10.

Surveying MPSC CIVIL ENGINEERING MAINS EXAM Page | 1

MPSC CIVIL MAINS EXAM

10. Surveying
10. Surveying MPSC CIVIL ENGINEERING MAINS EXAM Page | 3

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 12

CHAPTER 2 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES 23

CHAPTER 3 COMPASS SURVEYING 34

CHAPTER 4 LEVELLING AND CONTOURING 48

CHAPTER 5 THEODOLITE AND THEODOLITE TRAVERSE 64

CHAPTER 6 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING 78

CHAPTER 7 TACHEOMETRY 85

CHAPTER 8 CURVES 94

CHAPTER 9 COMPUTATION OF AREA & VOLUME 107

CHAPTER 10 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING 113

CHAPTER 11 PHOTOGRAMMETRY 125

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 12
1.1 Introduction to Surveying 12
1.2 Primary classification of surveying 12
1.3 Functional classification 13
1.4 Classifications based on instrument used 14
1.5 Principal of Surveying 16
1.6 Difference between Plan and map 17
1.7 SCALE OF A MAP 17
1.8 Errors Due To Shrinkage of a Map 18
1.9 ERRORS DUE TO WRONG MEASURING SCALE 18
1.10 Types of Measuring Scales 18
1.11 Use of Vernier’s in scales 19
Questions with explanation 19
Answers and Explanation 20
Question for practice 21

CHAPTER 2 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES 23

2.1 Introduction to Measurement of Distances 23
2.2 Methods of Linear Measurement 23
2.3 Chain Surveying 23
2.4 Tapes: 24
2.5 Miscellaneous equipment for chaining 24
2.6 Ranging 25
2.7 Errors in Chaining 25
2.8 Chain Corrections 26
Tape corrections 26
2.9 Reduction of length to mean sea level 27
2.10 Hypotenusal Allowance 28
2.11 Degree of Accuracy 28
2.12 Principal of chain surveying 28
2.13 Survey lines 29
2.14 Offsets 29
2.15 Instruments setting out right angles 30
2.16 Obstacles in chaining 30
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Questions with Explanation 30

Question for practice 31

CHAPTER 3 COMPASS SURVEYING 34

3.1 Introduction to Compass Surveying 34
3.2 TYPES OF TRAVERSE 34
3.3 Types of Meridians 35
3.4 Types of Bearings:- 35
3.5 System of bearing 35
3.6 Fore bearing and Back Bearing 36
3.7 Calculation of Angles from Bearings 36
3.8 Calculation of Bearings from Angles 38
3.9 Prismatic Compass 38
3.10 Parts of prismatic compass 39
3.11 Dip 39
3.12 Local attraction 40
3.13 MAGNETIC DECLINATION 40
3.15 Comparison of A Prismatic Compass With A Surveyor's Compass 42
3.16 Adjustment of Prismatic compass 43
3.17 ERRORS AND MEASUREMENTS: 43
3.18 Definitions 43
3.19 Probable Errors:- 44
Questions with Explanation 44
Question for practice 46

CHAPTER 4 LEVELLING AND CONTOURING 48

4.1 Introduction to Levelling and Contouring 48
4.2 Applications of levelling 48
4.3 Definitions 48
4.4 Types of Bench Marks 49
4.5 Different Methods of Levelling 49
4.6 Classification of Direct Levelling Methods 50
4.7 Terms Used in Levelling 51
4.8 Commonly used leveling instruments 52
4.9 Methods of Finding the Reduced Levels (R.L.) 53
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4.10 Curvature and Refraction Corrections:- 53

4.11 Sensitivity of a Level Tube 54
4.12 Omitted Measurements 55
4.13 Contouring 57
Scale of the Map. 58
Characteristics of Contours 58
Methods of Locating Contours 60
Uses of contour maps 60
Questions with Explanation 61
Question for practice 62

CHAPTER 5 THEODOLITE AND THEODOLITE TRAVERSE 64

5.1 Introduction to Theodolite 64
5.2 Parts of a transit Theodolite: 64
5.3 Important Terms in Theodolite Surveying 65
5.4 Temporary adjustments of Theodolite: 66
5.5 Permanent adjustments of Theodolite: 66
5.6 Fundamental lines and their relations: 67
5.7 Measurement of horizontal angles: 67
5.8 Measurement of vertical angles: 68
5.8 Introduction to Theodolite Traverse 68
5.9 Linear Measurements 68
5.10 Angular Measurements 68
5.11 LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES 69
5.12 Consecutive and Independent Coordinates: 69
5.13 Checks in a Closed Traverse 70
5.14 Error of Closure 71
5.15 Various checks applied to the traverse survey: 71
5.16 Balancing methods 72
5.17 Omitted Measurements:- 73
Questions with Explanation 73
Question for practice 74

