O'level Physics Pressure

Pressure
What is Pressure?
You can push a drawing pin into a piece of wood – but you cannot
push your finger into the wood even if you exert a larger force. The
difference in each case is the different area in contact. The pin has a
much smaller area in contact than the finger. Hence, exerts a much
higher pressure that makes the substance yield to the force.
Pressure (p) is defined as the perpendicular force (F) acting on unit

area of a surface or the force per unit area (A).
P=F/A
SI unit of pressure is the Pascal or newton per metre square. (Pa
or Nm−2) It is a scalar quantity.
Example
Find the pressure exerted on a person by a few plastic blocks of total

mass 42 kg, the bottom of which in contact with the person has an
area of 840 cm2. State what will happen to the pressure if the area is
now decreased to a very small value.
Hydrostatic Pressure
Liquids and gases are called fluids, as they can change their shapes easily. A
fluid is a substance that can flow. In the figure above, we notice that the water
from the right container is going further than the water from the left container.
The only difference between the two container is the height of the water column.
Hence, we know that the amount of pressure inside a body of fluids increases
with its depth (or height of fluid column).
Pressure Due to Fluid Column

Pressure due to a fluid column (p) = height of column (h) X density of the fluid (ρ)
X gravitational field strength (g). (The derivation of this formula can be found at the
bottom of this post.)
p=ρgh
In a fluid, if two points are separated by a vertical height, their difference in
pressure is:
Δp=ρgΔh
From the formula, p=ρgh, we can see that the pressure depends on the depth
and density of the liquid and NOT on the cross-sectional area or volume of the
liquid. Hence, the water pressure at the bottom of the container in the figure
above will be the same throughout the container as the water level is the same!
The shape of the container does NOT matter in the computation of the water
pressure!
Properties (Summary)
 Pressure is transmitted throughout the liquid
 Pressure acts in all directions
 All points at the same depth in a fluid are at the same pressure
 Pressure increases with depth
 Pressure is dependent not on the shape of the container but on its depth.
Pressure at Different Depths
A object immersed in a uniform liquid will experience a pressure which depends
only on the height of the liquid above the object.
Hence, consider the picture below.

Pressure at point A=P0+ρgh
, where P0P0 is the atmospheric pressure
Simple derivation of the formula for

hydrostatic pressure (p=ρgh):
Consider a column of water occupying a total volume V and a base surface area
of A.
The weight of all the water is:
W=mg
Recall that the mass of the water is just the density of the water X volume of
water: m=ρV. Hence,
W=ρVg
We note that volume is a product of surface area and height: V=Ah
W=ρAhg
We recall that formula for pressure: p=FA. Sub. in W into F to give:
p=ρAhg/A=ρhg
Barometer & Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
Air is a fluid. We are living at the bottom of a “sea” of air called the atmosphere.
The weight of the Earth’s atmosphere pushing down on each unit area of Earth’s
surface constitutes the atmospheric pressure.
Origin of Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure exists because of molecular bombardment by energetic air

molecules. Under normal conditions, there is a large number of air molecules
moving at high velocities. This large number of air molecules make frequent
collisions with the walls of the container. When the air molecules hit the wall, they
rebound from the wall and a force is exerted on the wall from the rebound. The
force per unit area exerted by the air molecules on the wall is referred to as the
air pressure on the wall. More information on this can be found in Three States of
Matter and the subsequent sub-topics.
Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level
The pressure exerted by this layer of air at sea level

is 1.013×105Pa1.013×105Pa. This value is referred to as one
atmosphere and is equivalent to placing 1 kg weight on an area of 1 cm21 cm2.
The pressure at higher altitudes is lower.
Barometer
Mercury barometer
A barometer is a simple instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure.
A barometer can be made by filling up a long glass tube with mercury, then
turning it upside down in a bath of mercury as shown. The space at the top of the
barometer tube is a vacuum and exerts no pressure on the mercury column.
The atmosphere pushes against the mercury bath, which in turn pushes the
mercury up the tube. Hence,
Pressure due to mercury column=Pressure due to atmospheric pressure

The vertical height of the mercury column gives the required atmospheric
pressure.
From Hydrostatic Pressure, we know that:

pair=pmercury column=hρg
,where h is the height of mercury column, ρρ is density of mercury, g
is gravitational acceleration.
Length of Mercury Column at 1 atmosphere
We can compute the length of the mercury column if 1 atm ( 1.013×105 Pa) of

atmospheric pressure is acting on the mercury bath. The computation is as
follows: (Density of mercury is 13.6×103kg m−3)
p1atm=ρgh
1.013×105=13.6×103×9.8×h
h=0.760 m
h=76 cm
Barometers of Different Heights & Sizes
The figure above shows barometers of different heights and sizes. Since the
principle behind the barometer is the phenomenon of hydrostatic pressure, we
know that only the height of the fluid column is important in the determination of
the pressure at the bottom. This means that the height, h in the above figure will
remain unchanged if:
1. the glass tube is lifted up slightly from the dish

2. the glass tube is lowered further into the dish
3. the diameter of the glass tube increases
4. the glass tube is tilted
5. the quantity of mercury in the dish is increased.
Pressures at Different Heights of a
Barometer
Let’s consider the figure above. We have:
 The pressure at Pa is zero. (It is a vacuum in the air gap.)

