Nuclear Reactors
Nuclear Reactors
Nuclear Reactors
Generation to Generation
Cover image: A photo taken on October 31, 2010, that shows the construction site of the
Fuqing nuclear power station project in Fuqing, southeast China’s Fujian Province.
Image © Jiang Kehong/Xinhua Press/Corbis
ISBN#: 0-87724-090-6
Stephen M. Goldberg, one of the authors, performed this activity as a work-for-others agree-
ment, Agreement Number: 876N7, between Argonne National Laboratory (operating under
prime contract number: DE-AC02-06CH11357) and the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences. The views and opinions of the document author expressed herein do not necessarily
state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof, Argonne
National Laboratory, or UChicago.
The statements made and views expressed in this publication are solely the responsibility
of the authors and are not necessarily those of the Officers and Fellows of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Contents
vi Preface
vii Acknowledgments
1 Nuclear Reactors: Generation to Generation
23 List of Acronyms
25 Contributors
Preface
Leslie Berlowitz
President and William T. Golden Chair
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
March 2011
vi N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Steve Miller and Scott Sagan for their leadership, wise
counsel, and contributions to our work on this project. Also, we would like
to acknowledge Leslie Berlowitz for her foresight and contributions to the
development of this paper. Finally, we want to thank Kim Durniak, the edito-
rial staff at the Academy, and Goldberg’s Administrative Assistant for the dili-
gence and efforts that they all provided on this project.
Stephen M. Goldberg
Argonne National Laboratory
Robert Rosner
University of Chicago
Nuclear reactor designs are usually categorized by “generation”; that is, Gen-
eration I, II, III, III+, and IV. The key attributes characterizing the develop-
ment and deployment of nuclear power reactors illuminate the essential dif-
ferences between the various generations of reactors. The present analysis of
existing reactor concepts focuses on six key reactor attributes:
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 1
and is one of the more controversial elements in the discussion of
competing energy technologies. Fossil-fired power, without carbon
controls, sets the market price today and will likely continue to do so
over the next decade. What policies or initiatives might make nuclear
power more competitive with current fossil fuel prices? How can the
prospects for nuclear power plant financing be improved?
1. Some of the externalities include: (1) remote areas requiring localized power centers to
avoid long and expensive transmission lines; (2) geography and demography constraints
that are best suited to low- and mid-size urban and power needing areas fairly scattered,
rather than concentrated in a few “mega centers” and; (3) financial capabilities that pre-
clude raising the several billions dollars capital investment required by larger plants.
2 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
in the marketplace or are close to commercial demonstration are like-
ly to be considered. Will modular construction practices streamline
the commercialization of nuclear reactors and reduce the overnight
cost burden?
6. The fuel cycle. The details of a given reactor’s fuel cycle are critical
elements in determining risk levels for nuclear safety, security, and
surety. With both the front and back ends of the fuel cycle, intrin-
sic properties of reactor design couple intimately with externalities
such as the possible internationalization of the front and back end
processes.
Generation I
Gen I refers to the prototype and power reactors that launched civil nu-
clear power. This generation consists of early prototype reactors from the
1950s and 1960s, such as Shippingport (1957–1982) in Pennsylvania,
Dresden-1 (1960–1978) in Illinois, and Calder Hall-1 (1956–2003) in the
United Kingdom. This kind of reactor typically ran at power levels that were
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 3
Figure 1. The Evolution of Nuclear Power
Generation I
Generation II
Early Prototype
Generation III Near-Term
Reactors Commercial Power Deployment
Reactors Advanced Generation IV
LWRs
Generation III+
Evolutionary
• Highly
Designs Offering
Economical
Improved
• Enhanced Safety
Economics
• Minimal Waste
• Shippingport • Proliferation
• Dresden, Fermi I Resistant
• Magnox • ABWR
• LWR-PWR, BWR • System 80+
• CANDU • AP600
• VVER/RBMK • EPR
Reprinted from U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy, “Generation IV Nu-
clear Energy Systems: Program Overview” (Department of Energy, n.d.), http://nuclear.en-
ergy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html.
Generation II
2. The frequency of core damage to Gen II reactors is reported to be as high as one core
damage event for every 100,000 years of operation (10 −5 core damage events per reactor
year for the BWR(4)). In light of the ongoing events at the nuclear power plants in Fuku-
shima, Yamato Province, Japan, the authors strongly suggest that the core damage fre-
quencies be reanalyzed.
4 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
and, in many cases, can be initiated by the operators of the nuclear reactors.
Some engineered systems still operate passively (for example, using pressure
relief valves) and function without operator control or loss of auxiliary power.
Most of the Gen II plants still in operation in the West were manufactured by
one of three companies: Westinghouse,3 Framatome4 (now part of AREVA5),
and General Electric (GE).
The Korean Standard Nuclear Power Plant (KSNP), which is based on
Gen II technology developed by Combustion Engineering (now Westing-
house) and Framatome (now AREVA), is now recognized as a Gen II design
and has evolved to become the KSNP+. In 2005 the KSNP/KSNP+ was re-
branded as the OPR-1000 (Optimized Power Reactor) for Asian markets,
particularly Indonesia and Vietnam. Six OPR-1000 units are in operation,
and four are under construction. China’s existing and planned civilian power
fleet is based on the PWR. Two important designs used in China are the im-
proved Chinese PWR 1000 (the CPR-1000), which is based on Framatome’s
900 megawatt (MW) three-loop Gen II design, and the standard PWR 600
MW and 1,000 MW designs (the CNP series).
