Scholar Advacned Higher Maths Unit 1
Scholar Advacned Higher Maths Unit 1
Scholar Advacned Higher Maths Unit 1
Jane S Paterson
Heriot-Watt University
Dorothy A Watson
Balerno High School
Heriot-Watt University
Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
First published 2001 by Heriot-Watt University.
This edition published in 2009 by Heriot-Watt University SCHOLAR.
Copyright © 2009 Heriot-Watt University.
Members of the SCHOLAR Forum may reproduce this publication in whole or in part for
educational purposes within their establishment providing that no profit accrues at any stage,
Any other use of the materials is governed by the general copyright statement that follows.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, without written permission from the publisher.
Heriot-Watt University accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever with regard to the
information contained in this study guide.
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Graphic and Printing Services, Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the members of Heriot-Watt University’s SCHOLAR team who planned and
created these materials, and to the many colleagues who reviewed the content.
We would like to acknowledge the assistance of the education authorities, colleges, teachers
and students who contributed to the SCHOLAR programme and who evaluated these materials.
Grateful acknowledgement is made for permission to use the following material in the
SCHOLAR programme:
The Scottish Qualifications Authority for permission to use Past Papers assessments.
The Scottish Government for financial support.
All brand names, product names, logos and related devices are used for identification purposes
only and are trademarks, registered trademarks or service marks of their respective holders.
i
Contents
1 Algebra 1
1.1 Revision exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Introduction to Binomial theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Binomial coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Pascal’s triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Binomial theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Finding coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Sigma notation and binomial theorem applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9 Introduction to partial fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10 Types of partial fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.11 Algebraic long division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.13 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.14 Extended information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.15 Review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.16 Advanced review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.17 Set review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2 Differentiation 37
2.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3 Differentiation ’from first principles’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4 Differentiability at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5 Differentiability over an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6 The Second Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7 Rate Of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.8 Higher Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.9 Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.10 The Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.11 The Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.12 The Derivative of exp(x) or ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.13 The Derivative of ln(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.14 Curve Sketching on a Closed Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.15 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.16 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.17 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.18 Extended Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.19 Review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
ii CONTENTS
3 Integration 77
3.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3 Standard Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.4 Integration by Substitution (substitution given) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.5 Definite Integrals with Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.6 Integration by Substitution (substitution not given) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.7 The area between a curve and the x-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.8 The area between a curve and the y-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.9 Volumes of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.10 Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.12 Extended information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.13 Review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.14 Advanced review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.15 Set review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
CONTENTS iii
Glossary 199
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1
Topic 1
Algebra
Contents
1.1 Revision exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Introduction to Binomial theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Binomial coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Pascal’s triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Binomial theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Finding coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Sigma notation and binomial theorem applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9 Introduction to partial fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10 Types of partial fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.10.1 Partial fractions type 1a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.10.2 Partial fractions type 1b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.10.3 Partial fractions type 2a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.10.4 Partial fractions type 2b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.10.5 Partial fractions type 2c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.10.6 Partial fractions type 2d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.10.7 Partial fractions type improper rational fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.11 Algebraic long division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.13 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.14 Extended information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.15 Review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.16 Advanced review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.17 Set review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Prerequisite knowledge
A sound knowledge of the following techniques is required for this topic:
Learning Objectives
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.1. REVISION EXERCISE 3
Revision exercise
There is a similar exercise on the web if you would like to try it.
10 min
Q1: Expand (2x + 3y)(x - 2y)
1.3 Factorials
Learning Objective
ÆUse factorial notation
The following definition will be useful for this section.
n factorial
n! (called n factorial) is the product of the integers n, n - 1, n - 2, ..., 2, 1
That is, n! = n (n - 1) (n - 2) ... 2 1 for n
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
Q8: What is 3!
Q9: What is 4!
Calculator activity
Find the largest value of n that can be entered in a calculator as n! without giving an
5 min error message.
What is the value of this factorial?
Is this an accurate answer?
15! equals 1307674368000
Take this number and multiply it manually by 16
(use 4 and then 4 again if need be).
This should be equal to 16!
Check this carefully on a calculator. Are they exactly equal?
On my calculator the reading is 2.092278989 10 13 . This is 20922789890000 but the
calculation of multiplying 1307674368000 by 16 gives 209922789888000
These may be very large numbers with only a small difference but note that they are not
the same.
This illustrates the need to be aware of the limitations of the calculator.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.4. BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS 5
n
It is denoted by
r
Binomial coefficient formula 1
n n
r
r n r
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
6 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
n
This binomial coefficient is also denoted n Cr and is used in another related maths
r
topic called combinatorics.
The topic is not covered in this course but the term indicates the number of ways of
choosing r elements from a set of n elements.
Example : n Cr
How many ways can two chocolates be chosen from a box containing 20 chocolates?
20 C
20 20 19
2 = = 2 1 = 190
2
That is, 190 ways.
5
Q12: What is ?
2
6
Q13: What is ?
4
5
Q14: What is ?
3
Q15: How many ways can four pupils be chosen from a group of 7 ?
5 5 5 5
Notice that and = 10 and so =
2 3 2 3
This illustrates the first rule for binomial coefficients.
Binomial coefficient formula 2
n n
r n - r
The proof of this can be found as proof (1) in the proof section near the back of the topic.
7
Q16: Find another binomial coefficient equal to
4
21
Q17: Find another binomial coefficient equal to
17
5 5 6
From the earlier questions = 10, = 5 and = 15
3 4 4
5 5 6
Therefore + =
3 4 4
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.4. BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS 7
Binomial coefficient formula 3
n
r - 1
n
r
n + 1
r
The proof of this can be found at proof (2) in the proof section near the back of this topic.
8 8
Q18: Write down
6
7
as a binomial coefficient.
Q19: Write down
14
11
14
12
as a binomial coefficient.
It is also possible to find ’n’ given the value of a binomial coefficient and ’r’
n
Example If n is a positive integer such that = 15 find n
2
Answer:
n n n n - 1
15 = 2 n - 2 = 2
2
Hence 30 = n(n - 1)
n2 - n - 30 = 0
(n - 6)(n + 5) = 0
The only solution which is a positive integer is n = 6
n
Q20: Find n when n is a positive integer such that 10
2
n
Q21: Find n when n is a positive integer such that = 21
2
n
Q22: Find n when n is a positive integer such that = 36
2
For further practice try the following selected questions which are based on the
preceding work.
Q23: Evaluate 5!
Q24: Evaluate 0!
Q25: Evaluate 7!
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
8 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
Q30: Evaluate 6 C2
9
Q31: Evaluate
5
7
Q32: Evaluate
4
12
Q33: Find another binomial coefficient equal to
5
13
Q34: Find another binomial coefficient equal to
12
6
Q35: Find another binomial coefficient equal to
4
Q36: Write down
3
2
3
3
as a binomial coefficient.
7 7
Q37: Write down
4
5
as a binomial coefficient.
Q38: Write down
12
9
12
10
as a binomial coefficient.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.5. PASCAL’S TRIANGLE 9
binomial coefficients
0
row 0
0
1 1
row 1
0 1
2 2 2
row 2
0 1 2
3 3 3 3
row 3
0 1 2 3
values of binomial coefficients
row 0
row 1
row 2
row 3
Now complete the next four rows of the two tables.
binomial coefficients
row 4
row 5
row 6
row 7
values of coefficients
row 4
row 5
row 6
row 7
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
10 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
Now if row 9 is required, instead of writing out Pascal’s triangle it is simply a matter of
taking the binomial coefficients of row 9, namely,
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
, , , , , , , , and
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Either method can be used.
The entries in Pascal’s triangle and the corresponding binomial coefficients are equal.
n n n+1
Recall that the second rule for binomial coefficients is + =
r-1 r r
This is the definition of how to construct the entries in Pascal’s triangle.
If the numbers in the nth row of Pascal’s triangle are the binomial coefficients, then the
rth entry in the next row, the row (n + 1), is the sum of the (r - 1)th entry and the rth entry
in row n.
n+1
The rth entry in the (n + 1)th row is however
r
Hence the entries in the (n + 1)th row of Pascal’s triangle are also the binomial
coefficients.
An example of this computation follows:
row 6
row 7
7
7
2 3
8
row 8
3
row 9
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.6. BINOMIAL THEOREM 11
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
12 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
The proof of the Binomial Theorem can be found as proof (3) in the proof section near
the back of this unit.
Examples
The binomial theorem works also with multiples of x and y and other symbols (such as
a, b or , ).
2x + 3y)4
4 4 4 3 4 2 2 4 3 4
= (2x) + (2x) (3y) + (2x) (3y) + (2x)(3y) + (3y)4
0 1 2 3 4
= 16x4 + 96x3 y + 216x2 y2 + 216xy3 + 81y4
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.6. BINOMIAL THEOREM 13
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
14 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
Examples
This however can be simplified since both terms in this expression involve x.
x 7 - r - r - 3 r = - 3 r
7 7
This gives x7 - 2r
r r
To obtain x5 requires n = 7 and 7 - 2r = 5, that is, r = 1
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.7. FINDING COEFFICIENTS 15
7
The coefficient is therefore (-3)1 = -21
1
2 4
4. Find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of x + x
Answer:
4 4
The general term in this problem is x4 - r ( 2x )r = x4 - 2r (2)r
r r
To give 4 - 2r = 2 requires r = 1
4
The coefficient is then (2) =8
1
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
16 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
x + y
5 5
r
x5 - r r
y
r = 0
5 5 5 4 5 3 2 5 2 3 5 4 5
x + x y+ x y + x y + xy + y5
0 1 2 3 4 5
5 4 3 2 2 3 4 5
= x + 5x + 10x y + 10x y + 5xy + y
Examples
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.9. INTRODUCTION TO PARTIAL FRACTIONS 17
3
3
(1.04)3 = 13 - r
(0.04)r
r
r = 0
3 3 3 2 3
= 1 + 3 2
1 (0.04) + 1
1 (0.04) + (0.04)3
0 1 2 3
= 1 + 3 1 0.04 3 1 0.0016 1 0.000064
= 1 + 0.12 + 0.0048 + 0.000064
= 1.124864
4
4 4
(0.7) 14 - r
( - 0.3)r
r
r = 0
4 4 4 4 4
= 14 ( - 0.3)0 + 13 ( - 0.3) + 12 ( - 0.3)2 + 11 (0.3)3 + 10 ( - 0.3)4
0 1 2 3 4
= 1 + 4 0.3) + (6 0.09) + (4 0.027) + 0.00811
= 0.2401
There are some very complex looking algebraic equations. To try to integrate them
as they stand would be very difficult. In this section methods for splitting them into
manageable terms are investigated.
The following definitions will help to make this section clearer.
Polynomial of degree n.
If P (x) = an xn + an xn - 1 an - 2 xn - 2 a2x2 a1x1 a0
where a0 , ..., an
then P is a polynomial of degree n.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
18 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
Examples:
x + 3 has degree 1; x2 - 2x + 3 has degree 2; 4x3 + 2x2 - 5 has degree 3 and of course
a constant such as 7 has degree 0
Rational function
P(x)
If P (x) and Q (x) are polynomials then Q(x) is called a rational function.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.10. TYPES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS 19
It also depends on whether this denominator has linear, repeated linear or quadratic
factors (with no real roots).
The different ways in which a proper rational function with a denominator of degree at
most three can be split into partial fractions are now explained.
linear or constant
TYPE 1: quadratic
A B
• Type 1a (x - a)(x + b) = x-a + x+b
A B
• Type 1b = +
(x - a)2 x-a (x - a)2
A B C
• Type 2a (x - a)(x - b)(x - c) = x-a + x-b + x-c
A B C
• Type 2b = + +
(x - a)(x - b)2 x-a x-b (x - b)2
This has a denominator of a cubic with one distinct and one repeated factor.
A B C
• Type 2c = + +
(x - a)3 x-a (x - a)2 (x - a)3
A Bx + C
• Type 2d = +
(x - a)(x2 + bx + c) x-a x2 + bx + c
This has a denominator of a cubic with two factors one a linear and one a quadratic (with
no real roots).
The following section will examine each type with a worked example followed by an
exercise.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
20 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
x+4
1. Express in partial fractions
(x2 - 7x + 10)
Answer:
x+4 x+4
= STEP 1: Factorise the denominator
(x2 - 7x + 10) (x - 2)(x - 5)
x+7
2. Express x2 - x - 2
in partial fractions.
Answer:
x+7 x+7
x2 - x - 2
= (x - 2)(x + 1) STEP 1
Let (x - x2)(x
+7 A B
+ 1) = x - 2 + x + 1 STEP 2
= (x A(x + 1) B(x - 2)
- 2)(x + 1) + (x - 2)(x + 1) STEP 3
x + 7 = A (x + 1) + B (x - 2) STEP 4
1=A+B
STEP 5
7 = A - 2B
A = 3 and B = -2 STEP 6
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.10. TYPES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS 21
Alternatively:
Let x = -1 then 6 = -3B so B = -2
Let x = 2 then 9 = 3A so A = 3
x+7 3 -2
therefore = +
(x2 - x - 2) x-2 x+1
x+3
1. Express in partial fractions.
(x - 2)2
Answer:
Let x+3
= A
+ B Note: STEP1 was
(x - 2)2 x-2 (x - 2)2 STEP 2
not needed.
A(x - 2) B
= + STEP 3
(x - 2)2 (x - 2)2
x + 3 = A (x - 2) + B STEP 4
(equating powers
1=A of x)
STEP 5
3 = -2A + B (equating
constants)
A = 1 and B = 5 STEP 6
Alternatively:
let x = 2 then 5 = B
In this case there is only one special value.
This will eliminate A and give the value of B.
One of the equations in STEP 5 (in this case the second equation) can then be used to
find A.
Namely 3 = -2A + 5 so A = 1
x+3 1 5
therefore = +
(x - 2)2 x-2 (x - 2)2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
22 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
2x + 2
2. Express in partial fractions.
(x + 3)2
Answer:
Let 2x + 22 = A
+ B
STEP 2
(x + 3) x+3 (x + 3)2
A(x + 3) B
= + STEP 3
(x + 3)2 (x + 3)2
2x + 2 = A(x + 3) + B STEP 4
2=A
STEP 5
2 = 3A + B
A = 2 and B = -4 STEP 6
Alternatively:
Let x = -3 then -4 = B
Now use equation 2 in STEP 5 to obtain A = 2
2x + 2 2 -4
Therefore = +
(x + 3)2 x+3 (x + 3)2
2x - 7
Q74: Express in partial fractions.
(x - 2)2
x-3
Q75: Express in partial fractions.
(x - 1)2
3x + 5
Q76: Express in partial fractions.
(x + 2)2
2x + 11
Q77: Express in partial fractions.
(x + 4)2
x2 - 13
1. Express x3 - 7x + 6
in partial fractions.
Answer:
x2 - 13 x2 - 13
x3 - 7x + 6
= (x - 1)(x - 2)(x + 3) STEP 1
x2 - 13 A B C
Let (x - 1)(x - 2)(x + 3) = x-1 + x-2 + x+3 STEP 2
A(x - 2)(x + 3) B(x - 1)(x + 3) C(x - 1)(x - 2)
(x - 1)(x - 2)(x + 3) + (x - 1)(x - 2)(x + 3) + (x - 1)(x - 2)(x + 3)
x2 - 13
STEP 4
= A (x - 2)(x + 3) + B (x - 1)(x + 3) + C (x - 1)(x - 2)
1=B+C
0 = A + 2B - 3C STEP 5
-13 = - 6A - 3B + 2C
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.10. TYPES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS 23
A = 3,
B = -9 / 5 STEP 6
and C = -1 /5
Alternatively:
let x = 2 -9
then -9 = 0 + 5B + 0 = 5B so B = /5
let x = 1 then -12 = -4A so A = 3
let x = -3 then -4 = 20C so C = -1 /5
x2 - 13 3 9 1
therefore x3 - 7x + 6
= x-1 - 5(x - 2) - 5(x + 3)
6x2 + 4x - 6
Q79: Express x3 - 7x - 6
in partial fractions.
- 7x + 9
Q80: Express x3 - 2x2 - 9x + 18
in partial fractions.
2x2 - 3
Q81: Express x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8
in partial fractions.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
24 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
4x2 + 9
1. Express x3 + 4x2 - 3x - 18
in partial fractions.
Answer:
4x2 + 9 4x2 + 9
x3 + 4x2 - 3x - 18
= STEP 1
(x - 2)(x + 3)2
4x2 + 9 A B C
Let = + + STEP 2
(x - 2)(x + 3)2 x-2 x+3 (x + 3)2
2
A(x + 3) B(x - 2)(x + 3) C(x - 2)
= + + STEP 3
(x - 2)(x + 3)2 (x - 2)(x + 3)2 (x - 2)(x + 3)2
- 3x2 + 6x + 20
2. Express x3 - x2 - 8x + 12
in partial fractions.
Answer:
- 3x2 + 6x + 20 - 3x2 + 6x + 20
x3 - x2 - 8x + 12
= STEP 1
(x + 3)(x - 2)2
- 3x2 + 6x + 20 A B C
Let = + + STEP 2
(x + 3)(x - 2)2 x+3 x-2 (x - 2)2
A(x - 2)2 B(x + 3)(x - 2) C(x + 3)
+ + STEP 3
(x + 3)(x - 2)2 (x + 3)(x - 2)2 (x + 3)(x - 2)2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.10. TYPES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS 25
x2 - 7x + 2
1. Express x3 - 3x2 + 3x - 1
in partial fractions.
Answer:
x2 - 7x + 2 x2 - 7x + 2
- 3x2 + 3x - 1
= STEP 1
x3 (x - 1)3
x2 - 7x + 2 A B C
Let = + + STEP 2
(x - 1)3 x-1 (x - 1)2 (x - 1)3
A(x - 1)2 B(x - 1) C
= + + STEP 3
(x - 1)3 (x - 1)3 (x - 1)3
x2- 7x + 2 = A (x - 1) 2 + B (x - 1) + C STEP 4
Using a mix of methods
let x = 1 then - 4 = C
equating coefficients of x2 1=A
equating coefficients of x -7 = -2A + B
so -5 = B A = 1, B = -5 and C = -4
x2 - 7x + 2 1 5 4
therefore x3 - 3x2 + 3x - 1
= - -
x-1 (x - 1)2 (x - 1)3
2x2 + 5x + 3
2. Express x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
in partial fractions.
Answer:
2x2 + 5x + 3 2x2 + 5x + 3
x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
= STEP 1
(x + 2)3
2x2 + 5x + 3 A B C
Let = + + STEP 2
(x + 2)3 x+2 (x + 2)2 (x + 2)3
A(x + 2)2
= + B(x + 2)3 + C 3 STEP 3
(x + 2)3 (x + 2) (x + 2)
2x + 5x + 3 = A (x + 2)2 + B
2 (x + 2) + C STEP 4
Using a mix of methods
let x = -2 then 1 = C
equating coefficients of x2 2=A
equating coefficients of x 5 = 4A + B
so B = -3
2x2 + 5x + 3 2 3 1
therefore x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
= - +
x+2 (x + 2)2 (x + 2)3
x2 - 2x + 3
Q87: Express in partial fractions.
(x + 1)3
2x2 + 7x + 8
Q88: Express x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
in partial fractions.
x2 - x + 2
Q89: Express in partial fractions.
(x - 1)3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
26 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
4x + 1
1. Express x3 - x2 + x - 6
in partial fractions.
Answer:
4x + 1 4x + 1
x3 - x2 + x - 6
= STEP 1
(x - 2)(x2 + x + 3)
4x + 1 A Bx + C
Let = + STEP 2
(x - 2)(x2 + x + 3) x-2 x2 + x + 3
A(x2 + x + 3) (Bx + C)(x - 2)
= + STEP 3
(x - 2)(x2 + x + 3) (x - 2)(x2 + x + 3)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.10. TYPES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS 27
Note carefully that in this example the minus sign after 2x - 3 changes the sign of the
second fraction.
x3
Q94: Express (x + 1)(x + 2) in partial fractions.
x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 4
Q95: Express (x + 1)(x + 2) in partial fractions.
10x2 + 16x + 9
Q96: Express 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x + 6
in partial fractions.
- 7x - 26
Q97: Express - x2 - 8x - 12
in partial fractions.
3x2 - 8x + 1
Q98: Express x3 - 2x2 - x + 2
in partial fractions.
x2 + x + 1
Q99: Express x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2
in partial fractions.
4x - 6
Q100: Express in partial fractions.
(x - 1)2
x2 - 3x - 3
Q101: Express in partial fractions.
(x - 2)3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
28 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
2x3 - 5x2 - x + 3
Q102: Express (x - 1)(x - 2) in partial fractions.
Divisor
The divisor is the expression which is doing the dividing.
It is the expression outside the division sign. As a fraction it is the denominator.
Quotient
The quotient is the answer to the division but not including the remainder.
Example 35 8 = 4 r 3
The dividend is 35
The divisor is 8
The quotient is 4 and the remainder is 3
In long division style this is written as
43
351
32
8
This would be written in fraction terms as 43 7 /8
31
24
7
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.11. ALGEBRAIC LONG DIVISION 29
Examples
1. Divide x3 - 2x + 5 by x2 + 2x - 3
Answer:
STEP 1: Lay out the division leaving gaps for
’missing terms’. Start with the highest power
x2 + 2x - 3 x3 - 2x + 5
of x.
