DIRECTIONS

1. Elaborate the following items. Kindly paraphrase your answers in not

less than 300 words and not more than 500 words.

2. Deadline will be on September 17, 2021.

Note: I will deduct points for late passers.

FLUID MECHANICS

1. Fundamental Concepts, Fluid Properties

Fluid mechanics is a science that deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) and in motion (fluid dynamics). A fluid is a substance which can
flow. It is also a substance that deforms which continuously changes in shape
due to relative motion under the action of shear force. Fluid is also called a zero
memory substance.

Fluids as Continuum. Fluids are aggregations of molecules; widely spaced

for gas and closely spaced for liquids. The distance between the molecules is
very large when compared to the molecular diameter. The number of molecules
involved is immense and the separation between them is normally negligible.

Dimension and Unit. Any physical quantity can be characterized by

dimensions. There are two types of dimensions, primary or fundamental and
secondary or derived dimensions. Some primary dimensions are: mass, m;
length, L; time, t; temperature, T. Secondary dimensions are the ones that can be
derived from primary dimensions such as: velocity (m/s), pressure (Pa= kg/m.s2).

Any characteristic of a system is called property. It may either be intensive

which is mass independent or extensive that depends on size of a system.

Mass density is the ratio of a mass of fluid to its volume. It is also called a
Mass per unit volume of a fluid. And this is denoted by the symbol ρ (rho) and the
unit of mass density is (kg/m3).
 Specific Weight is the ratio of the weight of the fluid to its volume of the
fluid. It is called Weight per unit volume of a fluid. This is denoted by symbol ‘w‘
and the unit of mass density is (N/m3).

Specific volume is the ratio of the volume of fluid to the mass of fluid. The
volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is
called Specific volume. The unit of Specific volume is m³/kg, is it commonly
applied to Gases.

Specific Gravity is the ratio of the weight density of a fluid to weight density
of a standard fluid. This is denoted by the symbol ‘S’ and this is dimensionless
because the upper unit and lower units get cancelled.

Surface Tension is a contracted tendency of the surface of a fluid that

allows it to exist as an external force.

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It determines the fluid

strain rate that is generated by a given applied shear stress.

Pressure is the compression force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

Temperature is a measure of the internal energy, it is also a pointer for the

direction of energy transfer as heat.

Vapour Pressure and Cavitation. Vapour pressure is the pressure at which

a liquid boils and is in equilibrium with its own vapour. When the liquid pressure is
dropped below the vapour pressure due to a flow phenomenon, we call the
process cavitation. The dimensionless parameter describing flow ‐induced boiling
is called cavitation number.
 2. Pascal’s Law, Hydrostatic Pressure Variations, Manometry

Pascal’s principle also known as Pascal’s law states that when a change in

pressure is applied to an enclosed fluid, it is transmitted undiminished to all portions
of the fluid and to the walls of its container. In an enclosed fluid, since atoms of the
fluid are free to move about, they transmit pressure to all parts of the fluid and to the
walls of the container. Any change in pressure is transmitted undiminished.
According to Pascal’s principle, the pressure at all points in the water changes by the
same amount, Mg/A. Thus, the pressure at the bottom also increases by Mg/A. The
pressure at the bottom of the container is equal to the sum of the atmospheric
pressure, the pressure due the fluid, and the pressure supplied by the mass. The
change in pressure at the bottom of the container due to the mass is:

Since the pressure changes are the same everywhere in the fluid, we no
longer need subscripts to designate the pressure change for top or bottom:

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at

a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure
increases in proportion to depth measured from the surface because of the
increasing weight of fluid exerting downward force from above. If a fluid is within a
container then the depth of an object placed in that fluid can be measured. The
deeper the object is placed in the fluid, the more pressure it experiences. This is
because the weight of the fluid is above it. The more dense the fluid above it, the
more pressure is exerted on the object that is submerged, due to the weight of the
fluid.

Manometers are devices used to determine the pressure at any point in fluid
either by balancing the same fluid column or by using another fluid column. A simple
manometer consists of a tubular arrangement where one end of the tube is
connected to the point in the fluid, whose pressure is to be determined and the other
end is kept open to the atmosphere. Simple manometers can be used to determine
the gauge pressure or vacuum pressure. There are types of Manometer;

 Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which is tapped into the wall of
pressure conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure. Though effective in
many purposes, piezometer is not practical to use in lighter liquids with large
pressure and cannot be used to measure gas pressure.
 Open manometer is a tube bent into a U-shape to contain one or more fluids
of different specific gravities. It is used to measure pressure.
 Differential manometer cannot measure pressure but can measure pressure
difference. Frequently in hydraulic problems, difference in pressure is more
useful information than the pressure itself.

