OBJECTIVES: OUTCOMES:

➢ Upon successful completion of this course, the

This course will introduce students to student shall be able to:
Engineering Drawing and build their ➢ Understand the importance of BIS Standards in
Engineering Drafting
ability to read drawings and interpret
➢ Graphically construct and understand the
the position and form of simple importance of Conic sections and special curves in
geometry, culminating into Engineering applications
➢ Given a problem statement in geometric elements
understanding of simple technical
such as points, lines, planes, solids, Orthographic
assemblies projections will be drafted.
➢ Draw the orthographic projections of sectioned
solids and also will Develop their surfaces
➢ Interpret Orthographic, Isometric and Perspective
views of objects
CONCEPTS AND CONVENTIONS (Not for Examination) 2

➢ Drawing standard: BIS, Lettering, Dimensioning, Type of lines,

Conventions, Geometrical constructions: Dividing a straight line into
equal parts, Bisecting a given angle, Construction of polygon – Triangle,
Square, Pentagon and Hexagon using drawing tools
Publication Bureau of Indian Standards:

➢ IS 10711 – 2001: Technical products Documentation – Size and lay out of

drawing sheets.
➢ IS 9609 (Parts 0 & 1) – 2001: Technical products Documentation –
Lettering.
➢ IS 10714 (Part 20) – 2001 & SP 46 – 2003: Lines for technical drawings.
➢ IS 11669 – 1986 & SP 46 – 2003: Dimensioning of Technical Drawings.
➢ IS 15021 (Parts 1 to 4) – 2001: Technical drawings – Projection Methods.
Special points applicable to University Examinations:

➢ There will be five questions, each of either-or type covering all units of the
syllabus.
➢ All questions will carry equal marks of 20 each making a total of 100.
➢ The answer paper shall consist of drawing sheets of A3 size only. The students
will be permitted to use appropriate scale to fit solution within A3 size.
➢ The examination will be conducted in appropriate sessions on the same day
 TEXT BOOK:

▪ Bhatt N.D. and Panchal V.M., “Engineering

Drawing”, Charotar Publishing House, 50th

Edition, 2014.
 REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. K. Venugopal & V. Prabhu Raja, “Engineering Graphics”, New Age International (P)
Limited, 2009
2. M.B. Shah & B.C. Rana, “Engineering Drawing”, Pearson Education, 2009.
3. K. R. Gopalakrishna, “Engineering Drawing” (Vol..I&II), Subhas Publications, 2010.
4. K.V. Natrajan, “A text book of Engineering Graphics”, Dhanalakshmi Publishers,
Chennai, 2006
5. S. Gowri and T. Jeyapoovan, “Engineering Graphics”, Vikas Publishing House Pvt
Ltd., 2011
 Sketch vs Diagram vs Drawing:

Sketch: Sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not intended as a

finished work, often consisting of a multitude of overlapping lines.

Diagram: Diagram is a schematic representation of something. It is created

for scientific and technical purposes, to show how something works.

Drawing: Drawing is an accurate and realistic representation of something. It

is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to
mark on paper or other two-dimensional medium.
Drawing
Describing any object/ information diagrammatically
Engineering Drawing

Graphical means of expression of technical details without the

barrier of a language.

“Universal language for engineers”

Provides effective communication among engineers.
The Fact :

• Drawings offer better idea about the Shape, Size & Appearance of
any object or situation or location in less time.
• Hence, Best Media of Communication not only in Engineering but in
almost all Fields.

Drawing is important for all branches of engineering.

TO STUDY ENGINEERING GRAPHICS ….

• Need not to be an artist

• Who can understand and distinguish the importance of thick line and thin line

• Who can follow rules and regulations of Engineering Graphics

• Who can draw perfect parallel and perpendicular lines

• Who can maintain cleanliness

• Who understand the significance of each “mm”

• Who appeals more practice

To become a successful professional……..

What will you learn in this course?