STEP 2: Divide the first term of the divisor
x (x2 ) into the first of the dividend (x3 ) and write
x2 + 2x - 3 x3 - 2x + 5 the answer at the top (x).
x
x2 + 2x - 3 x3 - 2x + 5 STEP 4: Subtract to give a new last line in
3 2
x + 2x - 3x the dividend.
- 2x2 + x + 5
x - 2
x2 + 2x - 3 x3 - 2x + 5
STEP 6: Multiply each of the terms in the
3 2 divisor by the 2nd term of the quotient (-2)
x + 2x - 3x
and write underneath the divisor.
- 2x2 + x + 5
- 2x2 - 4x + 6
x - 2
x2 + 2x - 3 x3 - 2x + 5
STEP 7: Subtract to give a new last line in
3 2 the dividend (5x-1). The division stops here
x + 2x - 3x
in this case as the degree of the divisor (2) is
- 2x2 + x + 5
greater than the degree of the last line (1).
- 2x2 - 4x + 6
5x - 1
x3 - 2x + 5 5x - 1
Therefore x2 + 2x - 3
=x-2+ x2 + 2x - 3
The (x - 2) is the quotient and the (5x - 1) is the remainder.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
30 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
2
3 2
STEP 1: Lay out the division leaving gaps for
x + 4 3x - 2x +6 ’missing terms’. Start with the highest power of
x.
STEP 2: Divide the first term of the divisor into
3x3 the first of the dividend and write the answer at
x2 + 4 3x - 2x2 +6 the top.
3x 3
x2 + 4 3x - 2x2 +6 STEP 4: Subtract to give a new last line in the
3x 3
+ 12x dividend.
- 2x2 - 12x + 6
3x3- 2
x2 + 4 3x - 2x2 +6
STEP 6: Multiply each of the terms in the
3 divisor by the 2nd term of the quotient and
3x + 12x
2 write underneath the divisor.
- 2x - 12x + 6
- 2x2 -8
3x3- 2
x2 + 4 3x - 2x2 +6
STEP 7: Subtract to give a new last line in the
3x3 + 12x dividend. The division stops here in this case
as the degree of the divisor (2) is greater than
- 2x2 - 12x + 6
the degree of the last line (1).
- 2x2 -8
- 12x + 14
Q105: Divide x4 - 2x + 5 by x2 + 4
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.12. SUMMARY 31
1.12 Summary
At this stage the following topics and techniques should be known:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
32 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
1.13 Proofs
Proof 1
n n
Prove that
r n - r
n n
This is the same as proving that
n - r r
n
n r
LHS
n
n rn n r
n!
n rn n r
n
n rr
n
rn r
n
r
RHS
Proof 2
Prove that
n
r-1
n
r
n+1
r
In this proof the following facts are needed:
1. r! = r (r - 1)!
2. (n - r + 1)! = (n - r + 1) (n - r)!
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.13. PROOFS 33
LHS
n
r-1
n
r
n n
r - 1n - r + 1 r !n - r
n r
rr - 1n - r + 1
rnn -- rr ++ 11 n -nr
r n - r + 1 n
r n - r + 1
n r + n - r + 1
r n - r + 1
n n + 1
rn + 1 - r
n
rn r
n
r
RHS
Proof 3
Prove the Binomial Theorem that if x, y and n
xyn
n
0
xn +
n
1
xn - 1
y n
2
xn - 2
y + .+
n
r
xn - r r
y + +
n
n
yn
n
n
r
xn - r r
y for r, n N
r = 0
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
34 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
k k k k k
(x + y)k = xk + xk - 1 y + xk - 2 y2 + + xyk - 1
+ yk
0 1 2 k-1 k
Consider
x yk + 1 x yx yk xx yk yx yk
k k k k k
xk + 1 + xk y + xk - 1 y2 + + x2 yk - 1 + xyk
0 1 2 k-1 k
k k k k - 1 2 k k - 2 3 k k k
+ x y+ x y + x y + + xy + yk + 1
0 1 2 k - 1 k
k k k k k
= xk + 1 + + xk y + + xk - 1 y2 +
0 1 0 2 1
k k k k k
+ + x2 yk - 1 + + xyk + yk + 1
k-1 k-2 k k-1 k
k+1 k+1 k+1
= 1x + k
x y+ + xyk + 1yk + 1
1 k
k + 1
k + 1
= xk + 1 - r r
y
r = 0
r
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
1.14. EXTENDED INFORMATION 35
30 min
6 6
Q108: Evaluate +
3 4
2x2 - 5x + 6
Q115: Express in partial fractions.
(x - 3)3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
36 TOPIC 1. ALGEBRA
Q122: In the expansion of (2x 3 - y2 )7 , what value of ’r’ should be used in the general
term formula to find the coefficient of x6 y10 ?
What is the value of this coefficient?
4x2 + 15x + 23
Q125: Express x3+ 5x2 + 11x + 7
in partial fractions.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
37
Topic 2
Differentiation
Contents
2.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3 Differentiation ’from first principles’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.1 Leibniz Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4 Differentiability at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5 Differentiability over an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6 The Second Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7 Rate Of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.8 Higher Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.9 Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.10 The Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.11 The Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.12 The Derivative of exp(x) or ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.13 The Derivative of ln(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.14 Curve Sketching on a Closed Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.15 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.16 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.17 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.18 Extended Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.19 Review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.20 Advanced review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.21 Set review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Learning Objectives
Use the rules of differentiation on the elementary functions
xn , (n ), sin x, cos x, exp x, ln x and their composites.
Minimum Performance Criteria:
• Differentiate a product.
• Differentiate a quotient.
• Differentiate a simple composite function using the chain rule.
38 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
2.1 Prerequisites
Learning Objective
ÆRevision of previous knowledge.
You should recall some elementary properties of differentiation such as
4. You should recognise the alternative Leibniz notation for the derivative i.e. that
dy / = f (x). You should also know that the notation d / ( f (x) ) indicates that you
dx dx
should find the first derivative of f (x)
5. You should remember the chain rule. It is useful when finding the derivative of a
more complicated expression. For example
When y (x) = f ( g (x))
then y (x) = f (g (x)) g (x)
In Leibniz notation we can write
When y = f (u) where u = g (x) then
dy / = dy /du du /
dx dx
The English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton and the German mathematician
Gottfried Leibniz each independantly developed theories regarding Differentiation. You
can read more about these famous mathematicians in the Extended Information chapter
near the end of this topic.
Study the following examples and make sure you understand the working. Note that
you should always try to give answers in a similar form to the way the question is posed.
Compare examples 1 and 2; the answer to example 1 is left as a negative power whereas
the answer to example 2 is rewritten as a fraction.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.1. PREREQUISITES 39
Examples
1. f (x) = x-2
f (x) = - 2x-3
2. f (x) = 1 /3x = -1 /3 -2 =
1
- 3x2
3.
3x3 + 5
f (x) = = 3x + 5x - 2
x2
10
f ’(x) = 3 - 10x - 3 = 3 - 3
x
4. Differentiate y (x) = sin (2x + 1)
Answer
We use the chain rule with
y = sin (u)
dy /du = cos (u)
u = 2x + 1
du /dx = 2
Hence
dy dy du
dx du dx
cos(u) 2
2 cos(2x + 1)
5. Differentiate y (x) = 1
= (3x - 1) - 1 2
3x - 1
Answer
We use the chain rule with
y = u - 1 2
dy 1
- u - 3 2
du 2
u = 3x - 1
du
dx
Hence
dy dy du
dx du dx
dy 1
- (3x - 1) - 3 2 .3
dx 2
3
- (3x - 1) - 3 2
2
-3
3
2 3x - 1
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
40 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
Answer
To do this we need to find a point on the tangent, and the gradient of the tangent.
At x = 1, y = f (1) = 1 5=5
So the point (1, 5) lies on the tangent.
When f (x) = x2 (x + 4) = x3 + 4x2
then f (x) = 3x2 + 8x
Thus the gradient of the tangent at x = 1 is calculated from f (1) = 3 12 + 8 1 = 11
Hence using the straight line equation in the form y - b = m (x - a)a, the line through
(1, 5) with gradient 11 has equation
y - 5 = 11 (x - 1)
y = 11x - 6
Therefore the equation of the tangent to f (x) = x 2 (x + 4) at x = 1 is y = 11x - 6
7. Curve sketching
Sketch the curve f (x) = x3 + 3x2
Answer
In order to sketch this curve we need to find
• the y-intercept,
• the x-intercept,
• the stationary points and their nature,
• the behaviour of the curve for large positive and negative values of x.
The y-intercept
The curve cuts the y-axis when x = 0 and f (0) = 0
Therefore the curve cuts the y-axis at (0, 0)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.1. PREREQUISITES 41
The x-intercept
The curve cuts the x-axis when y = 0
so when x3 + 3x2 = 0 then
x2 (x + 3) = 0
and x = 0 or x = -3
Therefore the curve cuts the x-axis at (0, 0) and (-3, 0)
Stationary points
When f (x) = x3 + 3x2 then f (x) = 3x2 + 6x
At stationary values f (x) = 0
therefore 3x2 + 6x = 0
3x (x + 2) = 0
x = 0 or x = -2
When x = 0, f (0) = 0 and when x = -2, f (-2) = 4
So there are stationary points at (0, 0) and (-2, 4)
From the tables shown here we can see that there is a maximum turning point at (-2,4)
and there is a minimum turning point at (0, 0)
Large values of x
As x
-, x3 + 3x2
-
As x
, x3 + 3x2
The sketch of the curve
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
42 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
Revision Exercise 1
An on-line version of this exercise is available. It contains randomised questions which
30 min are similar to those below.
Q1: Differentiate the following with respect to the relevant variable, simplifying where
possible.
a) f (t) 3t - 4 + 2t - 5
b) f (x) 5x2 + 3 cosx
c) f (x)
5
3 x
d) f (w) w(w + w)
2
u4 - 3u + 7
e) f (u)
u2
(4x + 3)5
f) f (x)
g) f ( )
5 +
4
Q2: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = cos 3 at = /6
A reminder:
Suppose we wish to find the gradient of a curve y = f (x) at a point A (x, f (x))
You should remember that the gradient of the curve at A = gradient of the tangent of the
curve at A = mT
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.2. THE DERIVATIVE 43
y=f(x)
f(x+h) B(x+h,f(x+h))
B1
f(x+h)-f(x)
B2
m
T
A(x,f(x))
f(x)
h
0 x x+h x
If we move B closer and closer to A, say to points B1 , B2 and B3 then the gradient of the
chords AB1 , AB2 and AB3 will give better and better approximations for the gradient of
the curve at A.
If mABn tends to a limit value as Bn approaches A then this value is denoted by f (x) and
we write
f’ (x)
Bn
m
A AB n
h
f(x + h) - f(x)
h
where
h
means the limit value as h approaches 0.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
44 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
hence f’(x)
h
f(x + h) - f(x)
h
2
- x2
h
(x + h)
h
+ 2xh + h2 - x2
2
h
x
h
h
h
h(2x + h)
2x + h
h
x
Therefore when f (x) = x2 then f (x) = 2x (as you knew already).
Exercise 2
There is an on-line version of this exercise , which you might find helpful.
10 min
Find, from ’first principles’, the derivatives of these functions.
Q4: f (x) = x3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.4. DIFFERENTIABILITY AT A POINT 45
y
x
dy
This is usually written as dx
y
B(x+Dx,y+Dy)
Dy
m
T
A(x,y)
Dx
0 x
Learning Objective
Æ
15 min
Gain an appreciation of limits
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
46 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
Examples
1.
Notice that the graph of f (x) = x1/3 is smooth and continuous but is not differentiable at
x=0
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.5. DIFFERENTIABILITY OVER AN INTERVAL 47
2.
Notice that the graph has a sharp point at x = 0 and so does not have a tangent and as
a consequence the function is not differentiable at x = 0.
Exercise 3
There is an on-line version of this exercise, which you might find helpful.
15 min
Q7: a) Make a sketch of the function
5 when x 0
5 + 4x - x2 when x 5
g(x)
0 when x 5
b) Write down the values of x where the function is not differentiable.
Q8: a) Write down the largest possible domain for x when f x x+4
b) Sketch the function f (x)
c) Write down the values of x where the function is not differentiable.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
48 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
Example
The graph shown here is
f (x) =
x for x [1, 10]
We can say that f (x) is
differentiable in this interval
because f (x) exists for each
x [1, 10]
Whereas for the interval [0, 10],
f (x) is not differentiable at x = 0
because as x
0, f (x)
Examples
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.7. RATE OF CHANGE 49
Exercise 4
There is an on-line version of this exercise, which you might find helpful.
20 min
Q9: Find the first and second derivatives of the following functions:
a) y = 6x2 + 4x - 3
b) y = (2x + 9)4
c) y = cos(4x +
4
Q10: If f (x) = 2x3 + 5x find the value of a so that f (a) = 36
- 8y +
2
y ddxy2 + dy
dx 8x
dy /
The rate of change of a differentiable function, dx , can be calculated for any value of
x.
In particular, the rate of change of displacement or distance (s) with respect to time (t)
is speed (v).
Therefore v = ds /
dt
Also, the rate of change of speed (v) with respect to time (t) is acceleration (a).
Therefore a = dv /
dt
Example
The distance (in metres) that a rocket has travelled at time t (seconds) in the initial
stages of lift-off is calculated using the formula s (t) = 2t3
a) Find expressions for the speed and acceleration of the rocket.
b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the rocket after 10 seconds.
Answer
ds
a) Speed v 6t2
dt
dv
Acceleration a 12t
dt
b) After 10 seconds:
Speed = 6 102 = 600 m/s
Acceleration = 12 10 = 120 m/s 2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
50 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
Exercise 5
There is an on-line version of this exercise, which you might find helpful.
25 min
Q12:
The displacement of a particle s metres from a certain point at time t seconds is given
by s = 8 - 75t + t3 .
a) Find the acceleration of the particle in terms of t.
b) Evaluate the acceleration after 5 seconds.
Q13:
The displacement of the weight on a spring, after t seconds, is given by f (t) = 3 sin t
a) Calculate the velocity after 1 second (remember angles are in radians).
b) After what time is the velocity first zero?
c) Calculate the acceleration after 1 second.
Q14:
The distance, d metres, travelled on a roller-coaster is calculated using the formula
d (t) = 12t2 - 6t, where t is the time in seconds after the start of the ride.
Calculate the speed and acceleration of a car on the roller-coaster 5 seconds after the
start of the ride.
Q15:
so that
A particle is moving its distance, s metres, from the origin at time t seconds is
given by s(t) sin 3t - 6
t 2
a) Find an expression for the velocity of the particle and calculate its velocity at t = 0
b) Find an expression for the acceleration of the particle
c) At what times is the acceleration a maximum ? Give your answers as multiples of
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.8. HIGHER DERIVATIVES 51
Exercise 6
There is an on-line version of this exercise, which you might find helpful.
20 min
Q16: Find all the derivatives of f (x) = 3x4 + 5x2 + 2x + 7
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
52 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
2.9 Discontinuities
Learning Objective
Æ Understand when discontinuities can occur in a function
Example
Exercise 7
There is an on-line version of this exercise, which you might find helpful.
30 min
x 2 for x
Q18: Consider f(x)
x2 for x
a) Make a sketch of this graph.
b) Calculate f (x) and sketch this graph.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.10. THE PRODUCT RULE 53
Product rule
The product rule gives us a method to differentiate the product of two or more functions.
It states that when k (x) = f (x) g (x)
then k (x) = f (x) g (x) + f (x) g (x)
Proof
To prove this result we differentiate from ’first principles’.
Let k(x) f(x)g(x)
then k’(x)
h
k(x + h) - k(x)
h
h
h
f(x + h) - f(x)
h
h
g(x + h)
h
g(x + h) - g(x)
h
f x
h
f’(x)g(x) g’(x)f(x)
f’(x)g(x) f(x)g’(x)
In short
d
dx (f g) f’ g + f g’
g (x)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
54 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
then k (x) = f (x) g (x) h (x) + f (x) g (x) h (x) + f (x) g (x) h (x)
In short
d
dx (f g h) f ’ g hf g ’ hf g h’
Leibniz Notation
If y = uv where u and v are functions of x
then dy /dx = du /dx v + u dv /dx
In short
y’ u ’v + u v’
Examples
(2x + 3) 10x + 3
1 - 1 2
x
2
3. Calculate k (x) = when k (x) = 2x2 cos x
Answer
Let f = 2x2 and g = cos x
then f = 4x and g = - sin x
Now d /dx (f g) = f g + f g
So k (x) = 4x cos x - 2x2 sin x
= 2x (2 cos x - x sin x)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.11. THE QUOTIENT RULE 55
Exercise 8
An on-line version of this exercise is available. It contains randomised questions which
are similar to those below. 45 min
Differentiate the following with respect to x, simplifying your answers where possible.
Q21: y = x sin x
Q29: Find the coordinates of any stationary points on the curve y = x 2 (x - 3)4 and state
the nature of these stationary points.
then
f’ (x) g (x) - f (x) g’ (x)
k’ (x) 2
g (x)
Proof
f(x) -1
Let k(x) g(x) f(x)[g(x)]
Now using the product rule
Let f f(x) and g g(x)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
56 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
f’g fg’
d
Since (fg)
dx
then k’(x) f’(x)[g(x)] - 1 f(x)( - 1)[(g(x)] - 2 g’(x)
[g(x)] f’(x)g(x) - f(x)g’(x)
f’(x)g(x) - f(x)g’(x)
[g(x)]2
In short
d
f f ’g - f g ’
dx g g2
Leibniz Notation
u
If y where u and v are functions of x
v
du dv
dy dx v - u dx
then
dx v2
or more simply
u’ v - u v’
y’ v2
Example
(2x - 3)2
Find k’(x) when k(x)
(x + 2)2
Answer
Let f = (2x - 3)2 and g = (x + 2)2
then f = 2(2x - 3).2 = 4 (2x - 3) and g = 2 (x + 2)
d
f
f’g - fg’
Now
dx g g2
4(2x - 3)(x + 2)2 - (2x - 3)2 .2(x + 2)
So k’(x)
(x + 2)4
2(2x - 3)(x + 2)[2(x + 2) - (2x - 3)]
(x + 2)4
2(2x - 3)(7)
(x + 2)3
14(2x - 3)
(x + 2)3
Definitions
Before we look at the next example we need to define some new functions.
secant
The secant of x = sec x = 1 /cos x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.11. THE QUOTIENT RULE 57
cosecant
The cosecant of x = cosec x = 1 /sin x
cotangent
The cotangent of x = cot x = 1 /tan x
The graphs of these functions are as shown here:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
58 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
x
Since x
x
x
x
Hence d
dx x
x
Exercise 9
There are randomised questions on-line which you can use for further practice.
45 min
Differentiate the following with respect to x, simplifying your answer where possible.
3x
Q30: y x+2
Q31: y x
x
x
Q32: y
x2 x
x
Q33: y x
Q34: y xx
x
Q35: y x
x
Q36: y x
Q37: Show that when y x
x
x then dy
dx
x. Use the same method as
for tan x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.12. THE DERIVATIVE OF EXP(X) OR E X 59
From ’first principles’ the gradient of a tangent to these curves is given by these formulae:
x+h
h
- 2x
x+h
h
- 3x
Thus for f (x) = 2x the gradient of the tangent to the curve at x = 0 is given by
f’(0)
h h
2 -1
and for f (x) = 3x the gradient of the tangent to the curve at x = 0 is given by
f’(0)
3 h- 1
h
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
60 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
2 e 3 and
e h- 1
h
e - h
ex h
h
h
x
e 1
x
e
1
e=
1
0
11 21 31 41 r
r
(The concept of an infinite sum is studied in more detail in Unit 3: Further sequences
and series.)
Note: On your calculator the constant e = exp (1) = e 1
Now try the questions in Exercise 10
Exercise 10
There is an on-line version of this exercise, which you might find helpful.
15 min
Evaluate these finite sums (giving your answer to 6 decimal places):
Q40:
r
r
Q41:
r
r
Q42:
r
r
Examine how accurate your answers are compared to the value that your calculator
gives for e
The derivative of ex can be combined along with other rules for differentiation.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.12. THE DERIVATIVE OF EXP(X) OR E X 61
Examples
Exercise 11
There is an on-line version of this exercise, which contains randomised questions.
