Pressure

Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force
exerted by a fluid per unit area. We
speak of pressure only when we deal
with a gas or a liquid. The counter part
of pressure in solids is normal stress.
Since pressure is defined as force per
unit area, it has the unit of newtons per
square meter (N/m2) or a pascal (Pa).
Units of Pressure
Unit Symbol Equivalent to 1 atm

atmosphere atm 1 atm

millimeter of Mercury mm Hg 760 mm Hg
torr Torr 760 Torr
pascal Pa 101325 Pa
kilopascal kPa 101.325 kPa
bar bar 1.01325 bar
millibar mb 1013.25 mb
pounds per square inch psi 14.7 psi
Problem

Calculate the pressure of force with a

magnitude of 4 newtons applied to an
area of 2 square meters. Express your
answer in (a) atm and (b) mm Hg.
Pressure
The actual pressure at a given position
is called the absolute pressure, and it is
measured relative to absolute vacuum
(i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most
pressure-measuring devices, however,
are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere, and so they indicate the
difference between the absolute
pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure.
Pressure
This difference is called the gage
pressure (or gauge pressure). Pgage can
be positive or negative, but pressures
below atmospheric pressure are
sometimes called vacuum pressures
and are measured by vacuum gages
that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute
pressure.
Pressure
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
are related to each other by

Pgage = Pabs – Patm

Pvac = Patm – Pabs

Absolute, Gage, and Vacuum Pressures
Pressure
Like other pressure gages, the gage
used to measure the air pressure in an
automobile tire reads the gage pressure.
Therefore, the common reading of 32.0
psi indicates a pressure of 32.0 psi
above the atmospheric pressure. At a
location where the atmospheric pressure
is 14.3 psi, for example, the absolute
pressure in the tire is 32.0 + 14.3 = 46.3
psi.
Problem
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber
reads 5.8 psi at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi.
Determine the absolute pressure in the
chamber.
Solution:
Pabs = Patm – Pvac
= 14.5 psi – 5.8 psi
= 8.7 psi
Pressure
Pressure is the compressive force per unit
area, and it gives the impression of being a
vector. However, pressure at any point in a
fluid is the same in all directions.
Pressure
The pressure at a
point in a fluid has
the same magnitude
in all directions. This
result is applicable to
fluids in motion as
well as fluids at rest
since pressure is a
scalar, not a vector.
Variation of Pressure with Depth
It will come as no surprise to you that
pressure in a fluid at rest does not
change in the horizontal direction.
Pressure in a fluid increases with depth
because more fluid rests on deeper
layers, and the effect of this “extra
weight” on a deeper layer is balanced by
an increase in pressure.
Variation of Pressure with Depth
Variation of Pressure with Depth
The variation of pressure with height is
negligible for gases because of their low
density. The pressure in a tank
containing a gas, for example, can be
considered to be uniform since the
weight of the gas is too small to make a
significant difference. Also, the pressure
in a room filled with air can be
approximated as a constant.
Variation of Pressure with Depth

Liquids are essentially incompressible

substances, and thus the variation of
density with depth is negligible. This is
also the case for gases when the
elevation change is not very large. The
variation of density of liquids or gases
with temperature can be significant,
however, and may need to be considered
when high accuracy is desired.
Variation of Pressure with Depth

Also, at great depths such as those

encountered in oceans, the change in
the density of a liquid can be significant
because of the compression by the
tremendous amount of liquid weight
above.
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure – the pressure
exerted by the weight of the atmosphere.

Note: The pressure increases as height decreases.

Problem

What is the atmospheric pressure at

an altitude of 5.55 km?

Solution:
P = P0e-0.125h
= 1.013 x 105 Pa e-0.125(5.55 km)
= 5.06 x 104 Pa
Problem

Airplanes normally fly at an altitude of

36,000 ft. Find the atmospheric
pressure at that altitude.

