FLUID MECHANICS

by Engr. Anog

FLUIDS
Fluid
- A fluid, in contrast to a solid, is any substance that can flow; we use the term for both liquids,
gases, and plasma
- the study of fluid behaviors, both at rest and in motion, is called fluid mechanics

Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Statics Fluid Dynamics

The study of fluids at rest at the study of fluids in motion;
equilibrium conditions is one of the most complex
branches of mechanics.

• Density, specific
gravity • Ideal fluid
• Pressure • Laminar / turbulent
• Pascal’s principle • Continuity equation
• Archimedes’ Principle • Bernoulli’s equation
(buoyancy)

Part 1: Fluid Statics

A. Density and specific gravity

An important property of any material is its density, defined as its mass per unit volume. We use
ρ (the Greek letter rho) for density. Typical units of density are kg/m3, kg/L, g/cm3, g/mL, lb/ft3

𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
ρ= =
𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Shown below are densities of some of the common substances. The most important to
remember is the density of water at 1000 kg/m3 or 1 kg/L or 1 g/mL.

The densities of most liquids and solids vary slightly with changes in temperature and pressure;
the densities of gases vary greatly with such changes.

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The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to the density of water and is
dimensionless (no units). Since specific gravity has nothing to do with gravity, it is sometimes
coined as “relative density.”

Since the reference fluid is water, we can deduce that specific gravity of water is exactly 1.0,
anything higher means the material is denser than water, like iron or gold. Anything lower
means the material is less dense than water, like air or alcohol.

Exercise 1: Try to solve this problem. Final answer must be 72kg and 60,000 kg.

B. Pressure
A fluid exerts a magnitude of force perpendicular to the area of a given surface, and it is called
pressure, given by the formula:
𝐹 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
P= =
𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

By inspection, we can see that the SI unit of pressure is N/m2, which is called pascal or Pa.

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere, the pressure exerted by the
column of air above us. This pressure varies with weather changes and with elevation. Normal
atmospheric pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1 atm (atmosphere), defined to be
101,325 Pa. Other values of atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi (pound per in2), 760 mmHg, 760
torr, and 1.01325 bar.

Pressure varies with depth for a fluid inside a container, primarily due to the weight of the fluid.
You can personally feel it when swimming; when swimming at a shallow depth, the pressure
exerted by water is tolerable. But try diving few meters below, and your ears will feel the
immense pressure brought by the huge amount of water above you. The reverse happens when
you stand on-top of a mountain or when you fly in an airplane.

We can derive the formula that relates pressure and height of fluid. Image below shows a liquid
inside a container of height y. From previous lessons, we learned that F=mg, while the formula
of pressure shows that F=PA. Since horizontal forces will only cancel each other, we will only

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equate the vertical forces acting on a sample of fluid inside a container to determine the general
relationship of pressure and depth. From the image, we can see three forces:

𝑃1 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑃2 𝐴

From the discussion in density, we learned that m = ρV, so

𝑃1 𝐴 + ρV𝑔 = 𝑃2 𝐴
The volume of our sample is V=Ah,
𝑃1 𝐴 + ρ(Ah)𝑔 = 𝑃2 𝐴

Re-arranging, A will be cancelled

𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = 𝛒𝒈𝒉

If P1 is equal to atmospheric pressure, then (P2-P1) is also called the gauge pressure, the
pressure we can observed using pressure reading instruments with the unit Pa(g). To find the
actual pressure, P2, we need 𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝛒𝒈𝒉 that is called absolute pressure with the unit
Pa(a).

The formula above shows that if we increase P1, P2 will also increase by the same amount. This
is the basic principle of Pascal’s law. Pascal’s law states that pressure applied to an enclosed
fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing
vessel. When you squeeze your toothpaste tube from the bottom, toothpaste is pushed toward
the open end. That is Pascal’s law, the same principle used in hydraulic lift, jacks, hydraulic
brakes, dentist’s chair, etc.

The maximize the force from the added pressure, area is increased. This can be clearly seen
from the formula of pressure, P=F/A.

𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2

𝑨𝟐
𝑭𝟐 = 𝑭𝟏
𝑨𝟏

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Example 2: In a car lift used in a service station, compressed air exerts a force on a small piston
of circular cross section having a radius of r1 = 5.00 cm. This pressure is transmitted by an
incompressible liquid to a second piston of radius r2 = 15.0 cm. (a) What force must the
compressed air exert on the small piston in order to lift a car weighing 13 300 N? Neglect the
weights of the pistons. (b) What air pressure will produce a force of that magnitude?

a. We have to find F1 that will result in F2 = 13 300N using Pascal’s law

𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2

𝐴1
𝐹1 = 𝐹2
𝐴2

𝛱𝑟12
𝐹1 = 𝐹2
𝛱𝑟22
(5 𝑐𝑚)2
𝐹1 = (13 300𝑁)
(15 𝑐𝑚)2

Note: No need to convert cm to m since it will only cancel out

𝑭𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟒𝟕𝟕. 𝟕𝟖 𝑵

b. Find the pressure equivalent to F1,

P = F/A

1477.78 𝑁
𝑃=
1𝑚 2
𝛱(5 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 )
100

P = 188 156.07 Pa or 188.16 kPa

C. Buoyancy
Buoyancy is easy to comprehend since we can see it everyday. Taking water as a good everyday
fluid, we know that objects denser than water tend to sink while objects less dense than water
floats. Buoyancy follows Archimedes’ principle, which states:

When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force
on the body equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

𝐹𝑏 = ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑊𝑜𝑏𝑗 = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗

Case 1: Object is totally submerged

The net force is given by the upward buoyant force, 𝐹𝑏 , and the downward weight of
the object, 𝑊𝑜𝑏𝑗 . The net force is:

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑏 − 𝑊𝑜𝑏𝑗

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𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐹 = (ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ) − (ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 )

But 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 ,
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑭 = (𝛒𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 − 𝛒𝒐𝒃𝒋 )𝒈 𝑽𝒐𝒃𝒋

If (ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 ) is positive, the object will accelerate upwards or float. If negative, the
object will accelerate downwards or sink. This is apparent when you try to push an
empty plastic bottle in a pool of water. When you remove your hand, the bottle will
shoot upwards.

Case 2: Object is floating

Since the object is floating, it is not accelerating upwards or downwards. We can say that
the net force is zero, or 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑊𝑜𝑏𝑗 . So, we can write the equation

ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗

ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗

Exercise 3: A block with a density of 800 kg/m3 floats face down in a fluid of density 1200 kg/m3.
The block has height H = 60 cm.
(a) By what depth h is the block submerged?
(b) If the block is held fully submerged and then
released, what is the magnitude of its
acceleration?

a. Use Case 2 formula since the block is floating

ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗

Total volume of object can be written as AH. Per Archimedes’ principle, 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 is equal
to the volume of object submerged, which is Ah

ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴ℎ = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝐴𝐻
ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ℎ = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝐻
1200 (ℎ) = 800 (60 𝑐𝑚)

Note: no need to convert cm to m since kg/m3 will just be cancelled out.

𝒉 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒄𝒎

b. Use Case 1 since the object is forcefully submerged before releasing. Then use Newton’s
second law, F=ma
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐹 = (ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 )𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 = ma
But m = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗
(ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 )𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑎
(ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 )𝑔 = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑎
(1200 − 800)(9.81) = (800) 𝑎
a = 4.9 m/s2
(positive, so the object will accelerate upward or float upon release)

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As you can see, acceleration is only dependent on the density of fluid and object. It does
not matter how heavy the object is, or how big it is, its density will determine if it will
float or not. That’s why a very huge cruise ship or an aircraft carrier is not sinking
despite its size.

Part 2: Fluid Dynamics

A. Ideal Fluid
Fluid in motion can either be streamline (a.k.a laminar) or turbulent. Laminar is characterized by
steady and smooth flow of fluid, which to some extent can be observed on aerodynamic cars or
planes. On the other hand, turbulent is characterized by irregular flow with constant changes in
velocity, causing formation of eddy currents (like a whirlpool). This can be observed on fast
flowing river with rocks all over the place.

As mentioned before, studying fluid in motion is very complex so to simplify the concepts of
fluid dynamic, we will focus on ideal fluids. Ideal fluids have the following conditions:
1. The fluid is streamline and non-turbulent
2. The fluid is incompressible – or the density of fluid is constant as it flows
3. The fluid is nonviscous – no internal friction between layers of fluid

B. Continuity Equation
For an ideal fluid, continuity equation is the relationship of the fluid flow’s speed and cross-
sectional area. This equation follows the law of conservation of mass, min=mout as shown in the
image below where a fluid travels from point 1 to point 2 along the pipe.

We know from density discussion that m=ρV so,

ρ1V1 = ρ2V2

From the image, we see that V = AΔx, where A is the area and
Δx is the sample distance travelled by the fluid along the pipe
ρ1A1Δx1 = ρ2A2Δx2

From kinematics, distance (Δx) = vΔt

ρ1A1v1Δt = ρ2A2v2Δt
ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2 (for mass flow, ṁ, in kg/s)

Since fluid is incompressible, ρ1 = ρ2

A1 v1 = A2 v2 (for volumetric flow, Q, in m3/s)

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If you ever used a garden hose, you have already seen continuity equation in action. The equation
shows that if we reduce the area of flow, the fluid velocity should increase to maintain the same
mass or volumetric flow rate. This occurs when you partially close the hose opening with your
thumb or when you use a nozzle. Take note that you are not increasing the flow rate, only the
fluid’s speed as it exits the hose.