30 min
Differentiate the following with respect to x
Q43: y = e3x
Q45: y 3exp(x2 ) 5
exp(2x)
Q50: Find the gradient of the curve y = x exp (x - 4) at the point (4, 4)
Q51: Find the coordinates and nature of any turning points on the curve y = x exp (x)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
62 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
Thus if y = ln x
then x = ey
Now if we have y = ln x and x = e y
Then we can say that dx / = ey (differentiating with respect to y)
dx
dy
and therefore
dy
dx
dy ey
x
So when y = ln x
then dy /dx = 1 /x
dy
dx
(See Proof (2) in the Proofs section for a justification that dx 1 dy )
Examples
1. Differentiate y = ln (4x + 1)
Answer
dy 1
dx 4x + 1
(chain rule)
4
4x + 1
2. Differentiate f (x) = ln (sin x)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.13. THE DERIVATIVE OF LN(X) 63
Answer
1
f’(x) cos x (chain rule)
sin x
cot x
Before looking at the next example it is useful to remember some facts:
Laws of Logarithms
loga xy = loga x + loga y
loga (x /y ) = loga x - loga y
loga xn = n loga x
x + 2
3. Differentiate f(x) ln x+3
Answer
First note that
x + 2
f(x) ln x+3 ln(x + 2) - ln(x + 3)
Thus
1 1
f’(x) -
x+2 x+3
(x + 3) - (x + 2)
(x + 2)(x + 3)
1
(x + 2)(x + 3)
Exercise 12
There are randomised questions on-line which you can use for further practice.
40 min
Differentiate the following with respect to x
Q52: y = ln 7x
Q58: y = ex ln x
ln x
Q59: y ex
Q60: y = ln (sec x)
Q61: y = x3 ln 2x sin 3x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
64 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
Exercise 13
There is a question on-line, which you can use for further practice.
40 min
Look at these graphs and identify the maximum and minimum values within the given
closed intervals.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.14. CURVE SKETCHING ON A CLOSED INTERVAL 65
Q62:
a) 0 x 8
b) 0 x 4
c) 2x6
Q63:
a) -4x8
b) -4x4
Q64:
a) -2x4
b) -2x2
For the following questions find the maximum and minimum values within the given
interval.
(You will need to make a sketch of the graph.)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
66 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
- 3x + 1 for 0x1
Q70: f (x) 2
x - 2x + 1 for 1x3
x(4 - x) for 0x2
Q71: f (x) 1
2x for 2x4
2.15 Applications
Learning Objective
ÆApply differentiation techniques to problems in context
Many problems often concern a maximum or a minimum and it may help to follow a
particular strategy as listed here.
Some or all of these steps may be necessary:
3. Use the information in the question to establish equations connecting the variables.
5. Calculate the extrema of the function i.e. calculate the turning points and their
nature, and if appropriate consider any end points.
Example
Two workers A and B share an 8 hour shift. A works for x hours and B works for y hours.
Their work output varies with time (in hours) from the start of the shift.
A has work output x x2
and B has work output 1
2 ln(2y)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.15. APPLICATIONS 67
dT 2x 1
=1- - = 0 (at a stationary point)
dx 16 16 - 2x
16(16 - 2x) - (16 - 2x)2x - 16 = 0 (multiplied by 16(16 - 2x))
(16 - 2x)(16 - 2x) = 16
(16 - 2x)2 = 16
16 - 2x = 4
2x = 12 or 20
x = 6 or 10
x = 10 is impossible since the shift has a maximum of eight hours, so the stationary point
occurs at x = 6
From the table shown here we can see that a maximum occurs at x = 6
x
dT
dx
slope
So for maximum total output the shift should be split so that A works 6 hours and B
works 2 hours.
Exercise 14
There is a randomised version of this exercise on-line, which you can use for further
practice. 30 min
Q72:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
68 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
Q73:
A water container is made into the
shape shown here:
a) Express the volume V (in cubic
metres) of the container in terms of
the angle where
b) Find the value of which gives
the maximum volume for this
container and justify your answer.
c) Write down how many litres of
water the container will hold.
Q74:
The radius r centimetres of a circular ink spot on a piece of blotting paper t seconds after
it was first observed is given by the formula
1 + 3t
r 1+t
Calculate:
a) The radius of the ink spot when it was first observed.
b) The time at which the radius of the ink spot was 2 cm.
c) The rate of increase of the ink spot when the radius was 2 cm.
d) By considering the expression for 3 - r in terms of t show that the radius of the ink
spot never reaches 3 cm.
Q75: A farmer wants to enclose some sheep in a small corner of his field. Two straight
walls meet at A at an angle /4. The farmer has a piece of fencing 20 metres long and
uses it to create an enclosure ABC as shown.
that the
a) Show 3 area ABC is given by
200 2 sin sin 4
b) If the angle is varied, find, using
differentiation, the value of which
maximises the area of ABC
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.16. PROOFS 69
2.16 Proofs
Proof (1)
Prove that
h
g(x + h)
g(x)
g(x + h)
h h
g(x)
Proof
g(x + h) - g(x)
h
g(x + h) - g(x) h
h
h
h
g(x + h) - g(x)
h
lim h
h
g’(x)
Thus
h
g(x + h) - g(x)
Hence
h
g(x + h)
g(x)
g(x + h)
h
h
g(x)
Proof
y
By definition
dy
dx
x
x
dy
dx x
x
y
But as Æ x
0 then so also Æ y
0
So we can write
dy
dx y x
dx
1
dy
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
70 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
2.17 Summary
Learning Objective
ÆConsolidation of new content
1. f’(x)
h
f(x + h) - f(x)
dn y
2. The nth derivative when it exists, is denoted by f(n) or dxn
1
If f(x) ln x then f’(x)
x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.18. EXTENDED INFORMATION 71
Newton came from a family of farmers but never knew his father who died three months
before he was born. Although a wealthy man, Newton’s father was uneducated and
could not sign his own name. His mother, Hannah Ayscough remarried when Newton
was two years old. Newton was then left in the care of his grandmother and he had a
rather unhappy childhood.
In 1653 he attended the Free Grammar School in Grantham. However, his school
reports described him as idle and inattentive and he was taken away from school to
manage his mother’s estate. He showed little interest for this and, due to the influence
of an uncle, he was allowed to return to the Free Grammar School in 1660. This time
he was able to demonstrate his academic promise and passion for learning and on 5 th
June 1661 he entered Trinity College,Cambridge.
His ambition at Cambridge was to obtain a law degree but he also studied philosophy,
mechanics and optics. His interest in mathematics began in 1663 when he bought an
astrology book at a fair and found that he could not understand the mathematics in
it. This spurred him on to read several mathematical texts and to make further deep
mathematical studies.
Newton was elected a scholar at Cambridge on 28 th April 1664 and received his
Bachelor’s degree in April 1665. In the summer of 1665 the University was closed
due to the plague and Newton had to return to Lincolnshire. There, while still less than
25 years old, he made revolutionary advances in mathematics, physics, astronomy and
optics. While at home, Newton established the foundations for differential and integral
calculus, several years before the independent discovery by Leibniz. The method of
fluxions as he named it was based on his crucial insight that integration is merely the
inverse procedure to differentiating a function.
In 1672 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society after donating a reflecting telescope.
In that year he also published his first scientific paper on light and colour. However, he
came in for some criticism from other academics who objected with some of his methods
of proof and from then on Newton was torn between wanting fame and recognition and
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
72 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
the fear of criticism. He found the easiest way to avoid this was to publish nothing.
Newton’s greatest achievement was his work in physics and celestial mechanics that
lead to his theory of universal gravitation. He was persuaded to write a full account of
his new physics and its application to astronomy. In 1687 he published the Philosophiae
naturalis principia mathematica or Principia as it is always known. This is recognised as
the greatest scientific book ever written. It made him an international leader in scientific
research.
On 15th January Newton was elected by the University of Cambridge as one of their two
members to the Convention Parliament in London. This may have led him to see that
there was a life in London which might appeal more to him than that of the academic
world in Cambridge.
After suffering a nervous breakdown in 1693, Newton retired from research and decided
to leave Cambridge to take up a government position in London as Warden and then
later as Master of the Royal Mint. He made an effective contribution to the work of the
Mint particularly on measures to prevent counterfeiting of the coinage.
In 1703 he was elected as president of the Royal Society, a position he retained until his
death. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705, the first scientist to be honoured in this
way for his work.
However, his last years were not easy, dominated in many ways over the controversy
with Leibniz as to who had first invented calculus.
Gottfried Leibniz
His father Friedrich was a professor of moral philosophy and his mother Catharina
Schmuck was Friedrichs third wife. Friedrich died when Leibniz was only six, and so
he was brought up by his mother. It was her influence that played an important role in
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.18. EXTENDED INFORMATION 73
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
74 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
2
c) h(x) cos(x )sin(3x)
ln(x + 4)
d) f (x) x+4
x -4
such that
dy
dx
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
2.21. SET REVIEW EXERCISE 75
Q83:
where x and k is a non - zero constant,
cos(kx)
Show that the function y
x
d2 y 2 dy
satisfies the differential equation: x dx k2y
dx2
Q84:
A pencil case is in the shape of a cylinder with a conical end as shown in the diagram.
The cylinder has radius 3 cm and height H cm. The cone has a perpendicular height h
cm and slant height l cm. The total volume of the container is 900 cm 3 .
a) Find an expression for H in terms of h. (Hint: first write down an expression for V (the
total volume) and rearrange for H.)
b)
2 area
Show that the surface S cm 2 , of the container is given by
S 600 - 2 h + 9 + 3 h + 9
c) Find the value of h for which the total surface area of the pencil case is a minimum.
Justify your answer.
Note: for a cone Volume
r2 h
Curved surface area rl
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
76 TOPIC 2. DIFFERENTIATION
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
77
Topic 3
Integration
Contents
3.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3 Standard Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.4 Integration by Substitution (substitution given) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.5 Definite Integrals with Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.6 Integration by Substitution (substitution not given) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.7 The area between a curve and the x-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.8 The area between a curve and the y-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.9 Volumes of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.10 Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.12 Extended information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.13 Review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.14 Advanced review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.15 Set review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Learning Objectives
Integrate using standard results and the substitution method.
Minimum performance Criteria:
3.1 Prerequisites
Learning Objective
ÆRevision of previous knowledge
You should recall some rules for integrating:
1.
n x
x dx = n + 1 + C for n
n+1
- 1 and where C is the constant of integration.
cosx dx = sinx + C
sinx dx = - cosx + C
2.
[a f (x) + bg (x)] dx = a f (x) dx + b g (x)dx
3.
c b c
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx where a b c
a a b
4.
a b
f (x) dx = - f (x) dx, a b
b a
5.
n
n+1
(px + q)n dx = (pxp(n+ q)
+ 1) + C
-1
pcos(qx + r)dx = pq sin(qx + r) + C
p
p sin(qx + r) dx = - q cos(qx + r) + C
6.
Know the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus;
b
If f (x) = F ’(x) then f (x)dx = F(b) - F(a) where a x b
a
and f (x)dx = F(x) + C
7.
Be able to evaluate definite integrals.
8.
Area between a curve and the x-axis
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.1. PREREQUISITES 79
9.
Area between two curves.
Know that the area bounded by two curves
y = f (x) and y = g(x) from x = a to x = b is
given by
b b
f (x) dx - g (x) dx
a a
b
= f (x) - g (x) dx
a
when f (x) g (x)
for a x b
Study the following examples carefully and make sure that you understand the working.
(Notice that you can always check you have the correct answer by reversing the process,
i.e. differentiating to get back to the original question.)
Examples
3 14
1. x dx = 4 x + C
8-x
x dx = 8x - 1 2 - x1 2 dx
8x1 2 x3 2
12 32
= - +C
2.
2
= 16x1 2 - x3 2 + C
3
2 3
16 x x +C
3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
80 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
2dt
= 2(4t - 5) - 3 dt
(4t - 5)3
2(4t - 5) - 2
3. = +C
4( - 2)
-1
= +C
4(4t - 5)2
4
4cos 2x + dx = sin 2x + +C
4. 3 2
3
= 2 sin 2x + +C
3
3 2 1
5. Evaluate r + r2
dr
1
Answer
3 1
3
r2 + 2 dr = r2 + r - 2 dr
r
1 3
1 1
r-1 3
= r +
31 1-1 1 1 1
= r3 - - r3 -
3 r 3 r
r=3 r=1
= 9 - 13 - 13 - 1
= 9 - 13 - 13 + 1
1
= 9
3
6.
Calculate the area enclosed by the graphs
y = x2 + 4 x - 5 and y = 5x + 1
Answer
Make a sketch of the curves and note that they intersect when
x2 + 4x - 5 = 5x + 1
x2 - x - 6 = 0
(x + 2)(x - 3) = 0
x = -2 or x = 3
Notice that the graph for y = 5x + 1 is above that for y = x2 + 4x - 5
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.1. PREREQUISITES 81
= (5x + 1 - x2 - 4x + 5)dx
-2
3
= ( - x2 + x + 6)dx
3
-2
x3 x2
= - + + 6x
27 9
- 2
3 2
8
= - + + 18 - + 2 - 12
3 2
3
= - 9 + 4 12 + 18 - 2 23 + 2 - 12
= 13 12 - - 7 13
= 20 56 square units
Revision exercise 1
There are randomised questions on-line which you can use for further practice.
30 min
Integrate the following with respect to the relevant variable:
-3
Q1: 6x - 2 + 3x3 dx
3 - x 5
Q2: x3
dx
dt
Q3: 5 - 2t
1 2
Q4: u + u du
Q5: 3 cos 2 4 d
2
Q6: (3 + 2x) dx
0
- 1 3
Q7: t-2+ t3
dt
-2
2
Q8: 2cos 2 - 2 d
2
1 x 2
- x 4 x2
- x
Q9: x dx and x dx
4 1
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
82 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
1
Q10: Find, in its simplest form, the exact value of 3 - 2x dx
0
Q11: Calculate the total area between the graph of y = x 2 - 5x + 4, the x-axis and the
lines x = 0 and x = 4.
First, make a sketch of this area and be careful as the area is in two parts, some above
and some below the x-axis.
3.2 Introduction
Learning Objective
ÆRecall integration terminology
anti-differentiation
Anti-differentiation is the reverse process of differentiation.
and the method we use to find anti-derivatives is called
integration
Integration is the method we use to find anti-derivatives.
constant of integration
In general if d/dx (F (x)) = f (x) then F (x) is called an anti-derivative, or integral, of f (x)
and we write f (x)dx = F(x) + C and C is the constant of integration
general indefinite integral of f (x)
For f (x)dx = F(x) + C, F (x) + C is the general indefinite integral of f (x).
with respect to x of the integral f (x)dx
integrand
For f (x)dx = F(x) + C, f (x) is the integrand
particular integral
For f (x)dx = F(x) + C an anti-derivative given by a particular value of C is a
particular integral.
So, for example, F (x) = x3 + C is the indefinite integral of f (x) = 3x2 whereas
F (x) = x3 + 6 is a particular integral of f (x) = 3x2
definite integral
b
f (x)dx is a definite integral because the limits of integration are known and
a
b
f (x)dx = F(x)ba = F(b) - F(a)
a
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.3. STANDARD INTEGRALS 83
Recall that
d/ (tan x) = sec2 x
dx
d / (ex ) = ex
dx
d/ (ln x) = 1 /x
dx
It therefore follows that
1.
n
x dx = n +1 1 xn + 1 + C
ax bndx axa nb C
n
2.
xdx
x C
ax bdx 1a
ax b C
3.
sinx dx = - cosx + C
1
sin(ax + b)dx = - a cos(ax + b) + C
4.
2
sec x dx = tanx + C
2 1
sec (ax + b)dx = a tan(ax + b) + C
5.
exp(x) dx = exp(x) + C
1
exp(ax + b)dx = a exp(ax + b) + C
6.
1
dx = ln
x
+ C
x dx 1
ax + b = a ln
ax + b
+ C
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
84 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
Study the following examples and make sure that you understand the working.
Examples
1
dx = (3x + 7) - 3 dx
(3x + 7)3
(3x + 7 ) - 2
1. = +C
3 ( - 2)
1
= - +C
6(3x + 7)2
2. 3 cos(2x - 1)dx = 32 sin(2x - 1) + C
6
6e3x + 2 dx = e3x + 2 + C
3. 3
= 2e3x + 2 + C
8
1 8
2
sec (2x)dx = tan(2x)
2 0
0
4. =
1
2
tan( 4) - tan0
= 1 - 0
1
2
1
=
2
1 1 1
ln
3x + 5
dx
=
3x + 5 3 0
0
=
1
ln8 - ln5
3
5.
1 8
= ln
3 5
1
= ln(1.6)
3
= 0.157 (to 3 decimal places)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.3. STANDARD INTEGRALS 85
Exercise 2
An on-line version of this exercise is available. It contains randomised questions which
are similar to those below. 40 min
1
Q20: 3e(1 - 3x) dx
-1
7 4
Q21: x dx
3
4
5 6
Q23: 2x - 3 dx
2
4
Q24: (1 - sin2x)dx
0
1 exp(x + 3) - 2
Q25: exp(x) dx
0
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
86 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
x
x + 2 - 2
x+2
= - dx
x + 2 2 x
+ 2
= 1- dx
x+2
= x - 2 ln
x + 2
+ C
Exercise 3
There is an on-line version of this exercise, which you might find helpful.
10 min
Integrate the following with respect to the relevant variable.
x
Q26: x - 1 dx
t+5
Q27: t + 2 dt
x
Q28: 4 + 2x dx
Examples
1.
Find x3 (2x4 - 3)4 dx
Answer
Let u = 2x4 - 3
then du
dx = 8x3 and dx
du = 1
8x3
Thus
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.4. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION (SUBSTITUTION GIVEN) 87
dx
4
3
x (2x - 3)dx = x3 (2x4 - 3)4 du
x3
du
= 3
(2x4 - 3)4 du
8x
u4
= du
8
u5
= +C
40
1
= (2x4 - 3)5 + C
40
2.
Find sin2 x cosxdx
Answer
Let u = sin x
then du /dx = cos x and dx /du = 1 /cos x
Thus
dx
2
sin x cosx dx = sin2 x cosx du
du
1
= sin2 x cos x du
cosx
= u2 du
= 13 u3 + C
= 13 sin3 x + C
Now try the questions in Exercise 4
Exercise 4
There are randomised questions on-line which you can use for further practice.
35 min
Integrate the following functions using the suggested substitution:
Q29: 5x(x2 + 6)5 dx, using u = x2 + 6
Q30: 3x (1 + x2 )dx, using u = 1 + x2
3
Q31: cos x sinxdx, using u = cosx
Q32: 6x sin(x2 + 3)dx, using u = x2 + 3
8x
Q33: x +1
dx, using u = x2 + 1
2
2 3 3
Q34: x exp(x + 5)dx, using u=x +5
The following example has an extra step. Study the example carefully and make sure
you understand the working.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
88 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
Example
Find 3x(x + 2)5 dx
Answer
Let u = x + 2 then du /dx = 1 and dx /du = 1
This time we also need to know that since u = x + 2 then x = u - 2
This substitution makes it easier to multiply out the brackets.
Thus
dx
5
3x(x + 2) dx = 3x(x + 2)5 du
du
= 3x u5 du
= 3(u - 2)u5 du (u - 2 has been substituted for x)
= 3u6 - 6u5 du
3 7 6
u -u +C
=
7
1
= u6 (3u - 7) + C
7
1
= (x + 2)6 (3(x + 2) - 7) + C
7
1
= (x + 2)6 (3x - 1) + C
7
Now try the questions in Exercise 5
Exercise 5
There are randomised questions on-line which you can use for further practice.
15 min
Integrate the following functions using the suggested substitution:
Q35: x(x + 5)4 dx, using u = x + 5
4x
Q36: 2x - 1
dx, using u = 2x - 1
Q37: 6x(3x - 2)5 dx, using u = 3x - 2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.5. DEFINITE INTEGRALS WITH SUBSTITUTION 89
You must be careful to pay attention to the limits of the integral as these will
change with a substitution.
Look at the following example:
1
Example Find 15x2 (x3 + 1)4 dx
0
Answer
dx 1
Let u = x3 + 1 then du /dx = 3x2 and du = 3x2
1 52
= u 1
= 2 - 15
5
= 31
Now try the questions in Exercise 6
Exercise 6
There are randomised questions on-line which you can use for further practice.
30 min
Evaluate the following integrals, making sure that you change the limits of integration
whenever necessary:
1
Q38: 12x(x2 + 5)5 dx, using u = x2 + 5
0
4 1+
3
x x dx, using u = 1 + x
Q39:
1
6
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
90 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
2
Q41: 4x (2x - 3)4 dx, using u = 2x - 3
1
6 x
Q42: x+3
dx, using u=x+3
1
1
Q43: (6x - 1)exp(3x2 - x)dx, using u = 3x2 - x
0
4
3
Often a trig substitution will make an integration much easier, especially when used
along with a trig identity.
Example
3 4
Find x
dx
using x = 32 sinu for 0 u
2
0 9 - 4x2
Answer
Notice that we have a different type of substitution this time.