3. Forces on Submerged Surfaces

When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the
fluid. The determination of these forces is important in the design of storage tanks,
ships, dams, and other hydraulic structures. For fluids at rest we know that the force
must be perpendicular to the surface since there are no shearing stresses present.
The pressure varies linearly with depth if the fluid is incompressible. For a horizontal
surface, such as the bottom of a liquid-filled tank, the magnitude of the resultant
force is simply FR = pA where p is the uniform pressure on the bottom and A is the
area of the bottom.

Note that if atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the bottom the resultant
force on the bottom is simply due to the weight of liquid in the tank. Since the
pressure is constant and uniformly distributed over the bottom, the resultant force
acts through the centroid of the area. For the more general case in which a
submerged plane surface is inclined the determination of the resultant force acting
on the surface is more involved. The liquid acts on the plane area shown as a
section of the wall; a top view gives additional detail of the geometry. The force on
the plane surface is due to the pressure p = ρgh = γh acting over the area, i.e.,
 where y is the distance (mean value) to the centroid of the plane area;
the centroid is identified as the point C. Equation (6) can also be expressed as

F = ρgh

Where h is the vertical distance to the centroid. Since ρgh is the pressure at the
centroid, we see that the magnitude of the force is the area multiplied by the
pressure that acts at the centroid of the area. It does not depend on the angle a of
inclination. But, the force does not, in general, act at the centroid (only in the case of
some symmetry of the plane). Let us assume that the force acts at some point called
the center of pressure, located by the point (xp, yp).

4. Buoyancy & the Bernoulli Equation

Buoyancy is the force acting opposite the direction of gravity that affects all
objects submerged in a fluid. When an object is placed in a fluid, the object's weight
pushes down on the fluid (liquid or gas) while an upward buoyancy force pushes
upward on the object, acting against gravity. In general terms, this buoyancy force
can be calculated with the equation Fb = Vs × D × g, where Fb is the buoyancy force
that is acting on the object, V s is the submerged volume of the object, D is the
density of the fluid the object is submerged in, and g is the force of gravity. 

Bernoulli’s equation expresses conservation of energy for flowing fluids

(specifically the incompressible fluids), such as water. It shows the equivalence of
the overall energy for a given volume of a fluid as it moves. The equation used
relates the energy of the fluid in terms of its elevation, pressure, and velocity and
relies on the principles outlined by the law of conservation of energy. This equation
can be expressed as:

P + ½ pv² + pgh = constant

 where P is the fluid pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the fluid velocity,
g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the height or depth. The first term in the
equation is simply the pressure, the second term is the kinetic energy of the fluid per
unit volume and the third term is the gravitational potential energy per unit volume for
the fluid. This is all equated to a constant, so you can see that if you have the value
at one time and the value at a later time, you can set the two to be equal to each
other, which proves to be a powerful tool for solving fluid dynamics problems:

P1 + ½ pv2^1 + pgh1 = P2 + ½ pv2^2 + pgh2

However, it’s important to note the limitations to Bernoulli’s equation. In

particular, it assumes that there is a streamline between points 1 and 2 (the parts
labelled by the subscripts), there is a steady flow, there is no friction in the flow (due
to viscosity within the fluid or between the fluid and the sides of the pipe) and that the
fluid has a constant density. This is generally not the case, but for slow fluid flow that
can be described as laminar flow, the equation’s approximations are appropriate.

5. Bernoulli Equation Examples

The Bernoulli equation is based on the conservation of energy of flowing

fluids. The derivation of this equation was shown in detail in the article Derivation
of the Bernoulli equation. For inviscid and incompressible fluids such as liquids,
this equation states that the sum of static pressure p, dynamic pressure ½⋅ϱ⋅v²
and hydrostatic pressure ϱ⋅ along a streamline is constant:

P + ½ p v² + pgh = constant

Two states on a streamline are thus linked by the following equation:

Flow in a water hose with a nozzle

A hose with an internal cross section of 1.24 cm² is connected to a water tap. The
hose leads to a height of 6 metres above ground, where the water flows out of a
nozzle and is collected in a pool. The pool fills up with 30 litres per minute. One
meter above the ground, a pressure gauge is attached to the hose to measure the
static pressure.

The gauge indicates a pressure of 2 bar. The ambient air pressure is 1 bar. The
flow is incompressible and inviscid. At what speed does the water come out of the
nozzle?