Exercise 4:
Incompressible oil of density 850 kg/m3 is pumped through a cylindrical pipe at a rate of 9.5
liters per second. (a) The first section of the pipe has a diameter of 8.0 cm. What is the flow
speed of the oil? What is the mass flow rate? (b) The second section of the pipe has a diameter
of 4.0 cm. What are the flow speed and mass flow rate in that section?

Given:
𝐿 1 𝑚3
Q = 9.5 𝑠 𝑥 1000 𝐿
= 9.5𝑥10−3 𝑚3 /𝑠

1𝑚
D1 = 8.0 cm x 100 𝑐𝑚 = 8.0𝑥10−2 𝑚

1𝑚
D2 = 4.0 cm x = 4.0𝑥10−2 𝑚
100 𝑐𝑚

a. Find v1 and ṁ1
Q = A1v1
𝑚3 𝛱 (8.0𝑥10−2 )2
9.5𝑥10−3 = 𝑣1
𝑠 4

𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟗 𝐦/𝐬
Then,
ṁ1 = ρ A1 v1 = ρ Q
ṁ1 = (850 kg/m3)( 9.5𝑥10−3 𝑚3 /𝑠)
ṁ1 = 8.075 kg/s

b. Find v2 and ṁ2
Q = A 1 v 1 = A2 v 2
𝑚3 𝛱 (4.0𝑥10−2 )2
9.5𝑥10−3 = 𝑣2
𝑠 4

𝒗𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟔 𝐦/𝐬 (greater than v1 since A2 is smaller)

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Also,
ṁ2 = ṁ1 since ρ does not change for incompressible fluid
ṁ2 = 8.075 kg/s

C. Bernoulli’s Equation
While the continuity equation shows that an ideal fluid’s speed changes as the cross-sectional
area changes along the path of the fluid, Bernoulli’s Equation shows that the pressure can also
change depending on the flow speed and height. This can be proven by deriving the actual
equation named after Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss physicist and mathematician, who studied fluid
flow in 1700s.

Consider the image below where a sample of fluid moves from point 1 to point 2. The net work
applied to the fluid is
Wnet = W1 – W2
W1 is positive since force is applied to the fluid while
W2 is negative since force is against the fluid.

Also, from the discussion about “Work”, we learned

that W=Force x distance, so

Wnet = F1 Δx1 – F2Δx2

From the discussion about pressure, F = PA, so

Wnet = P1 A1Δx1 – P2A2Δx2

Wnet = P1 V1 – P2V2
But V1=V2 based on continuity equation of ideal fluid,
so
Wnet = P1 V – P2V
Wnet = (P1 – P2) V

The net work is used in changing the kinetic energy of the fluid by changing its speed from v1 to
v2. It is also sed in changing the potential energy of the fluid by overcoming the height from y1
to y2. Therefore,
Wnet = ΔKE + ΔPE

From the discussion of energy, we learned that KE=(1/2)mv2 while potential energy is mgh
1 1
ΔKE = 2 𝑚𝑣22 − 2 𝑚𝑣12 ΔPE = 𝑚𝑔𝑦2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦2

1
ΔKE = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) ΔPE = 𝑚𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦2 )
2

Substituting all components give us

1
(P1 – P2) V = 2 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) + 𝑚𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦2 )

𝟏
P1 – P2 = 𝟐 𝝆(𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐𝟏 ) + 𝝆𝒈(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 )
Or
𝟏 𝟏
P1 + 𝟐 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟏 = P2 + 𝟐 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟐

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For horizontal pipe where there is no elevation difference, y1=y2, ΔPE=0

𝟏 𝟏
P1 + 𝟐 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 = P2 + 𝟐 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐

Following law of conservation of energy, Bernoulli’s equation shows that an increase in the
speed of a fluid (or KE) occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure, and vice versa. This
must be true since change in fluid speed means it is accelerating (or decelerating). Based on
Newton’s 2nd law of motion, acceleration must be caused by a force applied on the fluid. That
force is then due to difference in pressure along the pipe.

Exercise 5:
Water enters a house through a pipe with an inside diameter of 2.0 cm at an absolute pressure
of 4x105 Pa (about 4 atm). A 1.0-cm-diameter pipe leads to the second-floor bathroom 5.0 m
above. When the flow speed at the inlet pipe is 1.5 m/s, find the flow speed, pressure, and
volume flow rate in the bathroom.