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 5
These designs require relatively large electrical grids, have a defined safety en-
velope based on Western safety standards, and produce significant quantities
of used fuel that require ultimate disposition in a high-level waste repository
or reprocessing as part of a partially or fully closed fuel cycle. The economics
of existing Gen II plants and of those under construction or in the planning
stage are generally favorable, particularly in Asia (Table 1 shows a schedule of
plants under construction as of November 2010).6
The extraordinary events unfolding at the Fukushima Daiichi and Daini
nuclear power plants are being assessed by the technical and regulatory ex-
perts both in the United States and across the world. At press time, a full as-
sessment is not possible. We have learned that an increased safety focus will
likely be required and, at a minimum, will focus on four safety systems: 1)
Mark I BWR containment structures; 2) common-mode emergency core
cooling capability resulting from loss of emergency backup power; 3) the per-
formance of mixed-oxide fuel in Gen II reactor designs; and 4) critical safety
analyses of the various extant used fuel cooling pool designs.
Generation III
Gen III nuclear reactors are essentially Gen II reactors with evolutionary,
state-of-the-art design improvements.7 These improvements are in the areas
of fuel technology, thermal efficiency, modularized construction, safety sys-
tems (especially the use of passive rather than active systems), and standard-
ized design.8 Improvements in Gen III reactor technology have aimed at a
longer operational life, typically 60 years of operation, potentially to greatly
exceed 60 years, prior to complete overhaul and reactor pressure vessel re-
placement. Confirmatory research to investigate nuclear plant aging beyond
60 years is needed to allow these reactors to operate over such extended life-
times. Unlike Gen I and Gen II reactors, Gen III reactors are regulated by
NRC regulations based on 10 CFR Part 52.9
6. I n the United States, early movers will need government assistance, particularly loan
guarantees.
7. Core damage frequencies for Gen III and Gen III+ reactors are reported to be lower than
those of Gen II reactors, in the range of one core damage event for every 15–20 million
years of operation (6 × 10 −7 core damage events per reactor year) for the EPR and one
core damage event for every 300–350 million years of operation (3 × 10 −8 core damage
events per reactor year) for the ESBWR. In light of the ongoing events at the nuclear
power plants in Fukushima, Yamoto Province, Japan, the authors strongly suggest that
these core damage frequencies be reanalyzed.
8. These standardized designs are intended to reduce maintenance and capital costs. The
capital cost requirements are highly dependent on country and international material, la-
bor, and other considerations.
9. Following passage of the Energy Policy Act of 1992, the NRC adopted an additional li-
censing pathway option: the combined construction and operating license (COL). Except
for the licensing of Brown’s Ferry I and, potentially, a small modular reactor construction
application at the TVA Clinch River site, all recent licensing applicants have chosen this
pathway, which is seen as a streamlined approach (see Table 2).
6 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
The Westinghouse 600 MW advanced PWR (AP-600) was one of the
first Gen III reactor designs. On a parallel track, GE Nuclear Energy designed
the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR) and obtained a design certifi-
cation from the NRC. The first of these units went online in Japan in 1996.
Other Gen III reactor designs include the Enhanced CANDU 6, which was
developed by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL); and System 80+, a
Combustion Engineering design.10
Only four Gen III reactors, all ABWRs, are in operation today. No Gen
III plants are in service in the United States.
Hitachi carefully honed its construction processes during the building
of the Japanese ABWRs. For example, the company broke ground on Kashi-
wazaki-Kariwa Unit 7 on July 1, 1993. The unit went critical on November
1, 1996, and began commercial operation on July 2, 1997—four years and a
day after the first shovel of dirt was turned. If the U.S. nuclear power industry
can learn from Hitachi’s construction techniques, many billions of dollars
and years of time might be saved.11 The Shaw Group and Westinghouse have
adopted modular construction practices in launching a joint venture for a Lake
Charles, Louisiana, facility that will manufacture modules for the AP-1000.
Generation III+
Gen III+ reactor designs are an evolutionary development of Gen III reac-
tors, offering significant improvements in safety over Gen III reactor designs
certified by the NRC in the 1990s. In the United States, Gen III+ designs
must be certified by the NRC pursuant to 10 CFR Part 52.
10. A BB Group’s nuclear power business, formerly Combustion Engineering (CE), was pur-
chased by BNFL and merged into Westinghouse Electric Company.
11. I nstitutional and regulatory differences between the Japanese and U.S. systems may miti-
gate some of these savings.
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 7
• Advanced PWR (APWR): designed by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
(MHI)12
• ATMEA I: a 1,000–1,160 MW PWR, the result of a collaboration be-
tween MHI and AREVA.13
12. The US-APWR is designed to be 1,700 MW because of longer (4.3m) fuel assemblies,
higher thermal efficiency (39 percent), and a 24-month refueling cycle. In March 2008,
MHI submitted the same design for EUR certification and partnered with Iberdrola En-
gineering and Construction to build these plants in the EU.
13. ATMEA I is one of the three technologies Jordan is considering for its next power plant.
14. Because no COL has been issued to date, this is an opinion of the authors and might not
be shared by nuclear manufacturers of active nuclear safety systems. COL, as defined by
the Code of Federal Regulations, means a combined construction permit and operating
license with conditions for a nuclear power facility.
