MIET ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

GUNDUR, TRICHY-620007.

GE 6152-ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

FIRST SEMESTER

Prepared by
S.Thulasiram.B.E.,M.E
Lecturer
MIET Engineering College
Gundur, Trichy-7.
 GE6152 - ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

Concepts and conventions

Importance of graphics in engineering applications Use of drafting instruments BIS
conventions and specifications Size, layout and folding of drawing sheets Lettering and
dimensioning.

UNIT I PLANE CURVES AND FREE HAND SKETCHING 15

Curves used in engineering practices:
Conics Construction of ellipse, Parabola and hyperbola by eccentricity method
Construction of cycloid construction of involutes of squad and circle Drawing of tangents
and normal to the above curves.
Free hand sketching:
Representation of Three Dimensional objects General principles of orthographic projection
Need for importance of multiple views and their placement First angle projection layout
views Developing visualization skills through free hand sketching of multiple views from
pictorial views of objects.
UNIT II PROJECTION OF POINTS, LINES AND PLANE SURFACES 14
Projection of points and straight lines located in the first quadrant Determination of true
lengths and true inclinations Projection of polygonal surface and circular lamina inclined to
both reference planes.
UNIT III PROJECTION OF SOLIDS 15
Projection of simple solids like prisms, pyramids, cylinder and cone when the axis is inclined
to one reference plane by change of position method.

UNIT IV SECTION OF SOLIDS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES 15

Sectioning of above solids in simple vertical position by cutting planes inclined to one
reference plane and perpendicular to the other Obtaining true shape of section.
Development of lateral surfaces of simple and truncated solids Prisms, pyramids, cylinders
and cones Development of lateral surfaces of solids with cylindrical cutouts, perpendicular
to the axis.
UNIT V ISOMETRIC AND PERSPECTIVE PROJECTIONS 15
Principles of isometric projection isometric scale isometric projections of simple solids,
truncated prisms, pyramids, cylinders and cones.
Perspective projection of prisms, pyramids and cylinders by visual ray method.
Line Types:
In an engineering drawing, every line has a definite meaning. Various types of lines are used to
represent different parts or portions of an object.

Lettering in Drawing:
Lettering plays a major role in engineering drawing. It indicates details like dimensioning, name
of the drawing, etc. The use of instruments for lettering is not advised, as it will consume more
time. Free hand lettering should be used instead.

Rules and Features:

- Lettering in drawing must be of standard height. The standard
heights of letters used are 3.5mm, 5mm, 7mm and 10mm.
- Generally, the height to width ratio of letters and numerals are approximately 5:3.
- The height to width ratio of the letters M and W are approximately 5:4.
- Different sizes of letters are used for different purposes:
Main Title - 7 or 10mm
Sub-title - 5 or 7mm
Others - 3.5 or 5mm.
Features:
The essential features of lettering used in engineering drawing are:
= Legibility
= Uniformity
= Similarity
Single stroke letters are the simplest form of letters and are generally used in engineering
drawing.

Vertical Lettering:
Vertical lettering is upright, i.e. 90 ( to the horizontal.
Both uppercase or large and lowercase or small letters are used.

Inclined Lettering:
Inclined lettering has letters inclined at 75 to the horizontal and as for vertical lettering both
uppercase and lowercase letters are used.

Dimensioning Methods:
Dimensioning is used to describe a drawing in terms of details such as the size, shape and
position of the object as per the Dimensioning Code 11669 - 1986. Expressing these details in
terms of numerical values, lines and symbols is known as dimensioning.
General Rules of Dimensioning:
1. Dimension lines are to be drawn maintaining a gap of 12 mm from the object line and a gap
of 10 mm between adjacent dimension lines.

35 12 m m

10 12 m m
20 10 m m
30 10 m m

2. Dimension lines should not cross extension lines.

15 15

Correct Incorrect

3. All the information should be written horizontally.

10, 15 DEEP
10 ,15 DEEP

Correct Incorrect

4. A given dimension should be indicated only once. It should not be repeated at another place.

15 15
10 10

Front view Side view

5. a. The overall dimensions should be placed outside the smaller dimensions. ;

30 10
10 30

Correct Incorrect
5. b. When an overall dimension is given, one of the smaller dimensions should not be given
unless it is needed for reference.
30 30
10 10 10 10 10

Correct Incorrect

6. The larger dimensions should be placed outside the smaller ones such that the extension lines
do not cross the dimension lines.

10
30 30
10 10 10

Correct Incorrect

7. No dimensions other than those that are necessary need be given.

Unnecessary
indication of
dimension
25 50 25
100

8. Avoid indicating dimensions inside a drawing.

20
20
10
10

Correct Incorrect

9. Always indicate the diameter of a circle, not its radius. The symbol ( is used before the
dimension, except when it is obvious.
15
R 7.5
15

Correct Incorrect
10. The radius of an arc should always be indicated with the abbreviation R placed before the
dimension.
R5
5

Correct Incorrect

11. Extension lines should not cross each other or dimension lines unless this can be done
without making the drawing more complicated.

10 10 10 10

10 10

10 10

Correct Incorrect

12. Avoid dimensioning of hidden lines if possible.

10 10

Correct Incorrect

13. Always show the angles outside the space representing an object.

0
45
45 0
14. Dimensions should be given from the centre lines, finished surfaces, or datums as applicable
to a drawing.
10 10 10 10

30
60
90

15. The centre line should never be used as a dimension line.

50

50

Correct Incorrect

16. In the unidirectional system of dimensioning, all dimensions must be upright and readable
when the drawing is viewed in its normal upright position.
15

20

17. In the aligned system, the dimensions must be readable when the drawing is viewed in its
normal upright position or from its right hand side.
15

20
18. In a drawing of a part with circular ends, the centre-to-centre dimension is given instead of
an overall dimension.

R 10

20

19. When a number of dimensions are indicated on one side of a drawing, they should appear on
a continuous line.

15
15 20 35 35
20

Correct Incorrect

20. Intersecting construction lines and projection lines shall extend slightly beyond their point of
intersection.

0
60

POINT OF INTERSECTION

Unidirectional Method:
In this system, the dimensions are indicated in the vertical / upright position so that they can be
read easily when the drawing is viewed in its upright position. The numerical values are placed at
the centres of the dimension lines.
50
20

F
F

26
65
Aligned Dimensioning:
In this system, the dimensions are indicated so as to be perpendicular to the dimension lines. In
other words, the horizontal dimensions can be read conveniently when the drawing is viewed
normally. Similarly, the vertical dimensions can be read easily from the right side of the sheet.