CHAPTER 6 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING 78

6.1 Introduction to Plane Table Surveying 78
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6.2 Principle of Plane Table Surveying. 79

6.3 Accessories of Plane table surveying: 79
6.4 Basic Terms 80
6.5 Methods of Orientation 80
6.6 Methods of Plane Table Surveying: 80
Questions with Explanation 81
Answer and explanation 82
Question for practice 83

CHAPTER 7 TACHEOMETRY 85
7.1 Introduction to Tacheometry 85
7.2 Advantages of Tacheometric Surveying 85
7.3 Tacheometer 85
7.4 Characteristics of a Tacheometer 86
7.5 Systems of Tacheometric Measurements: 86
7.5 Principle of Stadia Method of Tacheometry 87
7.6 Tacheometric Measurement with inclined Line of Sight and Staff Vertical 88
7.7 Inclined Line of Sight with Staff Normal to the Line of Sight 89
7.8 Advantages of Holding the Staff Vertical 90
7.9 Advantages of Holding the Staff Normal to The Line of Sight 90
7.10 Tangential Method of Tacheometry 90
Questions For Practice 91

CHAPTER 8 CURVES 94
8.1 Introduction to Curves 94
8.2 Classification of Curves 94
8.3 Horizontal Curves 94
8.4 Vertical Curves 96
8.5 Simple Circular Curve-A Detailed Overview 97
8.6 Need for Transition Curve 101
8.7 Comparison of Transition Curves 103
Questions with Explanation 104
Question for practice 105
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CHAPTER 9 COMPUTATION OF AREA & VOLUME 107

9.1 Introduction to Computation of Area and Volume 107
9.2 AREA 107
9.3 TRIANGLE METHOD 107
9.4 AREA OF A SEGMENT 107
9.5 AREA OF A TRACT WITH STRAIGHT IRREGULAR BOUNDARIES 108
9.6 Other methods for measurement of Area 109
9.7 COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES 109
9.8 VOLUME BY MEAN-AREA METHOD 109
9.9 TRAPEZOIDAL RULE 110
9.10 Prismoid Formula 110
9.11 Prismoidal correction: 110
9.12 Curvature correction 110

CHAPTER 10 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING 113

10.1 Introduction to Hydrographic Surveying 113
10.2 Applications of Hydrographic Surveying 113
10.3 Uses of Hydrographic Surveying 114
10.4 Preliminary Steps in Hydrographic Surveying 114
10.5 Sounding in Hydrographic Survey 115
10.6 Equipment for Sounding: 115
10.7 Locating the Soundings 117
10.8 Reduction of Soundings 122

CHAPTER 11 PHOTOGRAMMETRY 125

11.1 Introduction to Photogrammetry 125
11.2 Terrestrial Photograph and Terrestrial Photogrammetry 125
11.3 Aerial Photograph and Aerial Photogrammetry. 125
11.4 Advantages of Aerial Surveying 126
11.5 Aerial Photograph 126
11.6 Terminologies in Aerial Surveying: 126
11.7 Relief Displacement 128
11.8 Area Covered by One Photograph 128
11.9 Exposure Interval 129
11.10 Air Base 129
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11.11 Classification of Photographs 129

11.12 Information recorded on photographs 130
11.13 Introductory definitions for photographs: 131
Questions with explanation 132
Answers and explanation 133
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10. Surveying MPSC CIVIL ENGINEERING MAINS EXAM Page | 12