When x = 32 sinu then dx
du = 32 cosu and x2 = 94 sin2 u
The limits of the integral will also change,
when x = 0 then 3 /2 sin u = 0 and thus u = 0
and when x = 3 /4 then 3 /2 sin u = 3 /4
and so sin u = 1 /2
u = /6
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.5. DEFINITE INTEGRALS WITH SUBSTITUTION 91
3 4
6
3
Therefore
x
dx
2 sinu dx
du
9 - 4x2 9 - 9sin2 u du
0 0
6
3
2 sinu 3
2 cosudu
2
0 9 (1 - sin u)
6
3
2 sinu2
cosu du (since 1 - sin2 u = cos2 u)
3 cos u
0
6 3 sinu
2 3
cosudu
3cosu 2
0
6
3
4 sinudu
0
6
- 34 cosu
0
3 3 3
=- +
4 2
4
= 34 (1 - 3
2 )
Exercise 7
There is an on-line version of this exercise with randomised questions, which you might
find helpful. 30 min
Evaluate the following integrals, using the substitution given. Remember to change the
limits of the integral whenever necessary:
1 1
Q46: dx, using x = sinu
0 1 - x2
5 4
1
Q47: dx, using x = 52 sinu
0 25 - 4x2
Q48: In this question it helps to notice that 1 = tan 2 u = sec2 u (Check this for yourself.)
2 3
1
4 + 9x2
dx, using x = 23 tanu
0
3 1 3 tanu
Q49: 9 + 3x2
dx, using x = 3
0
Q50: In this question you will need to know that cos2 = 2cos 2 - 1 and so
cos2 = 12 (cos2 + 1)
5 2
25 - x2 dx, using x = 5sin
0
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
92 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
1 4
Q51: 1 - 4x2 dx
using x = 12 sint
0
1 6dx
Q52: , using x = 1 - sin
1 2 2x - x2
x - 2
3 3 2
Q53: dx, using x = 3 sint
0 9 - x2
You should now begin to recognise which substitution to use, when necessary, in an
integration.
This is made easier if you can recognise some of the different types of integration that
you will encounter.
The following examples may help you to do this:
1. When f(ax + b)dx substitute u = ax + b
Example
Calculate sin(3x + 2)dx
Answer
Let u = 3x + 2 then du /dx = 3
Hence
dx
sin(3x + 2)dx, = sinu du
sinu
du
= du
3
= - 13 cosu + C
= - 13 cos(3x + 2) + C
Normally you would not do this using the substitution
4
method. It is often thought of as
’reverse chain rule’. Similarily, for example: (5x - 2) dx
2. When f’ (x) f (x)n dx substitute u = f (x)
Example
4 3
Calculate x x5 - 6 dx
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.6. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION (SUBSTITUTION NOT GIVEN) 93
Answer
Let u = x5 - 6 then du /dx = 5x4
Hence
3
dx
4 5
x (x - 6) dx = x4 u3 du
du
1
= x4 u3 4 du
5x
1 3
= 5 u du
u4
= +C
20
1 5 5
= x -6 +C
20
3. When (ax + b)(cx + d)n dx substitute u = cx + d
Example
Calculate x 4x - 35 dx
Answer
In this example the substituiton makes it easier to multiply out the brackets.
Let u = 4x - 3 then du /dx = 4 and x = 1 /4 (u + 3)
Hence
5
x(4x - 3) dx = 1
(u6 + 3u5 ) 14 du
1 7 1 6
4
1
= 7u + 2u +C
16
1 6 1 1
= 16 u 7u + 2 +C
1
= (4x - 3)6 (8x + 1) + C
224
4. When f’ (x)ef (x) dx substitute u = f (x)
Example
x - 5 2
Calculate xe dx
Answer
Let u = x2 - 5 then du /dx = 2x
Hence
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
94 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
dx
(x2 - 5)
xe dx = xeu du
du
1
= xeu du
2x
1 u
= 2 e du
= 12 eu + C
2
= 12 e(x - 5)
+C
f’ (x)
5. When f (x) dx substitute u = f(x)
Example
6x
Calculate x2 + 3
dx
Answer
Let u = x2 + 3, then du /dx = 2x
6x
Hence
6x dx
dx = du
x2 + 3
6x u du
1
= du
3u 2x
= du
u
= 3 ln
u
+ C
= 3 ln x2 + 3 + C
Exercise 8
There is an on-line version of this exercise with randomised questions, which you might
40 min find helpful.
Perform the following integrations, using a suitable substitution if you need to.
It will help if you decide on the type of integral first, as in the previous examples.
3 42
Q54: (3x - 1) x dx
Q55: 4 cos(2x - 5)dx
2
Q56: 6x exp(x3 + 5)dx
x dx
2
Q57: 3
x -3
2
Q58: 3x cos(1 - x )dx
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.7. THE AREA BETWEEN A CURVE AND THE X-AXIS 95
(2x - 3)dx
Q59:
x2 - 3x + 1
6x
2
Q60: dx
x3 + 1
3
Q61: x exp(x2 - 3)dx
2
2
Q62: 2cos 4 - 2 d
0
2
Q63: x 2x2 + 1 dx
0
4 2x
Q64: 1 - x2
dx
2
4
Q65: (x + 1)(x - 1)3 dx
1
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
96 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
y y Æy
ÆS
Æx
y y
ÆS
So Æ y
Æx
becomes y y
dS
dx
dS y
dx
S ydx
This integration will give an area function S (x) and will involve a constant of integration
C. However, if we define right- and left-hand boundaries for x we can then obtain the
area function as a definite integral, and in fact the original area under the curve is
b
y S(b) S(a)
xb
A Æ x ydx
x x a
Æ
a
We have shown this result to be true for a monotonically increasing function; however,
note that this same result is also true for more complicated functions.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.7. THE AREA BETWEEN A CURVE AND THE X-AXIS 97
• areas above the x-axis give a positive value for the definite integral;
• areas below the x-axis give a negative value for the definite integral.
Also, you should recall that the shaded area between two curves can be calculated
b
as f(x) g(x) dx where f(x) g(x) and a x b
a
(You can see an example of finding the area between two curves in Prerequisites:
Example 6.)
Example
Find the area between the curve y = 4x - 2x 2 and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 3
Answer
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
98 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
3 3
(4x - 2x2 )dx = 2x2 - 23 x3
2
2
16
= (18 - 18) - (8 - 3 )
= - 2 23
The answer is negative as the area is below the x-axis. So the actual area is 2 2 /3
The total shaded area is therefore 2 2 /3 + 22 /3 + 51 /3 units 2
3
Q66: What value would you obtain for 4x - 2x2 dx ? Why?
0
Exercise 9
There is an on-line version of this exercise, which you might find helpful.
20 min
Q67: Find the area enclosed by the x-axis and the curve
y = x2 - 6x + 8 between x = 0 and x = 4
Remember to make a sketch of the curve first.
Q68:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.8. THE AREA BETWEEN A CURVE AND THE Y-AXIS 99
Q69:
Q70:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
100 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
Example
Find the shaded area enclosed by the y-axis and the curve y = (x - 4) 3 between y = 1
and y = 8
Answer
8
Area = x dy
1
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.8. THE AREA BETWEEN A CURVE AND THE Y-AXIS 101
8
Therefore, area = x dy
1
8
= y1 3 + 4 dy
1 3 4 3
8
= 4y + 4y
1
= 44 - 4 34
= 39 14
Now try the questions in Exercise 10
Exercise 10
There is an on-line exercise at this point, which you might find helpful.
20 min
Q71: Find the area enclosed between the curve y = x 2 and the y-axis between y = 0
and y = 4 for x 0
Q72: Make a sketch of the curve y = (x + 2)3 and find the area enclosed between this
curve and the y-axis between y = 1 and y = 8
Q73:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
102 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
Q74:
Now as Æ x
xb
then V y2 dx
Æx x a
b
y2 dx
a
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.9. VOLUMES OF REVOLUTION 103
Examples
1.
Answer
The volume is given by
b
V= y2 dx where y = 2x + x2
a
3
= (2x + x2 )2 dx
2
3
= 4x2 + 4x3 + x4 dx
2 4 3 4 1 5 3
= 3x + x + 5x 2
3
= 36 + 81 + 48 5 - 10 23 + 16 + 6 25
8
= 132 15 units3
2.
Another interesting example to consider is this one:
Calculate the volume of the solid formed when the semi-circle with equation x 2 + y2 = r2 ,
y 0 is given a full turn about the x-axis.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
104 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
- r 2 1 3
r
= r x- 3 x -r
= r3 - 1 3
3 r + r
3
- 1 3
3 r
4 3
= 3 r
One of the first mathematicians to perfect a method for computing the volume of a sphere
was Archimedes of Syracuse. You can read more about this mathematician in the
Extended information chapter.
Now try the questions in Exercises 11 and 12
Exercise 11
There is an on-line exercise at this point, which you might find helpful.
15 min
Find the volumes of the solids of revolution formed when each of the following areas is
given one complete turn about the x-axis. It might help to make a sketch. You should
give your answers in terms of .
Q75: The area between the curve y = x 2 + 4x and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.9. VOLUMES OF REVOLUTION 105
Q78:
8
Part of the graph for y 2x - x is shown
here.
The shaded area is between x = 2 and
x=4
Calculate the volume of the solid formed
when this shaded area is given a full turn
about the x-axis.
Exercise 12
Q79:
You now know that the formula for the 15 min
volume of a solid formed by rotating an
area one full turn about the x-axis is given
b
by V y2 dx where y f(x)
a
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
106 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
Q80:
Q81:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.10. RATES OF CHANGE 107
ds
So from v it follows that s vdt
dt
dv
also from a it follows that v adt
dt
To summarise:
Since the particle starts from the origin when t = 0 then s = 0 also.
Substituting these values into equation (2) gives C = 0
Thus the expression for displacement of the particle at time t is
s = ut + 1 /2 at2
Exercise 13
There is an on-line exercise at this point, which you might find helpful.
20 min
Q82: The velocity of a car after t seconds is given by the formula v (t) = 20 + 5t m/s
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
108 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
Q83: A rocket is launched vertically from rest at ground level. The acceleration is given
by the formula a (t) = 200 - 2t m/s2 for 0 t 100
Q84:
The velocity/time graph of a particle is
shown. At t = 0 the particle is a rest.
v = t3 - 4t2 + 3t
a) Between t = 0 and t = 1 the particle
v
moves to the right. Describe how
its speed changes during this time.
3.11 Summary
Learning Objective
ÆConsolidation of new content in this topic
1.
sec2 xdx tan x + C
2.
ex dx ex + C
3.
1
x dx ln
x
C
4.
In many cases an integration is made simpler by using a substitution.
In simple cases you will be expected to decide on the substitution to
be used, whereas for more complex problems the substitution will be
given.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.12. EXTENDED INFORMATION 109
5.
6.
Volumes of revolution.
When the shaded area shown above is given a full turn about the
x-axis, the solid that is formed has a volume given by
b
V y2 dx where y f(x)
a
Note that a similar formula is obtained for a rotation of 360 Æ about the
y-axis.
He achieved fame in his own time through his mechanical inventions. Many of these
were war machines, which proved to be particularly effective in the defence of Syracuse
when attacked by the Roman general Marcellus.
On a visit to Egypt he also invented a type of pump known as Archimedes’ screw, which
is still used today in many parts of the world.
Another of his inventions, which brought him great fame, was the compound pulley. It
was written that using this small device he was able to move the great weight of ’a ship
of burden out of the king’s arsenal, which could not be drawn out of the dock without
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
110 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
great labour and many men’ and ’holding the head of the pulley in his hand and drawing
the cords by degrees, he drew the ship in a straight line, as smoothly and evenly as if
she had been in the sea.’
He is noted as having stated: ’give me a place to stand and I will move the earth.’ This
was in the context of his work on levers.
2x
Q85: Find 2 dx
x +4
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
3.14. ADVANCED REVIEW EXERCISE 111
Q87: Find cos4 x sin xdx given the substitution u cos x
e dx
Q89: Evaluate using the substitution u = lnx
x(ln x)2
e
x - 2
x
Q91: Find x
dx
Q92: Find e x dx
3
Q93: Find cos (x)sin(x)dx using the substitution u = cos x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
112 TOPIC 3. INTEGRATION
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
113
Topic 4
Properties of Functions
Contents
4.1 Revision exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.3 Function definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.4 One-to-one and onto functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.5 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.6 Odd and even functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.7 Critical and stationary points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.8 Derivative tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.8.1 The first derivative test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.8.2 The second derivative test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.9 Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.10 Continuity and asymptotic behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.11 Sketching of rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.12 Type 1 rational function: constant over linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.12.1 Type 1: Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.13 Type 2 rational function: linear over linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.13.1 Type 2: Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.14 Type 3 rational function: constant or linear over quadratic . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.14.1 Type 3: Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.15 Type 4 rational function: quadratic over quadratic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.15.1 Type 4: Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.16 Type 5 rational function: quadratic over linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.16.1 Type 5: Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.17 Summary of shortcuts to sketching rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.18 Graphical relationships between functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.18.1 Type 1: y = f (x) + k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.18.2 Type 2: y = k f (x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.18.3 Type 3: y = f (x + k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.18.4 Type 4: y = f (k x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.18.5 Modulus function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.19 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.20 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.21 Extended Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
114 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Prerequisite knowledge
A sound knowledge of the following techniques is required for this unit.
Learning Objectives
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.1. REVISION EXERCISE 115
Revision exercise
There is a similar exercise on the web if you would like to try it.
10 min
Q1: Differentiate 3x2 - 4
3
Q2: Differentiate 2x2
2x
Q3: Differentiate
(x + 3)2
4.2 Introduction
Why study functions?
Functions provide a way of describing mathematically the relationship between two
quantities.
The key idea is that the values of two variables are related. For example, the price of a
bag of potatoes depends on how much they weigh.
Another example is the amount of tax paid on a product depends on its cost.
This topic will explore the rules defining functions and how to sketch the graphs of
functions. Graphs are a useful way to gain information about a function.
Graphs of simple functions such as f (x) = x2 are easily sketched, but there are also
many relationships between functions that can be used to sketch other slightly more
complex graphs.
These techniques will be developed and explored in order to identify some useful ways
of dealing with the graphs of rational functions.
The emphasis will be on sketching the graphs.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
116 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
• = the set of all numbers which can be written as fractions, called the set of
rational numbers.
• = the set of rational and irrational numbers, called the set of real numbers.
These sets and their subsets (such as + = {1, 2, 3, ...} or + = { x , x 0 }) are the
only standard number sets used in this unit.
Function f
A function f from set A to set B is a rule which assigns to each element in A exactly
one element in B. This is often written as f : A B.
Domain
For a function f : A B, A is called the domain of the function f.
In this unit unless otherwise stated, the domain of a function will be the largest possible
set of x values for which the rule defining f (x) makes sense.
For example if f (x) =
x then the domain is {x : x 0}
Codomain
For a function f : A B, B is called the codomain of the function f.
To define a function fully it is necessary to specify:
• The domain.
• The codomain.
• The rule.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.3. FUNCTION DEFINITIONS 117
• f : [-2, 2]
f : x x2
The above function is well known. A different type of function (with a different notation)
is
2x : x 2
f (x) = 2
x :x2
When dealing with functions it is common practice to use the letter defining the function
such as f instead of f (x).
The graph of a function f (x) is usually drawn as the curve y = f (x).
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
118 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Examples
Examples
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.3. FUNCTION DEFINITIONS 119
1
Answer:
4. What is the range of the function f which maps x to sin x where x has a domain of [0,
] and codomain of ?
Answer:
f (x) = sin x and the domain is [0, ]
Draw the graph and note that f (0) = 0 and f (90) = 1
The range is therefore [0, 1]
The following points need to be considered when determining the range of the function.
SHAPE: Think about the shape of a sin graph and its maximum and minimum values. It
may be that this is enough to determine the range.
GRAPH VALUES: Consider the values which can be given to x.
For example 0,
, 4, 6 and so on. Work out the values of sin x. Sketch the graph if it
helps.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
120 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Q8: The function g is defined by g (y) = y - 4 with domain { y : y 4 }. Work out
the range for it.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.4. ONE-TO-ONE AND ONTO FUNCTIONS 121
This means that each value of f (x) in the range is produced by one and only one value
of x in the domain.
x
Consider the function f (x) = 2
Here there is only one value in the domain, x = 6, which produces the value y = 3 in the
codomain.
At any point on the graph of a one-to-one function this property will exist.
A one-to-one function can be identified from its graph.
One-to-one demonstration
Take a horizontal line and move it up and down over the graph.
5 min
If at any point the line crosses the graph more than once then the function is not one-to-
one.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
122 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
x
The function f (x) = 2 is a one-to-one function.
There is also a web demonstration of a one-to-one function if you wish to view it.
It is possible, however, for more than one element of set A to map to the same element
in set B.
Many-to-one
A function which maps more than one element in the domain to the same element in
the range or image set is called a many-to-one or a many-one function.
The function is said be in many-to-one correspondence.
It is also common to say that such a function is not one-to-one.
Note that f (3) = 32 = 9 and f (-3) = (-3)2 = 9. So there are two different elements, 3 and
-3, in the domain (set A) which map to 9 in the codomain (set B).
The function is not one-to-one.
When the range is equal to the codomain the function has a special name.
Onto
An onto function is one in which the range is equal to the codomain.
The method of proof for these properties is shown in the section headed Proofs.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.5. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 123
One condition of a function is that it maps an element in the domain (set A) to only one
element in the range (set B).
For an inverse of this function to exist, each element of the set B will have to map back
to the element in set A from which it came.
This is precisely what a one-to-one function does.
However this only occurs when the image set of f is the whole of the codomain B.
Otherwise the range of the inverse function is not contained in the domain of the original
function.
This is precisely the definition of an onto function.
Inverse function
Suppose that f is a one-to-one and onto function. For each y B (codomain) there is
exactly one element x A (domain) such that f (x) = y
The inverse function is denoted f -1 (y) = x
This means that each element in the range of the function f is mapped back to the
element from which it came.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
124 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
The domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function.
The codomain of the inverse function is the domain of the original function.
The relationship between functions and their inverses is clearly seen using graphs.
To find the rule for an inverse function interchange y and x in the original rule,
then rearrange to give a new equation for y = expression in x.
The effect of interchanging x and y in the equation is the same as interchanging the
axes on the graph.
This is the same as reflecting the graph of a function in the line y = x
By interchanging x and y the equation y = 2x becomes x = 2y and solving for y gives the
line y = 1 /2 x
The inverse function is f-1 (x) = 1 /2 x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.5. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 125
This shows that the element 2 has an image of 4 under f and the element 4 has an
image of 2 under f -1
When asked to find and sketch the inverse of a function it is important to check that the
function in question is actually one-to-one and onto.
It could be that the codomain of the original function will have to be restricted in order to
find an inverse which actually exists.
This is very important.
Example
Sketch the graph of the function f : + - 3 where f (x) = 4x2 - 3. Find and sketch
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
126 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Q17: Use the graph of y = log 10 x for x + to sketch the graph of y = 10x
Note that 10x is the inverse of the graph y = log10 x
Q19: Find and sketch the inverse of the function f (x) = 8 - 2x where x .
A graphics calculator can be used to check your understanding of the concept.
Q21: Find and sketch the inverse of the function h (x) = 4x - 6 where x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.5. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 127
The answer is that there are many different restrictions which will produce a suitable
domain. One of these is x 2
2
So if the domain is restricted to give a one-to-one, onto sine function then the inverse
sine function exists. This is denoted sin -1 x and should not be confused with sin1 x
y = sin -1 x means ’y is the angle whose sin is the value x’. The functions cos and tan
have similarly defined inverses.
Notice that the graph of y = tan -1 x has horizontal asymptotes and these are related to
the vertical asymptotes of tan x. (Remember that an inverse is a reflection in the line
y = x which is the same as interchanging the axes.)
2 and codomain
of [-1,1] is both one-to-one and onto.
• By exploring the cosine function, with or without a graphic calculator, suggest
a possible restricted domain on cos x which will make the function a
one-to-one function.
• Explore the graph of y = tan x and suggest a possible restricted domain to make
this a one-to-one function.
• Use a graphics calculator to graph the inverse functions of sin, cos and tan. Use
the zoom box to gain an understanding of the reflection in y = x
-1
• What is the domain of y = sin x if sin x has a domain of ?
2 2
• Sketch the graph of y = tan -1 x from the graph of tan x where x
2
2 by using
reflection in the line y = x
• Sketch the graph of y = cos -1 x from the graph of cos x where x [0, ] by using
reflection in the line y = x
2
Define a general rule for the domain of the function in each case which will give an
inverse.
Q24: Complete the blanks in the following table giving exact values throughout. Give
angles in radians.
x sin-1 x tan-1 x cos-1 x
3
2 ********
4
4
******** 3 ********
6 ********
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
128 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Q25: Complete the blanks in the following table giving exact values throughout. Give
angles in degrees.
x sin-1 x tan-1 x cos-1 x
******** 30Æ
45Æ
30Æ
********
2 ********
60Æ
Q26: The fact that ln x is the inverse of ex has already been stated and used in this unit.
The graph of each clearly shows the reflection in y = x
Given the fact that ln x crosses the x-axis at the point (1, 0), determine where the graph
of ex will cross the y-axis.
1
Q27: Explore the functions of the form a ln x and eax . Determine the relationship
between these two functions.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.6. ODD AND EVEN FUNCTIONS 129
Even function
A function is even if f (-x) = f (x) for every value of x within the domain of the function.
The graph is symmetrical under reflection in the y-axis.
Activity
Experiment with your graphics calculator and try to find some odd or even functions.