F 20 F 50

26
65

Dimensioning Arrangements

Chain Dimensioning:
When successive dimensions are arranged in a straight line, the method used is called chain
dimensioning.

30 20 5 20 20 30
Parallel Dimensioning:
When a number of dimensions are indicated from a common datum, the system is
known as parallel dimensioning.

20
45
65
85
105
125
145

Progressive Dimensioning:
In this method, a dot and a zero sign indicate the datum line. The dimensions are indicated
progressively from the datum.
16

20

22

40

40
62

32
100

18
85

74

0
 Co-ordinate Dimensioning:
The method of dimensioning shown in the figure is known as co-ordinate dimensioning.
For simplicity, the same dimensions can be shown separately in a tabular form as shown in the
figure.
Sample: 1 Sample: 2

200
140

180
20
0
0 X
0
0 20

02
Y 1

20
0

0
25
0
3

02
0
5

20

15

0
0
4 1 2 3 4 5 160

X 20 20 60 60 100
2 Y 20 160 60 120 90
f 20 20 10 15 25

Arrows:
Drawing an arrowhead terminates dimension lines. The arrowhead may be open, closed or closed
and filled. The length to width ratio of an arrowhead should be limited to 3:1.

O pen arrow

C losed arrow

C losed and Filled

arrow
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RAWING INSTRUMENTS AND SHEET LAYOUT

DRAWING BOARD SIZE

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DRAWING SHEET LAYOUT

DRAWING SHEET SIZE

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TITLE BLOCK OF DRAWING SHEET

LINES, LETTERING AND DIMENSIONING

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SPECIFICATION OF A TYPE LETTERING:

SPECIFICATION OF B TYPE LETTERING:

ALIGNED DIMENSION UNIDIRECTION

DIMENSION

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GENERAL DIMENSION

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GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
The construction of plane figures such as triangle, circles, and
polygons etc., used in plane geometry is called geometrical
constructions.

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(i) A Pentagon is that which has five equal sides.
(ii) A hexagon is that which has six equal sides.
(iii) A heptagon is that which has seven equal sides.
(iv) An octagon is that which has eight equal sides.
(v) A nonagon is that which has nine equal sides.
(vi) A decagon is that which has ten equal sides.
(vii) An UN decagon is that which has eleven equal sides.
(viii) A duo decagon is that which has twelve equal sides.
(ix) A diagonal of a polygon is the line joining any two of its
angular points.

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Bisect the line, Bisect the Arc, and Draw the

perpendicular line

To divide a line into any number of equal part and Bisect angle
between two lines

SCALE

Scale = Size of Drawing / Actual Size

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UNIT I PLANE CURVES AND INTRODUCTION TO

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION (Curves used in Engineering Practices)
Construction of Ellipse, parabola and hyperbola by eccentricity method
only.
Construction of CYCLOID, INVOLUTE OF SQUARE AND CIRCLE
only. Drawingnormal and tangent to the above curves.
INTRODUCTION TO ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Principle of 1st angle and 3rd angle projection. Projection of points situated
in all the fourquadrants. Problems involving projection of points, projection
of two points situated indifferent quadrants.

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Unit-I
S. THULASIRAM B.E

Engineering Curves

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Construct an ellipse by eccentricity

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Construct a parabola by eccentricity

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Construct a hyperbola by eccentricity

SPECIAL CURVES
INVOLUTE:
An involute is the locus of a point on a string, as the string
unwinds itself from a line or polygon, or a circle, keeping always
the string taut.

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S. THULASIRAM B.E INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE AND SQUARE

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CYCLOIDAL:
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Cycloid curves are formed by a point on the circumstance of a

circle, rolling upon a line or an another circle. The rolling circle is
called the generating circle. The line on which the generating circle
rolls is called base line. The circle on which the generating circle
rolls is called directing or base circle. A cycloid is a curve traced
by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls without
slipping along a line

EPICYCLOID:
An epicycloids is a curve traced by a point on the
circumference of a circle which Rolls without slipping on the
outside of an another circle.

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HYPOCYCLOID:
A hypocycloid is a curve traced by a point on the
circumference of a circle when it rolls without slipping on the
inside of another circle.

Projection of Points:
A point is simply a space location of infinitesimal size. It may
represent the corner of an object, the intersection of two lines or a
designated spot in space. The projection obtained on vertical plane
VP is called the elevation and on horizontal plane HP, the plan.
The intersection line of the vertical plane and the horizontal plane
is known as ground line or reference line.

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Position of points:
ME 6152 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

(i) In front of the VP and above the HP

(ii) In front of the VP and in the HP
(iii) In the VP and above the HP
(iv) Behind the VP and above the HP
(v) Behind the VP and in the HP
(vi) Behind the VP and below the HP
(vii) In the VP and below the HP
(viii) In front of the VP and below the HP
(ix) In the VP and HP

GENERAL PROCEDURE TO DRAW PROJECTION OF

POINTS
1. From given data identify the quadrant
2. Draw the XY line and projection
3. Along this projector mark by dots the distances of the given
point form the HP and VP, on the corresponding side of the
XY line, depending upon the quadrant in which the point lies,
to locate the front view and the top view, respectively.
4. Make the front view and the top view bold and rub off the
unwanted length of the projector to complete the solution.

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Important Questions

1. Draw the involutes of a circle of diameter 40mm and draw the tangent and
the normal to the involutes at any points on the curve.
2. Draw the front, top, and side views of the object shown below.
3. Draw the coin cure, if the distance of focus from the directory is 70mm and
the eccentricity is . Also draw a tangent and a normal at any point on the
curve.
4. A circle of 50mm diameter rolls as a horizontal line for of a revolution
clockwise. Draw the path traced by point P on the circumference of the
circle. Also draw a tangent and normal at any point on the cure
5. Draw a hyperbola when the distance between its focus and directrix is 50mm
and eccentricity is 3/2. Also draw the tangent and normal at a point 23mm
from the directrix.
6. The focus of a conic is 50mm front the directory. Draw the locus of a point P
moving in such a way that its distance from the directrix is equal to its
distance from the focus. Name the cure. Draw a tangent to the curve at a
point 60mm from the directrix.
7. Draw the involutes of a circle of diameter 40mm and draw the tangent and
the normal to the involutes at any point on the cure.

