Sources of Knowledge

Module 1 – Thinking Like a Scientist

Module 2 – Introduction to Research Methods
Sources of Knowledge (Information)
• There are many ways to gain knowledge, and some are better than others.
• As scientists, we must be aware of these methods.
• Let us look at several ways of acquiring knowledge, beginning with sources that may not
be as reliable or accurate as scientists might desire to sources that offer greater reliability
and ultimately discuss using science as a means of gaining knowledge.
1) Superstition and Intuition
• Gaining knowledge via superstition means acquiring knowledge based on subjective
feelings, belief in chance, or belief in magical events.
• For example, someone say, “Bad things happen in threes”, no study has ever supported
this hypothesis, yet you frequently hear people say this and act as if they believe it.
Similarly, “Billi Rasta kat gai” in urdu
• This knowledge that is neither reliable nor valid
Contd…
Contd… Superstition and Intuition
• When we gain knowledge via intuition, we have knowledge of something without being
consciously aware of where it came from.
• For example, people usually say things like:
• I don’t know, it s just a gut feeling
• I don’t know, it just came to me, and I know it s true.
• Don’t travel on “Tuesday”
• Sometimes we intuit knowledge based not on a gut feeling but on events we have
observed
2) Authority
• When we accept what a respected or famous person tells us, we are gaining knowledge via
authority.
• Everyone of us have gained knowledge through people whom we consider have authority, Such as
parents when we are young
• such knowledge may not be a problem if the figure truly is an authority.
• However, problems may arise when the perceived authority figure really is not
knowledgeable in the subject area
• Accepting the word of an authority figure may be a reliable and valid means of gaining knowledge but
only if the individual is truly an authority on the subject.
• Thus we need to question authoritative sources of knowledge and develop an attitude of skepticism so
that we do not blindly accept whatever we hear.
• A dentist on TV Advertisement says, xxx is a good toothpaste for gums???
3) Tenacity
• Gaining knowledge via tenacity involves hearing a piece of information so often that you begin to
believe it is true, despite evidence to the contrary,
• People stick to that belief.
• This method is often used in political campaigns in which a slogan is repeated so often that we begin
to believe it.
• Advertisers also use the method of tenacity by repeating a slogan for a product over and over until
people associate it with the product and believe the product meets the claims.
“If you repeat a lie often, enough people will believe it, and you will even come to believe it yourself”
• The problem with gaining knowledge through tenacity is that we do not know whether the claims are
true. The accuracy of such knowledge may not have been evaluated in any valid way.
• Anything from TV ADVERTISEMENT?? – XXX diet reduces your weight very fast?
4) Rationalism (‫)استدالل‬
• Gaining knowledge via rationalism involves logical reasoning.
• With this approach ideas are precisely stated and logical rules are applied to arrive at a
reasoned and sound conclusion.
• Rational ideas are often presented in the form of a syllogism (deductive reasoning from
two linked premises ).
• For example:
• All humans are mortal;
• I am a human;
• Therefore I am mortal.

• Consider, however, the following:

• Attractive people are good;
• Nellie is attractive;
• Therefore Nellie is good.
• Is it a correct rationale???
• This syllogism reflects the problem with gaining knowledge by logic.
• Although the syllogism is logically sound, the content of both premises is not necessarily true.
• Logic deals only with the form of the syllogism and not its content.
• Researchers must be interested in both form and content.