15. Net Capacity (MWe) is electricity generated and sold.
8 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
Existing Operating
Site under Existing Plant Plant
Company Design Construction Unit(s) Design Design15 State Status
Duke AP-1000 William Greenfield16 NA SC
Energy States Lee
Corp. III Nuclear
Station
(2 units)
Entergy ESBWR River Bend 1 Operating BWR GE, Type 6, LA On Jan. 9, 2009, Entergy
Corp. (1 unit) 936 MWe requested the NRC to
suspend the review of
its combined operating
license because the com-
pany is considering alter-
nate reactor technologies.
Florida AP-1000 Turkey Point 2 Operating PWR Westing- FL New units delayed
Power & (2 units) house, from 2018–2020 to
Light Co. 3 loop, 693 2023. Uprating exist-
MWe each ing nuclear units
Luminant US- Comanche 2 Operating PWR Westing- TX PWR technology.
Power APWR Peak house, Vendor changed from
(2 units) 4 loop, Westinghouse to MHI.
1,150 MWe
each
NRG ABWR South Texas 2 Operating PWR Westing- TX Existing site has a
Energy Project (STP) house, PWR. The new unit
Inc. (2 units) 4 loop, is an ABWR.
1,168 MWe
each
NuStart AP-1000 Bellefonte Greenfield NA AL TVA staff has said that
Energy 17 (2 units) completing the 1,260
(Tennes- MW Bellefonte Unit 1
see Valley is preferable to building
Authority an AP-1000 unit. When
[TVA]) stopped in 1988, Unit 1
was 88% complete, and
Unit 2 was 58% complete.
Over the years, equip-
ment from these sites
has been used elsewhere;
therefore the percent-
age complete needs to
be revised downward.
NuStart ESBWR Grand Gulf 1 Operating BWR GE, Type 6, MS On Jan. 9, 2009, NRC
Energy (1 unit) 1,204 MWe was requested to suspend
the review of its com-
bined operating license
because the company
is considering alternate
reactor technologies.
PP&L US-EPR Bell Bend18 2 Operating BWR GE, Type 4, PA The original units are
Genera- (1 unit) 1,100 MWe BWRs. The EPR is a
tion and 1,103 PWR. Vendor changed
MWe to AREVA from GE.
Although the ap-
plication is open, the
company will decide in
2011–2012 whether it
plans to pursue construc-
tion of a new plant.
16. Undeveloped (virgin) site earmarked for potential new nuclear reactor.
17. NuStart Energy is a limited liability corporation comprised of ten power companies, cre-
ated in 2004 for the dual purposes of: 1) obtaining a Construction and Operating Li-
cense (COL) from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), using the never before
used, streamlined licensing process developed in 1992 and 2) completing the design en-
gineering for the selected reactor technologies.
18. New site adjacent to PPL’s Susquehanna Steam Electric Station, Luzerne County, PA.
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 9
Existing Operating
Site under Existing Plant Plant
Company Design Construction Unit(s) Design Design15 State Status
Progress AP-1000 Levy County Greenfield NA FL In May 2010, Progress
Energy (2 units) announced plans to slow
Inc. work at Levy to reduce
capital spending and
avoid short-term rate
increases and because of
a delay in the licensing
timeline for its combined
operating license, as well
as the current economic
climate and uncertainty
about U.S. energy policy.
Progress AP-1000 Shearon 1 Operating PWR Westing- NC
Energy Harris house
Inc. (2 units) 3 loop,
860 MWe
South AP-1000 Virgil C 1 Operating PWR Westing- SC
Carolina Summer house,
Electric & (2 units) 3 loop,
Gas Co. 885 MWe
Southern AP-1000 Vogtle 2 Operating PWR Westing- GA An $8.3 billion condi-
Nuclear (2 units) house, tional loan guarantee was
Operat- 4 loop, received Feb. 16, 2010.
ing Co. 1,150 MWe
each
Tennes- mPower Clinch River Greenfield TN TVA has announced
see Valley its intention to submit
Authority a Construction Permit
Application in 2012.
As many as 6 mPower
units are planned.
Unistar US-EPR Calvert Cliffs 2 Operating PWR Combustion MD Vendor change to AREVA
(1 unit) Engineer- (Combustion Engineer-
ing, ing was acquired by
825 MWe Westinghouse in 2000).
each
Unistar US-EPR Nile Mile 2 Operating BWR GE, Type NY On Dec. 7, 2009,
Point 2: 610MWe Unistar requested the
(1 unit) and Type NRC to temporarily
5:1143 suspend Nile Mile Point’s
MWe combined operating
license application.
Unannounced technology (not submitted)
Alternate Unde- Payette Greenfield NA ID
Energy cided (1 unit)
Holdings
Blue Unde- Blue Castle Greenfield UT
Castle cided
Project
Exelon ABWR Victoria Greenfield NA TX Exelon originally
Corp. County selected the ESBWR
(2 units) design and then switched
to ABWR. In July 2009,
the company changed
its combined operating
license to an early site
permit application that
was submitted to the
NRC on March 25, 2010.
10 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
Existing Operating
Site under Existing Plant Plant
Company Design Construction Unit(s) Design Design15 State Status
PSEG Inc. Unde- Salem 3 operating BWR & Westing- NJ On May 25, 2010, PSEG
cided County PWR house PWR filed an early site permit
(Salem): with the NRC. Location
1,106 MWe will be contiguous to the
each Salem and Hope Creek
BWR (Hope units in Salem County.
Creek):
1,031 MWe
Based upon Aneesh Prabhu, “The Expansion of Nuclear Power Plants in the U.S.: What Could
Get in the Way?” in S&P’s Special Reports: Can the U.S. Nuclear Power Industry Hold Its
Spot as the World Leader? (New York: Standard & Poor’s, 2010). Modified and updated with
information found at http://world-nuclear.org/NuclearDatabase/Default.aspx?id=27232
(accessed on February 11, 2011).
