air passes over one end of an open
tube.
The other end is immersed in a liquid.
The moving air reduces the pressure above the
tube.
The fluid rises into the air stream.
The liquid is dispersed into a fine spray of
droplets.