Solution:
P = P0e-0.125h
= 1.013 x 105 Pa e-0.125(11 km)
= 2.57 x 104 Pa
Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure – the pressure
that a confined fluid exerts on all parts of
the container in contact with
it or on any object immersed in the fluid.
Hydrostatic Pressure
Note: The pressure increases as depth
increases.
Problem
What is the difference in the blood
pressure between the top of the head
and the bottom of the feet of a 1.5 m
person standing erect? The density of
blood is 1060 kg/m3.
Solution:
P = ρgh
P = (1060 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(1.5 m)
= 16,000 Pa
Assignment

At least how high above the vein must

an intravenous (IV) bag be hung in
order for the fluid to flow into the vein?
Assume that the gauge blood pressure
in the vein is 12 mm Hg and that the
blood and the fluid in the IV bag have
the same density.
Pressure in a Fluid

Pressure in a fluid at rest is

independent of the shape or cross
section of the container. It changes with
the vertical distance, but remains
constant in other directions. Therefore,
the pressure is the same at all points
on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.
Pressure in a Fluid

The Dutch mathematician Simon

Stevin (1548–1620) published in 1586
the principle illustrated in the figure.
Note that the pressures at points A, B,
C, D, E, F, and G are the same since
they are at the same depth, and they
are interconnected by the same static
fluid.
Pressure in a Fluid

However, the pressures at points

H and I are not the same since these
two points cannot be interconnected by
the same fluid (i.e., we cannot draw a
curve from point I to point H while
remaining in the same fluid at all
times), although they are at the same
depth.
Pressure in a Fluid

A consequence of the pressure in a

fluid remaining constant in the
horizontal direction is that the pressure
applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same
amount. This is called Pascal’s law,
after Blaise Pascal (1623–1662).
Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Principle states that the pressure
applied to a confined fluid at rest is
transmitted without change to every part of
the fluid and to the walls of the container.
Problem
A hydraulic press has pistons of area
0.006 m2 and 0.35 m2, respectively. A
force of 25 N is applied to the smaller
one. Find the pressure exerted on the
smaller piston and on the big piston. What
is the lifting force on the bigger piston?
Solution:
25 N
P1 = P2 = = 4167 Pa
0.006 m2
F2 = 4167 Pa(0.35 m2) = 1458 N
Assignment 2

The ratio of the diameters of the small

piston to the large piston of a hydraulic
lift is 1:10. What weight can the large
piston support when a force of 150 N
is applied to the small piston?
Fluid
Statics
Fluid Statics

Fluid statics deals with problems

associated with fluids at rest. The fluid
can be either gaseous or liquid. Fluid
statics is generally referred to as
hydrostatics when the fluid is a liquid
and as aerostatics when the fluid is a
gas.
Fluid Statics

In fluid statics, there is no relative

motion between adjacent fluid layers,
and thus there are no shear (tangential)
stresses in the fluid trying to deform it.
The only stress we deal with in fluid
statics is the normal stress, which is the
pressure, and the variation of pressure
is due only to the weight of the fluid.
Buoyancy

It is a common experience that an

object feels lighter and weighs less in a
liquid than it does in air. This can be
demonstrated easily by weighing a
heavy object in water by a waterproof
spring scale. Also, objects made of
wood or other light materials float on
water.
Buoyancy

These and other observations suggest

that a fluid exerts an upward force on a
body immersed in it. This force that
tends to lift the body is called the
buoyant force and is denoted by FB.
The buoyant force is caused by the
increase of pressure with depth in a
fluid.
Buoyancy

The difference between these two forces is a net

upward force, which is the buoyant force

where V = hA is the volume of the plate.

Buoyancy
But the relation ρfgV is simply the weight of
the liquid whose volume is equal to the
volume of the plate. Thus, we conclude that
the buoyant force acting on the plate is
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced
by the plate. For a fluid with constant
density, the buoyant force is independent of
the distance of the body from the free
surface. It is also independent of the
density of the solid body.
Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes’ Principle states that the
buoyant force on a submerged object is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the object.
Archimedes’ Principle
For floating bodies, the weight of the
entire body must be equal to the
buoyant force, which is the weight of the
fluid whose volume is equal to the
volume of the submerged portion of the
floating body. That is,
Archimedes’ Principle

The submerged volume fraction of a floating body is

equal to the ratio of the average density of the body
to the density of the fluid. Note that when the density
ratio is equal to or greater than one, the floating body
becomes completely submerged.
Archimedes’ Principle
Problem

What percent of the volume of ice is

submerged in water if the density of ice
is 900 kg/m3 and that of water is 1000
kg/m3?
Solution:
ρice 900 kg/m3
Vsub = = = 0.9
ρwater 1000 kg/m3
Therefore, 90 % of ice is submerged in water.