1 Introduction of Surveying

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Surveying  Thus the polar axis is shorter than the equato-
rial axis by about 43.434 km
 Surveying is the science and art of determining
 On the basis of whether the curvature of the
the relative positions of various points above,
earth is taken into account or not ,surveying can
on or below the surface of the earth.
be divided into two main categories
 The relative positions are determined by meas-
uring horizontal distances, vertical distances Plane surveying
(elevations), horizontal angles and vertical an-  Plane surveying is the type of surveying where
gles accurately using various surveying instru- the mean surface of the earth is considered as
ments. a plane. All angles are considered to be plane
 After taking the measurements in the field, angles.
computations are done and the plans and maps  For small areas less than 250 km2 plane survey-
are prepared in the office. ing can safely be used. For most engineering
 These plans and maps are used for planning of projects such as a canal, railway, highway,
engineering works, marking of boundaries, building, pipeline etc. constructions, this type of
computations of areas and volumes, and vari- surveying is used.
ous other purposes.  It is worth noting that the difference between an
 Surveying also includes the art of setting out or arc distance of 18.5 km and the subtended
locating the points on the ground from the plan chord lying in the earth's surface.
or map.  Also the sum of the angles of a plane triangle
 The points and lines have to be located on the and the sum of the angles in a spherical triangle
ground before starting the construction of engi- differ by 1 second for a triangle on the earth's
neering work, such as buildings, roads, bridges, surface having an area of 196 km2
and dams
Geodetic surveying
1.2 Primary classification of surveying
 It is the type of surveying in which the curvature
 The Primary division of surveying is made on of the earth is taken into consideration, and a
the basis whether the curvature of the earth is very high standard of accuracy is maintained.
considered or whether the earth is assumed to  The main object of geodetic surveying is to de-
be a flat plane. termine the precise location of a system of
 The actual shape of the earth is an oblate sphe- widely spaced points on the surface of the
roid The length of the pole axis, is about earth.
12713.168 km and that of the equatorial axis is
about 12756.602 km,
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 The points so located are used as control sta-  These surveys are conducted on or near the
tion of the primary surveys. The secondary sur- body of water, such as lakes, rivers, bays, har-
veys of less precision are connected to these bours, Marine surveys are the special type of hy-
control stations. drographic survey.
 For large area more than 250km , geodetic sur-
2
 The hydrographic surveys consists of locating
veying is used shorelines, estimation of water flow, and deter-
1.3 Functional classification mination of the shape of areas beneath the wa-
ter surface.
[MES PRE 2012, MES PRE 2013]
 It also includes the determination of channel
1. Control Surveying.
depth, location of locks, sand bars, buoys, etc:
 It consists of establishing the horizontal and
8. Engineering Surveys.
vertical positions of widely spaced control
 Engineering surveys are conducted to collect
points using the principles of geodetic survey-
data for the designing and planning of engineer-
ing.
ing works
 In India, control surveying is done by the Survey
 such as building, roads, bridges, dams, reser-
of India
voirs, sewers, and water supply lines These sur-
2. Land Surveying:
veys generally include land surveys, city sur-
 Land surveys are conducted to determine the
veys, topographical surveys and route surveys
boundaries and areas of tracts of land.
discussed above.
 These also known as property surveys
9. Astronomic Surveys.
3. City Surveys.
 These surveys are conducted for the determina-
 These surveys are conducted within the limits
tion of latitudes, longitudes, azimuths, local
of a city for urban planning.
time, etc. for various places on the earth by ob-
 These are required for the purpose of layout of
serving heavenly bodies (the sun or stars).
streets, buildings, sewers, pipes, etc
 The absolute locations of various points on the
4. Topographical Surveys: -
earth are obtained by astronomic surveys
 These surveys are required to establish hori-
10. Satellite Surveys.
zontal locations of the various points as well as
 These surveys are conducted to obtain inter-
their vertical locations, to show the natural fea-
continental, inter datum and interisland geo-
tures of the country.
detic ties all the world over by artificial earth
5. Route Surveying.
satellites.
 These surveys are special types of topograph-
 These surveys are done by space agencies
ical surveys conducted along a proposed route
11. Geological Surveys.
for a highway, railway, sewer line, etc. The route
 Geological surveys are conducted to obtain in-
survey is done along a wide strip.
formation about different strata of earth's sur-
6. Mine Surveys.
face for geological studies.
 These surveys are conducted to determine the
 Geological maps are prepared to depict the de-
relative positions and elevations of mines,
tails of the strata
shafts, adits, bore holes, etc. for underground
12. Construction Surveys.
works.
 All the above-mentioned surveys are conducted
7. Hydrographic Surveys.
to obtain information required for preparation
of maps, plans, sections, etc.
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 After the plans have been prepared and the 5. Tacheometric survey
structures designed, the construction surveys 6. Plane table survey
is conducted. 7. Photographic survey
 The points and lines are established on the 8. Aerial survey
ground, and the layout plan of the structure is Classification of Survey Based on Instrument Used
marked on the ground.
a) Chain Survey:
 Stakes are driven for setting out. Thus con-
struction surveys are the reverse of engineering  Here, only the linear measurements are made
surveys with a chain (or a tape) and no angular meas-
13. Miscellaneous Surveys urements are made.
a) Archaeological surveys. These are done to  This survey is of limited use, since it requires
unearth relics of antiquity. clear ground without any obstruction like inter-
vening trees, buildings, rivers etc.
b) Military surveys. These are conducted to de-
 This survey is particularly useful for laying of
termine the routes and points of strategic im-
sewer lines, water supply lines, construction of
portance.
roads etc.
c) Gravity surveys. These are conducted to
(b) Traverse Survey:
measure the intensity of the gravitational
force at various points  Here, both the linear and angular measure-
ments are made, the former being made with a
d) General surveys. These are used to acquire
tape or a chain and the later with a compass.
and accumulate qualitative information and
 This survey is useful for large projects like
quantitative data for a specific purpose by
dams and reservoirs.
observing, counting, classifying and record-
ing according to the need. For example, soil (c) Leveling:
survey and traffic survey.  Here, elevations of different points are deter-
mined.