• You will learn - How industry communicates technical information.

• Visualization – the ability to mentally control visual information.
• Graphics theory – geometry and projection techniques.
• Standards – set of rules that govern how parts are made and technical
drawings are represented.
• Conventions – commonly accepted practices and methods used for
technical drawings.
• Tools – devices used to create technical drawings and models.
• Applications – the various uses for technical drawings.
Why we go for manual drawing?

• Computer cannot replace the drafting board and equipment

• Ex: Learning Mathematics to apply in Engineering ( in Professional way )
• It impart fundamentals
• Engineering (manual) Drawing is the first step (course) to technical
drawing
 Engineering Graphics
• Architectural Graphics
• Mechanical Graphics
• Electrical/electronic Graphics
Architectural graphics : Plans and elevations: buildings of bridges,
towers, ships, aircraft, pipe, vent, and cable systems

Mechanical graphics : Assembly drawings / Sectioned drawings of

various machine components
 Electrical/electronic graphics

• To represent: Elements like transistors, diodes, resistors, inductors, capacitors, relays and
solid-state circuitry with block, line, schematic, wiring, terminal, and logic diagrams
• To draw: contacts, guidance, arrangement, and installation drawings.
• To establish the details of generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical power for
residential, commercial and industrial users
• To enable Industrial users - lighting, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
• To represent basic electrical graphical symbols including receptacles, switches, batteries,
fuses, and circuit breakers.
• To draw cable and wiring drawings including their color coding
• Projects might include basic power riser diagrams, circuit mapping, transmission diagrams,
and substation layouts.
Design areas:

• Component design
• Flowchart design
• Printed Circuit Board (PCB) design
• Frame work design
• Product aesthetic design
• Wiring design
• Work cell design
• Laboratory layout design Etc Etc…..
Drawing Instruments and their uses…
1. Drawing board 7. French curves
2. T-square 8. Drawing papers
3. Set-squares - 45° and 30°- 60° 9. Drawing pencils
4. Drawing instrument box, containing: 10. Sand-paper block
(i) Large-size compass
(ii) Lengthening bar 11. Eraser (Rubber)
(iii) Small bow compass 12. Drawing pins, clips or adhesive tapes
(iv) Large-size divider
(v) Small bow divider 13. Duster
(vi) Small bow ink-pen 14. Drafting machine
(vii) Inking pen
15. Roll-n-draw.
5. Scales
6. Protractor
DRAWING BOARD

Designation Size in “mm”

B0 1000 X 1500
B1 700 X 1000
B2 500 X 700
Bureau of Indian Standards (15:1444-1989) B3 350 X 500
SIZES OF DRAWING BOARDS
T-SQUARE
SET-SQUARES
Large-size compass with interchangeable pencil and pen legs
 DESIGNATION DESCRIPTION
SCALES SCALE

M1 Full Size 1:1

50 cm to a metre 1:2
M2 40 cm to a metre 1:2.5
20 cm to a metre 1:5
M3 10 cm to a metre 1:10
5 cm to a metre 1:20
M4 2 cm to a metre 1:50
1 cm to a metre 1:100
M5 5 cm to a metre 1:200
2 cm to a metre 1:500
M6 3.3 cm to a metre 1:300
1.66 cm to a metre 1:600
M7 2.5 cm to a metre 1:400
1.25 cm to a metre 1:800
M8 1 cm to a metre 1:1000
0.5 cm to a metre 1:2000
STANDARD SCALES
PROTRACTOR
FRENCH CURVES
DRAWING PENCILS

• The grade of a pencil lead is shown by figures and letters marked at

one of its ends.
• Letters HB denote the medium grade.
• The increase in hardness is shown by the value of the figure put in
front of the letter H, viz. 2H, 3H, 4H etc.
• Similarly, the grade becomes softer according to the figure placed in
front of the letter B, viz. 2B, 3B, 4B etc.
DRAWING PENCILS
DRAWING PENCILS

• Cylindrical point
• Conical point
• Chisel edge.