Hint : use the examples as a basis.
This property of being odd or even certainly aids the sketching of such a graph but
beware, many graphs are neither.
A graph on its own however does not formally prove that a function is odd or even.
Certain properties have to be established by algebraic means.
The following examples will demonstrate the form of such proofs.
Examples
Note that if a function is a product or quotient of two other functions the following rules
apply:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
130 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
So g (x) = x
x2 + 1
=x 1
x2 + 1
= odd even = odd (as already proved).
Q28: Prove whether the following graphs are odd, even or neither. If the graph is odd
or even, sketch it using the property found.
1. f (x) = cos x
1
2. g (x) = 2x - 1
1
3. k (x) = x
Stationary point
A stationary point is any point on a curve where the slope of the tangent to the curve
is zero (parallel to the x-axis).
The term stationary point can refer to:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.7. CRITICAL AND STATIONARY POINTS 131
Q29: Identify any maximum turning points, minimum turning points or points of
inflection on the following curves.
Use X for the maximum points, N for the minimum points and P for the points of inflection.
Example Identify the turning points on the following graph and indicate if they are local
or global maxima or minima.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
132 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.8. DERIVATIVE TESTS 133
• Calculate values for the first derivative of the function using values on either side
of the x coordinate of the turning point. The signs of the values are what is really
needed.
• Construct a table of signs from this data to show the nature of the turning point.
(Note: the variable allocated to the horizontal axis may be denoted other than x.)
Example Determine the nature of the turning point on the curve y = 3x 2 - 12x + 4
Answer:
Calculate the first derivative of the function y = 3x2 - 12x + 4
dy
dx 6x - 12
dy
Solve the equation dx =0
This is when 6x - 12 = 0
x = 2
So the turning point is at x = 2
The y-coordinate of this turning point is y = 3 2 2 - 12 2 + 4 = -8
The turning point is at (2, -8)
Now determine the nature of the point (2, -8) using the first derivative test.
At this turning point, x = 2
look at the value of the derivative on either side of this.
In the table the notation 2 - is used for just below x = 2 and 2 + for just above x = 2
Do not confuse these with - 2 and + 2
2- 2 2+
dy -
signs of dx 0 +
slope
This clearly shows that the turning point is a minimum.
(If the arrows show as then the turning point will be a maximum.)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
134 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Q33: Use the first derivative test to determine the nature of turning point of the function
y = 3x2
• Once the turning point has been identified, the second derivative f” of the function
is calculated.
• The x value of the stationary point is substituted into the expression for f”
Example Find the coordinates of any turning points on the graph of y = x 3 + 3x2 - 4
Determine the nature of them.
Answer:
y = x3 + 3x2 - 4
dy
dx = 3x2 + 6x
At turning points dy
dx = 0
x = 0 or x = -2
This means that there are two turning points.
The y coordinate when x = 0 is found by substituting the value x = 0 into the original
equation.
So the turning point is (0, -4)
Similarly when x = -2 the turning point is (-2, 0)
d2 y
Now using the second derivative test dx2
= 6x + 6
d2 y
At x = 0, dx2
= 6 which is positive and this turning point is a minimum.
d2 y
At x = -2, dx2
= -6 which is negative and this turning point is a maximum.
The answer is therefore:
There are two turning points; a maximum at (-2, 0) and a minimum at (0, -4)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.8. DERIVATIVE TESTS 135
The second derivative test is very useful but does not always work because:
In these circumstances it is necessary to revert to the first derivative test and complete
a table of signs for f’ for x in the close neighbourhood of the turning point.
The following exercise will give practice in finding turning points and using the derivative
tests to determine their nature.
First of all look at the example.
Example For the curve y = 2x3 - 3x2 find the coordinates of the turning points and
determine their nature.
Answer:
y = 2x3 - 3x2
dy
dx = 6x2 - 6x
d2 y
dx2
= 12x - 6
Let
dy
dx = 6x2 - 6x = 0
x = 0 or x = 1
d2 y
When x = 0, dx2
= 12x - 6 = -6 which is negative.
This indicates a maximum turning point at (0, 0).
d2 y
When x = 1, dx2
= 12x - 6 = 6 which is positive.
This indicates a minimum turning point at (1, -1).
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
136 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Q39: Find any turning points, determine their nature and sketch the graph for the curve
y = 3 sin x for x [-2 , 2 ]
4.9 Concavity
Learning Objective
ÆRecognise the terms related to concavity and the shape displayed by these graphs
The second derivative of a function can provide information about the shape of the graph
of the function.
Concave downward
The graph of y = f (x) is concave downward in an interval if f (x) is a function which has
2
a second derivative ddxy2 0 for all x in the open interval.
Concave upward can be pictured as a ’u’ shaped graph (). Think of ’u’ for UP.
Thus:
The sign means ’if and only if’. That is, the condition works both ways.
For example, if it is known that the second derivative is positive then the curve is concave
upwards.
If, however, the curve is concave downwards then the second derivative is negative.
When the concavity of a curve changes, a point of inflexion occurs. In fact this is a
sufficient and necessary condition for a point of inflexion.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.9. CONCAVITY 137
1 2 3
3
2 y = x - 3x + 4
y = -x 2
y=x
Answer:
d2 y
1. This is concave downwards. Check: dx2
= -2 which is negative. It is an ’n’ shape.
d2 y
2. This is concave upwards. Check: dx2
= 2 which is positive. It is a ’u’ shape.
It is also worth noting that any point of inflexion occurs at a point P on a curve when the
tangent to the curve crosses the curve at that point.
This is a useful visual check to note the existence of points of inflexion.
When x = 1 /2 , dy
dx = 6x2 - 6x 0
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
138 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
At x = 1 /2 , dy
dx 0 but d2 y
dx2
=0
1 1
There is a non horizontal point of inflexion at 2
- 2
Concavity exercise
There is a short web exercise on concavity if you wish to try it as well.
10 min
Q41: For the curve y = 4x3 - 3x2 locate any points of inflexion.
This means that as any point on the curve is approached (from either side), the value of
the function tends closer and closer to the value of the function at the point itself.
If a graph can be drawn without lifting the pencil from the paper, the function of the graph
is continuous.
It follows from this that a function f (x) is said to be discontinuous if there is a break in
the curve at any value of x within its domain.
Again this can be stated formally.
Discontinuous function
A function f (x) is discontinuous at a point P if f (x) is not defined at P or if
x
f (x)
f (P)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.10. CONTINUITY AND ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR 139
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
140 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
1. Take several values immediately below 0 such as -2, -2, -0.5 and calculate the
value of the function.
These values will either become:
2. Take several values immediately above 0 such as 2, 1, 0.5 and calculate the value
of the function.
These values will either become:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.10. CONTINUITY AND ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR 141
ACTIVITY
1 1
Examine the graphs of y = x2
and y = x + 1. Note the equations of the asymptotes.
Calculator activity
There are examples of functions with asymptotes on the web.
Using a graphics calculator examine the graphs of the following functions and note 10 min
where the asymptotes occur:
• ln x
• tan (2x)
• ex
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
142 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
4
Example Sketch the graph of f (x) = x - x
Answer :
Let y = f (x)
4
y=x- x
points of inflection.
As x -, y x because
x
4
x becomes
increasingly smaller.
As x + , y x
There is an asymptote at y = x
Note that this is a slant asymptote.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.11. SKETCHING OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 143
discontinuity
y is undefined where x = 0
-y undefined
There is a vertical asymptote at x = 0
As x 0 + , y -
The small + sign indicates that x is approached from the right.
As x 0 - , y
The small - sign indicates that x is approached from the left.
Sketch the graph. Recall the symmetry to check if the sketch seems reasonable.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
144 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
With the information obtained from this topic it is possible to sketch a wide variety of
functions, including rational functions.
There are five general types of rational function to consider in this unit. Specific
examples of each type including a sketch are shown in turn.
constant c 1
Type 1
linear ex + f x+1
linear bx + c 2x + 3
Type 2
linear ex + f 4x - 1
constant/linear c or (bx + c) 5 or (2x - 3)
Type 3
quadratic dx2 + ex + f x2 + 3x - 4
quadratic ax2 + bx + c
3x2 - 4x + 2
Type 4
quadratic dx2 + ex + f x2 - 2x + 1
quadratic ax2 + bx + c x2 + x - 6
Type 5
linear ex + f x-1
The strategy for sketching these types of rational functions is given in the following
examples. The strategy is basically the same for each type.
Make sure that any common factors on the top and bottom are first cancelled before
classifying rational functions into the above types.
x2 - 3x + 2 (x - 1)(x - 2) x-2
For example x2 - 4x + 3
= (x - 1)(x - 3) = x - 3.
This is a type 2 rational function and not as it might first seem, a type 4
After each example, simplified techniques are explained which help to reduce the effort
when a sketch rather than a detailed graph is required.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.12. TYPE 1 RATIONAL FUNCTION: CONSTANT OVER LINEAR 145
dy
Turning points = -1
dx (x + 1)2
dy
dx
0 at any point so there are no turning points
or horizontal points of inflection.
d2 y
dx2
0 at any point so there are no points of inflection.
x As x , y 0
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0
discontinuity y is undefined at x = -1
-y undefined There is a vertical asymptote at x = -1
As x -1+ , y +
As x -1- , y -
The horizontal axis is drawn with a dashed line to show that it is an asymptote.
Type 1 exercise
There are alternative questions on the web for you to try if you wish.
15 min
16
Q44: Sketch the graph of y = x2
3
Q45: Sketch the graph of y = x
4
Q46: Sketch the graph of y = 3x - 2
Include the asymptotes.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
146 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
a = 0, b = 0, c = 1, d = 0, e = 1, f = 1
-f -1
The vertical asymptote is x = e = 1 = -1
The horizontal asymptote is at y = 0 as it is type 1
1
The graph crosses the y-axis at y = 1 =1
The results match those found by the formal techniques but of course the turning points
may still be needed.
2
Example What are the asymptotes for the function y = x+5 and where does it cross the
y-axis?
Answer :
c = 2, e = 1, f = 5
-f -5
The vertical asymptote is at x = e = 1 = -5
The horizontal asymptote is at y = 0
c 2
The graph crosses the y-axis at f = 5
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.13. TYPE 2 RATIONAL FUNCTION: LINEAR OVER LINEAR 147
dy
Turning points = - 14
dx (4x - 1)2
dy
dx
0 at any point so there are no turning points or horizontal
points of inflection.
d2 y
dx2
0 at any point
there are no points of inflection.
As x To examine this the function has to be rearranged.
3
2x + 3 2+
4x - 1 = x
1
4- x
With any function of this type where the power of x is the same in
the numerator and denominator divide the top and bottom by this
power of x.
As x , y 2 /4 = 1 /2
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 1 /2
discontinuity y is undefined when x = 1 /4
- y undefined As x 1 /4 + , y +
As x 1 /4 - , y -
There is a vertical asymptote at
x = 1 /4
Type 2 exercise
There is an alternative exercise on the web for you to try.
15 min
3x - 4
Q47: Sketch the graph of y = x+3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
148 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
a = 0, b =2, c = 3, d = 0, e = 4, f = -1
-f 1
The vertical asymptote is x = e = 4
b 1
The horizontal asymptote is at y = e = 2
c 3
The graph crosses the y-axis at y = f = -1 = -3
-c -3
The graph crosses the x-axis at x = b = 2
The results match those found by the formal techniques but of course the turning points
may still be needed.
2x - 3
Example Find the asymptotes and the points where the graph of y = 3x + 4 crosses the
axes.
Answer :
b = 2, c = -3, e = 3, f = 4
-f -4
The vertical asymptote has equation x = e = 3
b 2
The horizontal asymptote has the equation y = e = 3
c -3
The graph crosses the y-axis at the point (0, f ) = (0, 4 )
-c
The graph crosses the x-axis at the point ( b , 0) = ( 32 , 0)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.14. TYPE 3 RATIONAL FUNCTION: CONSTANT OR LINEAR OVER QUADRATIC 149
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
150 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Type 3 exercise
There is another exercise on the web for you to try if you wish.
15 min
x-4
Q48: Sketch the graph of y = x2 - 4
The vertical asymptotes exist only if the equation dx2 + ex + f = 0 has real solutions for
x. This may not factorise, in which case the quadratic formula will have to be used.
Suppose that there are two roots, namely, x = w and x = z then these equations will be
the equations of the vertical asymptotes.
If there are no solutions then there are no vertical asymptotes.
The horizontal asymptote will have the equation y = 0
The graph crosses the x-axis at the point ( -bc , 0) only when the numerator is of the form
bx + c. Otherwise there is no point at which the graph crosses the x-axis.
The graph crosses the y-axis at the point (0, cf ) if f 0
5
Apply these shortcuts to the previous graph of y = x2 + 3x - 4
a = 0, b =0, c = 5, d = 1, e = 3, f = -4
The denominator factorises to give ( x + 4)(x - 1)
The vertical asymptotes are x = 1 and x = -4
The horizontal asymptote is at y = 0
c 5
The graph crosses the y-axis at y = f =- 4
Examples
2x - 3
1. What are the asymptotes for the function f (x) = x2 + 3x - 4
and where does it cross the
axes?
Answer :
b = 2, c = -3, d = 1, e = 3, f = -4
If there are vertical asymptotes then the quadratic on the denominator will have real
roots.
This quadratic factorises to ( x + 1)( x - 4) giving the solutions when equated to zero of
x = -1 and x = 4
There are two vertical asymptotes with equations x = -1 and x = 4
The horizontal asymptote has the equation y = 0
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.15. TYPE 4 RATIONAL FUNCTION: QUADRATIC OVER QUADRATIC 151
-c
The graph crosses the x-axis at the point ( b , 0) = ( 32 , 0)
The graph crosses the y-axis at the point (0, cf ) = (0, -3
- 4) = (0, 34 )
-4
2. What are the asymptotes for the function f (x) = x2 - 2x + 5
and where does it cross the
axes?
Answer :
c = -4, d = 1, e = -2, f = 5
x2 - 2x + 5 has no real roots so there are no vertical asymptotes.
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0
The graph does not cross the x-axis since the numerator is not of the form bx + c
The graph crosses the y-axis at the point (0, cf ) = (0, -4
5 )
= 0
-2x = 0
x = 0
dy
At turning points
dx
At x = 0 the signs or second derivative test show that the turning
point at (0, 2) is a minimum.
To examine this, as with type 2, divide through by the highest power
As x of x.
Here it is x2
4 2
3x2 - 4x + 2 3- +
x x2
So x2 - 2x + 1
= 2 1
1- +
x x2
As x , y 3
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
152 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
discontinuity y is undefined if x2 - 2x + 1 = 0.
- y undefined This factorises to (x - 1)2 = 0
y is undefined if x = 1
There is a vertical asymptote.
As x 1+ , y +
As x 1- , y +
Type 4 exercise
There is an alternative exercise on the web for you to try if you prefer it.
15 min
2x2 - 4x - 1
Q49: Sketch the graph of y = x2 + 3x + 2
Vertical asymptotes exist only if the equation dx2 + ex + f = 0 has solutions for x.
As for type 3 if they exist then these solutions are the equations of the asymptotes.
a
The horizontal asymptote has equation y = d
a = 3, b = -4, c = 2, d = 1, e = -2, f = 1
The denominator factorises to give (x - 1)2
The vertical asymptote is x = 1
a 3
The horizontal asymptote is at y = d = 1
c 2
The graph crosses the y-axis at y = f = 1 =2
The numerator does not have real roots and so the graph does not cross the x-axis.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.16. TYPE 5 RATIONAL FUNCTION: QUADRATIC OVER LINEAR 153
The results match those found by the formal techniques but of course the turning points
may still be needed.
2x2 + 3x - 2
Example Find the asymptotes for the function f (x) = 4x2 + 13x + 3
and the points where it
crosses the axes.
Answer :
a = 2, b = 3, c = -2, d = 4, e = 13, f = 3
The denominator factorises to give (4x + 1)( x + 3). Solving this equal to zero gives the
asymptote equations.
-1
These vertical asymptote equations are x = -3 and x = 4
a 2 1
The horizontal asymptote has the equation y = d = 4 = 2
c -2
The graph crosses the y-axis at the point ( 0, f ) = ( 0, 3 )
The numerator factorises to give (2x - 1)(x + 2)
1
Solving this equal to zero gives x = -2 and x = 2
1
The graph crosses the x-axis at the points (-2, 0 ) and ( 2 ,0)
This function is an improper function as the numerator has degree higher than the
denominator.
4
Divide through by the denominator to give y = x + 2 + x-1
At turning points dy
=0
1- 4
=0
dx (x - 1)2
x - 1 = 2: So x = -1 or x = 3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
154 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
d2 y 8
dx2
=
(x - 1)3
Type 5 exercise
There is an alternative exercise on the web for you to try if you prefer it.
15 min
x2 + 2x - 3
Q50: Sketch the graph of y = x+2
The slant asymptote is the quotient resulting from the division of the numerator by the
denominator.
The graph crosses the y-axis at the point ( 0, c
f ) if f 0
The graph crosses the x-axis at the real roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 if there
are any.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.17. SUMMARY OF SHORTCUTS TO SKETCHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 155
a = 1, b =1, c = 6, d = 0, e = 1, f = -1
-f 1
The vertical asymptote has the equation x = e 1 =1
The slant asymptote is at y = x + 2
(The quotient found upon dividing the numerator of x 2 + x + 2
by the denominator of x - 1)
c 2
The graph crosses the y-axis at y = f -1 = -2
The numerator does not have real roots and so the graph does not cross the x-axis.
The results match those found by the formal techniques but of course the turning points
may still be needed.
x2 + 1
Example Find the asymptotes for the function y = x and where the graph crosses
the axes.
Answer :
a = 1, b = 0, c = 1, e = 1, f = 0
A vertical asymptote does not exist since f = 0
The slant asymptote, found by dividing x 2 + 1 by x, is y = x
c
The graph does not cross the y-axis since f = 0 and the point f is undefined.
The graph does not cross the x-axis since x2 + 1 has no real roots.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
156 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
x2 - 2x
Q53: Sketch the graph of y = x2 - 1
2x2 - 5x
Q54: Sketch the graph of y = x2 - 1
2x2
Q55: Sketch the graph of y = x-2
x2 - 3x + 3
Q56: Sketch the graph of y = x-1
There are other relationships known as transformations. There are four to consider in
this section.
If y = f (x) then the following functions can be related to it:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.18. GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FUNCTIONS 157
1. y = f (x) + k
2. y = k f (x)
3. y = f (x + k)
4. y = f (k x)
where k is a constant.
Note that more than one transformation may occur in a function.
For example the graph of y = -2x 3 is a combination of a type 2 transformation and a
reflection in the x-axis of the function y = x3
Each of the transformation types shown is explained in the remainder of this section.
The effect of adding 3 to y = 2x is clearly seen. The graph of y = 2x + 3 has moved three
units up the y-axis.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
158 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Q60: Using a graphics calculator explore and describe the relationships between the
two graphs y = x2 + 3x and y = x2 + 3x + 2
Q61: Using a graphics calculator explore and describe the relationships between the
two graphs y = ln x and y = ln x + 4
Q62: Using a graphics calculator explore and describe the relationships between the
two graphs y = cos (2x) and y = cos (2x) - 3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.18. GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FUNCTIONS 159
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
160 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Q65: What is the relationship between the graph of y = sin x and y = 1 /4 sin x?
Q66: Using a graphics calculator explore the relationship between the two graphs
y = cos 2x and y = 1 /2 cos 2x
Q68: Explore the relationship between y = 1 /2 ex and y = 2ex using a graphics calculator.
4.18.3 Type 3: y = f (x + k)
Example Sketch the graph of y = (x - 3) 2
Answer:
This is of the form f (x + k) where k = -3 and f (x) = x2
Complete a table of values with x = -1 to 5 as column headings and calculate the values
for the rows y = x2 and y = (x - 3)2
values of x -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = x2 1 0 1 4 9 16 25
y = (x - 3)2 16 9 4 1 0 1 4
The effect is a sideways shift of the graph.
y = f (x + k) calculator investigation
Either use a graphics calculator or graph paper and sketch the graphs of y = f (x) for the
5 min following functions. For each y = f (x) on the same screen or page, sketch the second
graph y = g (x) mentioned and determine a relationship between the functions:
Q71: Where will the graph of y = (2x -1) 2 lie in relation to the graph of y = (2x)2 ?
graphics calculator.
Q74: Explore the relationship between y = x 2 + 3 and y = x2 + 4x + 7 using a graphics
calculator.
x
Q75: Explore the relationship between y = and y = x + 2) using a graphics
calculator.
Q76: What is the relationship between y = cos x Æ and y = cos (x + 30)Æ
Q77: Where will the graph of y = (2x -1) 2 lie in relation to the graph of y = (2x)2 ?
x
Q78: Explore the relationship between y = and y = x + 2) using a graphics
calculator.
