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PHYSICS NOTE FOR FORM THREE

PRESSURE
 Pressure is the force acting normally (perpendicularly)per unit area. That is
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
Pressure(P)=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
 The SI Unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa).
 Since SI Unit of force is Newton N and that of area is square meter (𝑚2 ), the
other unit of pressure is Newton per square meter (𝑁⁄𝑚2 ).
 1 Pascal is defined as one newton per square meter. That is 1 Pa= 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 For greatest pressure =
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 For least pressure =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
 Pressure is directly proportional to force i.e. 𝑃 ∝ 𝐹 and inversely proportional to
1
area i.e. 𝑃 ∝ .
𝐴

PRESSURE IN SOLIDS
 A regular solid exerts pressure on the surface it comes into contact with.
 Examples of regular solids are rectangular, cylindrical and conical blocks.
 Pressure in solids depends on the force exerted and the area of contact with the
solid.
 The force which a solid exerts on the surface which supports it is equal in value
to the object’s weight (𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑔).
Therefore, pressure exerted by a solid can be calculated using P = 𝑚𝑔⁄𝐴 or
P= 𝑊 ⁄𝐴, where m is mass in Kg and g is acceleration due to gravity.
 Pressure in solids acts in one direction only i.e. downwards.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRESSURE EXERTED BY SOLIDS

1. Force applied (Size of the force)
 Pressure exerted by solids can increase with the increase in the size of the
force applied when surface area is kept constant because more force acts
per given area. Thus, the greater the force, the larger the pressure.

2. Contact surface area (area of contact)

 The size of pressure is affected by the surface area on which force is
exerted. A larger surface area causes less pressure and a small area of
contact increases pressure or causes high pressure since pressure is
inversely proportional to area. Thus, the smaller the area the larger the
pressure and vice versa.

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APPLICATIONS OF SOLID PRESSURE IN EVERY DAY LIFE

1. KNIFE
A knife has a sharp edge with a small surface area so that it easily cuts on object
because of high pressure.

2. TRACTOR TYRES
Tractors do not sink on soft grounds because their tyres are wide and have a
bigger surface area. This reduce pressure.

3. NEEDLE
A needle has a sharp point and with a very small area. This increases pressure it
exerts on cloth and it easily goes through.

CALCULATIONS ON SOLID PRESSURE

Examples
1. A force of 100 N acts on an area of 4 m2, calculate the pressure produced.
Solution
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
Pressure =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
Given; force =100 N and area = 4 m2
100 𝑁
Pressure =
4 𝑚2

= 25𝑁⁄𝑚2
= 25 Pa.

2. A rectangular block of mass 10 Kg has measurements 0.2 m by 0.5 m by 0.3

m. calculate;
i. the least pressure produced by the block
ii. the greatest pressure produced by the block
solution
i. Force =Weight=mg
F = 10 Kg × 10 N/Kg
= 100 N
For least pressure, area should be maximum, so max area = 0.5 m×0.3
m =0.15 m2
100 𝑁
Pressure =
0.15 𝑚2
Possible least pressure = 666.7 𝑁⁄𝑚2

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ii. Force =Weight=mg

 F = 10 Kg × 10 N/Kg
= 100 N
For greatest pressure, area should be minimum, so mini area = 0.2
m×0.3 m =0.06 m2
100 𝑁
 Pressure =
0.06 𝑚2
Possible least pressure = 1,666.7 𝑁⁄𝑚2

3. What force is produced if a pressure of 200 Pa acts on an area of 0.5 m2?

Solution
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
 Pressure =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
 200 Pa = 200 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐹
 200 𝑁⁄𝑚2 =
0.5𝑚2
 F =200 𝑁⁄𝑚 × 0.5𝑚2
2

Therefore, Force = 100 N.

Exercice
1. Find the pressure exerted on a thumb if the force the thumb exerts on a pin of
area 5 𝑚𝑚2 is 45 N.

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

 Liquids exerts pressure on objects.

 If you put an object in water, the column of water above it exerts pressure.
 Pressure in liquid acts in all directions.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

1. Height or depth of liquids
 Pressure in liquids increase when height/depth of the liquid increases.
Consider the following;

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X Y Z

 Hole A experiences lower pressure than hole C

 Distance from the tin to point Z is longer than distance from the tin to point X.

Pressure at same level

 Pressure in liquids is equal at the same level.
 Pressure in liquids acts in all directions.
Consider the following;

Pressure at points A, B, C and D is the same.

