FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H.

Al-Marj

CHAPTER ONE
Fundamental Of Fluid Mechanics
1-1 INTRODUCTION

 Fluid mechanics: is that section of applied mechanics, concerned with the

statics and dynamics of liquids and gases.
 Fluid statics: which treats fluids in the equilibrium state of no shear
stress.
 Fluid dynamics: which treats when portions of fluid are in motion relative
to other parts.
 A fluid: is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of
shearing forces, however small they may be. Conversely, it follows that:
if a fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces acting and, therefore,
all forces in the fluid must be perpendicular to the planes up on which
they act.
 The differences between the behaviors of solid & fluid under an applied
force are as follows:
1- For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that
the elastic limit is not exceeded, while for a fluid, the rate of strain is
proportional to the applied stress.
2- The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is
applied and if the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation disappears
when the force is removed. A fluid continuous to flow as long as the
force is applied and will not recover its original form when the force is
removed.

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

 Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of

fluids, they have many distinctive characteristics of their own:
 A liquid : is difficult to compress and for many purposes, may be
regarded as incompressible . A given mass of liquid occupies a
fixed volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its container, and
a free surface is formed if the volume of the container is greater
than that of the liquid.
 A gas: is comparatively easy to compress. Change of volume with
pressure are large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to
change of temperature. A given mass of gas has no fixed volume
and will expand continuously unless restrained by a containing
vessel. It will completely fill any vessel in which it is placed and,
therefore, does not form a free surface.

1-2 FLUID PROPERTIES

1- Density:
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit
volume of the substance.
It can be expressed in three different ways:

1-1- Mass Density ( ρ )

Is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume .
Units: kg/m3 or N.sec2/m4 in SI units.
Typical values:
Water= 1000 kg/m3 , Mercury= 13546 kg/m3 , Paraffin oil= 800 kg/m3.
At pressure 1.013* 10-5 N/m2 & T= 288.15 K.

1-2- Specific Weight ( γ,ѡ )

Is denoted also as specific gravity and defined as the weight per unit
volume, or the force exerted by gravity ,g, up on a unit volume of the
substance.

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

By Newton's second law , since:

Weight per unit volume= mass per unit volume * g
γ = ρ * g
Units: N/m3
Typical values:
Water= 9810N/m3 , Mercury = 132943N/m3
Air=12.07 N/m3 , Paraffin oil= 7851N/m3.
1-3- Relative Density (σ )
Is defined as the ratio of mass density of a substance to some standard
mass density.
For solid & liquids this standard mass density is the maximum mass
density for water ( which occurs at 4◦C ) at atmospheric pressure.
σ =ρ substance / ρ water at 4◦C
Units: None , since a ratio is a pure number.

Typical values: water =1 , Mercury= 13.5, Paraffin oil=0.

2-Compressibility And Bulk Modulus

Bulk modulus of elasticity, EV, is defined as the ratio of the change

in pressure to the rate of change of volume due to the change in pressure. It can
also be expressed in terms of change in density.

EV = change of pressure / volumetric change

EV = dp/ -dv/v …………………………….(1)

For unit mass, ρ= 1/v……………………………..(2)

d ρ = -dv/v2 , dv= - d ρ v2 ………………………...(3)

substitute 2&3 in 1

EV = dp/ ( d ρ v2/v) = dp/d ρ v= ρ dp/d ρ

EV= ρ dp/d ρ

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

Liquids are ordinarily considered incompressible fluid since the change in

density with pressure is so small to be negligible ( EV= constant ) . and when
(EV ) change this means the fluid is a compressible as in air.

Example 1.1:Determine the bulk modulus of a liquid whose volume decreases

by 4% for an increase in pressure of 500 *10 5 Pa.

EV= -dp/dv/v= (-500*105) /(-4/100)= 1.25* 109Pa.