4.18.4 Type 4: y = f (k x)
Example Sketch the graph of y = cos (2x) for x [-180 Æ , 360Æ ]
Answer :
The function is of the form y = f (k x) so f (x) = cos x
Then f (k x) = cos (k x). So k = 2
Complete a table of values with x = -180 Æ to 360Æ as column headings and calculate the
values for the rows y = cos x and y = cos (2x)
values of x -180Æ -90Æ 0 90Æ 180Æ 270Æ 360Æ
y = cos x -1 0 1 0 -1 0 1
y = cos (2x) 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
The effect is clearly seen on the diagram.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
162 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Q81: Using a graphics calculator explore and describe the relationship between the
graph of y = cos xÆ and y = cos 3 /4 xÆ
Q82: Using a graphics calculator explore and describe the relationship between the
graph of y = x and y = 3x
Q83: Using a graphics calculator explore and describe the relationship between the
graph of y = x and y = 3x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.18. GRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FUNCTIONS 163
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
164 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Q84: Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 - x - 10
4.19 Summary
At this stage the following topics and techniques should be understood:
4.20 Proofs
Learning Objective
ÆDevelop a proof for an onto or one-to-one function
Earlier in the unit the terms one-to-one and onto were defined.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.20. PROOFS 165
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
166 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
If, on the other hand, the task is to show that a function is not one-to-one (or onto) an
example which shows this to be untrue is all that is required.
LEIBNIZ
Gottfried von Leibniz is attributed with first using the term ’function’ but in those days
(1694) the term was used to denote the slope of the curve.
He was a very famous mathematician and is best known for his work on calculus. He
also developed the binary system of arithmetic.
EULER
In 1749 Leonhard Euler defined a function in terms of two related quantities, which is
more in keeping with the modern definition. Euler made a considerable contribution to
analysis and his name will appear in other sections of the course. He made contributions
in the fields of geometry, calculus and number theory.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.22. REVIEW EXERCISE 167
FOURIER
Joseph Fourier modified Euler’s definition by noting that the domain of a function was
important. He was an oustanding teacher and developed the theory of heat.
DIRICHLET
Lejeune Dirichlet introduced the concept of a correspondence relationship. This is
similar to the definition of an onto function. He was interested in algebraic number
theory and was also considered to be the founder of the theory of Fourier series (and
not Fourier as one might expect).
Q94:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
168 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
x2 + 6x + 9
Q98: Sketch the graph of the function x+2 . Show clearly all the important features.
a) The graph of y = f (x) crosses the y-axis at (0, a). State the value of a
b) Write down the vertical asymptote.
c) Show algebraically that there is a non-vertical asymptote and state its equation.
d) Find the coordinates and nature of the stationary point.
e) Show that f (x) = 0 has a solution in the interval 0 x 1
f) Sketch the graph of the function. Show clearly all the important features.
- 6x2 - 19x - 10
Q100: Sketch the graph of y = 5x2 - x - 4
by taking the following steps:
a) Find where the graph crosses the y-axis and state the y value.
b) Find where the graph crosses the x-axis and state the smaller x value.
c) If there is a horizontal asymptote for this graph, find it and state the value of y
d) If there is a slant asymptote for this graph find it in the form y = ax + b and state the
right hand side of the equation.
e) What are the equations of the vertical asymptotes for this function?
Find the asymptote which lies closer to the y-axis in the form x = a and state the
value of a
f) Find the vertical asymptote which lies further away from the y-axis in the form
x = b and state the value of b
g) Now find any turning points and sketch the graph.
1
Q101: Sketch the graph of y = 4x - 2 by taking the following steps:
a) Where does the graph cross the y-axis? Give the y value.
b) If the graph has a horizontal asymptote find it and give the value of y
c) If the graph has a slant asymptote find it in the form y = ax + b and state the RHS
side of the equation.
d) If the graph has a vertical asymptote find it and give the value of x
e) If there is a turning point find it and state the x value.
f) Now sketch the graph.
4x - 2
Q102: Sketch the graph of y = x2 + 5x + 6
by taking the following steps:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
4.24. SET REVIEW EXERCISE 169
a) If the graph crosses the y-axis find the point and state the y coordinate.
b) If the graph crosses the x-axis find the point and state the x coordinate.
c) If there is a horizontal asymptote for this type of function, find it and give the value
of y
d) If there is a slant asymptote, find it in the form y = ax + b and give the RHS of the
equation.
e) What are the equations of the vertical asymptotes for this function? Find the
asymptote which lies closer to the y-axis in the form x = a and state the value
of a
f) Find the vertical asymptote which lies further away from the y-axis in the form
x = b and state the value of b
g) Find any turning points and sketch the graph.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
170 TOPIC 4. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
171
Topic 5
Contents
5.1 Revision exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.3 Matrix structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.4 Matrices and simultaneous equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5 Elementary row operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.6 Upper triangular matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.7 Gaussian elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.8 Solutions of systems of equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.9 Ill-conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.11 Extended information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.12 Review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.13 Advanced review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.14 Set review exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Prerequisite knowledge
Learning Objectives
Revision exercise
There is a web version of this exercise if you would like to try it.
10 min
Q1: Solve the two equations x + 4y = 7 and x - y = 2 simultaneously.
5.2 Introduction
The two equations 5x - y = 7 and x + 2y = 8 have unique values for x and y that satisfy
both equations. The equations can be solved either by algebraic means or by drawing
the graphs of each equation and finding the point of intersection. This can be achieved
since the equations are equations of lines in a plane.
What happens, however, with systems of equations in three unknowns... or four... or
more?
It is true to say that a graphical approach can give the solution by finding the point of
intersection of the lines (for two unknowns) or possibly planes (for three unknowns) for
some systems. This still leaves many larger systems to solve and it would be convenient
to find an algebraic way of solving such systems.
This unit will begin to explore the idea of matrices and how they can be used in various
situations to provide information on several related linear equations. That is, information
on systems of linear equations.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.3. MATRIX STRUCTURE 173
1 2 3
Q4: How many rows, columns and elements does the matrix have?
4 5 6
aij is the element in the i-th row and the j-th column.
a23 is the element in the second row and the third column.
! 2 7
Example
$
What is the value of the element a 12
3 6
in the matrix shown
"
" 1 -5 8 - 11 %
%
# 13 9 0 4 &
12 21 -6 10
Answer :
7. It is the element in the first row and the second column.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
174 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
! 2 7 3 6
$
"
" 1 -5 8 - 11 %
%
Q5: In the matrix shown # 13 9 0 4 &what values do these elements
12 21 -6 10
have:
1. a23
2. a32
3. a41
4. a44
! 3 -9 6 0
$
" %
In the matrix shown " %
7 1 8 -4
Q6: # 13 -2 5 -1 &what values do these elements have:
2 4 -7 11
1. a31
2. a13
3. a43
4. a14
! 2 7 3 6
$
" %
Using the matrix " %
1 -5 8 - 11
Q7: # 13 9 0 4 &
12 21 -6 10
state the values of i and j for which a ij denotes the following elements:
1. 13
2. 21
3. -11
! 3 -9 6 0
$
" %
Using the matrix " %
7 1 8 -4
Q8: # 13 -2 5 -1 &
2 4 -7 11
state the values of i and j for which a ij denotes the following elements:
1. 6
2. 2
3. -1
When a matrix has the same number of rows and columns, it is given a special name.
Square matrix
A square matrix has the same number of rows and columns.
4 7
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.4. MATRICES AND SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS 175
Answer:
2x + 3y = 8 (1)
3x - y = 1 (2)
becomes
2x + 3y = 8 (1)
9x - 3y = 3 (3) 3 (2)
adding (1) and (3) gives 11x = 11
so x = 1
Substitute x = 1 into equation (1) to give
2 + 3y = 8
y = 2
Geometrically, the equations (1) and (2) define two lines in the plane.
The intersection of the two lines is the point (1, 2) given by the solution of the system of
equations.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
176 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
By using matrices, these tricks can be developed into a systematic approach to solving
larger systems of linear equations with more unknowns.
A matrix can be formed by taking the coefficients of the unknowns in a system of
equations.
Example
3x + 4y = 10
5x - 3y =7
Take the coefficients only as shown in bold
3x + 4y = 10
5x - 3y =7
3 4
By constructing another matrix from the right hand side of the system of equations and
a third from the unknowns it is possible to set up a matrix equation.
Formation of a matrix
There is an animated version of the formation of a matrix on the web.
5 min
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.4. MATRICES AND SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS 177
• Take only the coefficients of the terms on the left hand side and form a matrix.
2x -1y +1z =5
1x - 3y + 2z =2
2x +1y + 4z = -3
!2 -1 1
$
This is called a coefficient matrix. Say, A = # 1 -3 2 &
2 1 4
!x$
• Put the unknowns x, y and z into a column matrix. Say, X = # y &
z
• Write the numbers from the right hand side of the equation in another column
matrix.
! 5$
Say, B = # 2 &
-3
So now the system of three equations can be written as a single matrix equation
AX = B
This type of equation will be studied in greater depth in the second unit on matrices.
Another useful matrix construction is the augmented matrix. This is formed by using the
coefficient matrix A and adjoining the column matrix B. It is written as
! $
#2 -1 1 5
&
1 -3 2 2
2 1 4 -3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
178 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
!3 -2 1
$
The coefficient matrix is # 2 0 -1 &
0 1 1
!3 -2 1 12
$
The augmented matrix is # 2 0 -1 6 &
0 1 1 3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.6. UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRICES 179
Examples
1. Interchanging rows
Interchanging rows 1 and 2
!2 -1 1 5
$ r1 r1 r2
!1 -3 2 2
$ r1
#1 -3 2 2 & r2 #2 -1 1 5 & r2
2 1 4 -3 r3 r3 2 1 4 -3 r3
Note that the main diagonal is the diagonal which stretches from top left to bottom right.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
180 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Examples
1.
!1 2 0
$
#0 7 -5 &
0 0 2
This is an upper triangular matrix. The main diagonal entries are 1, 7 and 2. All entries
below these are zero.
2.
!1 2 0
$
#0 7 -5 &
0 1 2
This matrix is not upper triangular. The entry a 32 is below the main diagonal and is a
one not a zero.
Using the elementary row operations mentioned earlier a square matrix can now be
converted to an upper triangular form.
Note the two examples in the following activity and how the row operations are used to
convert the matrix.
Examples
2 4
1. Convert to upper triangular form.
3 -1
2 4
Answer:
1
1
1
3 -1
r1
r2
2 r1
r2 3
2
-1
r1
r2
r1
r2 - 3r1 0
2
-7
r1
r2
!0 1 2
$
2. Convert # 4 3 1 & to upper triangular form.
1 1 0
Answer:
!0 1 2
$ r1
#4 3 1 & r2
1 1 0 r3
r3
!1 1 0
$ r1
r2 #4 3 1 & r2 Ensure a11 0 by swapping rows
r1 0 1 2 r3
r1
!1 1 0
$ r1
r2 - 4r1 #0 -1 1 & r2
Add a suitable multiple of r1 to r2 to ensure
that a12 = 0
r3 0 1 2 r3
r1
!1 1 0
$ r1
r2 #0 -1 1 & r2
Add a suitable multiple of r2 to r3 to ensure
that a32 = 0
r3 + r2 0 0 3 r3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.6. UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRICES 181
Notice that the rows are always renumbered on the right hand side of each matrix.
This example demonstrates the following strategy for converting a matrix to upper
triangular form.
Strategy for converting a matrix to upper triangular form
• Start at the top left hand corner. If the entry is a zero, interchange rows to obtain
a non zero entry in this cell (a11 ).
• Keep this first row fixed and use elementary row operations to obtain zeros for the
remaining elements in the first column.
• Move to the second row and examine the first non zero entry (a 22 ). If the entry is
a zero interchange it with any row below it to obtain a non-zero entry in this cell.
• Keep this row (and the first row) fixed and use elementary row operations to obtain
zeros for the remaining elements in this second column.
• Continue with this strategy until there are no further possible operations on the
matrix.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
182 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.7. GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION 183
r1
!2 -1 1 5
$ r1
2r2 - r1 #0 -5 3 -1 & r2
r3 2 1 4 -3 r3
r1
!2 -1 1 5
$ r1
r2 #0 5 -3 1 & r2
r3 - r1 0 2 3 -8 r3
r1
!2 -1 1 5
$ r1
r2 #0 5 -3 1 & r2
5r3 - 2r2 0 0 21 - 42 r3
Take the upper triangular matrix and change this back into a system of equations using
the entries as coefficients to give:
2x - y + z = 5
5y - 3z = 1 Note that there is no x term.
21z = -42 Note that there is no x or y term.
From the last equation z = -2
Substitute z = -2 in the second equation to give
5y + 6 = 1
y = -1
Finally, substitute both z = -2 and y = -1 in the first equation to give
2x + 1 - 2 = 5
x = 3
The solution to the system of equations is x = 3, y = -1 and z = -2
This can be written as (x, y, z) = (3, -1, -2)
The three equations in the last example represent the equations of three planes whose
point of intersection is (3, -1, -2).
Note that if there are two equations in two unknowns then a unique solution would
represent the intersection at a point of two lines in a plane.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
184 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
This practice of reducing a matrix to upper triangular form can be taken further until the
matrix itself provides the answers without any need for back substitution into the original
equations.
This technique is the Gauss-Jordan elimination and is explained by the following
example.
Activity
!1 3 -1 -4
$
Take the matrix from the example, # 0 3 -1 -7 & and continue with row
!1 0 0 3
$0 0 2 8
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.8. SOLUTIONS OF SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS 185
Example : No solutions
Investigate any solutions of the two equations
2x - y =3
3y - 6x = -5
Answer:
2 -1 3
Note carefully that it is important to write the elements in the matrix keeping the
unknowns in the same order. Check carefully the second row in the last example and
compare with the equations given.
The second equation 3y - 6x = -5 is rearranged to -6x + 3y = -5 before the matrix entries
can be completed.
Another rearrangement of the equations gives
y = 2x - 3 and 3y = 6x - 5
On a graph these show clearly that there can be no solution as they will never intersect.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
186 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Inconsistent equations are found in a system of equations where the relationship in one
equation between the unknowns is entirely different from the relationship in another.
For example, in the simple case of the two equations
x+y =3
x+y = -2
These give two parallel lines so that the relationship between x and y is never the same.
That is, there are no values for x and y which satisfy both equations.
For systems of three equations in three unknowns with no solutions ( i.e. inconsistent
equations) there are two possible geometrical interpretations:
• The intersections of the planes are three parallel lines. (in a triangle formation).
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.8. SOLUTIONS OF SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS 187
(The points of intersection of the planes are the points through which the parallel
lines pass in the third dimension.)
• Two of the planes are parallel (in a ’z’ type of formation).
(The points of intersection of the planes are the points through which the parallel
lines pass in the third dimension.)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
188 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
x+y+z =1
2x + 2y + z =3
2x + 2y + 2z =2
Answer:
The augmented matrix gives
!1 1 1 1
$ r1 r1
!1 1 1 1
$ r1
#2 2 1 3 & r2 r2 - 2r1 #0 0 -1 1 & r2 .
2 2 2 2 r3 r3 - 2r1 0 0 0 0 r3
Putting this back into equation form leaves z = -1 which when substituted in equation 1
gives x + y = 2
This leads to infinite solutions as the equation relates to a straight line. (How many
points are on a line?)
In geometric terms it represents the intersection of two of the planes, not at a point but
at a line. The third plane is coincident to (the same as) one of the others.
In this situation two of the equations are equivalent - one is a multiple of the other. In
effect this leaves two equations in three unknowns and will lead to infinite solutions if the
two planes do intersect.
For systems of three equations in three unknowns with infinite solutions there are three
possible geometrical interpretations:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.8. SOLUTIONS OF SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS 189
The point of intersection of the planes is the point through which the line of
intersection passes in the third dimension.
• Two of the planes intersect at a line and the third plane is coincident with one of
the other two (as a cross like the previous example).
The point of intersection of the planes is the point through which the line of
intersection passes in the third dimension.
• All three planes are coincident: the equations all represent the same plane (like a
sheet of paper).
One of the examples showed a system where two planes intersect in a line. Looking at
the matrix, it reduces to leave one zero row. If the matrix reduces to leave two zero rows
then the system of equations all represent the same plane.
A general rule is that if there is a zero on the leading diagonal after reduction to upper
triangular form then there is no unique solution to the system of equations.
In the next topic on matrices the reasons for this will be explained in more detail.
For completeness, the following diagram shows a representation of three planes which
intersect at a point. That is, the solution is unique.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
190 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Q20: Investigate any solutions for the system of equations shown and interpret them
geometrically.
3x - y + z =1
-x + 2y + 3z =0
3x - y + z =3
Q21: Investigate any solutions for the system of equations shown and interpret them
geometrically.
-3x + 4y - 6z = -2
x - y + 2z =1
2x - 2y + 4z =2
5.9 Ill-conditioning
Learning Objective
ÆIdentify when illconditioning may occur
Ill-conditioned
A system of equations is ill-conditioned when a small change in the right hand side of
one of the equations causes a large change in the solution.
1 0.99
0.99 0.98
1.99
1.97
r1
r2
r1
r2 - 0.99r1 0
0.99
- 0.0001
1.99
- 0.0001
r1
r2
The solution is x = 1 and y = 1
Consider what happens with a small change to the original equations so that
x + 0.99y = 2.00
0.99x + 0.98y = 1.97
The matrix then becomes
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.9. ILL-CONDITIONING 191
1 0.99
0.99 0.98
2.00
1.97
r1
r2
r1
r2 - 0.99r1 0
0.99
- 0.0001
2
- 0.01
r1
r2
This leads to the solution x = -97 and y = 100
Such a small change as 0.01 in the equation value led to a huge change in the values
of both unknowns.
Geometrically this occurs when the lines given by the two equations meet at a very small
angle. A small change to the right hand side of one of the equations replaces one line
by a parallel line very close by but gives an intersection that is considerably further away.
In the example there was a significant change in both unknowns because the gradient
of the two lines represented by the equations was very close to 1 (a line with gradient
exactly equal to 1 has the equation y = x + constant).
When the equations represent lines with a very large gradient (positive or negative), a
small change in one of the ill-conditioned equations will give a large change in the y
unknown only (these are lines which are almost vertical).
Q22: Compare and comment on the solutions to the two systems of equations shown
500x + y = 497
1001x + 2y = 995
500x + y = 497
1001x + 2y = 1000
• Make a small change in the intercept value of one of the equations only.
• Find the intersection again and compare with the previous result.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
192 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Conversely, when the equations represent lines with a very small gradient (positive or
negative), a small change in one of the ill-conditioned equations will give a large change
in the x unknown only (these are lines which are almost horizontal).
Q23: Compare and comment on the solutions to the two systems of equations shown
x + 333y = 343
3x + 1000y = 1030
x + 333y = 343
3x + 1000y = 1034
• Make a small change in the intercept value of one of the equations only.
• Find the intersection again and compare with the previous result.
This demonstrates the need to be aware of the dramatic effects that a small change in
accuracy can have. In reality this could be extremely important for the correct functioning
of equipment and machinery.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.10. SUMMARY 193
5.10 Summary
The following ideas have been covered in this topic:
• With these operations a square matrix can be put into upper triangular form.
• Gaussian elimination (or a form of it) can be used with upper triangular form to
solve systems of equations.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
194 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
5.14. SET REVIEW EXERCISE 195
Find the value of a for which the equations represent three planes which intersect at a
line. Give the solutions to the system of equations for this value of a.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
196 TOPIC 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
197
Topic 6
Contents
6.1 End of Unit Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.2 Extra Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
198 TOPIC 6. END OF UNIT ASSESSMENTS AND EXTRA HELP
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
GLOSSARY 199
Glossary
anti-differentiation
Anti-differentiation is the reverse process of differentiation.
binomial coefficient formula 1
n n
r r n r
binomial coefficient formula 2
n n
r n - r
binomial coefficient formula 3
n
r - 1
n
r
n + 1
r
binomial theorem
The Binomial Theorem states that if x, y and n then
x +y n
n n n n n
0
xn +
1
xn - 1
y 2
xn - 2 2
y + +
r
xn - r r
y + +
n
yn
codomain
For a function f : A B, B is called the codomain of the function f.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
200 GLOSSARY
concave downward
The graph of y = f (x) is concave downward in an interval if f (x) is a function which
2
has a second derivative ddxy2 0 for all x in the open interval.
concave upward
The graph of y = f (x) is concave upward in an interval if f (x) is a function which
2
has a second derivative ddxy2 0 for all x in the open interval.
constant of integration
continuous function
A continuous function f (x) is a function where at every point P on the domain
x
f (x) = f (P
cosecant
The cosecant of x = cosec x = 1 /sin x
cotangent
The cotangent of x = cot x = 1 /tan x
critical point
A critical point is any point on a curve where the slope of the tangent to the curve
is zero (parallel to the x-axis) or where the slope of the tangent to the curve is
undefined (parallel to the y-axis).
definite integral
b
f (x)dx is a definite integral because the limits of integration are known and
a
b
f (x)dx = F(x)ba = F(b) - F(a)
a
differentiation
The process of finding the derivative f (x) is called differentiation
discontinuous function
A function f (x) is discontinuous at a point P if f (x) is not defined at P or if
x
f (x)
f (P)
dividend
The dividend in a long division calculation is the expression which is being divided.