5) Empiricism
• Knowledge via empiricism involves gaining knowledge through objective observation and
the experiences of the senses
• An individual who says, “I believe nothing until I see it with my own eyes” is an empiricist.
• The empiricist gains knowledge by seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching.
• Empiricism alone, however, is not enough. It only leads to a collection of facts.
• As scientists, if we rely solely on empiricism, we have nothing more than a long list of
observations or facts.
• For these facts to be useful, we need to organize them, think about them, draw meaning
from them, and use them to make predictions.
• That is, we need to use rationalism together with empiricism to make sure that our
observations are logical.
• As we will see, science is mixture/blend of Rationalism and Empiricism
6) Science
• Gaining knowledge via science involves a merger of rationalism and empiricism.
• Scientists collect data (make empirical observations/ empiricism) and test hypotheses with
these data (assess them using rationalism).
• A hypothesis is a prediction regarding the outcome of a study.
• Often the prediction concerns the relationship between two variables (a variable is an
event or behavior that has at least two values).
• Empiricism alone, however, is not enough as it leads to a collection of facts.
• Thus, as scientists, if we rely solely on empiricism, we have nothing more than a long list
of observations or facts.
• For these facts to be useful, we need to organize them, think about them, draw meaning
from them, and use them to make predictions.
• That is, we need to use rationalism together with empiricism to make sure that our
observations are logical.
• As we will see, science is blend of empiricism and rationalism
• By merging rationalism and empiricism, we have the advantage of using a logical
argument based on observation.
• We may find that our hypothesis is not supported, and thus we have to re-evaluate our
position.
• In science the goal of testing hypotheses is to arrive at or to test a theory, which is an
organized system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain phenomena and
how they are related.
• Theories help us organize and explain the data gathered in research studies
• In other words, theories allow us to develop a framework regarding facts. For example,
Darwin’s theory organizes and explains facts related to evolution.
• Students are sometimes confused about the difference between a hypothesis and a theory.
A hypothesis is a prediction regarding the outcome of a single study
• On a given topic many hypotheses may be tested, and several research studies conducted
before a comprehensive theory is put forth.
• Once a theory is developed, it may aid in generating future hypotheses.
• That is, researchers may pose additional questions regarding the theory that help them to
generate new hypotheses.
• If the results from additional studies support the theory, we are likely to have greater
confidence in it. However, further research can also expose weaknesses in a theory that
may lead to future revisions.
Summary - Sources of knowledge
Example – to be discussed
Identify the source of knowledge in each of the following examples:
1. A celebrity is endorsing a new diet program, noting that she lost weight
on the program and so will you.
2. Based on several observations that Pam has made, she feels sure that
cell phone use does not adversely affect driving ability.
3. A friend tells you that she is not sure why, but because she has a feeling
of dread, she thinks that you should not take the plane trip you were
planning for next week.
Answers
1. A celebrity is endorsing a new diet program, noting that she lost weight on the
program and so will you.
Knowledge via authority
2. Based on several observations that Pam has made, she feels sure that cell phone
use does not adversely affect driving ability.
Knowledge via empiricism
3. A friend tells you that she is not sure why, but because she has a feeling of
dread, she thinks that you should not take the plane trip you were planning for
next week.
Knowledge via superstition or intuition
The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach
• Science is a way of thinking about and observing events in order to achieve a deeper
understanding of issues
• The scientific method requires developing an attitude of skepticism.
• A skeptic is a person who questions the validity, authenticity, or truth of something
supposedly factual.
• In our society being “skeptic” is not considered as good remarks, but for a scientist it is.
• Being a skeptic means that you do not blindly accept any new idea being promoted at the
time.
• Instead, the skeptic needs data to support an idea and insists on proper testing procedures
when the data are collected.
• Being Skeptic, using the scientific method involve applying three important criteria that
help define science:
• systematic empiricism,
• public verification, and
• empirically solvable problems (Stanovich, 2007).
Systematic Empiricism
• Empiricism, as mentioned earlier, is the practice of relying on observation to draw
conclusions.
• Most people agree that the best way to learn about something is to observe it.
• However, empiricism alone is not enough; it must be systematic empiricism.
• Therefore simply observing a series of events does not lead to scientific knowledge.
• The observations must be made systematically to test a hypothesis and to refute or
develop a theory.
• As an example, if a researcher is interested in the relationship between vitamin C and the
incidence of colds, she does not simply ask people haphazardly whether they take vitamin
C and how many colds they have had.
• This approach is empirical but not systematic.
• Instead, the researcher might design a study to assess the effects of vitamin C on colds.
• Her study would probably involve using a representative group of individuals, who are
then randomly assigned to either take or not take vitamin C supplements.
• She would then observe whether the groups differ in the number of colds they report.
• This approach would be empirical and systematic.
• By using systematic empiricism, researchers can draw more reliable and valid conclusions
than they can from observation alone.