• Mechanical clutch pencils with a different lead size and grade like 5 mm, 4 mm
and H, 2H, HB etc., are also available.
• Sharpening is not required in such pencils.
Pencil drawing
In finished drawing, all lines (except construction lines- used to construct the
drawing) should be dense, clean and uniform.
Construction line should be drawn very thin and should be hardly visible in the
finished drawing ( they should not be erased).
ERASER ( RUBBER)

• Soft India-rubber is the most suitable kind of eraser for pencil drawings.
• It should be such as not to spoil the surface of the paper.
• Frequent use of rubber should be avoided by careful planning.
DRAWING PINS, CLIPS AND
ADHESIVE TAPES
SAND-PAPER BLOCK
DUSTER

Duster should preferably be of soft towel cloth of convenient size.

SHARPENER
DRAFTING MACHINE ( Drafter )
ROLL N DRAW
All dimensions shown are in “mm”
Standards and Conventions…
 Standards Definition

Drawing standards are set of rules that govern how technical drawings
are represented.

Why Necessary

Drawing standards are used so that drawings convey the same meaning
to everyone who reads them.
• Following the standard rules (grammar) of any language (Hindi/English) –
communication of thought between people becomes easier.

• If words in a sentence were presented randomly – understanding becomes very

difficult.

• For effective communication of technical (graphics) information– set of

standards and conventions – a must.

• Standards – set of rules that govern how technical drawings are represented..
 Standard Code
Country Code Full name

USA ANSI American National Standard Institute

Japan JIS Japanese Industrial Standard

UK BS British Standard

Australia AS Australian Standard

Germany DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung

ISO International Standards Organization

 Drawing Sheet : Standard size
A4
Trimmed paper of
a size A0 A4. A3

A2
Standard sheet size (JIS)
A4 210 x 297
A1
A3 297 x 420
A2 420 x 594
A1 594 x 841
A0 841 x 1189
(Dimensions in millimeters) A0
Drawing Margins

A3 297 x 420
Title Block
Conventions –
commonly accepted
practices, rules, or methods.
Dashed lines are used to represent
hidden features of an engineering
drawing..

Hidden lines – location of drilled

hole’s diameter, in a view where the
hole cannot be directly seen.
Drawings are dimensioned using an accepted set
of standards such as placing the dimension text
such that it is read from the bottom of the sheet.
Units of Measure

• International systems of units (SI) – which is based on the meter.

• Millimeter (mm) - The common SI unit of measure on engineering drawing.

• Individual identification of linear units is not required if all dimensions on a

drawing are in the same unit (mm).

• The drawing shall however contain a note:

• ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm. (Bottom left corner outside the title box)
Drawing Scales

Designation of a scale consists of the word “SCALE” followed by the indication

of its ratio, as follow
• SCALE 1:1 for full size
• SCALE X:1 for enlargement scales
• SCALE 1:X for reduction scales
TEXT BOOK:

• Bhatt N.D. and Panchal V.M., “Engineering

Drawing”, Charotar Publishing House, 50th

Edition, 2010.
GE1815 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Basic Line Types

According to Bharath
Standard SP46:2003.
Line thickness:

• Varied according to the drawing and are finalized either by ink or by pencil.
Inked drawings:
• The line-group is designated according to the thickness of the thickest line.
• Forany particular drawing a line-group is selected according to its size and type.
• All lines should be sharp and dense so that good prints can be reproduced.
Line – Type of Line
group mm A B C D E F G
1.2 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.4 1.2 0.4 0.4
0.8 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.3
0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1
Pencil drawings:
• It is important to note that in the finished drawing, all lines except construction lines should be
dense, clean and uniform.
• Construction lines should be drawn very thin and faint and should be hardly visible in the finished
drawing.