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UNIT II PROJECTION OF STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES [FIRST

ANGLE]
Projection of straight lines, situated in first quadrant only, inclined to both
horizontal and vertical planes LOCATION OF TRACES ONLY.
Determination of true length and true inclinations of straight lines from the
projections (not involving traces) Projection of plane surfaces like rectangle,
square, pentagon, hexagon, circle- surfaces inclined to one
reference plane.

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UNIT-II
S. THULASIRAM B.E

PROJECTION OF LINES AND PLANES

A straight line is the shortest distance between two points.
Projections of the ends of any line can be drawn using the
principles developed for projections of points. Top views of
the two end points of a line, when joined, give the top view
of the line. Front views of the two end points of the line,
when joined, give the front view of the line. Both these
Projections are straight lines.

Projection of straight lines

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Projection of Plane Surfaces:

A plane is a two dimensional object having length and breadth

only. Its thickness is always neglected; various shapes of plane
figures are considered such as square, rectangle, circle, pentagon,
hexagon, etc.

TYPES OF PLANES:
1. Perpendicular planes which have their surface
perpendicular to anyone of the reference planes and parallel or
inclined to the other reference plane.
2. Oblique planes which have their surface inclined to both
the reference planes.

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TRACE OF PLANE:
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The trace of a plane is the line of intersection or meeting of

the plane surface with the reference plane; if necessary the plane
surface is extended to intersect the reference plane. The
intersection line of the plane surface with HP is called the
Horizontal Trace (HT) and that of VP is called the Vertical
Trace (VT).

A plane figure is positioned with reference to the reference planes

by referring its surface in the following possible positions.

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1. surface of the plane kept perpendicular to HP and parallel to
VP

2. surface of the plane kept perpendicular to VP and parallel to

HP
3. surface of the plane kept perpendicular to both HP and VP

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4. surface of the plane kept perpendicular to HP and inclined to

VP

5. surface of the plane kept perpendicular to VP and inclined to

HP

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6. surface of the plane kept inclined to HP and VP

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Important Questions

1. A line PS 65mm has its end p, 15mm above the hp and 15mm in front of the
VP. It is inclined at 55oto the hp and 35 to the VP. Draw its projections.
2. A pentagon of sides 30mm rests on the ground on one of its corners with the
sides containing the corners being equally inclined to the ground. The side
opposite to the corner on which it rests is inclined at 30 oto the VP and is
parallel to the hp .The surface of the pentagon makes 50 owith the ground.
Draw the top and front views of the pentagon.
3. A line CD, inclined at 25 to the HP, measures 80mm in top view. The end C
is in the first quadrant and 25mm and 15mm from the HP and the VP
respectively. The end D is at equal distance from the both the reference
planes. Draw the projections, fine true length and true inclination with the
VP.
4. A straight line ST has its end S, 10mm in front of the VP and nearer to it. The
mid-point M line is 50mm in front of the VP and 40mm above HP. The front
and top view measure 90mm and 120mm respectively. Draw the projection of
the line. Also find its true length and true inclinations with the HP and VP.
5. A regular pentagon of 30mm side, is resting on one of its edges on HP which
is inclined at 45 to VP. Its surface is inclined at 30 to HP. Draw its
projections.
6. A line PQ has its end P, 10mm above the HP and 20mm in front of the VP.
The end Q is 85mm in front of the VP. The front view of the line measures
75mm. the distance between the end projectors is 50mm. draw the projections
of the line and find its true length and its true inclinations with the VP and hp.

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7. Draw the projections of a circle of 70mm diameter resting on the H.P on a

point A of the circumference. The plane is inclined to the HP such that the top
view of it is an ellipse of minor axis 40mm. the top view of the diameter,
through the point A is making an angle of 45 with the V.P. determine the
inclination of the plane with the HP
8. The projections of a line measure 80mm in the top view and 70mm in the
front view. The midpoint of the line is 45mm in front of VP and 35mm above
HP. one end is 10mm in front of VP and nearer to it. The other end is nearer to
HP.Draw the projections of the line. Find the true length and true inclinations.
9. Draw the projection of a circle of 70mm diameter resting on the H.P. on a
point A of the circumference. The plane is inclined to the HP such that the top
view of it is an ellipse of minor axis 40mm. the top view of the diameter
through the point A is making an angle of 45 with the V.P. determine the
inclination of the plane with the HP.
10. A pentagon of side 30mm rests on the ground on one of its corners with the
sides containing the corner being equally inclined to the ground. The side
opposite to the corner on which it rests is inclined at 30 to the VP and is
parallel to the HP. The surface of the pentagon makes 50 with the ground.
Draw the top and front views of the pentagon.
11. A line PF, 65mm has its end P, 15mm above the HP and 15mm in front of
the VP. It is inclined at 55to the VP. Draw its projections.

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UNIT III PROJECTION OF SOLIDS AND SECTION OF SOLIDS

Projections of prism, pyramid, cone and cylinder, axis inclined to one plane
by change of position method. Section of above solids in simple vertical
position (axis perpendicular to HP alone) by planes either inclined to HP or
VP alone- True shape of section.

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UNIT-III
PROJECTION OF SOLIDS AND SECTION
OF SOLIDS
Projection of Solids:
A solid is a three dimensional object having length, breadth
and thickness. It is
Completely bounded by a surface or surfaces, which may be
curved or plane. The shape of a solid is described orthographically
by drawing its two orthographic projections, usually, on the two
principal planes of projection i.e., HP and VP.

The following are the different positions which the axis of a solid
can take with respect to the reference planes:

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1. Axis perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP.

(CONE AND PYRAMID)

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2. Axis perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP
(PYRAMID, CONE, PRISM)

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3. Axis parallel to both HP and VP, i.e., axis perpendicular to

a profile plane.

4. Axis inclined to HP and parallel to VP.

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` (Auxiliary projection method)

(freely suspeded method)

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5. Axis inclined to VP and parallel to HP.