Gen III and III+ designs have a defined safety envelope based on Western
safety standards and set the worldwide standards for safeguards and secu-
rity. However, they have also produced a legacy of significant quantities of
used fuel, require relatively large electric grids, and present public-acceptance
challenges.
NEXT STEPS
After enduring the usual reliability growing pains, Gen I and Gen II nuclear
reactors have proven to be economically successful. According to the Nuclear
Energy Institute, U.S. nuclear power plants in 2006 supplied the second-
highest amount of electricity in the industry’s history while achieving a
record-low average production cost of 1.66 cents/kWh. Because the capital
costs of many Gen I and Gen II reactors have been paid off, average produc-
tion costs have been below 2 cents/kWh for the past seven years. Capacity
factors have remained higher than 90 percent. Self-financing (essentially paid
off the balance sheet) is a key factor, leading to not having to pay any capital
charges and resulting in very low costs to operate these plants. Power up-
grades and improvements in operational efficiency over the past decade have
yielded the equivalent of multiple new nuclear plants. Whether this perfor-
mance platform can be extrapolated to the Gen III and III+ designs is
uncertain19 because of the significant overnight cost20 investment for the
GEN III/III+ plants.
19. The ratings agencies have continually downgraded new nuclear investments, until there is
an operating history for these new plants.
20. The overnight cost of a large capital project is the cost of the project (i.e., all capital
costs, including owner’s costs) without financing costs, as if the project could be com-
pleted overnight.
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 11
The Move to Small Modular Reactors
As President Barack Obama pushes to revive the domestic nuclear power in-
dustry amid mounting concerns about fossil-fired electricity generation, a new
type of small reactor is about to enter the market. Several firms are working
on Gen III and Gen III+ designs that are smaller in scale than the current de-
signs and in several cases also make use of modular construction techniques.
This small modular reactor (SMR) architecture is based on significant learn-
ing-by-doing efficiencies. The vendors are planning to apply for NRC de-
sign certification pursuant to either 10 CFR Part 50 or 10 CFR Part 52. It is
our understanding that because of new policy issues (e.g., revised emergency
planning zone and accident scenarios) updated or new regulatory criteria and
guides may be necessary. One example of SMR architecture is the mPower
125 MW module (Figure 2), an integral, advanced LWR of modular design,
in current development through an alliance of Babcock and Wilcox Nuclear
Energy Inc. (B&W NE) and Bechtel Power Corporation. The reactor is sig-
nificantly smaller than most operating PWRs but is scalable and incorporates
already existing LWR technology, a fully passive safety design, industry-stan-
dard PWR fuel, 60-year used fuel storage, and a four-to-five-year refueling cy-
cle. The small B&W NE reactor is 75 feet tall and 15 feet wide. Unlike steam
generators in traditional nuclear facilities, its steam generator (the cylindrical
structure seen along the center axis of the reactor vessel in Figure 2) is inte-
grated within the reactor vessel.
Other notable examples include a 45 MW integral, scalable, modular
LWR currently in development by NuScale Power; and the International Re-
actor Innovative and Secure (IRIS), a 300 MW scalable, modular LWR reac-
tor developed by an international consortium led by Westinghouse.21 The de-
sign for NuScale Power’s LWR calls for advanced passive safety features and
for the entire nuclear steam supply system to be prefabricated and sited below
ground.22
These new reactors—smaller than a rail car and one-tenth the cost of a
big plant—could be built quickly and installed at the dozens of existing nu-
clear sites, or they could replace existing coal-fired plants that do not meet
current federal air quality emission standards. “We see significant benefits
from the new, modular technology,” said Donald Moul, vice president of nu-
clear support for First Energy, an Ohio-based utility corporation.23
Smaller reactors (defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency
as those capable of generating less than 300 MW) are the logical choice for
smaller countries or countries with a limited electrical grid. Small reactors are
21. W
estinghouse plans to announce details of a new design evolved from the IRIS design.
22. At the time of release of this paper, NuScale Power abruptly halted its operations after
the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission began a civil action against the Michael
Kenwood Group, the main investor in the company.
23. “Small Reactors Generate Big Hopes,” http://online.wsj.com/article/SB100014240527
48703444804575071402124482176.html.
12 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
Figure 2. The Babcock and Wilcox mPower Reactor
now in different stages of development throughout the world. They are at-
tractive because of their simplicity and enhanced safety and because of the
relatively limited financial resources required to build them. But acclaim is not
universal. Detractors argue that SMR designs are not economical because of
economies of scale. Capital construction costs (price per one thousand watts
of electric capacity, or $/kWe) of a nuclear reactor decrease with size, but the
economy of scale applies only if reactors are of a very similar design, as has
historically been the case. The design characteristics of SMRs, however, are
significantly different from those of large reactors. SMRs approach the econo-
mies of scale problem by achieving significant cost savings elsewhere. For ex-
ample, SMR designs seek to streamline safety and safeguard requirements by
replacing (at least some) security guards with concrete security barriers and/
or by building underground, streamlining the requirements for operators, and
streamlining emergency planning zone requirements. Awareness and realiza-
tion of the economic potential of small, modular reactors have grown signifi-
cantly in the last few years. Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) is conduct-
ing a significant, detailed economic analysis that will address the economic
competitiveness of these reactors.