 Pressure in liquids does not depend on the shape of the container.
 When the liquid is poured into a set of connected tubes of various shapes, the
liquid flows round the tubes until all the surfaces are at the same level. This
shows that liquid finds its own level.
 The pressure in the open tubes is the same because of atmospheric pressure.
 The liquid pressure at the bottom of each tube must also be equal otherwise the
liquid would flow to equalize the pressure.
 Even though the tubes have different shapes and different cross-section area, for
the pressure at the bottom of the tube to be equal they require only the same
vertical height, h of the same liquid. So, this means that liquid depends only on
the height of a particular liquid and not the shape or width of the tube.

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2. Density of the liquid.

 The denser liquids exert a greater pressure than less dense liquids.
 Methylated spirit falls closer to the tin than water as shown below. This
is the case because methylated spirit has lower density (0.8 g/cm3) than
water (1 g/cm3).
3. Gravity
The effect of gravity on fluid pressure is that gravity causes the liquid body to
move in the opposite direction of its net acceleration.

 In summary the following are the properties of pressure of any stationary liquid
in an open container.
i. Pressure in liquid increases with depth.
ii. Pressure in liquid is equal at a given level.
iii. Pressure in liquids acts equally at a given level.
iv. Liquid pressure depends on density of the liquid.
v. Pressure in liquids does not depend on shape of container or liquid finds
its own level.
DERIVING FORMULA FOR LIQUID PRESSURE
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Recall, 𝑃 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

But Force = mass × gravity

𝑚𝑔
Then, 𝑃 = (substi. Mg for f in the equation of pressure)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑚
But, density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑣

And mass = density × volume

m=ρ×v
ρv𝑔
then, 𝑃 =
𝐴

but, volume, v= Area × height

V =Ah
ρAh𝑔
Then, 𝑃 =
𝐴

Simplifying RHS
ρAh𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴

Therefore, 𝑷 = 𝝆𝒉𝒈

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Units
𝐾𝑔 𝑁
𝑃= 2 ×𝑚×
𝑚3 𝐾𝑔

𝑁
∴𝑃= =Pascal (Pa)
𝑚2

CALCULATIONS ON LIQUID PRESSURE

Worked examples
1. Calculate the pressure due to the column of mercury 35 cm high. (density of
mercury = 15550 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3 and g = 9.81 𝑁⁄𝑘𝑔 )
Solution
𝑷 = 𝝆𝒉𝒈
Given: 𝝆 =15550 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3
h = 35 cm =0.35 m
g = 9.81 𝑁⁄𝑘𝑔
2
𝑷 = 15550 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3 × 0.35 m × 9.81 𝑁⁄𝑘𝑔
= 53,390.93 𝑁⁄𝑚2

2. What is the pressure due to the water at the bottom of a swimming pool 2 meter
deep if the density of water is 1000 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3 ?
Solution
𝑷 = 𝝆𝒉𝒈
Given: 𝝆 =1000 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3
h=2m
g = 9.81 𝑁⁄𝑘𝑔
2
𝑷 = 1000 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3 × 2 m × 9.81 𝑁⁄𝑘𝑔
= 19,620 𝑁⁄𝑚2
Exercise
Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a beaker when it is filled with water to a height
of 12 cm. Take the density of water as 1 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3 and g = 10 𝑁⁄𝑘𝑔.

TRANSIMISSION OF PRESSURE IN FLUIDS

 Fluids are substances which are capable of flowing freely
 The fluids are liquids and gases
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE OF TRANSIMISSION OF PRESSURE IN FLUIDS

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 It is also called Pascal’s hydraulic principle.

 Pascal’s hydraulic principle states that when a force is applied to a confined fluid,
the change in pressure is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid. Or
 Pascal’s hydraulic principle states that pressure applied at a point in a fluid at
rest is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid. Or
 Pascal’s hydraulic principle states that pressure applied on an enclosed liquid is
transmitted equally to every part of the liquid, whatever the shape of the
containing vessel. Or
 Pascal’s hydraulic principle states that pressure exerted anywhere in an enclosed
incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid.
 This property of liquid is used to transfer forces from one place to another in
hydraulic systems such as hydraulic jack, hydraulic fork lift, hydraulic loaders
and hydraulic vehicle brakes.
 All hydraulic machines function on Pascal’s principle to multiply force (effort)
when lifting heavy loads.
 For Pascal’s principle to hold, the fluid used should have the following
properties:
1. It should be incompressible.
2. It should not corrode the parts of the system
3. It should have a wide range of temperature i.e. low freezing point and
high boiling point.
Consider the syringes connected by a pipe below.

 The moment the piston of a small syringe is pressed, the piston in the large
syringe begin to move outwards.
 There is force multiplication in this process.
 Pressure at piston 1 is equal to pressure at piston 2. (𝑃1 = 𝑃2 )

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𝐹1 𝐹2
 Therefore, = since 𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝐴1 𝐴2
 Air is not commonly used as the fluid in a hydraulic machine because it is
compressible.
Worked example.
The figure below shows a hydraulic system being used to raise a load. A force of 50 N
is applied on Piston A.