6. Axis inclined to both HP and VP. (Not For University

Syllabus)

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SECTION OF SOLIDS:

The hidden or internal parts of an object are shown by

sectional views in technical drawings. The sectional view of an
object is obtained by cutting through the object by a Suitable plane
known as the section plane or cutting plane and removing the
portion lying between the plane and the observer. The surface
produced by cutting the object is called the section and its
projection is called a sectional plan or sectional elevation. The
section is indicated by thin section lines uniformly spaced and
inclined at 45.

A sectional view of an object is obtained by projecting the

retained portion of the
Jet which is left behind when object is cut by an imaginary section
plane and the portion the object between the section plane and the
observer is assumed as removed.
The object is cut by a section plane AA. The front half of the
object between the
Section plane and the observer are removed. The view of the
retained portion of the object is projection VP. The top view is
projected for the whole uncut object.

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Types of sectional views of solids:

By using the five different types of perpendicular section planes

we .obtain the following five types of sectional views of solids:
1. Section of solids obtained by horizontal planes.

2. Section of solids obtained by vertical planes.

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3. Sections of solids obtained by auxiliary inclined planes.

4. Section of solids obtained by auxiliary vertical planes.
5. Section of solids obtained by profile planes.

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Important Questions
1. A tetrahedron of edges 30mm rests on one of its edges on the VP. That edges is
normal to the hp. one of the faces containing the resting edge is inclined at
30oto the VP. Draw the projections of the tetrahedron.
2. A cube of 70mm long edges has its vertical faces equality inclined to the VP.
It is cut by an auxiliary inclined plane in such a way that the true shape of the
cut part is a regular hexagon. Determine the inclination of the cutting plane
with the HP. Draw front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
3. A regular pentagonal lamina ABCDF of side 30mm has one of its edges
parallel to the VP and inclined at 30 to the HP. The pentagon is inclined
45to the VP. Draw projections.
4. A pentagonal prism of 30-mm side of base and 70mm height is resting on one
of its edges of the base in such a way that the base makes an angels of 45 HP,
and the axis is parallel to VP. Draw the projections of the prism.
5. Draw the top front views of a right circular cylinder of base 45mm diameter
and 60mm long when it line on HP, such that its axis is inclined at 30 to HP
and the axis appears to parallel to the VP in the top view.
6. Draw the projection of a cylinder of diameter 40mm and axis 70mm long when
it rests on the VP on one of its base points. The axis if cylinder is parallel to
VP and inclined at 30 to VP.
7. A hexagonal pyramid of bases side 30mm and axis length 60mm is resting on
VP one of its base edges with the face containing the resting edges
perpendicular to both HP and VP. Draw its projections.
8. A cone of base diameter 60mm and axis 70mm is resting on HP on its base. It
is cut by a plane perpendicular to VP and parallel to a contour generator and
is10mm away from it. Draw the front view, sectional top view and the true
shape of the section.
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9. An equilateral triangular prism 20mm side of base and 50mm long rests with
one of its shorter edges on HP such that the rectangular face containing the
edge on which the prism rests is inclined at 30 to HP. This shorter edge
resting on HP is perpendicular to VP.
10. A square pyramid of base 40mm and axis 70mm lone has one of its triangular
faces on VP and the edge of base contained by that face is perpendicular to
VP. Draw its projections.
11. A hexagonal prism of side of base 35mm and axis length 55mm rests with its
base on HP such that two of the vertical surfaces are perpendicular to VP. It is
cut by a plane inclined at 50 to HP and perpendicular to VP and passing
through a point an the axis at a distance 15mm from the top. Draw its front
view, sectional top view and true shape of section.
12. An equilateral triangular prism 20mm side of base and 50mm rests with are of
its shorter edges on H.P. such that the rectangular face containing the edge on
which the prism rests is inclined at30 to H.P. the shorter edge resting on HP is
perpendicular to VP.
13. Draw the projections of a hexagonal pyramid with side of the base 30mm and
axis on HP such that the triangular face containing that side is perpendicular to
HP and axis is parallel to VP.
14. A vertical cylinder 40mm diameter is cut by a vertical section plane making 30
to VP in such a way that the true shape of the section is a rectangle of 25mm
and 60mm side. Draw the projections and true shape of the section.
15. A tetrahedron of edges 30mm rests on one of its edges on the VP. That edge is
normal to the HP. One of the faces containing the resting edge is inclined
at30 to the VP. Draw the projections of the tetrahedron.
16. A cone of base diameter 60mm and altitude 80mm rests on the HP with its axis
inclined at30 to the HP and parallel to the VP. Draw its front and top views.

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UNIT IV DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES AND ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Development of lateral surfaces of vertical prism, cylinder pyramid, and cone
truncated by surfaces of inclined to HP alone. Development of surfaces of vertical
cylinder and prism with cylindrical cut outs perpendicular to the axis. Isometric
projection of solids like prism, pyramid, cylinder and cone; combination of any two;
truncation when solid is in simple vertical position, by a cutting plane inclined to HP.

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Development of surfaces:
A layout of the complete surface of a three dimensional object
on a plane surface is called its development or pattern.
Development is a term frequently used in sheet metal work where
it means the unfolding or unrolling of a detail into a flat sheet
called a pattern
There are three methods of pattern development; (i) Parallel line,
(ii) Radial line and (iii) Triangulation.

Parallel Line Method:

This method can only be used to develop objects (or parts
thereof) having a constant cross-section for their full length, for
example, prisms and cylinders and related forms. Parallel lines,
parallel to the axis of the detail, are shown on a view which shows
them as their true lengths.

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1. After drawing the given views, determine the view in
which the right section of the solid appears as an edge view.
Here it should be noted that top views of right prisms and cylinders
are equivalent to their right sections will have to be found
in the form of an auxiliary view.
2. Layout the stretch-out line of the development parallel to
the edge view of the right section.
3. Locate the distance between lateral comer edges by
measuring from the true size views in the right section and then
transferring these measurements to the stretch-out line. Name their
points.
4. Draw the lateral fold lines perpendicular to the stretch-out
line through the points already plotted.
5. The development should be commenced at the shortest line,
so that the least amount of welding or other joining effort is
required.
6. Join all end points forming the boundary of the pattern in
proper order. Only the boundary of the pattern should be made
bold, leaving all other lines as thin lines.
7. Check up that the point where the development ends is the
same point as the beginning point on the right section.

Radial Line Method:

This method of development is used for right and oblique
pyramids and cones. It employs radial lines which are slant edges
from vertex to base comer points for pyramids, and radial surface
lines on the cone surface from the vertex to the base.