Given: D2 = 1.0 cm bathroom

Let point 1 as the house’s ground floor 2
Let point 2 as the 2nd floor bathroom y2 = 5 m

D1 = 2.0 cm

Water in
1
P1 = 4x105 Pa
v1 = 1.5 m/s
y1 = 0

1𝑚
D1 = 2.0 cm x 100 𝑐𝑚 = 2.0 x 10-2 m D2 = 1.0 x 10-2 m
P1 = 4x105 Pa P2 = ?
y1 = 0 (since point 1 is the reference point) y2 = 5.0 m
v1 = 1.5 m/s v2 = ?

a. Find v2 (must be greater than v1 since D2 < D1)

We can use continuity equation, A1 v1 = A2 v2

𝛱 (2.0𝑥10−2 )2 𝛱 (1.0𝑥10−2 )2
(1.5) = 𝑣2
4 4

𝒗𝟐 = 𝟔 𝒎/𝒔

b. Find P2. Using Bernoulli’s equation,

1 1
P1 + 2 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = P2 + 2 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2

Substitute all the given, and ρ of water = 1000 kg/m3

1 1
(4x105) + 2 (1000)(1.5)2 + 0 = P2 + 2 (1000)(6)2 + (1000)(9.81)(5)

P2 = 3.3 x 105 Pa

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c. Find Q, which is either A1 v1 or A2 v2

𝛱 (1.0𝑥10−2 )2
Q = A2 v2 = 4
(6)
Q = 4.7 x 10-4 m3/s or
Q = 0.47 L/s

Example 6:
In the old West, a desperado fires a bullet into an open water tank (see Figure), creating a hole.
0.5m below the water surface. What is the speed, v, of the water exiting the tank? Where does
the stream hit the ground if the hole is 3m above the ground?

Given:
Let point 1 as the hole
Let point 2 as the tank’s top opening

D1 = ? D2 = ?
P1 = Patm P2 = Patm
y1 = 3 m y2 = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5 m
v1 = ??? v2 = ?

Note: P1=P2=Patm or since both the top and the hole is open and
exposed to atmosphere. Also y2-y1 = h, which is 0.5m.

At first glance, it seems not much is given to solve the problem

using Bernoulli’s equation.

Using continuity equation, we know that

A1 v1 = A2 v2
v1 = (A2 / A1) v2
But A1 is really small compared (size of bullet hole) compared to A2, so v1 >>> v2. This means that
the speed v1 is so large that subtracting v2 does not change much of its value. You may imagine
v1 as 1000 while v2 is 1, their difference is 999 (still almost 1000). If so, we can assume that v2 is
close to zero. With that we can now use Bernoulli’s equation

1 1
P1 + 2 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = P2 + 2 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2
Substituting all the given, what remains is
1
2
𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦2

1 2
𝑣
2 1
= 𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1)

𝒗𝟏 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉

Tip: This formula is called Torricelli’s theorem, which relates the speed of fluid flowing from an
orifice to the height of fluid above the orifice. You can observe this principle in a water jug with
faucet at the bottom. When the jug is full, the water come out quickly but slows down as the
water level drops. Back to our problem,

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𝑣1 = √2𝑔𝑦2
𝑣1 = √2(9.81)(0.5)
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟑 𝒎/𝒔

As the water exits the tank, it has two speed components, horizontal and vertical. We already
calculated its horizontal component, which is v1. Its vertical component is initially zero (not yet
falling) and increases as the water free falls from the hole 3m above the ground. From kinematics,
1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑔 𝑡 2
2
1
3 = 0 + (9.81) 𝑡 2
2

𝑡 = 0.782 𝑠

This is time water is falling to the ground, so if water is also moving horizontally at this time,

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖𝑥 𝑡
𝑚
𝑑𝑥 = (3.13 𝑠 ) (0.78𝑠)

𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎

SUMMARY:

Fluid Mechanics
Fluid statics Fluid dynamics
𝑚
Density, ρ = Continuity Equation (mass flow),
𝑉
ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2
𝐹 Continuity Equation (volumetric flow)
Pressure, P =
𝐴 A1 v1 = A2 v2
Pressure with depth, Bernoulli’s Equation,
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = ρ𝑔ℎ 1 1
P1 + 2 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = P2 + 2 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2
𝐹1 𝐹2 Torricelli’s theorem,
Pascal’s law, =
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ
Buoyancy (fully submerged),
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐹 = (ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 )𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗
Buoyancy (floating),
ρ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = ρ𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗

Sources:
College Physics 9th Edition, Serway, Chapter 9
University Physics with Modern Physics 13th Edition, Young and Freedman, Chapter 12
Fundamental of Physics 10th Edition, Halliday, Chapter 14

Prepared by:
Engr. Anog

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