50 N

Piston B
100 cm2
20 cm2

Piston A

a. Calculate the pressure piston A exerts on the liquid.

b. How much pressure does the liquid exert on piston B?
c. Calculate the force exerted by the liquid on piston B.
Solution
a. Pressure on piston A
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Given; force = 50 N and area = 20 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.002 𝑚2

50 𝑁
=
0.002𝑚2
= 25,000 Pa
b. In hydraulic machine, pressure is passed on. Pressure on piston A is equal to
pressure on piston B. Then it is 25,000 Pa

c. Since liquid pressure is the same throughout, therefore

𝐹1 𝐹2
Pressure = =
𝐴1 𝐴2

𝐴2
Therefore𝐹1 = × 𝐹1
𝐴1

100 𝑐𝑚2
= × 50 𝑁
20 𝑐𝑚2

= 250 N
𝐴2
Note: is the force multiplier.
𝐴1

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HYDRAULIC MACHINES
1. HYDRAULIC JACK

How it works.
When a force is exerted on the liquid using piston 1, valve 2 opens while valve
1 closes. This causes the liquid to flow towards piston 2. The pressure from
piston 1 is transmitted to piston 2 thereby lifting the load on the platform on
piston 2. Pumping out the liquid from piston 2 to the reservoir helps to bring
down the load.

Use
It is used to lift vehicles in garages.

2. HYDRAULIC CAR BRAKE

How it works
When the brake pedal is pushed, the piston in the master cylinder exerts a force
on the brake fluid and the resulting pressure is transmitted equally to other
pistons throughout the system. This forces the brake shoes or pads against the
brake drum on the wheel cylinders and stops the vehicle.
Use
It is used to slow down or stop a moving vehicle.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by air particles in the
atmosphere.
 The earth’s surface is surrounded by the thick layer of air.
 We live under a vast column of air called atmosphere
 The density of air varies from the earth’s surface to the outer space.
 Air is denser at sea level than high up in the mountains hence more
atmospheric pressure (air pressure) is experienced at the sea level than
above the sea level i.e. pressure is greater at the sea level and lower at the
tallest mountain or at peak.
 The pressure gets less as you go up in the atmosphere.
 The value of atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 100,000 Pa
 100, 000 Pa = 1 atm (atmosphere) =760mmHg
 Atmospheric pressure can be best measured by a barometer or a
manometer.

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EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

1. Drinking using a straw
In a drinking straw, air is first sucked out of the straw. The pressure of air inside
the straw is less than the atmospheric pressure which is pressing down on the
surface of the liquid outside the straw. Therefore, the liquid is forced out up the
straw into the mouth. In absence of atmospheric pressure on the surface of liquid
in the closed bottle means no excess pressure to push the liquid up the straw
hence it is impossible to use a straw in a vacuum.

2. Crushing/collapsing effect on can

Before heating the can, the air inside and outside the can exerts equal but
opposite force on the walls of the container. On heating, the steam that is formed
expels the air inside the can. After corking and cooling the can, a partial vacuum
is formed inside the can. On cooling, the pressure from the air outside the can
which is greater than the pressure of the air inside the can makes the can to crush
or collapse. Therefore, we can conclude that air exerts pressure.

3. Varying the boiling point of water

The boiling point of water varies according to altitude at various locations. The
boiling point is lower at high altitudes like mountain tops and it is higher at low
altitudes like sea level. This is because increased atmospheric pressure
suppresses water molecules at low altitudes and restricts their movement in
convection currents. Hence it takes more heat to make the water reach a high
temperature and boiling point. On the other hand, the low atmospheric pressure
at high altitude gives water molecules freedom to loose, thus requiring less heat
for water to boil, hence lowering boiling point.

MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE USING A BAROMETER

Mercury barometer

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 It uses mercury level to indicate the atmospheric pressure at a certain

altitude.
 It is mainly used in meteorology to forecast short-term changes of
atmospheric pressure in the weather.
 A mercury barometer consists of a glass tube with a height of at least 84
cm. the tube is closed at one end and is open at the other.
 The open end is immersed (dipped) in an open mercury-filled reservoir
 The atmospheric pressure measured is expressed as the height of mercury
in the glass tube column.
 One atmosphere is equivalent to 760 mm of mercury (760 mmHg).
 High atmospheric pressure exerts more force on the reservoir forcing
mercury to rise up the column.
 Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a lower level in the column
by lowering the force placed on the reservoir.