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Development of Right Cones

The development of any right cone is a sector of a circle since
the radial surface Lines are all of the same true length. The angle at
centre of the sector depends on the base radius and the slant height
of the cone. Let the radius of the base of the cone be R, the slant
height of the cone be L, and the angle at the centre of the
development be .
= (Radius of the base circle /True slant length) X 360 =( R / L ) X 360

In this method of development the surface of the object is

divided into a number of triangles. The true sizes of the triangles
are found and then these triangles are drawn in order, side by side,
to produce the pattern. It is simple to realize that to find the true
sizes of the triangles, it is first necessary to find the true length of
their sides.
1. When the top and bottom edges of a sheet metal detail are
parallel to the HP the true lengths of these edges may be taken
directly from the top view.
2. In case of circular edges, chordal distance may be taken
and transferred to the development. Though such lengths are not
theoretically accurate they are satisfactory for development work.
3. For all transition pieces having inclined top and bottom
edges, TL construction must be carried out if these edges are
curved.
4. A well defined labeling system should be used in order that
the construction technique may be progressive and easy to
understand.

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Isometric Projection:
The isomeric projection of an object is obtained on a vertical
plane of projection by placing the object in such a way that its
three mutually perpendicular edges make equal inclinations with
the plane of projection. Since the three mutually perpendicular
edges of an object are projected in the isometric projection at equal
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axonometric angles, the angles between those edges in the
isometric projection will be at 12. The lengths of the three
mutually perpendicular edges of the object in the isometric
projection are foreshortened in the same proportion.
Isometric Scale:
In the isometric projection, all the edges of an object along the
direction of the three isometric axes are foreshortened to 0.816
times their actual lengths. To facilitate an easy and quick method
of measurement of the lengths of the different edges in their
reduced sizes while drawing the isometric projection of the object,
a special scale called isometric scale is constructed.
The view drawn to the actual scale is called the isometric
view or Isometric Drawing while that drawn using the isometric
scale is called the Isometric Projection.

Importance Points in Isometric:

1. For drawing the isometric, the object must be viewed such that
either the front -right or the left edges becomes nearest.
2. All vertical edges of the object remain vertical in isometric
3. The horizontal edges of the object which are parallel to the
isometric axes are drawn at 30 to the horizontal.

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4. The inclined edges which are not parallel to the isometric axes
should not be drawn at the given inclination in isometric. These
inclined edges are drawn by first locating the end points in
isometric and then joined.
5. All circles are represented as ellipses in isometric.
6. All construction lines have to be retained as thin lines and the
visible edges are to be shown as thick lines.
7. Generally the hidden edges need not be shown in isometric
unless otherwise required either for locating a comer, or an edge,
or face, or mentioned.
8. Unless otherwise specifically mentioned to draw the isometric
view or isometric drawing all dimension lines parallel to the
isometric unless otherwise if mentioned.
9. No dimensions are indicated in isometric unless otherwise
mentioned.
10. The given orthographic views need not be drawn unless
required for consideration

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Isometric view of different geometrical surfaces

Isometric view of triangle

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Isometric view of semi circle

Isometric for cylinder Isometric for cone

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Isometric for prism Isometric for pyramid

Isometric for combination solid

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Isometric for cutting model in cylinder and cone

Isometric for cutting model in cone and pyramid

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Isometric for cutting model square pyramid

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Important Questions
1. A cylinder of diameter 40mm and height50mm is resting vertically on one of
its end on the hp. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the vp and inclined at
30to the hp. The plane meets the axis at a point 30mm from the base. Draw
the development of the lateral surface of the lower portions of the truncated
cylinder.
2. A hexagonal prism of base side 20mm and height 40mm has a square hole of
side 16mm at the centre. The axes of the square and hexagon coincide. One of
the faces of the square is parallel to the face of the hexagon. Draw the
isometric projection of the prism with hole to full scale.
3. A right circular cone, 40mm base and 50mm height, rests on its base on HP.
A section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP AT 45cuts the cone
bisecting axis. Draw projections of the truncated cone and develop its lateral
surface.
4. A pentagonal pyramid of 40mm edge of base and height 70mm rests with its
base on HP. One of the bases edges is perpendicular to VP and line on the left
of axis of the pyramid. A section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at
30to VP cut the axis of the pyramid at a point 30mm above the base of the
pyramid. Draw the isometric projection of the truncated pyramid.
5. A pentagonal pyramid of base edge 25mm and height 60mm rests vertically
on its base on the HP such that one of its base edge parallel to VP. It is cut by
a plane, inclined at 60 to HP and passes through a point 35mm from the apex.
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the pyramid.
6. An object consists of a hemispherical vessel of 80mm diameter which is
placed centrally over a cylinder of 50mm diameter and height of 60mm. the
cylinder in turn is placed centrally over a square prism of 60mm base side and
20mmh height. Draw the isometric projection of the object.
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7. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the lower portion of a cylinder
of diameter 50mm and axis 70mm. the solid is cut by a sectional plane
inclined at 40to HP and perpendicular to VP and passing through the
midpoint of the axis.
8. Draw the isometric projection of the object from the view shown in figure.
9. A regular hexagonal pyramid side of base 20mm and height 60mm is resting
vertically on its base on HP, such that two of the sides of the base are
perpendicular the VP. It is cut by a plane inclined at 40 to HP and
perpendicular to VP. The cutting plane bisects the axis of the pyramid. Obtain
the development of the lateral surface of the truncated pyramid.
10. A cylinder of 50mm diameter and 75mm height stands with its base on HP. It
is cut by a section plane inclined at 45 to HP and perpendicular to VP
passing through a point on the axis 20mm below the top end. Draw the
isometric projection at the truncated cylinder.
11. A cylinder of diameter 40mm and height 50mm is resting vertically on one of
its ends on the HP. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the VP and inclined at
30 to the HP. The plane meets the axis at a point 30mm from the base. Draw
the development of the lateral surface of the lower portion of the truncated
cylinder.
12. A hexagonal prism of base side 20mm and height 40mm has a square hole of
side 16mm at center. The axis of the square and hexagon coincide. One of the
faces of the square hole is parallel to the face of the hexagon. Draw the
isometric projection of the prism with hole of full scale.