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 13
What these designs might not do, however, because of deep-seated
American Society of Mechanical Engineers In-service Inspection (ISI) and
Nondestructive Engineering Division (NDE) requirements, is to stretch out
the refueling schedule over decades. The new designs do stretch out refueling
schedules, from 18 months to possibly 3–5 years and potentially to as long as
10 years (subject to ISI testing and monitoring). But longer-term refueling
cycles (such as are commonly associated with so-called battery reactors) are
currently left to the future. The following is a list of SMRs being researched
and/or developed in the United States:
• Water-cooledreactors with small coated particle fuel without on-site
refueling: AFPR (PNNL)
• Sodium-cooled small reactor with extended fuel cycles: 4S (Westinghouse/
Toshiba); PRISM (GE); ARC (ARC)
• Lead-
or lead-bismuth-cooled small reactors with extended fuel cycles:
HPM (Hyperion); LFR/SSTAR and its variations such as STAR-
LM, STAR-H2, and SSTAR (ANL, LLNL and LANL); ENHS
(UC Berkeley)
thermal neutron spectrum reactor: MHR (GA); PBMR
• Gas-cooled
(Westinghouse); ANTARES (AREVA-U.S.)
• Gas-cooled
fast neutron spectrum reactor with extended fuel cycle:
EM2 (GA)
small reactor with pebble-bed fuel: PB-AHTR (UC Berkeley);
• Salt-cooled
SmAHTR (ORNL).
Nuclear scientists have left implementation of the Gen III+ and SMR designs
to the engineers, believing them to be within the current state-of-the-art, and
have instead focused on nuclear alternatives—commonly called Gen IV—that
still require considerable fundamental research.
Conceptually, Gen IV reactors have all of the features of Gen III+ units,
as well as the ability, when operating at high temperature, to support eco-
nomical hydrogen production, thermal energy off-taking, and perhaps even
water desalination. In addition, these designs include advanced actinide
management.24
24. A n actinide is an element with an atomic number from 89 (actinium) to 103 (lawrenci-
um). The term is usually applied to elements heavier than uranium. Actinides typically
have relatively long half-lives. Plutonium and the minor actinides (plutonium and urani-
um are the “major” actinides) will be largely responsible for the bulk of the radiotoxicity
and the heat load within a repository for the used fuel wastes from LWRs.
14 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
• Liquidmetal–cooled reactors and other reactors with more-advanced
cooling. One such design is the Power Reactor Innovative Small
Module (PRISM), a compact modular pool-type reactor developed
by GE-Hitachi with passive cooling for decay heat removal.
• Traveling wave reactors that convert fertile material into fissile fuel
as they operate, using the process of nuclear transmutation being de-
veloped by TerraPower. This type of reactor is also based on a liquid
metal primary cooling system. It is also being designed with passive
safety features for decay heat removal, and has as a major design goal
minimization of life cycle fuel costs by both substantially increasing
the burnup percentage and internally breeding depleted uranium.
• HyperionPower Module (25 MW module). According to Hyperion,
uranium nitride fuel would be beneficial to the physical characteristics
and neutronics of the standard ceramic uranium oxide fuel in LWRs.25
Gen IV reactors are two-to-four decades away, although some designs could
be available within a decade. As in the case of Gen III and Gen III+ designs in
the United States, Gen IV designs must be certified by the NRC pursuant to
10 CFR Part 52, based on updated regulations and regulatory guides.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Nuclear Energy has
taken responsibility for developing the science required for five Gen IV tech-
nologies (Table 3 summarizes their characteristics and operating parameters
and also provides information on two versions of the molten salt reactor,
which the United States is not currently researching). Funding levels for each
of the technology concepts reflects the DOE’s assessment of the concept’s
technological development stage and its potential to meet national energy
goals. The Next Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP) project is developing one
example of a Gen IV reactor system, the Very High Temperature Reactor,
which is configured to provide high-temperature heat (up to 950°C) for a va-
riety of co-products, including hydrogen production. The NRC is working
with DOE on a licensing approach. The earliest potential date for a COL ap-
plication is the middle of this decade.
In general, Gen IV systems include full actinide recycling and on-site
fuel-cycle facilities based on advanced aqueous, pyrometallurgical, or other
dry-processing options.26 Fast reactor research has been active in the United
25. Uranium nitride has beneficial traits such as higher thermal conductivity, which results in
less retained heat energy. These characteristics make it preferable to oxide fuels when
used at temperature regimes greater than the 250–300°C temperatures that characterize
LWRs. By operating at higher temperatures, steam plants can operate at a higher thermal
efficiency.
26. The exceptions are Gen IV designs that focus on intrinsically higher burnup and possible
breeding of fertile fuel (such as depleted uranium), and thus potentially no refueling of
the reactor core—with the consequence that no recycling or reprocessing would be con-
templated. The TerraPower Traveling Wave Reactor (TWR) concept is an example of
such a Gen IV design.
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 15
States and more active in China, France, India, and the countries of the for-
mer Soviet Union.27
One rationale for closing the fuel cycle with fast reactors is the potentially
limited supply of uranium. However, given the current significant economic
supplies of uranium, from both primary and secondary stores, the objective
of breeding civil plutonium cannot be currently based on commercial needs.
This leaves the depletion of the fertile and fissile content of used fuel, includ-
ing plutonium, the remaining fissile uranium, and the minor actinides, as the
remaining key rationale for closing the fuel cycle. Of course, in the final analy-
sis, the ultimate metric for success will be the economics of what is being pro-
posed, all within the constraints imposed by meeting all of the safety, security,
and nonproliferation concerns—concerns that are likely to be reinforced by
the recent events at Fukushima, Japan.