Line-group mm Thickness Lines

0.2 Medium Out lines, dotted lines, cutting plane-lines
0.1 Thin line Centre lines, section lines, dimension lines,
extension lines, construction
lines, leader lines, short-break lines and
long-break lines.

0.5 Thick line Object line, Outer lines, edges

TYPES OF LINES
(1) Outlines or principal lines (A): Lines drawn to represent visible edges and surface
boundaries of objects - continuous thick or wide lines.
(2) Margin lines (A): They are continuous thick or wide lines along which the prints are
trimmed .
(3)Dimension lines (B): - Continuous thin lines. They are terminated at the outer ends by
pointed arrowheads touching the outlines, extension lines or centre lines.
(4)Extension or projection lines (B): - Continuous thin lines. They extend by about 3 mm
beyond the dimension lines.
(5)Construction lines (B): These lines are drawn for constructing figures. They are shown in
geometrical drawings only - continuous thin light lines.
TYPES OF LINES Contd…
(6)Hatching or section lines (B): These lines are drawn to make the section evident. They are
continuous thin lines and are drawn generally at an angle of 45° to meet main outline of the
section. They are uniformly spaced about 1 mm to 2 mm apart.
(7)Leader or pointer lines (B): Leader line is drawn to connect a note with the feature to
which it applies. It is a continuous thin line.
(8)Border lines (B): Perfectly rectangular working space is determined by drawing the border
lines - continuous thin lines.
(9)Short-break lines (C): - continuous, thin and wavy. They are drawn freehand and are used
to show a short break, or irregular boundaries
TYPES OF LINES Contd….
(10)Long-break lines (D): These lines are thin ruled lines with short zigzags with in
them. They are drawn to show long breaks.
(11) Hidden or dotted lines (E or F):
• Interior or hidden edges and surfaces are shown by hidden lines.
• They are of medium thickness and made up of short dashes of approximately equal
lengths of about 2 mm spaced at equal distances of about 1 mm.
• When a hidden line meets or intersects another hidden line or an outline, their
point of intersection or meeting should be clearly shown.
TYPES OF LINES Contd…
(12) Centre lines (G):
• indicates the axes of cylindrical, conical or spherical objects or details, and also to show
the centres of circles and arcs. They are thin, long, chain lines composed of alternately
long and dot spaced approximately 1 mm apart.
• The long dashes are about 9 to 12 mm.
• Centre lines should extend for a short distance beyond the outlines to which they refer.
• The point of intersection between two centre lines must always be indicated.
• Locus lines, extreme positions of movable parts and pitch circles are also shown by this
type of line.
TYPES OF LINES Contd…
(13)Cutting-plane lines (H): The location of a cutting plane is shown by this line. It is a
long, thin, chain line, thick at ends only.
(14) Chain thick (J): These lines are used to indicate special treatment on the surface.
(15) Chain thick double-dots (K): This is chain thin double-dot line.
 Lines Pencil
Initial work and construction lines H
Outlines, dotted lines, section-plane Lines, dimension lines, 2H
arrowheads
Centre lines, section lines 3H or 4H

Line Description General Application

Line Description General Application
Line Description General Application
Lettering
Lettering

• Writing of titles, sub-titles, dimensions, scales and other details on a drawing

• Essential features of lettering – legibility, uniformity, ease, rapidity, and

suitability for microfilming/ photocopying/any other photographic processes

• No ornamental and embellishing style of letter

• Plain letters and numerals which are clearly distinguishable from each other in
order to avoid any confusion even in case of slight mutilations
Lettering – BIS: 9609

• Single stroke lettering for use in engineering drawing.

• Width of the stem of the letters and numerals will be uniformly thick equal to
thickness of lines produced by the tip of the pencil.