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UNIT V FREE HAND SKETCHING AND PERSPECTIVE

PROJECTION
Free Hand sketching of front view, top view and a suitable side
view of simplecomponents from their isometric views. Normal
perspective of prism, pyramid, cylinder& cone in vertical position
by visual ray method only.

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UNIT-V

Perspective Projection:
The perspective projection, also sometimes called scenographic
projection or central projection, is the form of pictorial drawing
which most nearly approaches the pictures as seen by the eyes.

Perspective projection is sometimes called scenographic

projection or central projection, since the lines of sight converge
to a single point or centre. Perspective obtained will depend on the
relative position of the object, picture plane and point of sight. In
this projection, the eye is assumed to be situated at a definite
position relative to the object. The picture plane (vertical plane) is
placed between the object and the eye. Visual rays from the eye to
the object pierce the picture plane and form an image on it. This
image is known as perspective of the object.

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Visual Ray Method:

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The points at which the visual rays joining the station point and the
object pierces the picture plane in both the top and profile views,
are projected to intersect each other to give points in the
perspective. Since the perspective view is obtained by the
intersection of the visual ray, this method is called Visual Ray
Method.
IMPORTANCE POINT IN VISUAL RAY METHOD:
1. Draw the PP line to represent the picture plane in the top view
2. Draw the plan of the object based on its position with respect
to the PP
3. Draw the Ground Plane, the GP at any convenient distance
from PP and project the front view based on the position of
object with respect to GP.
4. Locate the position of the central plane with respect to the
object and represent it as a line in both the views. On it mark
the top view (s) and front view (s') of the station point based
on this position with respect to PP and GP.
5. Join all plan points with s and note the intercepts of each line
with PP line
6. From each intercept, with PP, draw projector vertically till it
meets the line joining the elevation of the corresponding point
and s' to get the perspective.
7. Follow the above step to get the perspective of other points of
the object
8. Join all these points in proper sequence to get the perspective
of the objective

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Perspective view of the point P.

Perspective view of line

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Perspective view of plane

Perspective view of square prism & pyramid

(Resting on the ground on one of its faces /on the ground vertically
with an edge of base parallel)

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On the ground on its base with a face parallel

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Perspective view of CONE

Free Hand Sketching:

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In order to achieve a complete shape description, it is

necessary to get more than one projection, and therefore,
additional planes of projection are used to project more views on
them, for the object. As such, the orthographic system of
projection is also called multi-view projection method.

In the orthographic projection drawing, for getting the

different views of an object, three main planes are usually used.
One of these set up in vertical position is called the vertical plane
of projection (VP) or Frontal Plane (FP). The second, set up in
horizontal position, i.e., perpendicular to the VP, is called
Horizontal Plane (HP). The third, plane set up perpendicular to the
vertical and horizontal planes is called Profile Plane (PP).

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FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION

Symbol of projection

In the first angle projection, the profile view is projected on

the opposite side, i.e., Left view is projected on the right plane and
vice versa, where as in the third angle projection, it is projected on
the same side plane i.e., left view is projected on the left plane.

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Important Questions
1. A regular hexagonal pyramid of base edge 20mm and height 35mm rests on
its base on the ground plane with one of its base edges touching the picture
plane. The station point is 30mm above the ground plane and 40mm in front
of the pp. the center plane is 30mm to the right of the axis. Draw the
perspective projection of the pyramid.
2. Draw by freehand, front view (from X), top view and a suitable side view of
the object shown in figure1. Add necessary dimensions of the part.
3. A square prism of 25mm side of base and height 40mm rests with its base on
ground such that one of the rectangular faces is inclined at 30to the picture
plane. The nearest vertical edge touches the picture plane. The station point is
50mm in front of the picture plane, 60mm above the ground and lies opposite
to the nearest vertical edge the touches the picture plane. Draw the perspective
view.
4. Draw the front, top and side views of the isometric view of the object shown
in figure 1.
5. Draw the perspective view of a square prism of edge of base 40mm and length
60mm lying on a rectangular face on the ground, with a corner on PP and the
bases equally inclined to PP. the station point is 60mm in front of PP and
80mm above GL and lies in a central plane, which is passing through the
centre of the prism.
Make free hand sketches of front, top and right side views of the 3D object
shown blow

6. Draw the perspective projection of a cube of 25mm edge, lying on a face on

the ground plane, with an edge touching the picture plane and all vertical faces
equally inclined to the picture plane. The station point is 50mm in front of the

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picture plane, 35mm above the ground plane and lies in a center plan which is
10mm to the left of the cube.
7. Make free hand stretches of the front, top and right side view of the object
shown below.
8. Draw the perspective projection of a cub of 25mm edge, lying in a face on the
ground plane, with an edge touching the picture plane and all vertical faces
equally inclined to the picture plane. The station point is 50mm in front of the
picture plane, 35mm above the ground plane and plane and lies in a central
plane which is 10mm to the left of the centre of the cube.
9. Draw the front, top, and right side view of the object shown below.
10. A regular hexagonal pyramid of base edge 20mm and height 35mm rests on
its base on the ground plane with one of its base edges touching the picture
plane. The station point is 30mm above the ground plane and 40mmin front of
the PP. the center plane is 30mm to the right of the axis. Draw the perspective
projection of the pyramid.

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KEYPOINTS & NOTATIONS
IMPORTANT NOTATION IN ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

HP means the Horizontal Plane

VP means the Vertical Plane
FV means the Front View
TV means the Top View
SV means the Side View
STV means the Sectional Top View
GR means the Ground
TL means the True Length
CP means the Cutting Plane
PPP means the Picture Plane for Perspective Projection.

KEY POINTS ABOUT THE PROJECTIONS OF POINTS:

1. The front view and the top view of a point are always on the same
vertical line.

2. The distance of the front view of a point from the XY line is always
equal to the distance of the given point from the HP.

3. If a given point is above the Hp, its front view is above the XY line. If
the given point is below the Hp, its front view is below the XY line.

4. The distance of the top view of a point from the XY line is always equal
to the distance of the given point from the VP.

5. If a given point is in front of the VP, its top view is below the XY line. If
the given point is behind the VP, its top view is above the XY line.]