27. Small fast reactor facilities (BR-1, BR-2, and BR-5) were constructed in the 1950s and
1960s in the former Soviet Union, and operational results were used to refine the design
and construction of larger plants. The large power plant facilities currently developed in
this program are the BOR-60, BN-350, BN-600, and BN-800. Japan has built one dem-
onstration FBR, Monju, adding to the research base developed by its older research FBR,
the Joyo reactor. Monju is a sodium-cooled, MOX-fueled loop-type reactor with three
primary coolant loops, producing 280 MW. Monju began construction in 1985 and was
completed in 1991, achieving criticality on April 5, 1994; it was closed in December
1995 after a sodium leak and fire in a secondary cooling circuit. The reactor was restarted
in June 2010 (about two years after its expected restart date of 2008). France’s first fast
reactor, Rapsodie, first achieved criticality in 1967. Rapsodie was a loop-type reactor with
a thermal output of 40 MW and no electrical generation facilities; it closed in 1983.
France’s second fast reactor was the 233 MW Phénix, grid connected since 1973 and still
operating as both a power reactor and, more important, as the center of work on repro-
cessing nuclear waste by transmutation. Superphénix, 1,200 MWe, entered service in
1984 and as of 2006 remains the largest FBR built; it was shut down in 1997 because of
a political commitment the left-wing government of the time had made to competitive
market forces. At the time of the shutdown, the power plant had not produced electricity
for most of the preceding decade. The fast reactor EBR-I (Experimental Breeder Reac-
tor-1) in Idaho became operational on December 20, 1951, when it produced enough
electricity to power four light bulbs. The next day it produced enough power to run the
entire EBR-I building. This was a milestone in the development of nuclear power reactors
in the United States. The next generation of EBR was the Experimental Breeder Reac-
tor-2, which went into service at the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental
Laboratory in 1964 and operated until 1994. The EBR-2 was designed to be an “inte-
gral” nuclear plant, equipped to handle fuel recycling onsite. It typically operated at 20
MW out of its 62.5 MW maximum design power and provided the bulk of heat and elec-
tricity to the surrounding facilities. The world’s first commercial Liquid Metal Fast
Breeder Reactor, and the only one built in the United States, was the 94 MW Unit 1 at
Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station. The plant went into operation in 1963 but
shut down on October 5, 1966, because of high temperatures caused by a loose piece of
zirconium that was blocking the molten sodium coolant nozzles. After restarting, it ran
until August 1972 when its operating license renewal was denied. India’s first 40 MW
Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) attained criticality on October 18, 1985. India was the
sixth nation to demonstrate the technology to build and operate an FBTR (after the
United States, United Kingdom, France, Japan, and the former USSR). India has devel-
oped the technology to produce plutonium-rich U-Pu mixed carbide fuel. The Chinese
Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) was designed in 2003 and built near Beijing by
Russia’s OKBM Afrikantov in collaboration with OKB Gidropress, NIKIET, and the
Kurchatov Institute. The reactor achieved criticality in July 2010, can generate 20 MWe,
and will be grid connected in 2011.
16 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
Table 3. Characteristics and Operating Parameters of the
Eight Generation IV Reactor Systems under Development
Neutron
Spectrum
(fast/ Temperature Fuel Size(s)
thermal) Coolant (°C) Pressure* Fuel Cycle (MWe) Uses
Gas-cooled Fast Helium 850 High U-238† Closed, 1,200 Electricity
fast reactors on site &
Hydrogen‡
Lead-cooled Fast Lead or 480–800 Low U-238† Closed, 20–180** Electricity
fast reactors lead- regional 300–1,200 &
bismuth 600–1,000 Hydrogen‡
Molten salt Fast Fluoride 700–800 Low UF in salt Closed 1,000 Electricity
fast reactors salts &
Hydrogen‡
Molten salt Thermal Fluoride 750–1,000 UO2 Open 1,000– Hydrogen‡
reactor— salts particles 1,500
Advanced in prism 30–150
high
temperature
reactors
Sodium- Fast Sodium 550 Low U-238 Closed 300–1,500 Electricity
cooled fast & MOX 1,000–
reactors 2,000
300–700
Traveling Fast Sodium ~510 Low U-238 Open 400–1,500 Electricity
wave reactors metal with
U-235 ig-
niter seed
Supercritical Thermal Water 510–625 Very high UO2 Open 1,000– Electricity
water-cooled or fast (thermal) 1,500
reactors closed
(fast)
Very high Thermal Helium 900–1,000 High UO2 Open 250–300 Electricity
temperature prism or &
gas reactors pebbles Hydrogen‡
THE FUTURE
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 17
implement an acceptable strategy for the disposal of high-level waste and used
nuclear fuel. Thus, for the next few decades, the long-term waste issue will re-
main a nettlesome problem for nuclear energy.
In a highly stressed credit market, the price tag for nuclear construction—
at least in the Western world—is too high. The latest overnight cost esti-
mates for a dual-unit nuclear plant with an aggregate capacity of 2,236 MW
is $5700 per kilowatt,28 a doubling in estimated overnight costs over the last
3-4 years. The investment community has shown an increasing interest in
SMR designs because of these escalating costs and related financial challenges.
ANL, as part of its update of the 2004 economic study The Economic
Future of Nuclear Power, is conducting an extensive analysis of the life-cycle
costs of both large reactors and SMRs. The revised study will also offer de-
tailed insights into the recent cost increases. The study team is consulting
with nuclear vendors (including B&W, NuScale, and Westinghouse) to ensure
that the nuclear utility industry plays an integral part in the analysis.