3-Vapor Pressure

The pressure at which a liquid will boil is called Vapor Pressure . this
pressure is a function of temperature (Vapor Pressure increase with
temperature). The phenomena of Vaporization & Boiling are differential as
follows:

 Vaporization if ( Vapor Pressure < Pressure above liquid surface at a

temperature)

 Boiling if (Vapor Pressure ≥ Pressure above liquid surface at a

temperature)

4- Surface Tension

All liquids exhibit a free surface known as meniscus when in contact with
vapor or gas. Liquid molecules exhibit cohesive forces binding them with each
other. The molecules below the surface are generally free to move within the
liquid and they move at random. When they reach the surface they reach a dead
end in the sense that no molecules are present in great numbers above the
surface to attract or pull them out of the surface so they stop and return back
into the liquid.

The cohesive bond exhibit a tensile strength for the surface layer and this
is known as surface tension. Force is found necessary to stretch the surface.

Surface tension may also be defined as the work in N/m required to create
unit surface of the liquid. The work is actually required for pulling up the
molecules with lower energy from below to form the surface.

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

The formation of bubbles, droplets, and free jets are due to surface
tension of the liquid.

5- Capillarity.

Is important in fluid measurements when using tubes smaller than about

10mm in diameter.

Capillary rise (or depression) in a tube can be calculated by making force

balances. The forces acting are force due to surface tension & gravity.

The force due to surface tension FS= π .d .σ.cosϴ

Where ϴ =the wetting angle or contact angle.

If tube (made of glass) is clean that ϴ = zero for Water and about 140◦ for
Mercury.

This is opposed by the gravity force on the column of fluid, which is

equal to the height of the liquid which is above or below the free surface and
which equals Fg = (π /4) .d2. h.g.ρ

Now by equating these forces and solving for capillary rise or depression,
we find:

h= 4σ.cos ϴ/ρ.g.d

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

6- Viscosity

Is a measure of its resistance to shear force or any deformation. The

fraction forces in fluid flow result from the cohesion & momentum interchange
between molecules in the fluid.

As the temperature increases the viscosities of all liquids decrease. While

the viscosities of all gases increase, this is because the force of cohesion which
diminishes with temperature, predominates with liquids, while with the gases
the predominating factor is the interchange of molecules between the layers of
different velocity.

Newton's law of viscosity states that shear force to be applied for

deformation rate of (du/dy) over an area A is given by:

F= μ A (du/ dy)

F/A= μ (du/dy)= τ

F= applied force in N

τ = Shear stress N/m2

A= area in m2

du/dy : is the velocity gradient (or the rate of deformation 1/s) perpendicular to
flow direction (assume linear)

μ ( mu) = proportionality constant which defined as dynamic or absolute

viscosity (N.sec./m2=Pa. sec.).

While ⱱ (Nu) [ kinematic viscosity ] ( m2/sec).

ⱱ = μ /ρ

Ideal (non-viscous) fluid μ=0

Fluid Real (viscous) fluid μ ≠ 0

Newtonian (μ=cons.) Non- Newtonian ( μ= variable)

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

Figure 1-1 Types of fluids

Example 1.2- Find the required force F to pull the thin plate in the middle
point between two large plates, which the distance between them is 0.02m . The
fluid between large plates have (μ= 0.862 Pa.sec) & the surface area of thin
plate is( 0.465m2) for each face. The constant velocity of thin plate is
(0.152m/s) ( assume linear velocity distribution)

Solution

∑F= 0

F= F1+F2

τ= F/A

F=τ . A

F1= μ1 (du1/dy1) .A1

F2= μ2 (du2/dy2) .A2

du1/dy1= (vb-va) / (yb-ya)

= (0.152-0)/( 0.01-0)

F1= 0.862* (0.152/0.01) *0.465= 6.092N

F= 2*F1= 2*6.092= 12.183N.

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

Example 1.3- Along circular rod of 70mm diameter slides concentrically in

150mm long fixed tube, shown below, of 70.5mm internal diameter. The
annular space between the rod & the tube is filled with oil of viscosity (0.193
Pa. sec). what force is required to slide the rod through the tube with a constant
velocity of (1m/ses).