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KEY POINTS ABOUT THE POSITIONS OF A POINT AND ITS

PROJECTIONS:

Dihedral Angle Position of the Given Point Position in the Position in the
or Quadrant Front View Top View
FIRST Above the HP, in front of the VP Above XY Below XY
SECOND Above the HP, behind the VP Above XY Above XY
THIRD Below the HP, behind the VP Below XY Above XY
FOURTH Below the HP, in front of the VP Below XY Below XY

PROJECTIONS OF A LINE INCLINED TO BOTH THE REFERENCE PLANES:

Case I:
If a straight line is projected when it is inclined at e to the HP and either
parallel to the VP or inclined to the VP, then:
(i) The length in the top or plan view remains the same and
(ii) If one end point in the FV remains at constant distance from XY, the
other end point will also remain at the same distance from XY, provided the
angle with the HP does not change. In other words, if point A of a straight line
AB is fixed, point B will have its front view b' on a path parallel to the XY line.
Case II:
If a straight line is projected when it is inclined at q; to the VP and either
parallel to the HP or inclined to the HP, then:
(i) The length in the front view remains the same and
(ii) If one end point in the TV remains at a constant distance and if the
angle from XY with the VP does not change, the other end point will also remain
at the same distance from XY. In other words, if point A of a straight line AB is
fixed, point B will have its top view b on a path parallel to the XY line.

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KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT PROJECTIONS OF PLANES:

1. Plane perpendicular to one reference plane and parallel to the other (one
step)
If it is parallel to the VP and perpendicular to the HP, its front view is
drawn with the true shape and size and the top view is a horizontal line.
If it is parallel to the HP and perpendicular to the VP, its top view is
drawn with the true shape and size and the front view is a horizontal line.
II. When a plane is perpendicular to one and inclined to the other, two steps are
required to draw the projections (two steps)
Step I:
If the given plane is perpendicular to the VP and inclined to the HP, assume it to
be parallel to the HP in Step I. If it is perpendicular to the HP and inclined to
the VP, assume it to be parallel to the VP in Step I.
Step II:
Rotate the plane to make it inclined to one reference plane, as required, keeping
it perpendicular to the other.

III. When a plane is inclined to both reference planes, three steps are required
to draw the projections
Step I:
The plate is assumed to be parallel to the VP, perpendicular to the HP,
and have one of its edges, say, AI B l, perpendicular to the HP.
Step II:
The plate is assumed to be inclined to the VP at an angle , while
remaining perpendicular to the HP. The other edge, say, A2B2 also remains
perpendicular to the HP. As relations with the HP do not change, projection on

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the HP, that is, the top view, remains as a straight line and front views are at the
same distance from XY as the corresponding points are from XY in Step 1.

Step III:
The plate is assumed to be rotated so that A2B2becomes AB, inclined at e
to the HP. However, none of the lines or points changes their relations with the
VP. Hence, in the front view the shape does not change and the distances of
various points from the XY line in the top view remain the same in Step II and
Step III.

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THE POSITION OF THE PLANE TWO STEP PROBLEM:

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THE POSITION OF THE PLANE FOR THREE-STEP PROBLEMS:

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Projections of Solids:
ME 6152 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

For drawing projections of solids, one has to frequently draw projections

of lines either parallel to the HP or the VP and inclined to the other with an
angle that is between 0 to 90.Similarly, sometimes, the projections of plane
surfaces Perpendicular to one and inclined to the other are required to be
drawn.

IMPORTANCE POINTS OF PROJECTION OF LINES

Further, it may be recollected that the relations of the original point, line,
or plane with the HP are the relations of its FV or SV with the XY line.
Similarly, those with the VP are the relations of its TV with the XY line or its SV
with the
X IY1 line.

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IMPORTANCE POINTS OF PROJECTION OF PLANES:

PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS WITH THE AXIS PARALLEL TO ONE AND

INCLINED TO THE OTHER REFERENCE PLANE:

The projections of a solid with its axis parallel to the VP and inclined to
the HP or parallel to the HP and inclined to the VP cannot be drawn directly as
the base of such a solid will not be parallel to anyone of the reference planes and
two steps are required to draw the projections. Such problems are solved in two
steps and the possible cases are listed in a table.

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ME 6152 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

HINTS FOR CONDITIONS TO BE SATISFIED IN TWO-STEP

PROBLEMS:

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HINT FOR POSITION OF THE AXIS:

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ME 6152 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS WITH THE AXIS INCLINED TO BOTH

THE HP AND THE VP (HINTS FOR CONDITIONS TO BE SATISFIED
IN THE THREE-STEP PROBLEMS):

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SECTION OF SOLIDS:

The following steps can be used to draw sectional views:

Step I:
Draw the projections of the given solid in an uncut condition in both the
views (the FV and the STY) by thin construction lines.
Step II:
Draw the cutting plane (or the section plane) as a straight line inclined at B
to the XY line in the front view if it is given to be perpendicular to the VP. Draw
it inclined at B to the HP or as a straight line inclined at rp to XY in the top
view, if it is given to be perpendicular to the HP and inclined at rp to the VP.
Step III:
If the solid is a cylinder or a cone, draw a number of generators
intersecting the cutting plane line. Obtain their projections in the other view.
Generators are lines drawn through the points on the base circle and are parallel
to the axis for a cylinder or joining the apex for a cone.
Step IV:
Locate the points common between the cutting plane line and the surface
lines of the solid. These surface lines include the base and side edges of prisms
and pyramids or the generators and circular edges of cylinders and cones.
Number these points as follows:
(i) Start from one end of the cutting plane, and move towards the other end
naming the points on visible surface lines sequentially.
(ii) After reaching the other end, return along the cutting plane line and
continue to number those points that are on hidden surface lines sequentially. In

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ME 6152 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

case of a hollow solid, imagine the hole as a separate solid and number the
points in the usual manner.
Step V:
Project the points in the other views by drawing interconnecting projectors
and intersecting the concerned surface lines.
Step VI:
Join the points obtained in Step V by continuous curved lines if the points
are on a conical or a cylindrical surface. Otherwise, join them by straight lines.
The apparent section is completed by drawing cross-hatching section lines
within the newly cut surface.
Step VII:
Complete the projections by drawing the proper conventional lines for all
the existing edges and surface boundaries.