 The pressure at Pb is due to 26 cm of mercury.
 The pressure at Pe is due to 76 cm of mercury.
 The pressure at Pf is due to 84 cm of mercury.
 The pressure at Pb and Pc is the same. Similarly, the pressure
at Pd and Pe is the same. This is because the points are at the same level.
Characteristics
 Standard Atmosphere is the mean atmospheric pressure naturally existing

at sea level on the surface of the Earth. It is equivalent to the pressure
exerted by a vertical column of mercury (as in a barometer) 760 mm high
or 101,325 Pa.
 If the mercury is replaced by water, the vertical column of water equivalent
to the atmospheric pressure is approximately 10 m.
 The atmosphere pressure does vary from day to day and place to place.
Manometer
A differential manometer is a simple instrument for comparing pressures,
usually by the difference in height of two liquid columns.
 The simplest of such instrument is a U-tube containing some liquid, usually

mercury, water or oil.
 The pressure exerted by a confined gas changes the levels of the mercury
in the manometer. The total pressure of a gas or liquid is the total pressure
it exerts, including the effect of atmospheric pressure. (patm).
Changes to Liquid Levels in Manometer
When the manometer is not connected to any gas supply, the liquid levels in the
left and right side of the are equal since atmospheric pressure acts on both
surfaces of the liquid.
When one end of the tube is connected to a gas supply, the pressure exerted by
the gas changes the levels of the mercury column.
Note: If you are unsure of the computation of pressure due to mercury column,
please refer to hydrostatic pressure.
If the gas pressure (from the gas supply) is greater than the atmospheric
pressure (as shown by the image above), it will drive down the liquid level in the
left side of the manometer. The pressure of the gas, Pgas can be calculated by:
Pgas=atm.pressure + pressureofmercurycolumn (height, Δh)
Pgas=patm+ρgΔh
If the gas pressure (from the gas supply) is smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, it will drive down the liquid level in the right side of the manometer. The
pressure of the gas, Pgas can be calculated by:
Pgas=atm. pressure − pressure of mercury column (height, Δh)
Pgas=patm−ρgΔh
Hydraulic systems
Car lift
One simple application is shown in the diagram above, the lifting of a car. If there
is a relatively small force F1, pushing down on piston A1, the pressure on the
fluid is p1=F1/A1.
The pressure is transmitted via the incompressible fluid to the other piston A2:
p1=p2
F1/A1=F2/A2
F1=A1/A2 (F2)
If the area A2 is made much larger than that of A1, the force F1 is now ‘multiplied’
many folds. This force, F2 can be used to lift very heavy objects such as cars.
Hydraulic press
In the hydraulic press, a small force applied to a small piston in a small cylinder is
transmitted through a tube to a large cylinder, where it presses equally against all
sides of the cylinder, including the large piston, which, in turn, produces a large
compressive force upon a stationary anvil or base-plate. A pump is used to force
the liquid into the cylinder.
The hydraulic press is widely used in industry for forming metals and for other
tasks where a large force is required. It is manufactured in a wide variety of
styles and sizes and in capacities ranging from 10 kN or less to 100 kN or more.
Hydraulic Brakes
Most brakes act on the rotating mechanical elements and absorb kinetic energy
either mechanically, hydraulically, or electrically.
Mechanical hydraulic brakes are the most common, like those found in cars.
They dissipate kinetic energy in the form of heat generated by the mechanical
friction between a rotating metallic drum or disk and a stationary friction element
brought into contact with it by hydraulic or pneumatic means.
When the driver depresses the brake pedal, the pedal exerts a pressure on the
liquid. This pressure is transmitted via the liquid evenly to the 4 larger pistons at
the wheels. The pressure makes the pistons compress the brake discs onto the
running wheels. If the ratio of its areas is 10 times, the force exerted at the
wheels would be 10 times.
Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure applied to the gas.
pV=constant
p1V1=p2V2
where
p1 = initial pressure

V1 = initial volume
p2 = final pressure
V2 = final volume

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Pressure

Pressure (p) is defined as the perpendicular force (F) acting on unit

Find the pressure exerted on a person by a few plastic blocks of total

Pressure Due to Fluid Column

Hence, consider the picture below.

Simple derivation of the formula for

The weight of all the water is:

We recall that formula for pressure: p=FA. Sub. in W into F to give:

Barometer & Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure exists because of molecular bombardment by energetic air

The pressure exerted by this layer of air at sea level

Pressure due to mercury column=Pressure due to atmospheric pressure

From Hydrostatic Pressure, we know that:

Length of Mercury Column at 1 atmosphere

We can compute the length of the mercury column if 1 atm ( 1.013×105 Pa) of

1. the glass tube is lifted up slightly from the dish

Let’s consider the figure above. We have:

 The pressure at Pa is zero. (It is a vacuum in the air gap.)

 Standard Atmosphere is the mean atmospheric pressure naturally existing

 The simplest of such instrument is a U-tube containing some liquid, usually

p1 = initial pressure

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