• Single stroke does not mean – entire letter written without lifting the
pencil/pen
Lettering types

• Lettering A – Height of the capital letter is divided into 14 equal parts

• Lettering B – Height of the capital letter is divided into 10 equal parts
Heights of Letters and Numerals

• Height of the capital letters is equal to the height of the numerals used in
dimensioning
• Height of letters and numerals – different for different purposes
Specifications of A - Type Lettering
Specifications of B -Type Lettering
 Recommendation
Examples
Text’s style on the drawing must have
the following 2 properties GOOD
Not uniform in style.

- Shape Not uniform in

height.
Legibility - Space between letters
- Space between words Not uniformly
vertical.

Not uniform in
- Size (or text height) thickness of stroke.
Uniformity
- line thickness Inappropriate space b/w letters
Style (this course)
• Gothic vertical style.
• Begin the sentence, phrase or word with a capital letter.
• Text height 6 mm.
• Space between lines of text is about of text height.
• Height of the lower-case letter is about 2/3 of that of a capital letter.
 Basic Strokes

Straight Slanted Horizontal Curved

Examples
“I” letter “A” letter “B” letter
4 5
1 1 2 1

3 6
3
2
Upper Case Letters and Numerals
 Sentence Composition
Leave the space between words equal to the space requires for writing a letter “O”.

Example

ALLODIMENSIONSOAREOIN
MILLIMETERSOUNLESS
O T H E RW I S E O S P E C I F I E D .
DIMENSIONING
Dimensioning
• Indicating on a drawing, the size of the object and other details essential for its
construction and function, using lines, numerals, symbols, notes, etc.
• These are essential for the production, inspection and functioning of the object
Types of dimensions
• Two types of dimensions needed on a drawing are:
• (i) size or functional dimensions
indicate sizes, viz. length, breadth, height, depth, diameter etc
• (ii) location or datum dimensions (shown by letters F and L respectively).
show locations or exact positions of various constructional details
within the object.
The letter F represents functional dimensions, while NF represents
non-functional dimensions.
Dimensioning Terms and Notations
(1) Dimension line :
• Dimension line is a thin continuous line.
• It is terminated by arrowheads touching the outlines, extension lines or centre
lines.

(2) Extension line :

• A thin continuous line drawn in extension of an outline.
• Formerly, the B.I.S. had recommended that a gap of about 1 mm should be kept
between the extension line and an outline or object boundry.
• It extends by about 3 mm beyond the dimension line.
(3) Arrowhead :
• An arrowhead is placed at each end of a dimension line.
• Its pointed end touches an outline, an extension line or a centre line.
• The size of an arrowhead should be proportional to the thickness of the outlines.
• The length of the arrowhead should be about three times its maximum width.
• It is drawn freehand with two strokes made in the direction of its pointed end.
• The space between them is neatly filled up.
• Different types of arrow heads are shown in fig ( next slide ).
• Generally closed and filled arrowhead is widely used in engineering drawing.
(4) Leader :
• A leader or a pointer is a thin continuous line connecting a note or a dimension figure with the feature to
which it applies.
• One end of the leader terminates either in an arrowhead or a dot.
• The arrowhead touches the outline, while the dot is placed within the outline of the object.
• The other end of the leader is terminated in a horizontal line at the bottom level of the first or the last
letter of the note.
• The leader is never drawn vertical or horizontal or curved.
• It is drawn at a convenient angle of not less than 30° to the line to which it touches.
• When pointing to a circle or an arc it is drawn radially. Use of common leaders for more than one
feature should never be made.
Placing of Dimensions:

The two systems of placing dimensions are:

(1) Aligned system and

(2) Unidirectional system.