The updated study will focus on key parameters and policy options and
will address issues President Obama identified in a recent address on U.S. en-
ergy policy.29
The study team will use cost estimates for factory-produced modular
units and compare this methodology to construction practices used in build-
ing larger units. A detailed sensitivity analysis will be performed on the key
design and manufacturing parameters. This task requires collaboration with
vendors to obtain data on
a. modularization practices;
b. factory designs and manufacturing;
c. factory assembly versus field assembly; and
d. learning-by-doing in both manufacturing and construction.
28. Energy Information Administration, Updated Capital Cost Estimates for Electricity Gen-
eration Plants (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 2010), http://www.eia.
doe.gov/oiaf/beck_plantcosts/.
29. “To meet our growing energy needs and prevent the worst consequences of climate
change, we’ll need to increase our supply of nuclear power. It’s that simple. This one
plant, for example, will cut carbon pollution by 16 million tons each year when compared
to a similar coal plant. That’s like taking 3.5 million cars off the road…. On the other
side, there are those who have long advocated for nuclear power—including many Re-
publicans—who have to recognize that we’re not going to achieve a big boost in nuclear
capacity unless we also create a system of incentives to make clean energy profitable.
That’s not just my personal conclusion; it’s the conclusion of many in the energy industry
itself, including CEOs of the nation’s largest utility companies.” Barack Obama, “Re-
marks by the President on Energy in Lanham, Maryland, IBEW [International Brother-
hood of Electrical Workers] Local 26, Lanham, Maryland,” February 16, 2010, http://
www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-energy-lanham-maryland.
18 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
Nuclear Energy Demand in Asia
In Asia, 115 nuclear power reactors are in operation, 39 are under construc-
tion, and firm plans exist to build an additional 87. If an additional 185 pro-
posed reactors are eventually deployed, this would represent an aggregate
electrical capacity of more than 400 GWe in the region. In 2010 alone, this
region has exhibited four out of the five units connected to the grid and seven
out of the ten where construction has been initiated. Much of the expansion
of nuclear power in this region is driven by concerns about energy security,
and thus the financing concerns that dominate in the Western world are not
as prominent and determinative here.
The Emerging Roles of China, Russia, the Republic of Korea, and India
The future economics of nuclear energy will be determined, in part, by the
tooling up and supply chain improvements currently underway in Russia and
several non-Western states. Russian and Chinese suppliers will soon meet the
needs of their domestic markets and are beginning to ramp up in the expec-
tation of large-scale exports. Korean industry provides components interna-
tionally and by 2013 will possess the capacity to forge even the largest nuclear
plant components.30 The Republic of Korea’s new very heavy forging capac-
ity will join that of Japan (JSW), China (China First Heavy Industries), and
Russia (OMX Izhora). Japan and Korea are already building further capacity
(JSW and Doosan, respectively), as is France (Le Creusot), and new capacity
is planned in both the United Kingdom (Sheffield Forgemasters) and India
(Larsen & Toubro).
GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy (GEH) recently announced it has signed a
nuclear power plant development agreement with India’s top engineering and
construction company, Larsen & Toubro Ltd. The agreement with L&T is
an important part of GEH’s strategy to establish an extensive network of lo-
cal suppliers to help build a future GEH-designed Advanced Boiling Water
Reactor (ABWR) power station in India. The power station is one of several
being planned by India to increase the country’s nuclear generation capacity
more than tenfold over the next two decades—from 4.1 GW today to 60 GW
by 2030. The nuclear power initiative is a key part of India’s broader plan to
expand its energy infrastructure to meet the country’s surging demands for
electricity.
30. Doosan Heavy Industries is investing in casting and forging capacity to supply reactor
pressure vessels and steam generators for AP-1000 reactors in China and the United
States.
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 19
For example:
• The French government owns 91 percent of AREVA31 and 85 percent
of EDF.
• The Republic of Korea owns essentially all the technology for the
KSNP design (OPR-1000). Two units (Shin Kori Units 3 and 4) are
being constructed by Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power Co. (KHNP)
using the APR-1400 design model, which has a capacity 1.4 times
higher than the OPR-1000. These plants are owned and operated by
KEPCO, a company representing a number of independently operat-
ing power generating subsidiaries.32
• China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) is designing the CPR-
1000 reactor, and the State Nuclear Power Technology Corporation
(SNPTC) is designing the AP-1000 and AP-1400.33 SNPTC recently
announced that ten state-owned enterprises have qualified to supply
equipment.
• In Japan, the government encourages companies to establish con-
glomerates. Toshiba and Hitachi have partnered to build four
ABWRs in Japan. However, Japan’s main focus is on exports. The
Japan Bank of International Cooperation provides partial funding for
building Toshiba reactors outside of Japan, and Nippon Export and
Investment Insurance provides credit for the export of nuclear power
plant components.
• AECL, owned by the Canadian government, is funding the ACR,
with small contributions by industry partners.
• Russia is a serious player financing its own technology in India,
Thailand, Turkey, and Vietnam.
The paradigm for GEN III+ plants is evolving. If they can be designed, man-
ufactured, and operated economically to replace aging coal plants, the oppor-
tunities for nuclear energy to mitigate climate change will be enhanced. The
ANL study will analyze this possibility.