Previous Year Questions  A graduated staff and a level are used for this
purpose. Almost all projects require determina-
MES PRE 2013 tion of the elevation of the different points and
1. A compound curve of Sun or any fixed star is __________. this is achieved by leveling.
A. Celestial Survey B. Astrological Survey
(d) Tacheometry:
C. Heaven Survey D. Astronomical Survey
 Here, in this type of survey, both the horizontal
MES PRE 2012
2. The survey which consist of observation of the heavenly bod- distance and the vertical distance are meas-
ies such as sun or any fixed star is ________ ured by sighting a graduated staff with a transit
A. Celestial Survey B. Astrological Survey telescope fitted with an anallatic lens.
C. Heaven Survey D. Astronomical Survey
 It is particularly useful when direct measure-
ment of horizontal distances are not possible.
1.4 Classifications based on instrument used
(e) Plane Tabling:
1. Chain survey
2. Theodolite survey  In this, observations and plotting are done sim-
3. Transverse survey ultaneously in the field.
4. Triangulation survey
10. Surveying MPSC CIVIL ENGINEERING MAINS EXAM Page | 15

 The advantage of this method is that there is  Another method is the Remote Sensing wherein
least possibility of omitting any important the data about an object is acquired using the
measurement since the actual field being sur- sensors placed on satellite.
veyed is in view on the plot in the field itself. Classification of Survey based on Purpose
 The drawbacks of this method are that it cannot
(a) Geological Survey:
be done in humid or rainy weather and the car-
rying of plane table apparatus is cumbersome.  In this type of survey, information about both
the surface and sub-surface is acquired for as-
(f) Triangulation:
sessing the extent of different reserves like the
 This method of survey is used for large areas. minerals, rocks etc.
The entire area is divided into a network of tri-  It is also used for locating the faults, folds and
angles and any one side of any of the triangles other unconformities in the ground.
so formed is measured very precisely.  This survey helps in determining the type of
 This line is referred to as baseline. All the an- foundation, soil treatment required etc.
gles of the network are measured.
(b) Geographical Survey:
 The lengths of the sides of the triangles are
then computed using the laws of triangles.  This survey is done for preparation of geo-
graphical maps depicting the land use effi-
(g) EDM Survey:
ciency, irrigation intensity, surface drainage,
 EDM refers to Electronic Distance Measure- slope profile, contours etc.
ment and in this method of survey, distances
(c) Engineering Survey:
are measured electronically using wave propa-
gation, reflection and subsequent reception of  This survey is required to be done for acquiring
the reflected wave. information for the planning and design of engi-
 Some of the examples of EDM instruments are neering projects like the highways, dams, rail-
tellurometer, distomat, geodimeter etc. way line, water supply design, reservoirs,
bridges etc.
(h) Total Station Survey:
 It involves topographic survey of the area,
 Total station is the combination of conven- earthwork measurement etc.
tional transit theodolite with EDM instrument.
(d) Cadastral Survey:
 It reads and records the horizontal and vertical
distances together with slope distances.  These are done to establish boundary of prop-
 This instrument also computes the Cartesian erties for legal purposes.
coordinates of the observed points, slope cor-  These are also called public land survey.
rections, elevation of remote objects etc. (e) Defense Survey:
 Survey carried out using total station is referred  Such surveys are done for military purpose.
to as total station survey. They provide strategic information for deciding
(I) Satellite Survey: the future course of action.
 In this method of survey, information about the  Aerial and topographical maps of the area are
land or space is determined using satellite prepared which gives crucial information about
based navigation system like the GPS (Global the existing roads, airports, ordnance depots
Positioning System). etc.
(f) Mine Survey:
10. Surveying MPSC CIVIL ENGINEERING MAINS EXAM Page | 16