Solution

F=μ A du/dy

A= π (0.07)(0.15)= 0.03297m2

du/dy= (vb-va) / (yb-ya)

= (1-0) / 0.25 *10-3

= 4000

F= 0193 *0.03297*4000=25.45N.

Example 1-4 A cylinder (50mm) in radius & (0.6m) in length, rotates axially
inside a fixed cylinder of radius (56mm) as shown below. A liquid of (μ= 1.48
Pa. sec) fills the space between the two cylinders & the space between the inner
cylinder & the base. Calculate the torque required to rotate the inner cylinder at
angular velocity of (20 r.p.m) [ Take ends effect into consideration]

Solution

T= F* arm

T=T1+T2

T1= Torque exerted on the wall of

the inner cylinder

T1 =F1 *r1 = F1*0.05

F1=∑F= μ A.du/dy

A= 2π (0.05) (0.6)=0.1884m2

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

du/dy= wr/0.006

w= angular velocity(rad/sec)

v= angular velocity (r.p.m)

w= 2πv/60

w= 2π(20)/60=2.09rad/sec

du/dy=(2.09) (0.05)/0.006=17.42

F1= 1.48 (0.1884)( 17.42)= 4.86N

T1= F1 r1=(4.86) (0.05)= 0.243N.m

T2= F2 r

F2=μ A2 du/dy

A2= 2π r dr

du/dy= wr/0.006= 2.09r/0.006

F2= 1.48 (2π r dr) (2.09r/0.006)

T2= ʃ00.052π (1.48*2.09*r3*dr/0.006=5.06*10-3N.m

T= 0.243+0.00506=0.248N.m

1-3 Perfect Gas Law

The characteristics' equation for gases can be derived from Boyle's Law
and Charles' Law.

Boyle's Law states that

V ὰ 1/P at constant temperature

V.P= constant……………………..(1)

And Charles' Law states that

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

VὰT at constant pressure

V/T= constant………………………..(2)

Combining these two equation leads to Avogadro's Law

PV/T= R or PV= m RT ……………………(3)

Where:

P: Pressure (N/m2)

V: Volume (m3)

T: Temperature (C◦+273)

R: Individual gas constant

m: mass (kg)

For same gas at constant temperature & pressure and for

equilibrium :
P1 V1 / T1 =P2 V2 / T2

 Perfect Gas Density

In perfect or ideal gas the change in density is directly related to the

change of temperature & pressure as expressed:

ρ= m/v

For gas ρgas= Mw/ Vgas

Vgas= RT/P

ρgas= Mw P/RT

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

Where:

Mw= Molal weight

P= Absolute pressure

T= Absolute temperature (C◦+273)

R=Individual constant of gas

In general
P= ρ R T

P= ρ (ʎ / Mw) T

Where:

P= Pressure (N/m2)

ρ= Gas density (kg/m3)

T= Absolute temperature (C◦+273) (K)

R= Gas constant = ʎ / Mw

ʎ = Universal gas constant = 8314 J/ kg.K

Example 1-5 Find the density of a gas which has molal weight of 44 , at P =0.8
mPa. and T=20◦C.

Solution

ρ =P/RT= 0.8* 106/ ((8314/44)(273+20))=14.45 kg/m3.

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 FLUID MECHANICS A.L. OHOOD K.H. Al-Marj

Example 1-6 A balloon is filled with 6kg of hydrogen (Mw =2) at 2 bar and 20◦C
. what will be the diameter of the balloon when it reaches an altitude where the
pressure and temperature are 0.2 bar & -60◦C. Assume that the pressure and
temperature inside are the same as that at outside at this altitude.

Solution

P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2

V1= RT1/P1

RH= 8314/2=4157J/kg.K

V1= 6*4157 ( 273+20)/ 2*105=36.54 m3

P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2

[(2*105*36.54) / (273+20)]=[(0.2*105*V2) / ( 273- 60)]

V2= 265.63m3

Consider the balloon as a sphere of radius r

V= 4/3 π r3 =265.63 m3

r=3.99

d=7.98m

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