To answer this question we consider a streamline leading from the pressure

gauge to the outlet of the nozzle. In this case, the terms for the gravitational potential
energies (hydrostatic pressures) in the Bernoulli equation must be taken into
account. The following variables are given:

The flow velocity v1at the measuring point can be determined via the
volumetric flow rate with which the pool fills. Due to the incompressibility of
the fluid, the flow rate at the pressure gauge must be the same as the flow
rate that comes out of the nozzle and fills the pool. With a flow velocity v 1 the
following volume ΔV passes through the hose cross-section A 1 within the time
period Δt:
For the volumetric flow rate V* (=volume per unit time) as the quotient of the volume
ΔV and time duration Δt therefore applies:

Solving this equation for the flow velocity, provides a value of about 4.03 m/s for v 1.
Note that the volumetric flow rate must be given in the unit m³/s:

What about the static pressure p 2 at the outlet of the nozzle? Since the

water flows unhindered into the atmosphere, only the ambient air exerts

a pressure on the water jet. The ambient pressure thus imposes its static

pressure on the water jet when flowing out of the nozzle:

P2 = 1bar

Now that all needed quantities are known, they can be put into the
Bernoulli equation and solved for the flow velocity v 2:
So water comes out of the nozzle with a speed of 10.87 m/s.

6. Fluid Statics Examples

Fluid statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest. The fluid can be
either gaseous or liquid. Fluid statics is generally referred to as hydrostatics when
the fluid is a liquid and as aerostatics when the fluid is a gas. In fluid statics, there is
no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, and thus there are no shear
(tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it. The only stress we deal with in
fluid statics is the normal stress, which is the pressure, and the variation of pressure
is due only to the weight of the fluid. Therefore, the topic of fluid statics has
significance only in gravity fields, and the force relations developed naturally involve
the gravitational acceleration g. The force exerted on a surface by a fluid at rest is
normal to the surface at the point of contact since there is no relative motion
between the fluid and the solid surface, and thus no shear forces can act parallel to
the surface.

Example:

Calculating Force Exerted by the Air: What Force Does a Pressure Exert?

An astronaut is working outside the International Space Station where the

atmospheric pressure is essentially zero. The pressure gauge on her air tank
reads 6.90×10⁶ Pa. What force does the air inside the tank exert on the flat end of
the cylindrical tank, a disk 0.150 m in diameter?
Strategy

We can find the force exerted from the definition of pressure given in

,provided  we can find the area A acted upon.

Solution

By rearranging the definition of pressure to solve for force, we see that

F = PA.

Here, the pressure P is given, as is the area of the end of the cylinder A, given by

Thus,

F = ( 6.90 x 10⁶ N/m²)(3.14)(0.0750m)²

= 1.22 x 10⁵ N.

The force exerted on the end of the tank is perpendicular to its inside surface.
This direction is because the force is exerted by a static or stationary fluid. We have
already seen that fluids cannot withstand shearing (sideways) forces; they
cannot exert shearing forces, either. Fluid pressure has no direction, being a scalar
quantity. The forces due to pressure have well-defined directions: they are always
exerted perpendicular to any surface.

7. Fluid Kinematics

Kinematics means study of motion. Fluid kinematics refers to the study of

how fluids flow and how to describe a fluid in motion. It deals with describing the
motion of fluids without considering or even understanding the forces and
moments that cause the motion. The motion of a fluid can be analysed on the
same principles as those applied in the motion of a solid. Fluid flow is generally
the motion of a fluid that is subjected to different unbalanced forces. It is mainly a
part of fluid mechanics that generally deals with the dynamics of the fluid. The
motion of the fluid continues until different unbalanced forces are applied in the
fluid. The fluids can be classified into different types based on the variation of the
fluid characteristics and it includes the following:

The steady flow is defined as the flow in which the velocity, pressure, and
density are constant at any point with respect to time. The unsteady flow is
defined as the flow in which the velocity, pressure, and density are not constant
and it is different with respect to time.

Uniform flow can be defined as the type of flow in which the velocity does
not change with respect to space at any given time. Non-uniform flow can be
defined as the type of flow in which the velocity does change with respect to
space at any given time.

One, two, three-dimensional flow, In one-dimensional fluid flow, the name

itself indicates fluid is moving in only one dimension. In two-dimensional fluid
flow, the name itself indicates two the fluid is moving in two dimensions. In three-
dimensional fluid flow, the name indicates three the fluid is moving in three
dimensions.