 This requires both the surface and the under- surveyed is first considered and then its smaller
ground surveys. parts are considered
 It involves making the surface map and doing  Working by procedure enables to prevent accu-
the underground survey for locating the reverse mulation of possible errors in the surveying
of minerals. work of large area.
(g) Route Survey:  The principle to work from whole to the part can
be well understood by the following example.
 It is a sort of linear survey for deciding the align-
 Consider a very large area like a town to be sur-
ment of a highway or a railway.
veyed as shown in Fig.1.1
(h) Archaeological Survey:  First of all, control points A, B, C, D and E are
 This is done to gather information about the an- fixed or located with great care within the
cient monuments, towns, villages, kingdoms, boundary of the area of town as shown in Fig.
past civilizations, temples, forts etc. buried un- 1.1
derground due to natural forces like earth-  The area which is obtained from these control
quakes, landslides, incandescent floods etc. points is divided into the number of triangles
 It gives an idea about the past history, culture which are further sub-divided into small trian-
etc. of the civilization that existed in the past. gles by the method of triangulation; e.g. Trian-
1.5 Principal of Surveying gle CED is further divided into small triangle
'PQR' as shown in Fig. 1.
The various methods of surveying are based on
 The details within these triangles are surveyed
following two main principles
with less accuracy. This is known as working
1. To work from whole to part.
from whole to the part.
 This principle states that it is essential to first
 By this principle or system, accumulation of
establish control points with high precision and
possible errors in the surveying work can be
then establish minor control points.
prevented
 Any inner details can further be located within
 It is noted that if we start from the small areas
the minor control points.
and then cover large area then mistakes and er-
Control Point
rors may go accumulating and finally affects
the surveying work resulting in less accuracy
E  City survey or town survey or topographical sur-
A
vey can more precisely be carried out by this
r
principle
p
D 2. To fix or to locate a new point or station by at
least two independent measurements or pro-
q cesses
B
 In surveying, the relative positions of points are
C
located by measurements from at least two
Control Boundary of the
points of reference whose positions are known.
Point area of town
 In short, the position of new points from the two
Fig 1.1 known points can be fixed or located by taking
 To work from whole to the part means that en-
tire area or a very large area from the area to be
10. Surveying MPSC CIVIL ENGINEERING MAINS EXAM Page | 17

(a) linear measurements (b) angular measure-  As the areas involved are rather large, it is es-
ments or (c) both linear and angular measure- sential to select a suitable scale for represent-
ments. ing the area on a map. Selection of the scale de-
 In this method, two points are selected in the pends on the purpose, size and the required pre-
field and the distance between them is meas- cision of plotting.
ured.  Scales are generally classified as large, medium
P P P and small as under
Large scale: 1 cm = 10 m or less than 10 m
90
o R R
R Medium scale: 1 cm = 10 m to 100 m
α Small scale: 1 cm = 100 m or more than 100m

Q
Representation of Scale
Q Q
(a) (b) (c)
Following three methods represent the scale
P P

β β 1. Engineer's scale:-
R R  It is indicated by a statement. For example, 1
cm = 50 m.
 According to this scale, a specified distance-on
α
Q Q
the map represents the corresponding distance
(d) (e) on the ground.
 In this example, 1 cm on the map represents 50
Fig. 1.2
m on the ground
 Then relative positions of the other points in the 2. Representative Fraction (R.F.):-
field can be located from these two reference  It is indicated by a ratio.
points  The representative fraction is the ratio of the
1.6 Difference between Plan and map distance on the map to the corresponding dis-