31. T his assumes that the Siemens’s 30 percent stake is sold to the French government. Ac-
cording to Bloomberg (December 2010), AREVA will raise € 900 million ($1.2 billion)
in a share sale, bringing in a Kuwaiti sovereign wealth fund alongside the French state
to help finance investments.
32. K FPCO owns 51 percent, and public shareholders own a minority stake. In December
2009, KFPCO, supported by Doosan Industries, Hyundai, KOPEC, Samsung, and
Westinghouse, as subcontractor, won a contract to build four reactors in the United Arab
Emirates. This is just one example of significant infrastructure projects in the Middle
East, including desalination plants at Burj Khalifa.
33. The Chinese central and provincial governments are funding all CNNC and SNPTC
reactors.
20 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
Remaining Barriers
The electric grid infrastructure in many parts of the world is unable to sup-
port the deployment of large nuclear power plants. Deployed systems must
be appropriate to the scale of the national electric grid and other institutional
capabilities. For example, building gigawatt-scale nuclear plants assumes the
presence of an appropriately scaled electric grid infrastructure. If this infra-
structure is not present, and it is not in many developing countries, then dif-
ferent technologies are needed, namely, grid-appropriate (modular) nuclear
reactors. However, the economics of SMRs must be carefully considered.
The ANL study will analyze the economic opportunities of deploying SMR
technology.
Today, large plants operating in the United States set a high standard for
safety, availability, and cost competitiveness. To enter this marketplace suc-
cessfully, SMR and Gen IV designs must offer a compelling promise of even
higher performance or serve a new mission such as waste disposition. In over-
seas markets, considerations other than economics—for example, energy se-
curity—may be determinative, but the economics of nuclear power vis-à-vis
its alternatives will also play an important role. Additional development and
demonstration is required to bring overnight costs for SMRs to a point that
is comparable to commercial-size Gen III units (Figure 3). Finally, the non-
proliferation and safety benefits of SMRs will remain unclear until more SMR
specifications are known.
For SMRs to be economically feasible, their overnight cost must be comparable (on a cost per
kWe basis) to the overnight cost of large nuclear plants. Provided by and reprinted with permis-
sion of Westinghouse Electric Corporation.
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 21
Conclusion
To quote Charles Dickens, “It was the best of times, it was the worst of
times….”34 Nuclear technology has progressed in the past 60 or so years. The
growth of nuclear power in Asian countries and the proliferation of Asian sup-
pliers of nuclear power technology have been immense. However, safety, fuel-
cycle, nonproliferation, and economic hurdles remain and may become more
burdensome, particularly if out-of-the-box innovations to the current state
of the art in reactor technology do not reach the marketplace within the next
two decades. In the opinion of the authors, passive safety features should be
the new standard for all reactor designs going forward. However, the deter-
mining factor in establishing future nuclear energy parameters will likely be
who wants to invest and where.
34. “It was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it
was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had
everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to heaven, we
were all going direct the other way—in short, the period was so far like the present peri-
od, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for
evil.”
22 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
List of Acronyms
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 23
JSW Japan Steel Works
KNGR Korean Next Generation Reactor
KSNP Korean Standard Nuclear Power Plant
kWe one thousand watts of electric
kWh kilowatt hour
LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory
LFR lead-cooled fast reactor
LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
LWR light water reactor
MHI Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
MHR Modular Helium Reactor
MOX mixed oxide
MPa megapascal
MW megawatt
MWe megawatts electric
NGNP Next Generation Nuclear Plant
NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission
OPR Optimized Power Reactor
ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory
PB-AHTR Pebble Bed Advanced High Temperature Reactor
PBMR Pebble Bed Modular Reactor
PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
PRISM Power Reactor Innovative Small Module
PWR pressurized water reactor
SmAHTR Small Modular Advanced High Temperature Reactor
SMR small modular reactor
SNPTC State Nuclear Power Technology Corporation (China)
SSTAR; SSTAR-H 2 Small, Sealed, Transportable, Autonomous Reactor of many
and SSTAR-LM coolants—two potential coolants are hydrogen and liquid metal
TWR Traveling Wave Reactor
UO2 uranium dioxide
VVER Vodo-Vodyanoi Energetichesky Reactor
24 N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION
Contributors
N U C L E A R R E AC T OR S : G E N E R A T ION T O G E N E R A T ION 25
The Global Nuclear Future Initiative of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
The Academy was founded during the American Revolution by John Adams,
James Bowdoin, John Hancock, and other leaders who contributed promi-
nently to the establishment of the new nation, its government, and its Con-
stitution. Its purpose was to provide a forum for a select group of scholars,
members of the learned professions, and government and business leaders to
work together on behalf of the democratic interests of the republic. In the
words of the Academy’s Charter, enacted in 1780, the “end and design of the
institution is . . . to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance
the interest, honour, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtu-
ous people.” Today the Academy is both an honorary learned society and an
independent policy research center that conducts multidisciplinary studies of
complex and emerging problems. Current Academy research focuses on sci-
ence and technology policy; global security; social policy and American insti-
tutions; the humanities and culture; and education. The Academy supports
early-career scholars through its Visiting Scholars Program and Hellman Fel-
lowships in Science and Technology Policy, providing year-long residencies at
its Cambridge, Massachusetts, headquarters. The Academy’s work is advanced
by its 4,600 elected members, who are leaders in the academic disciplines, the
arts, business, and public affairs from around the world.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
To order any of these publications please contact the Academy’s Publications Office.
Telephone: 617-576-5085; Fax: 617-576-5088; Email: publications@amacad.org
AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS & SCIENCES