Rotational fluid flow is defined as in which the fluid particles move to

streamline or along well-defined paths, which means the flow is straight and also
rotates about its own axis is known as rational flow. Irrational fluid flow is defined
as in which the fluid particles move to streamline or along well-defined paths, but
it does not rotate about its own axis is known as Irrational flow.

Laminar fluid flow is defined as in which the fluid particles move to

streamline or along well-defined paths, which means the flow is straight and
parallel is called Laminar Flow. Turbulent fluid flow is defined as in which the fluid
particles do not move streamline or along well-defined paths, It flows in a zigzag
 way that means the flow is not straight and parallel, It is in a zigzag way and it is
called Turbulent Flow.

Compressible flow can be defined as the flow in which the density is not
constant, that means from point to point density is changing therefore it is known
as compressible flow. Incompressible flow can be defined as the flow in which the
density is constant that means from point to point density is not changing
therefore it is known as Incompressible flow.

8. Reynolds Transport Theorem, Conservation of Mass, Kinematics

Reynolds transport theorem (also known as the Leibniz-Reynolds transport

theorem), or in short Reynolds theorem, is a three-dimensional generalization of
the Leibniz integral rule. This theorem is used to compute derivatives of
integrated quantities. The Reynolds transport theorem refers to any extensive
property, N, of the fluid in a particular control volume. It is expressed in terms of a
substantive derivative on the left-hand side.

Where η is the intensive property related to extensive property N, (N per unit

mass), t is time, c.v. refers to the control volume, c.s. refers to the control surface, ρ
is the fluid density, V is the volume, Ub. is the velocity of the boundary of the control
volume (the control surface), Vr is the velocity of the fluid with respect to the control
surface, n is the outward pointing normal vector on the control surface, and A is the
area.
 The law of conservation of mass states that the mass in an isolated system
can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one form to
another. According to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the reactants
must be equal to the mass of the products for a low energy thermodynamic process.

It is believed that there are a few assumptions from classical mechanics which
define mass conservation. Later the law of conservation of mass was modified with
the help of quantum mechanics and special relativity that energy and mass are one
conserved quantity. Law of conservation of mass can be expressed in the differential
form using the continuity equation in fluid mechanics and continuum mechanics as:

Where,

p is the density

t  is the time

V is the velocity

▽ is the divergence

Kinematics is the study of the motion of points, objects, and groups of objects
without considering the causes of its motion. It is also the branch of classical
mechanics that describes the motion of points, objects and systems of groups of
objects, without reference to the causes of motion (i.e., forces ). The study of
kinematics is often referred to as the “geometry of motion.” The study of kinematics
can be abstracted into purely mathematical expressions, which can be used to
calculate various aspects of motion such as velocity, acceleration, displacement,
time, and trajectory.

9. Continuity Equation, Bernoulli Equation, & Kinematics Examples

 The continuity equation states that in the case of steady flow, the amount of
fluid flowing past one point must be the same as the amount of fluid flowing past
another point, or the mass flow rate is constant. It is essentially a statement of the
law of conservation of mass. The explicit formula of continuity is the following:

ρ1 A1 v1=ρ2 ρ2 A2 v2
Where ρ is density, A is cross-sectional area and v is the flow velocity of the
fluid. The subscripts 1 and 2 indicate two different regions in the same pipe. The
relationship between pressure and velocity in fluids is described quantitatively
by Bernoulli’s equation, named after its discoverer, the Swiss scientist Daniel
Bernoulli (1700–1782). Bernoulli’s equation states that for an incompressible,
frictionless fluid, the following sum is constant:
P + ½ ρv² + ρgh = constant
where P is the absolute pressure, ρ is the fluid density, v is the velocity of the
fluid, h is the height above some reference point, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity. If we follow a small volume of fluid along its path, various quantities in the
sum may change, but the total remains constant. Let the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to
any two points along the path that the bit of fluid follows; Bernoulli’s equation
becomes

P1+½ρv1^2+ρgh1=P2+12ρv2^2+ρgh2

Kinematics is the study of motion, without reference to the forces that cause
that motion. Or in other words, kinematics focuses on position, velocity and
acceleration, and doesn't deal with forces. In kinematics there are five important
quantities: displacement (change in position), initial velocity, final velocity,
acceleration, and time.

Example:

A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly over a time of 5.21 seconds
for a distance of 110 m. Determine the acceleration of the car.

Given: Find:
d = 110m t = 5.21s Vi = 0 m/s a=?

d = Vi*t + 0.5*a*t²

110 m = (0 m/s)(5.21s) + 0.5(a)(5.21s)²

110 m = (13.57 s²) a

a = (110m)/(13.57s²)

a = 8.10 m/s²