Public Verification
• Scientific research is research that is open to public verification.
• The research is presented to the public in such a way that it can be observed, replicated,
criticized, and tested for veracity by others.
• Commonly the research is submitted to a scientific journal for possible publication. Most
journals are peer reviewed, that is, other scientists critique the research in order to decide
whether it meets the standards for publication.
• If a study is published, other researchers can read about the findings, attempt to replicate
them, and through this process demonstrate that the results are reliable.
Empirically Solvable Problems
• Science always investigates empirically solvable problems
• That is, questions that are potentially answerable by means of currently available research
techniques.
• If a theory cannot be tested using empirical techniques, then scientists are not interested in
it.
• When solvable problems are studied, they are always open to the principle of
falsifiability, meaning that a scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it is
possible to refute or disconfirm it.
• That is, the theory must predict not only what will happen but also what will not happen.
Summary – Scientific Method
Basic and Applied Research
• We have already discussed in Chapter 1, that
• Basic research addresses fundamental problems. It has long term implications and is
conducted in labs, etc.
• Much of what started out as basic research has eventually led to some sort of
application.

• Applied research is the study of issues that have practical significance and potential
solutions.
• Scientists who conduct applied research are interested in finding an answer
to a question because the answer can be immediately applied.

If researchers stopped engaging in basic research, they would undoubtedly lose many
great ideas and eventual applications.
An Introduction to Research Methods
• Descriptive Methods
• Predictive Methods
• Explanatory Methods
Descriptive Methods
1. Observational method: Making observations of human or other animal behavior.
1. Naturalistic Observation: Observing the behavior of humans in their natural
habitats.
2. Laboratory Observation: Observing the behavior of humans or other animals in a
contrived and controlled situation, usually the laboratory.
2. Case Study Method: In-depth study of one or more individuals – For example, case
study on personality development
3. Survey Method: Questioning individuals on a topic or topics and then describing their
responses. It has some concerns For example,
a. whether the group of people who participate in the study (the sample) is representative of
all the people that can be generalized (to the population) – This can be overcome by
Random Samples - each member of the population is equal probability to be chosen.
b. Language of questions is easy to understand??? Such concerns affect the validity of the data
collected
Predictive (Relational) Methods
• Correlational Method:
• Quasi-Experimental Method:
1. Correlational Method: A method that assesses the degree of relationship between two
variables
a. For example, If height and weight are correlated, i.e. higher a person greater the
weight. With this we can predict the weight
b. Disadvantage: In correct correlation is possible. Correlation does not imply
causation. A correlation simply means that the two variables are related in some
way. For instance, being a certain height does not cause you to be a certain weight

2. Quasi-Experimental Method: Research that compares naturally occurring groups of

individuals; the variable of interest cannot be manipulated.
a. Example, to perform an educational experiment, a class might be arbitrarily
divided by alphabetical selection or by seating arrangement.
b. Method used in Psychology research
Explanatory Method
1. Experimental method:
1. a research method that allows a researcher to establish a cause and-effect relationship
through manipulation of a variable and control of the situation.
2. This method therefore enables researchers to know when and why a behavior occurs
3. In the experimental method, the researcher controls cause and effect, between the variables
being studied.
4. When using the experimental method, the researcher manipulates at least one variable
(known as the independent variable) and measures at least one variable (known as the
dependent variable).
5. Let us say, for example, we want to measure, the “Coefficient of linear expansion of a
material recently developed”
6. We shall take a rod, measure its length, at a temperature. Then increasing temperature we
shall measure its length at each step increase. In this case length is dependent variable and
temperature is independent variable.
Summary – Introduction to Research Methods