 Plan :- A plan graphically represents the fea- tance on the ground. For example, for a scale of

tures on or near the earth's surface as projected 1 cm = 50 m, 1 cm on the map represents 50 m

(5000 cm) on the ground.
on a horizontal plane
 Map:-. If the scale of the graphical projection on  Therefore, the representative fraction (R.F.) is
1/5000 or 1 : 5000
a horizontal plane is small, the plan is termed
map, addition, a map generally shows some ad- 3. Graphical scale: -
ditional features, such as reliefs, hachures and  A graphical scale is a line drawn on the map so
contour lines to indicate undulations on the that its map distance corresponds to a conven-
ground ient unit of length on the ground.
1.7 SCALE OF A MAP  A graphical scale is constructed on the map by
MES PRE 2011, 2013, 2015, MES MAINS 2019 drawing a line and marking the ground dis-
tances directly on it.
 Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance
marked on the map to the corresponding dis- Suggested scale for different type of surveys.
tance on the ground. S.r. Purpose of Survey Scale R.F.

1. Building site 1 cm= 10 m 1 : 1000

10. Surveying MPSC CIVIL ENGINEERING MAINS EXAM Page | 18

Town planning, reser-  If a graphical scale had also been drawn on the
2. 1 cm = 100 m 1 : 10,000
voir planning, etc. map, the correct distances can be measured us-
3. Route surveys 1 cm = 100 m 1 : 10,000 ing that scale. In absence of a graphical scale,
4. Longitudinal sections the correct distance can be determined as un-
a. Horizontal scale 1 cm = 10 m 1 : 1000 der
b. Vertical scale 1 cm = lm 1 : 100  The ratio of the shrunk length to the actual
5. Cross-sections 1 cm= lm 1 : 100 length is known as the shrinkage ratio or the
1 cm = 5 m - 50 1 : 500 to 1: shrinkage factor. It is always less than unity.
6. Land surveys
m 5000 Thus the shrunk scale is less than the original
1 cm = 0.25 km 1 : 25,000 to scale
7. Topographical maps
to 2.5 km 1 : 250,000 Shrunk scale = Original scale x shrinkage Factor
1 cm = 5 km to 1 : 5,00,000 to  The scales should be expressed as a ratio
8. Geographical maps
150 km 1 : 150,00,000
Alternatively,
Shrunk R.F. = Original R.F. x Shrinkage Factor
Previous Year Questions Thus
Measured area
MES PRE 2011 Correct Distance =
Shrinkage factor
3. The representation fraction of a map scale 1cm = 5 km is
As the area is product of two distances (length
___________.
A. 1/500000 B. 1/500 C. 1/5000 D. 1/50000 and width), with the dimensions [L2],

MES PRE 2013

Measured area
Correct Area =
(Shrinkage factor)2
4. The representative fraction (R. F) of scale 1 cm = 500 m is
A. 1:500 B. 1:5000 C. 1:50000 D. 1:50 1.9 ERRORS DUE TO WRONG MEASURING SCALE
MES MAINS 2019  If a wrong measuring scale is used to measure
5. A rectangular plot of land of area 0.45 hectare is repre- the length of a line already drawn on the plan,
sented on a map by a similar rectangle of area 5 cm2. Cal- the measured length will not be correct.
culate R.F. of the scale of the map. Draw a scale to read  For example, if the plan has been drawn to a
upto a single metre from the map. scale of 1: 200, and the length is measured with
A. 1:5000 B. 1:8000 C. 1:9000 D. 1:3000
a scale of R.F. of 1: 250, the measured distance
MES PRE 2015 of 25 cm will be actually 20 cm on the plan.
6. Map is a graphical representation of the features on small Thus
scale as projected on a RF of wrong scale
Correct measured
A. Horizontal plane B. Horizontal line =( ) ×
Distance RF of correct scale length
C. Plane parallel to feature D. In any plane
As the area product of two distances
1.8 Errors Due To Shrinkage of a Map Correct RF of wrong scale 2 measured
= ( ) ×
 The drawing paper generally shrinks due to var- Distance RF of correct scale length

iation in the atmospheric temperature, humid- 1.10 Types of Measuring Scales

ity, etc. Consequently; all the lines marked on 1. Plain scale :- It is possible to measure two suc-
the map shrink to some extent. cessive dimensions only e.g. metres and deci-
 Thus the lengths measured from the map after meters
shrinkage of a map are not the correct dis-
tances.