Why water is not used as barometric liquid?

Because:
1. The density of water is low
2. Water sticks with the glass tube and wets it, so the reading becomes
inaccurate.
3. The vapor pressure of water is high, so its vapor in the vacuum space
can make the reading inaccurate.
ANEROID BAROMETER
The aneroid barometer is the small sealed metal box containing air at low pressure.

How an aneroid barometer works?

Atmospheric pressure tries to squash the metal box which is corrugated to make it
more flexible in the middle. If the pressure rises, the top and the bottom of the metal
box become even more squashed in. The movement of the box is magnified by a
lever. The lever pulls a chain which moves the pointer further up the scale.

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Aneroid barometers are more portable, much easier to use and cheaper than mercury
barometers.
APPLICATION OF FLUID PRESSURE
Applications of pressure in liquids

Pressure in liquids is used in the following:

1. Hydraulic machines

Hydraulic machines are used to lift the weight of a body. Examples of hydraulic
machines are hydraulic folk lifters, hydraulic jacks, hydraulic brakes and hydraulic
loaders. Hydraulic machines operate by using Pascal’s principle of transmission of
pressure in fluids. This happens because liquids are incompressible, so when the liquid
is pressed, pressure is transmitted to all parts of the liquid and the pressure is the same.
In hydraulic machines a small force (effort) move a large force (load) as shown below.

2. Construction of dams
Liquid pressure is used in construction of dams. The bottom of the dam is made thicker
in order to withstand liquid pressure which increases with depth.

3. Position of the reservoir

The water supply comes from a reservoir on high ground. The water flows through the
pipe to the taps and storage tanks that are at a lower level because liquid pressure
increases with depth.

4. Connection of outlet pipes

Outlet pipes from a reservoir are connected at the bottom so that water comes with high
pressure.

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5. Working of a Syringe
During vaccination
When giving a vaccination, pressing the plunger on a syringe increases the pressure
of the liquid inside the cylinder. When the liquid pressure is greater than the blood
pressure of the patient, the vaccine is forced into the blood stream.
During blood sampling
When taking blood sample, withdrawing the plunger lowers the pressure inside the
cylinder. The patient’s own blood pressure forces blood into the syringe.

6. Blood transfusion
The blood in a bag is hung at a higher position than the patient so that the blood has
sufficient pressure to flow into the veins of the patient.

Applications of Atmospheric (air) pressure

The following are the applications of atmospheric pressure in our everyday life:

1. Drinking straw
In the drinking straw, air is first sucked out of the straw. The pressure of air inside the
straw is less than the atmospheric pressure which is pressing down on the surface of the
liquid outside the straw. Therefore, the liquid is forced out up the straw and into the
mouth.
2. Rubber sucker
When the moistened concave surface of the rubber sucker is pressed against a flat
surface the air between the two surfaces is squeezed out. This leaves the pressure in the
enclosed space much reduced and creates a vacuum. The atmospheric pressure acting
on the sucker forces the sucker against the flat surface.

3. Working of a Syringe
When pressing the plunger on a syringe increases the pressure of the air inside the
cylinder. When the air pressure inside is greater than the air pressure outside, the air
is forced to move out. When withdrawing the plunger, the pressure inside the
cylinder lowers. Atmospheric pressure becomes greater than air pressure inside the
cylinder. Then atmospheric pressure forces air into the syringe.

UPTHRUST AND ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

Upthrust in liquids
 When a body is partially or wholly immersed in a liquid it experiences an upward
force

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 The upward force is called upthrust or buoyant force.

Magnitude of the upthrust due to liquid

 When the body is weighed in air (Wair) and when it is weighed completely
immersed in water (Wwater), the body appears to weigh less in water than in air.
The difference between the weight in air and weight in water (a liquid) is known
as apparent loss in weight of the body.
 The magnitude of the apparent loss of weight of a body in a liquid is equal to
upthrust exerted by the liquid on the body, that is,
Apparent loss in weight= Upthrust=𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
 Weight of displaced liquid =Volume × density of liquid × gravitational
acceleration.
Worked example
A body of mass 4Kg weighs 30 N in a liquid. Find the upthrust on the body due to
liquid.
Solution
Weight in air = mass×gravity
= 4 Kg×10 N/Kg
= 40 N
Weight in liquid= 30 N
Upthrust=𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
= 40 N – 30 N
= 10 N
FACTORS AFFECTING THE MAGNITUDE OF UPTHRUST
1. Density of the liquid
 Denser liquids exert greater upthrust on the object than less dense liquids.
2. The volume of the body immersed in the liquid
 The greater the height, and hence volume of the portion of the object submerged
in liquid, the greater the upthrust exerted on the body.

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

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