As a fraction it is the numerator.
divisor
The divisor is the expression which is doing the dividing.
It is the expression outside the division sign. As a fraction it is the denominator.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
GLOSSARY 201
domain
For a function f : A B, A is called the domain of the function f.
even function
A function is even if f (-x) = f (x) for every value of x within the domain of the
function.
The graph is symmetrical under reflection in the y-axis.
factorial n
formula one
n! = n (n - 1)!
function f
A function f from set A to set B is a rule which assigns to each element in A exactly
one element in B. This is often written as f : A B.
gaussian elimination
The technique of using an augmented matrix formed from a system of original
equations to find the unknowns is called Gaussian elimination.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
202 GLOSSARY
ill-conditioned
A system of equations is ill-conditioned when a small change in the right hand side
of one of the equations causes a large change in the solution.
integrand
For f (x)dx = F(x) + C, f (x) is the integrand
integration
Integration is the method we use to find anti-derivatives.
inverse function
Suppose that f is a one-to-one and onto function. For each y B (codomain) there
is exactly one element x A (domain) such that f (x) = y
The inverse function is denoted f -1 (y) = x
many-to-one
A function which maps more than one element in the domain to the same element
in the range or image set is called a many-to-one or a many-one function.
The function is said be in many-to-one correspondence.
It is also common to say that such a function is not one-to-one.
matrix
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
GLOSSARY 203
n factorial
n! (called n factorial) is the product of the integers n, n - 1, n - 2, ..., 2, 1
That is, n! = n (n - 1) (n - 2) ... 2 1 for n
odd function
A function is odd if f (-x) = -f (x) for every value of x within the domain of the
function.
The graph is symmetrical under 180 Æ rotation about the origin.
It is said to have rotational symmetry of order 2
one-to-one
A function f : A B is a one-to-one function if whenever f (s) = f (t)
then s = t where s A and t A.
The function is said to be in one-to-one correspondence.
onto
An onto function is one in which the range is equal to the codomain.
partial fractions
The process of taking a proper rational function and splitting it into separate
terms each with a factor of the original denominator as its denominator is called
expressing the function in partial fractions.
particular integral
For f (x)dx = F(x) + C an anti-derivative given by a particular value of C is a
particular integral.
polynomial of degree n.
If P (x) = an xn + an xn - 1 an - 2 xn - 2 a2x2 a1x1 a0
where a0 , ..., an
then P is a polynomial of degree n.
product rule
The product rule gives us a method to differentiate the product of two or more
functions.
It states that when k (x) = f (x) g (x)
then k (x) = f (x) g (x) + f (x) g (x)
quotient
The quotient is the answer to the division but not including the remainder.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
204 GLOSSARY
quotient rule
The quotient rule gives us a method that allows us to differentiate algebraic
fractions.
f (x)
It states that when k (x) g (x)
then
f’ (x) g (x) - f (x) g’ (x)
k’ (x) 2
g (x)
rational function
P(x)
If P (x) and Q (x) are polynomials then Q(x) is called a rational function.
secant
The secant of x = sec x = 1 /cos x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
GLOSSARY 205
square matrix
A square matrix has the same number of rows and columns.
stationary point
A stationary point is any point on a curve where the slope of the tangent to the
curve is zero (parallel to the x-axis).
The term stationary point can refer to:
zero factorial
0! = 1
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
206 HINTS
Hint 1:
Hint 2:
As x then
and so
v(x)
2k
x
x ' a
therefore
v(x)
x
2k
a
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 1 207
Q4: 59 /
40
When adding or subtracting fractions the denominator must be the same for each term.
The first step is therefore to find a common denominator and calculate new numerators
for each term.
Finding a common denominator is the same as finding the lowest common multiple of
the numbers. In this question the lowest common multiple of 8 and 5 is 40. The first term
then becomes 35 /40 and the second term is 24 /40 . The answer is then a simple addition
of the numerators.
Q5: 9/
56
Use cancellation when possible before multiplying to make the calculation simpler.
Q6: 326
Q7: 334
Q8: 6 (3 2 1)
Q9: 24 (4 3 2 1)
Q10: 8 7!
Q11: 12 11!
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
208 ANSWERS: TOPIC 1
Q12: 10 (5 4 2)
Q13: 15 (6 5 2)
Q14: 10 (5 4 2)
Q15: 7 C4 = 35 ways
Q20: 5
Q21: 7
Q22: 9
Q23: 120
Q24: 1
Q25: 5040
Q26: 7 6!
Q28: 1 0!
Q29: 70
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 1 209
Q30: 15
Q31: 126
Q32: 35
12
Q33:
7
13
Q34:
1
6
Q35:
2
4
Q36:
3
8
Q37:
5
13
Q38:
10
Q39:
row 0 1
row 1 1 1
row 2 1 2 1
row 3 1 3 3 1
row 4 1 4 6 4 1
row 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
row 6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
row 7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
Q40:
binomial coefficients
4 4 4 4 4
row 4
0 1 2 3 4
5 5 5 5 5 5
row 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
row 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
row 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
210 ANSWERS: TOPIC 1
values of coefficients
row 4 1 4 6 4 1
row 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
row 6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
row 7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
Q43:
x9 + 9x8 y + 36x7 y2 + 84x6 y3 + 126x5 y4 + 126x4 y5 + 84x3 y6 + 36x2 y7 + 9xy8 + y9
Q46:
x8 + 8x7 y + 28x6 y2 + 56x5 y3 + 70x4 y4 + 56x3 y5 + 28x2 y6 + 8xy7 + y8
27 3 27 2
Q50: 64 x + 16 x y + 94 xy2 + y3
Q51: x2 - 12 xy + 1 2
16 y
Q52: x4 + 43 x3 y + 23 x2 y2 + 4
27 xy
3 + 1 4
81 y
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 1 211
Q56: 1 /8 x3 - 3 /4 x2 y + 3 /2 xy2 - y3
Q59: 240
Q60: 108
Q61: 5
Q62: -35
Q63: 24
Q64: 56
Q65: 1
Q66: 8.365427
Q67: 0.1296
-1 3
Q68: x+5 + x-3
-2 5
Q69: -x+3 + x+2
2 -3
Q70: x+1 + x-1
-1 -3
Q71: x+4 + x-2
2 3
Q72: x-3 + x-2
3 -2
Q73: +
x+1 (x + 1)2
2 -3
Q74: +
x-2 (x - 2)2
1 -2
Q75: +
x-1 (x - 1)2
3 -1
Q76: +
x+2 (x + 2)2
2 3
Q77: +
x+4 (x + 4)2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
212 ANSWERS: TOPIC 1
-9 13 1
Q78: x-1 + x-2 + x+1
1 2 3
Q79: x+1 + x+2 + x-3
1 1 -2
Q80: x+3 + x-2 + x-3
-1 -5 29
Q81: 3(x + 1) + 2(x + 2) + 6(x + 4)
2 3 -5
Q82: + +
x-1 x+2 (x + 2)2
-1 1 -1
Q83: + +
x+1 x-2 (x - 2)2
4 2 -1
Q84: + +
x-2 x+1 (x + 1)2
3 -2 1
Q85: + +
x-1 x+2 (x + 2)2
1 9 11
Q86: + +
x-2 (x - 2)2 (x - 2)3
1 -4 6
Q87: + +
x+1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3
2 -1 2
Q88: + +
x+2 (x + 2)2 (x + 2)3
1 1 2
Q89: + +
x-1 (x - 1)2 (x - 1)3
2 3x - 1
Q90: x+1 + x2 - 3x + 1
2 - 2x + 1
Q91: x-2 + x2 - 2x + 3
4 x+3
Q92: x-2 + x2 + 2x + 5
2 - 3x + 1
Q93: x-2 + 2x2 + x + 1
1 8
Q94: x - 3 - x+1 + x+2
1 2
Q95: x + x+1 + x+2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 1 213
3 4x + 1
Q96: x+3 + 2x2 + x + 2
-3 4
Q97: -x-2 + x+6
2 2 1
Q98: x+1 + x-1 - x-2
3 -2 1
Q99: + +
x+2 x+1 (x + 1)2
4 -2
Q100: +
x-1 (x - 1)2
1 1 -5
Q101: + +
x-2 (x - 2)2 (x - 2)3
1 3
Q102: 2x + 1 + x-1 - x-2
Q106: 768
Q108: 35
Q110: 216
Q111: 108
3 2
Q112: x-1 + x-2
-1 5
Q113: x+3 - x+1
3 2 3
Q114: - -
x-1 x+2 (x + 2)2
2 3 4
Q115: + +
x-2 (x - 2)2 (x - 2)3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
214 ANSWERS: TOPIC 1
Q117: 2160
Q118: 4032x
4 3
Q119: 4x + -
x-2 (x - 2)2
Q120: 2x2 + 4x + 6 - 3
x-1 - 2
x-2
1 2
Q121: - 3x + 5 - x+1 - x2 - 3x + 5
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 2 215
2 Differentiation
Revision Exercise 1 (page 42)
Q1:
a) f’ (t) - 12t - 5 + 2
b) 10x - 3 sin x
f’ (x)
5
c) f’ (x) - 3
6 x
3
d) f’ (w) w+1
2
14
e) f’ (u) 2u - 3
u
f) f’ (x) 20(4x + 3)4
g) f’ ( ) 5 cos 5 +
4
Q2: y + 3x = /2
Q3:
Q4:
f (x) = x3
f (x + h) = (x + h)3
+ 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 - x3
3
f’ (x)
h
x
h
2
h(3x + 3xh + h2 )
h h
3x2
Q5:
f (x) = 3x2
f (x + h) = 3(x + h)2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
216 ANSWERS: TOPIC 2
2
+ 6xh + 3h2 - 3x2
f’ x
3x
h h
h(6xh+ 3h)
h
6x
Q6:
f (x) =
x
f (x + h) x+h
f’ (x)
x + hh - x
h
h
x+h- x
h
x+h+ x
x+h+ x
x+h-x
x)
h h( x + h +
1
2 x
Q7: a)
b) x = 0 and x = 5
Q8: a) x x
x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 2 217
b)
c) x = - 4
Q9:
dy d2 y
a) = 12x + 4 = 12
dx dx2
dy d2 y
b) = 8(2x + 9)3 2
= 48(2x + 9)2
dx dx
d2 y
dy
= - 4sin 4x + = - 16cos 4x +
dx 4 dx2 4
Q10: x = 3
Q12:
a) a = 6t
b) 30 m/s2
Q13:
a) 1.62 m/s
b) 1.57 seconds
c) -2.5 m/s2
Q14:
Speed = 114 m/s, acceleration = 24 m/s 2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
218 ANSWERS: TOPIC 2
Q15:
a) v = 3 cos 3t - and at t = 0,v = 2.598
6
b) a = - 9 sin 3t -
6
5 11 17
c) t= 9 , 9 and 9
Q16:
f’(x) 12x3 + 10x + 2
f”(x) 36x2 + 10
f”’(x) 72x
f(4) (x)
f(n) (x) for n nN
Q17:
dy
6cos(2x)
dx
d2 y
12sin(2x)
dx2
d3 y
24cos(2x)
dx3
d4 y
48sin(2x)
dx4
d10 y
10
- 3 210 sin(2x)
dx
Q18:
a)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 2 219
x for x
b) f’(x)
x for x
Q19:
a) f (x) = 5 (x + 2)2/3 and (x) = 10 3 (x + 2)1/3
b) x = -2
Q25: dy
dx
2x22 + 4
x +4
Q28: y = x
dy
Q30: dx x
dy
Q31: dx x
dy x x
Q32: dx x _ x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
220 ANSWERS: TOPIC 2
Q33: dy x x x
dx x
dy x
Q34: dx x
Q35: dy x
x
x x
dx x
Q36: dy x
x x x
dx x
Q37: Proof
Q38: Proof
Q39: Proof
Q40: 2.708333
Q41: 2.718279
Q42: 2.718282
Q43: dy / = 3e3x
dx
Q45: dy
dx 6x exp(x2 ) 10
exp(2x)
dy
Q46: dx 2x2 exp(2x)[3 + 2x]
dy - x (cos
Q47: dx x - sin x)
Q48: dy xx x
dx x
dy - 3 cos 4x - 4 sin 4x
Q49: dx 3x
Q50: Gradient = 5
Q52: dy / = 1 /x
dx
dy - 10(x + 3)
Q53: dx x2 + 6x
dy
Q54: dx cot(2x)
dy 2+x
Q55: dx x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 2 221
dy 1
Q56: dx x - tanx
dy -3
Q57: dx x(2x - 3)
dy ex
Q58: dx x (x ln x + 1)
dy 1 - x ln x
Q59: dx xex
dy
Q60: dx tan x
dy
Q61: dx x2 (3ln 2x sin 3x + sin 3x + 3x ln 2x cos 3x)
Q62:
a) Maximum 10, minimum -4
b) Maximum 7, minimum 0
c) Maximum 7, minimum -4
Q63:
a) Maximum 9, minimum 0
b) Maximum 9, minimum 0
Q64:
a) Maximum 3, minimum -3
b) Maximum 3, minimum -1
Q66:
8
Maximum f
Minimum f 2
Q67:
Maximum f (2) = 25 and Minimum f (-4) = -125
Q68:
Maximum f (3) = 3 and Minimum f (1) = 1
Q69:
Maxima at f (-2) and f (0) = -3 and Minimum f (-3) = -5
Q70:
Maximum f (3) = 4 and Minimum f (1) = -2
Q71:
Maximum f (2) = 4 and Minimum f (0) = 0
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
222 ANSWERS: TOPIC 2
Q72:
0.303
Q73:
a) V
b) radians.
This is a maximum as V”
c) 52 800 litres
Q74:
a) r = 1 cm
b) t = 1 second
c) 0.5 cm/second
d) r
2
1+t
i.e. r 1 2+ t
So as t r
but does not reach 3 cm.
Q75:
a) Hint: The angle at C is
Q79:
xx (2 - 3x3
3
a) y’(x)
2cos x + 1
b) g’(x)
(2 + cos x)2
c) h’(x) - 2xsin(x2 )sin(3x) + 3cos(x2 )cos(3x)
x
d) f’(x)
x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 2 223
Q80:
-6
f’ (x) = which is always negative.
(x - 2)2
Q81:
f’ (x) = (x - 1)(x + 1)ex
Since ex for all x
Then f (x) is decreasing and f’ (x) for x
Q82:
Q83:
dy
dx
1
x2
- cos(kx) - xksin(kx)
d2 y 1 2 3 2
2x ksin(kx) + 2xcos(kx) - x k cos(kx)
dx2 x4
then substitute into the equation.
Q84:
a)
h
3
b) Base
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
224 ANSWERS: TOPIC 3
3 Integration
Revision exercise 1 (page 81)
Q1: -3x2 - 2x + 3 /4 x4 + C
3
Q2: - 2x2
- 13 x3 + C
Q3:
- (5 - 2t) + C
Q4: 1 / u3 + 2u - 1 /u + C
3
Q5: 3
2 sin 2
4 +C
Q6: 10
Q7: -45 /8
Q8: 2
Q11: 61 /3 units2
Q12: 2x - 5 + C
2 ln
2s
+ C or 2 ln
s
+ C
1 1
Q13:
Q14: -2e-4u + C
Q15: 2 sin (3x - 7) + C
Q22: -1 /3
Q23: 3 ln 7 5.838
Q24: /4 - 1 /2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 3 225
Q26: x + ln x - 1 + C
Q27: t = 3 ln t + 2 + C
Q28: 1 /2 - ln 4 + 2x + C
2
Q29: 5
12 (x + 6)6 + C
3 2
Q30: 1 + x2 +C
Q31: - 14 cos4 x + C
Q33: 4 ln
x2 + 1
+ C
1 3
Q34: 3 exp(x + 5) + C
Q35: 1
6 (x + 5)5 (x - 1) + C
4
Q36: 3 2x - 1(x + 1) + C
Q37: 2
63 (3x - 2)6 (9x + 1) + C
Q38: 31031
Q39: 321 /2
Q40: 1 /16
Q41: 6 /5
Q42: 62 /3
Q43: e2 - 1 6.389
Q44: 1 /6
Q45: ln 2 0.693
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
226 ANSWERS: TOPIC 3
Q46: /2
Q47: /12
Q48: /24
3
Q49: 27
25
Q50: 1+ 2
3
4
1
Q51: 8 2 + 3
Q52:
Q53: 3 /2 - 2 /3
Q58: - 32 sin(1 - x2 ) + C
Q59: 2 x2 - 3x + 1 + C
Q60: 8
Q61: 1
2 e6 - e1 200.36
Q62: 0
Q63: 41 /3
3
Q64: ln 15 - 1.609
Q65: 89.1
Q66: 0. Because the areas above and below the x-axis cancel each other out.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 3 227
Q67: 8 units2
Q68:
a) -5, -1 and 3
b) 128
Q69:
Coordinates of p are (-1, 0)
Shaded area = 7.568
Q70: 8
2
Q71: 51 /3 units2
Q72:
y = (x+2)2
-2 0
Area = 23 /4 units2
Q73: 2 units2
Q74: 36 units2
Q75:
units
Q76:
units
2
Q77:
Q78:
units
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
228 ANSWERS: TOPIC 3
b
Q79: V x2 dy for x f(y)
a
Q80: 3 units3
Q81:
units
Q82:
a) s (t) = 20t + 5 /2 t2
b) 120 metres
Q83:
a) v 9t) = 200t - t2
b) h (t) = 100t2 - 1 /3 t3
c) 6662 /3 km
Q84:
a) The speed increases to a maximum and then falls back down to zero
b) The particle moves to the left. Its speed increases and then falls back down to zero
c) 2.25 units to the left
d) 31 /12 units
e) 6 m/s2
Q85: lnx2 4 C
1
Q86: 4 exp(4x) +C
Q87: - 15 cos5 x + C
Q88: 1
Q89: 3 /4
Q90: 3 -
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 3 229
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
230 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
4 Properties of Functions
Revision exercise (page 115)
Q1: 6x
Q2: -3x-3
- 2x2 + 18
Q3: using the quotient rule.
(x + 3)4
Q4: {x : x 2} Note that if x was less than two f (x) is the square root of a negative
number.
Q10: yes
Q11: yes
Q14: yes
Q15: yes
Q16: no The range is {-4, -3, -2, -1, 0}. This does not equal the codomain.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 231
Q17:
Q18:
Q19: f -1 (x) = 8 2- x where x . The drawing below is the screen dump from a graphics
calculator showing the line y = x, the original function and a bold line denoting the inverse
function.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
232 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q21: h-1 (x) = x +4 6 where x , x 6. The diagram shows the inverse function sketch
from a graphics calculator. The calculator image shows a dotted line of the original
function and a solid line for its inverse.
Q22:
Use a horizontal line and there is only one intersection at any point.
The function is one-to-one.
The domain generates a range of [-1,1]
This is equal to the codomain shown.
The function is onto.
A possible restricted domain for cos x is [0, ]
A possible restricted domain for tan x is 2
2
The domain of sin -1 x is [-1, 1]
y = tan -1 x
This inverse would be obtained from y = tan x with the domain of 2
2
Note the horizontal asymptotes at y = 1 and at y = -1
y = cos-1 x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 233
Q23:
y = sin-1 x
k
a sin x: A general domain would be
2
k
2 where k is an odd integer.
y = cos-1 x
k k + 1
cos bx: A general domain would be b
b where k is an integer.
y = tan-1 x
k
tan cx: A general domain would be k
2c
2c c
where k is an odd integer.
Q24:
x sin-1 x tan-1 x cos-1 x
3
2 3 ******** 6
1 2 4 0
1
4 ********
4
2
3 ******** 3 ********
1
2 6 ******** 3
Q25:
x sin-1 x tan-1 x cos-1 x
2
3
60Æ ******** 30Æ
1 90 Æ 45Æ 0Æ
1
30Æ ******** 60Æ
2
45Æ ******** 45Æ
2
3 ******** 60Æ ********
Q26: (0,1)
Q27: These are inverses of each other.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
234 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q28:
1. f (x) = cos x
f (-x) = cos (-x) = cos x
Since f (x) = f (-x) the function is even.
1
2. g (x) =2x - 1
g (-x) g (x) or - g (x)
= - 2x1 - 1
The function is neither odd or even.
1
3. k (x) = x
k (-x) = -1x = - 1x
k (x) = -k (x) so the function is odd.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 235
Q29:
Q30:
global maximum
local maximum
local maximum
local minimum
point of inflection
local minimum
global minimum
Q35: It is a minimum turning point as the second derivative has a value of 8 regardless
of any input from x.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
236 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q37:
At turning points dy
dx = 12x2 - 6x = 0
x = 0 or x = 1 /2
d2 y
dx2
= 24x - 6
At x = 0, d2 y
dx2
= -ve value
maximum turning point.
At x = 1 /2, d2 y
dx2
= +ve value
minimum turning point.
Q38:
At turning points dy
dx = 6x - 2 = 0
x = 1 /3 . The turning point is (1 /3, -1 / )
3
d2 y
dx2
= 6 which is positive and the turning point is a minimum.