HINT TO LOCATE THE CUTTING PLANE:

The required cutting plane can be quickly located if the following hints are kept
in mind:
1. The number of comers in the true shape of a section is always equal to
the number of edges of the solid that is cut by the cutting plane.
2. The true shape of a section has a configuration similar to that of its
apparent section. This means:
(i) The number of edges and corners are equal.
(ii) Any pair of lines, if parallel in one, will remain parallel in the other.
(iii) A rectangle in one need not be a rectangle in the other. Instead, it will
be a four-sided figure with the opposite sides parallel. That is, it may be a
rectangle, a Square or a parallelogram.
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(iv) A curved boundary in one will remain a curved boundary in the other
but a Circle need not be a circle. It may also be an ellipse.
3. A section as curve can be obtained only when the generators of a
cylinder or of a cone are cut.
4. When a cutting plane cuts all the generators of a cylinder or a cone, then
the true shape of the section is an ellipse.
5. When the cutting plane is inclined to the base of a cone at an angle that
is equal to, greater than or less than that made by its generator with the base,
then the true shape of the section is a parabola a hyperbola or an ellipse,
respectively.
6. When a cutting plane cuts along the generators of a cone, then the true
shape of the section is an isosceles triangle.
7. When a cutting plane cuts along the generators of a cylinder, then the
true shape of the section is a rectangle.
The actual procedure to locate the cutting plane involves the following steps:

Step I:
Draw the projections of the given uncut solid in the proper position with
respect to the HP and the VP by then lines.
Step II:
If the cutting plane is to be perpendicular to the VP or the HP, draw a
number of trial cutting planes in the front view or in the top view, respectively.
Select those cutting planes that intersect the number of edges of the solid equal
to the number of corners of the true shape of the required section. If the solid is a
cone or a cylinder, select the cutting plane based on Hints (4) to (7).

Step III:

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Sketch the shape of the section by projecting points on one of the selected
cutting planes. If the cutting plane line is inclined to the XY line, the shape of
the section that will be obtained will not be the true shape and it is called an
apparent section.
Step IV:
From a sketch of the true shape, find out the dependence of its dimensions
on the various lines in projections, and find out whether by shifting the cutting
plane the same edges and surfaces can be cut and whether the required lengths
can be obtained for the true shape of the section. Accordingly, adjust the
position of the cutting plane. If adjustment of dimensions is not possible, try
another cutting plane and rework steps III and IV.

DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES;

Step I:
Draw the projections of the given solid in the uncut condition using thin
lines.
Step II:
Draw the cutting plane as a line in the front or top view depending upon
whether it is perpendicular to the VP or the HP. If the cut is a cylindrical or
prismatic hole, it will be drawn as a circle or a polygon in the FV or the TV
depending upon whether its axis is perpendicular to the VP or the HP.
Step III:
Draw a number of surface lines, particularly the ones that are intersecting
the Cutting plane line and passing through the critical points as in the case of

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intersections of surfaces problems. For a curved solid or a curved cut, draw at

least one more surface line between two adjacent critical points.
Step IV:
Locate the points common between the cutting plane lines and surface
lines, and number them in the same manner as in Chapter 10. The edges of the
base or side surfaces are also surface lines.

Step V:

Draw the development of the uncut solid and locate the positions of the
surface Lines by thin lines drawn in Step III.
Step VI:
The points common between the cutting plane and the surface lines
named in
Step IV can be located on the respective surface lines of the development at true
distances from the known end points of those surface lines. If the concerned
surface line does not represent the true length either in the FV or the TV, find its
true length by making one view parallel to XY and transfer the cutting plane
point on it. Find its true distance from one of the end points. And use this
distance to plot the point in the development.
Step VII:
Join the cutting plane points in serial cyclic order in the development. If
the solid is a curved one or the cutting plane is curved, join the points by curved
lines, otherwise, by straight lines. The number of lines in the development will
be equal to the number of formed corners, and a corner may form where the
edge of the solid is cut by the cutting plane or where there is a corner in the cut.
If the two points to be joined in sequence are located on edges of the same base,

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ME 6152 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS
they should be joined by moving along existing base/v edges if the development
of the lateral surface is drawn.
Step VIII:

Complete the development by drawing boundary lines by thick lines.

Complete the projections by drawing proper conventional lines for all existing
edges and surface boundaries.

Isometric Projections:
Isometric and Orthographic Projections of Principal Lines

Orthographic Projection Isometric Projection

Principle Position of Position of Position of Length Position of line Length
position of line in FV line in TV line in SV
the line
Perpendicular Vertical Point Vertical True Vertical Reduced
The HP length if To
0
Perpendicular Point Vertical Horizontal projection inclined at 30 Isometric
The VP of lines to the horizontal Scale
Perpendicular Horizontal Horizontal Point Inclined at 300
The PP to the horizontal
in other
direction

The steps for drawing isometric projections of an object are as follows:

Step I:
Draw orthographic projections of the given object and enclose each view
in the smallest rectangle. The sides of the rectangles should be vertical and
horizontal lines only because they are supposed to be the principal lines of the
enclosing box of the
Object.
Step II:

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Select the faces that are to be visible so that the maximum number of
visible
Lines/surfaces are obtained in the isometric projection. Generally, the front face,
the top face, and one side face are made visible. If the left-side view gives the
maximum number of visible lines, the left face is made visible. If the right-side
view gives the maximum number of visible lines, the right face is made visible.
Step III:
Correlate the projections of the various surfaces in all the views by using
the Properties of projections of plane surfaces. Having co-related the projections
in two views or more, points should be measured in principal directions in any
two views and should be plotted in isometric projections. Coordinate distances
should be reduced to isometric scale before plotting.

Step IV:
Draw all the boundaries of surfaces by proper conventional lines
depending upon their visibility.

Important points in perspective projection:

i. A surface touching the PPP has its true shape and size in the perspective
view.
ii. Perspective views of lines touching the PPP are of their true lengths and
true inclinations.
iii. Perspective views of vertical lines are vertical lines.
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iv. Perspective views of horizontal lines, parallel to each other and inclined
to the PPP; converge into a single point, which is the front view of the
vanishing point.
v. Perspective views of lines parallel to the PPP are parallel to the original
lines.
vi. If the object is behind the PPP, the size of its perspective view will be
reduced in size compared to the object. Also, the greater the distance from
the PPP, the smaller the perspective.
vii. For an object of nearly equal length, width and height, the station point
should be selected so that the visual rays through the outermost boundaries
of the object make a 30 angle between them. If the object is small, the
station point should also be selected so that a good view of the front side
as well as the top of the object is obtained.

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