Q39:
dy
dx = 3 cos x = 0
cos x = 0
x = 2 , - 2 , 32 ,
- 3
2 at the turning points.
2
d y
dx2
= -3 sin x
3 d2 y
At x = - 2 , dx2
= -ve and the turning point is a maximum.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 237
d2 y
At x = - 2 , dx2
= +ve and the turning point is a minimum.
d2 y
At x = 2 , dx2
= -ve and the turning point is a maximum.
3 d 2 y
At x = 2 , dx2 = +ve and the turning point is a minimum.
Q40:
1. d
2. b
3. c
4. a
Q41:
dy
dx = 12x2 - 6x
d2 y
dx2
= 24x - 6
d2 y
dx2
= 0 when x = 1 /4 and at this point dy
dx 0
There is a non horizontal point of inflexion at ( 1 /4 , -1 /8 )
Q42:
dy
dx = 6x - 2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
238 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
d2 y
dx2
=6
d2 y
There is no point on this curve where dx2
= 0. There is no point of inflexion.
Q43:
dy
dx 3 cos x
d2 y
dx2
- 3 sin x
d2 y
dx2
= 0
-3 sin x = 0
x = 0, , 2 , - , -2 and at these values dy
dx 0
These points are all points of inflexion.
Q44:
16
x2
Symmetry The function is even and is symmetrical about the y-axis.
Crosses x-axis If y = 0, 16
x2
= 0
16 = 0 which is impossible.
The graph does not cross the x-axis.
Crosses y-axis x=0
y= 16
0 which is undefined.
The graph does not cross the y-axis.
dy - 32
Turning Points dx = x3
= 0 for turning points.
But this implies that -32 = 0 which is not true.
There are no turning points.
d2 y 96
dx2
= x4
= 0 at a point of inflection.
This implies that 96 = 0 which is not true.
There are no points of inflection.
As x As x y 0
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0
discontinuity y is undefined at x = 0
-y undefined There is a vertical asymptote at x = 0
As x 0 + , y +
As x 0 - , y +
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 239
Q45:
3
y= x
Symmetry The function is odd.
It has a rotational symmetry of order 2
Crosses x-axis y=0
3
x = 0 which is not possible.
It does not cross the x-axis.
Crosses y-axis x=0
y= 3
0 which is undefined.
It does not cross the y-axis.
Turning Points dy
dx = -3
x2
0 at any point.
There is no turning point.
d2 y
dx2
= 6
x3
0 at any point.
There is no point of inflection.
As x As x , y 0
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0
discontinuity When x = 0, y is undefined.
-y undefined There is a vertical asymptote at x = 0
As x 0 +, y +
As x 0- y -
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
240 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q46:
4
y= 3x - 2
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x -axis y = 0
4 = 0 which is not possible.
It does not cross the x-axis.
Crosses y-axis x = 0
y = -2
It crosses the y-axis at (0, -2)
Turning Points
dy
dx
- 12
(3x - 2)2
0 anywhere.
There are no turning points.
d2 y
dx2
72
(3x - 2)3
0 anywhere.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 241
3x - 4
Q47: y = x+3
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y = 0
3x - 4 = 0
x = 4 /3
It crosses the x-axis at ( 4 /3 , 0)
Crosses y-axis x = 0
y = -4 /3
It crosses the y-axis at (0, -4 /3 )
Turning Points
dy
= 13
but 0 anywhere.
dx (x + 3)2
There are no turning points.
d2 y
=
- 26
0 anywhere.
dx 2
x + 33
There are no points of inflection.
As x y 3 /1 = 3
Divide top and bottom by x to see this.
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 3
discontinuity y is undefined if x + 3 = 0
x = -3
- y undefined There is a vertical asymptote at x = - 3
As x -3+ , y -
As x -3- , y +
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
242 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
x-4
Q48: y = x2 - 4
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y=0
x=4
The graph crosses the x-axis at (4, 0)
Crosses y-axis x=0
y=1
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 1)
Turning Points
dy
= - x2 + 8x - 4
= 0
-x2 + 8x - 4 = 0
dx (x2 - 4)2
Using the quadratic formula gives x = 7.5 or 0.5
d2 y ( - 2x + 8)(x2 - 4)2 - 2(2x)(x2 - 4)( - x2 + 8x - 4)
dx2
=
(x2 - 4)4
d2 y
At x = 0.5, dx2
+ ve value.
This point (0.5, 0.93) is a minimum.
At x = 7.5, d2 y
dx2
ve value.
This point ( 7.5, 0.067) is a maximum.
As x As x , y 0
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0
Discontinuity y is undefined if x2 - 4 =0
x = -2 and x = 2
-y undefined There are vertical asymptotes at x = 2 and x = -2
As x 2+ , y -
As x 2- , y +
As x -2+ , y +
As x -2- , y -
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 243
2
Q49: y = 2x - 4x - 1
x2 + 3x + 2
Symmetry This function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y = 0
2x2 - 4x - 1 = 0
Using the quadratic formula x = 2.2 or -0.22
The graph crosses the x-axis at x = 2.2 or -0.22
Crosses y-axis x = 0
y = -1 /2
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, -1 /2 )
dy (4x - 4)(x2 + 3x + 2) - (2x + 3)(2x2 - 4x - 1)
Turning Points =
dx (x2 + 3x + 2)2
dy
dx = 0
2x2 + 2x - 1 = 0
x = 0.37 or x = -1.37
d2 y (4x + 2)(x2 + 3x + 2) - (2x + 3)(2x2 + 2x - 1)
dx2
=
(x2 + 3x + 2)2
d2 y
At x = -1.37, dx2
= -ve value.
This point ( -1.37, -35.3) is a maximum.
d2 y
At x = 0.37, = +ve value.
dx2
This point (0.37, -0.68) is a minimum.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
244 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
As x x , y 2. (divide through by x2 )
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 2
discontinuity y is undefined when x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0
-y undefined
x = -2 or x = -1
There are vertical asymptotes at x = -2 and x = -1
As x -1+ , y +
As x -1- , y -
As x -2+ , y -
As x -2- , y +
x2 + 2x - 3
Q50: y = x+2
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y = 0
x2 + 2x - 3 = 0
x = -3 or x = 1
The graph crosses the x-axis at x = -3 and x = 1
Crosses y-axis x = 0
y = -3 /2
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, -3 /2 )
dy (2x + 2)(x + 2) - (x2 + 2x - 3)
Turning Points = =0
dx (x + 2)2
x2 + 4x + 7 = 0
This has no real roots and so there are no turning points.
As x As x , y x
There is a slant asymptote at y = x
discontinuity y is undefined if x + 2 = 0
x = -2
-y undefined There is a vertical asymptote at x = -2
As x -2 - , y +
As x -2 + , y -
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 245
Q51:
3x2 - 4
y= x+1
So a = 3, c = - 4, e = 1, f = 1 (Type 5)
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y = 0
3x2 - 4 = 0
x = 23 or - 2
3
The graph crosses the x-axis twice.
Crosses y-axis x = 0
y = -4
The graph crosses y at the point (0, -4)
dy 6x (x + 1) - (3x2 - 4)
Turning Points = =0
dx (x + 1)2
3x2 + 6x + 4 = 0
But this has no real roots and so there are no turning points.
Slant asymptote There is a slant asymptote at y = 3x - 3
(Divide the numerator by the denominator)
Vertical asymptote There is a vertical asymptote at x = -1
As x -1- , y +
As x - 1+ , y -
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
246 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q52:
4x - 5
y= x2 - 1
b = 4, c = -5, d = 1, f = -1 (Type 3)
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y = 0
x = 5 /4
The graph crosses the x-axis at (5 /4 , 0)
x=0
y=5
Crosses y-axis
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 5)
dy 4 (x2 - 1) - 2x (4x - 5)
= =0
dx (x2 - 1)2
(2x - 1)(x - 2) = 0
x = 2 or x = 1/2
There are turning points at x = 2 and at x = 1 /2
d2 y ( - 8x + 10)(x2 - 1)2 - [4x (x2 - 1)]( - 4x2 + 10x - 4)
Turning Points dx2
=
(x2 - 1)4
d2 y
At x = 2, dx2
= (- +) = -ve value.
The point is a maximum at (2, 1)
d2 y
At x = 1 /2 , dx2
= (+ +) = +ve value.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 247
Q53:
x2 - 2x
y= x2 - 1
a = 1, b = -2, d = 1, f = -1 (Type 4)
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y = 0
x = 0 or x = 2
The graph crosses the x-axis at (0, 0) and (2, 0)
Crosses y-axis x=0
y=0
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 0)
dy (2x - 2)(x2 - 1) - 2x (x2 - 2x)
Turning Points = =0
dx (x2 - 1)2
x2 - x + 1 = 0
This quadratic has no real roots and so there are no turning points.
Horizontal
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 1
asymptote
Vertical asymptote There are vertical asymptotes at x = 1 and x = -1
As x -1+ , y -
As x -1- , y +
As x 1- , y +
As x 1+ , y -
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
248 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q54:
2x2 - 5x
y= x2 - 1
a = 2, b = -5, d = 1, f = -1 (Type 4)
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even .
Crosses x-axis y = 0
x = 0 or x = 5 /2
Crosses y-axis x=0
y=0
dy (4x - 5)(x2 - 1) - 2x (2x2 - 5x)
Turning Points = =0
dx (x2 - 1)2
5x2 - 4x + 5 = 0
This function has no real roots and so there are no turning points.
Horizontal
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 2
asymptote
Vertical asymptote x = 1 and x = -1 are vertical asymptotes.
As x 1- , y +
As x 1+ , y -
As x -1+ , y -
As x -1- , y +
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 249
Q55:
2x2
y= x-2
a = 2, e = 1, f = -2 (Type 5)
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even .
Crosses x-axis y=0
x=0
Crosses y-axis x=0
y=0
dy 4x (x - 2) - 2x2
Turning Points = =0
dx (x - 2)2
2x2 - 8x = 0
x = 0 or x = 4
When x = 0, d2 y
= -ve value.
dx2
Maximum turning point at (0, 0)
d2 y
When x = 4, dx2
= +ve value.
Minimum turning point at (4, 16)
Horizontal
There is none for a type 5 rational function.
asymptote
There is a vertical asymptote at x = 2
Vertical asymptote As x 2+ , y +
As x 2- , y -
Slant asymptote There is a slant asymptote at y = 2x + 4
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
250 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q56:
x2 - 3x + 3
y= x-1
a = 1, b = -3, c = 3, e = 1, f = -1 (Type 5)
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y = 0
x2 - 3x + 3 = 0 which has no real solutions.
The graph does not cross the x-axis.
Crosses y-axis x = 0
y = -3
dy (2x - 3)(x - 1) - (x2 - 3x + 3)
Turning Points = =0
dx (x - 1)2
x2 - 2x = 0
x = 0 or x = 2
When x = 0, d2 y
= - ve value.
dx2
Maximum turning point at (0, -3)
d2 y
When x = 2, dx2
= + ve value.
Minimum turning point at (2, 1)
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 251
Horizontal
It is a type 5 rational function.
asymptote
There is no horizontal asymptote.
Vertical asymptote There is a vertical asymptote at x = 1
As x 1+ , y +
As x 1- , y -
Slant asymptote There is a slant asymptote at y = x - 2
Q62: The second graph moves down the y-axis by 3 units (in this case by 3 radians).
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
252 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q63:
Q64: The first graph is scaled vertically by a factor of 3 to give the second graph.
(It stretches by a factor of 3)
Q65: The graph of sin x is scaled vertically by a factor of 1 /4 to give the second graph.
( It shrinks to one quarter of its size)
Q69: The graph of y = 3 (x - 2) sits two units along the x-axis to the right of the graph of
y = 3x
Q70: The graph of y = cos (x + 30) Æ sits 30Æ to the left of the graph of y = cos xÆ
Q71: The graph will lie 1 /2 a unit along the x-axis to the right of the graph of y = (2x) 2
y = (2x - 1)2 = (2(x - 1 /2 ))2 so k = -1 /2
Q72: The graph of y = 3 (x - 2) sits two units along the x-axis to the right of the graph of
y = 3x
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 253
Q73: The graph of y = cos (2x - 45) Æ sits 22.5Æ to the right of the graph of y = cos 2x
y = cos (2x - 45) = cos 2(x - 22.5) so k = -22.5
Q74: The graph of y = x 2 + 4x + 7 sits two units to the left of the graph of y = x2 + 3
since x2 + 4x + 7 = (x + 2)2 + 3
x by 2 units.
Q75: The graph of y = x + 2 moves to the left of the graph of
Q76: The graph of y = cos (x + 30) Æ sits 30Æ to the left of the graph of y = cos xÆ
Q77: The graph will lie 1 /2 a unit along the x-axis to the right of the graph of y = (2x) 2
(y = (2x - 1)2 = (2(x - 1 /2 ))2 so k = -1 /2 )
x by 2 units.
Q78: The graph of y = x + 2 moves to the left of the graph of
Q79: The graph of y = sin x is scaled horizontally by a factor of 3 to give the graph of
y = sin 1 /3 x
It stretches horizontally.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
254 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q81: The graph of y = cos xÆ is scaled horizontally by a factor of 4 /3 to give the graph of
y = cos 3 /4 xÆ
x has been scaled horizontally by a factor of 1/
Q82: The graph of y = 3 to give the
graph of y = 3x
x has been scaled horizontally by a factor of 1/
Q83: The graph of y = 3 to give the
graph of y = 3x
Q84:
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 255
Q85:
Q86:
f (s) = 2s - 4
f (t) = 2t - 4
Let f (s) = f (t)
Then 2s - 4 = 2t - 4
So s =t
The function is one-to-one.
Q87:
g (s) = 2s5
g (t) = 2t5
Let g (s) = g (t)
Then 2s5 = 2t5
So s =t
The function is one-to-one.
Q88:
h (s) 1
= s+2
h (t) 1
= t+2
Let h (s) = h (t)
1
Then s+2 = t +1 2
So s =t
The function is one-to-one.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
256 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
Q89: Let t
Let s = t /3
f (s) = f (t /3 )
=3 t/
3
=t
The function is onto.
Q90: Let t +
Let s
t
g (s) g t
t
=t
The function is onto.
Q91: Let t {z : z 1, 3}
1
Let s =
h (s)
t-1
1
h t-1
1 t-1
=1+ 1 =1+ 1
t-1
=t
The function is onto.
Q92: Take s = -1 and t = 1 then f (s) = 1 /2 and f (t) = 1 /2 . But s t and so the function is
not one-to-one.
Q94:
a) x = -2
b) y = x - 3
x2 - x - 2
c) y = x+2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 257
Q95:
a) x = 3
b) y = -4x+1
- 4x2 + 13x - 28
c) x-3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
258 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
x - 3 = 5/2
x = 11/2 or x = 1/2
d2 y
When x = 11 /2 , dx2
= - ve value.
Maximum turning point at (11/2 , -31)
d2 y
When x = 1 /2 , dx2
= + ve value.
Minimum turning point at (1/2, 9)
Horizontal There is no horizontal asymptote for type 5 rational function
asymptote graphs.
There is a vertical asymptote at x = 3
As x 3+ , y -
Vertical
asymptote
As x 3- , y +
Slant asymptote There is a slant asymptote at y = -4x + 1
x-5
Q96: y = x2 - 16
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y=0
x=5
It crosses the x-axis at (5, 0)
Crosses y-axis x = 0
y = 5 /16
It crosses the y-axis at (0, 5 /16 )
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 259
dy (x2 - 16) - 2x (x - 5)
Turning Points = =0
dx (x2 - 16)2
(x - 8)(-x + 2) = 0
x = 8 or x = 2
There are turning points at x = 2 and at x = 8
d2 y
At x = 2, dx2
= (+ +) = +ve value.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
260 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
2x2 - 2x - 2
Q97: y = x-2
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y = 0
2x2 - 2x - 2 = 0
This has no real roots.
The graph does not cross the x-axis.
Crosses y-axis x=0
y=1
dy 2
Turning Points dx =2- x - 2
=0
x - 2 = 1
x = 3 or x = 1
d2 y
When x = 1, dx2
= - ve value.
Maximum turning point at (1, 2)
d2 y
When x = 3, dx2
= + ve value.
Minimum turning point at (3, 10)
Horizontal
There is no horizontal asymptote for type 5 rational function graphs.
asymptote
Vertical asymptote There is a vertical asymptote at x = 2
As x 2+ , y +
As x 2- , y -
Slant asymptote There is a slant asymptote at y = 2x + 2
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 4 261
x2 + 6x + 9
Q98: y = x+2
Symmetry The function is neither odd nor even.
Crosses x-axis y = 0
x2 + 6x + 9 = 0
x = -3
The graph crosses the x-axis at (-3, 0)
Crosses y-axis x = 0
y = 9 /2
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 9 /2 )
dy 1
Turning Points dx =1- x + 2 =0
x + 2 =1
x = -3 or x = -1
d2 y
When x = -1, dx2
= + ve value.
Minimum turning point at (-1, 4)
d2 y
When x = - 3, dx2
= - ve value.
Maximum turning point at (-3, 0))
Horizontal
There is no horizontal asymptote for type 5.
asymptote
Vertical asymptote There is a vertical asymptote at x = -2
As x
-2- , y
-
As x
-2+ , y
+
Slant asymptote There is a slant asymptote at y = x + 4
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
262 ANSWERS: TOPIC 4
a) x = 0
y = -37 /16
The value of a is -37 /16
b) There is a vertical asymptote at x = 4
27
c) Long division gives f (x) = 2x - 4 + . The slant asymptote is y = 2x - 4
(x - 4)2
d) First of all
dy 54
=2-
dx (x - 4)3
At a turning point, the derivative is zero
2 (x - 4)3 = 54
(x - 4) = 3
x = 7
The turning point is at (7, 13)
d2 y
At x = 7, dx2
is positive. Therefore the turning point is a minimum.
e) f (0) = -37 /16 = -ve value
f (1) = 1 = +ve value. There is a change of signs and so f (x) has a solution in the
interval 0 x 1
f) The graph is
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 5 263
Q1: x = 3 and y = 1
Q2: a = 4 and b = -2
Q3: s = -1 and t = 2
Q5:
1. 8
2. 9
3. 12
4. 10
Q6:
1. 13
2. 6
3. -7
4. 0
Q7:
1. i = 3 and j = 1
2. i = 4 and j = 2
3. i = 2 and j = 4
Q8:
1. i = 1 and j =3
2. i = 4 and j = 1
3. i = 3 and j = 4
#2 1 3 7 &
1 4 2 8
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
264 ANSWERS: TOPIC 5
!3 0 1
$
Q10: The coefficient matrix is #2 -1 1 & and the augmented matrix is
!3 0 1 11
$ 1 4 0
#2 -1 1 6 &
1 4 0 14
Q11:
! -1 -1 1
$ r1
# 0 -1 3 & r2
2 1 3 r3
r1
! -1 -1 1
$ r1
r2 # 0 -1 3 & r2
r3 + 2r1 0 -1 5 r3
r1
! -1 -1 1
$ r1
r2 # 0 -1 3 & r2
r3 - r2 0 0 2 r3
Q12:
!3 3 2
$ r1 r1 r2
!1 1 -1
$ r1
#1 1 -1 & r2 r1 #3 3 2 & r2
2 2 2 r3 r3 2 2 2 r3
r1
!1 1 -1
$ r1
r2 - 3r1 #0 0 5 & r2
r3 2 2 2 r3
r1
!1 1 -1
$ r1
r2 #0 0 5 & r2
r3 - 2r1 0 0 4 r3
Q13: The answer is not unique. This is only one possible solution with the steps which
achieve it.
4 25
r1
r1
4r2 - r1 0 -5 r2
Q14: The answer is not unique. This is only one possible solution with the steps which
! 1 - 2 4 $ r1
achieve it.
r1 r1
! 1 - 2 4 $ r1
r2 + r1 # 0 1 8 & r2 r2 # 0 1 8 & r2
r3 0 6 46 r3 r3 - 6r2 0 0 -2 r3
Q15: The answer is not unique. This is only one possible solution with the steps which
achieve it.
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
ANSWERS: TOPIC 5 265
r1
!1 3 -5
$ r1
r2 - 11r1 #0 2 5 & r2
r3 2 7 9 r3
r1
!1 3 -5
$ r1
r2 #0 2 5 & r2
r3 - 2r1 0 1 19 r3
r1
!1 3 -5
$ r1
r2 #0 2 5 & r2
2r3 - r2 0 0 33 r3
Q16: The answer is not unique. This is only one possible solution with the steps which
achieve it.
r1 r2
! 3 4 5 $ r1
# 0 1 2 & r2
r3 6 7 9 r3
r1
! 3 4 5 $ r1
r2 # 0 1 2 & r2
r3 - 2r1 0 -1 -1 r3
r1
! 3 4 5
$ r1
r2 # 0 1 2 & r2
r3 + r2 0 0 1 r3
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY
266 ANSWERS: TOPIC 5
Q24: x = 9, y = 0 and z = -2
Q25: x = 3, y = -4 and z = 2
Q26: x = 4, y = 2 and z = -3
Q27: x = 1, y = 2 and z = -1
© H ERIOT-WATT U NIVERSITY