Aligned system :

• Dimension is placed per-

pendicular to the dimension line
• It may be read from the bottom
edge or the right-hand edge of the
drawing sheet.
• The dimensions should be placed
near the middle and above, but
clear of the dimension lines. View
 Unidirectional system:
• All dimensions are placed that they can
be read from the bottom edge of the
drawing sheet.
• The dimension lines are broken near the
middle for inserting the dimensions.
• This system is mainly used on large
drawings - as of aircrafts, automobiles
etc. where it is inconvenient to read
dimensions from the right-hand side.
View
GENERAL RULES FOR DIMENSIONING

• Dimensioning should be done completely that further calculation or assumption

of any dimension, or direct measurement from the drawing is not necessary.
• Every dimension must be given, but none should be given more than once.
• A dimension should be placed on the view where its use is shown more clearly.
• Dimensions should be placed outside the views, unless they are clearer and more
easily read inside.
 GENERAL RULES FOR DIMENSIONING

• Mutual crossing of dimension lines and dimensioning between hidden lines

should be avoided. Dimension lines should not cross any other line of the
drawing.
• An outline or a centre line should never be used as a dimension line. A centre
line may be extended to serve as an extension line.
• Aligned system of dimensioning is recommended.
• Dimension lines should be drawn at least 8 mm away from the outlines and
from each other.
 GENERAL RULES FOR DIMENSIONING

• Smaller dimensions should be

placed nearer the view and the
larger further away so that extension
lines do not cross dimension lines.

• Extension lines may cross each other

or the outlines
CONTINUOUS OR CHAIN DIMENSIONING
PROGRESSIVE OR PARALLEL DIMENSIONING
Representing Smaller Dimensions
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
GE18151 ENGINEERING DRAWING

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
Very essential in the preparation of engineering drawings

(1) Bisecting a line (12) To construct regular polygons

(2) To draw perpendiculars (13) Special methods of drawing regular polygons
(3) To draw parallel lines (14) Regular polygons inscribed in circles
(4) To divide a line (15)To draw regular figures using T-square and set-
(5) To divide a circle squares
(6) To bisect an angle (16) To draw tangents
(7) To trisect an angle (17) Lengths of arcs
(8) To find the centre of an arc (18) Circles and lines in contact
(9) To construct curves (19) Inscribed circles.
(10) To construct equilateral triangles
(11) To construct squares
 Geometric Constructions
Points and Lines
A point represents a location in space.
A line is the shortest distance between two points.
 Geometric Constructions

Angles : An angle is formed by two intersecting lines.

Geometric Constructions

Triangles
• A triangle is a plane figure bounded by
three straight sides.
• The sum of the interior angles is always
180º.
 Geometric Constructions
Quadrilaterals
• A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides.
• If the opposite sides are parallel, the quadrilateral is also a parallelogram.
 Geometric Constructions
Polygons
• A Polygon is any plane figure bounded by straight sides.
• If the polygon has equal angles and equal sides it can be inscribed in or circumscribed
around a circle and is called a regular polygon.
 Geometric Constructions
Circles and Arcs
A circle is a closed curve, all points of which are the same distance from a point called the center.
Geometric Constructions

Solids
• Solids bounded by
plane surfaces are called
polyhedra.
• The surfaces are called
faces.
• If the faces are equal
regular polygons the
solids are called regular
polyhedra.
 BISECTING AN ARC
BISECTING A LINE

C
C

90˚

A E B
A B

D D
Dividing a line into number of equal parts
7´ C
6´
5´
4´
3´
2´
1´

A B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
TO DIVIDE A CIRCLE
C
3
2

1 4
R
A B

8 5

7 6
D
To Bisect an angle

A
F
A

D F D

B E C B E C
To construct equilateral triangles

C
C

60° 60°

A B A B
To construct squares

E F E
C D C
D

j
i
45° 45°
A B A k B
To construct Regular Polygons
Ex: Heptagon
E E

F D F D

O
3 4 3 4
5 5 C
2 X C 2
6 1 6
1

P A B P A B

180 degrees/7 = 25.7 degrees

X
General method for drawing any polygon

F D

9
8
7 P
6
5 C
G
4

A B
To draw Tangent

O
R
Pentagon

D E

E C

A B
C
Hexagon

F
E D

E
A

F C

B
D

A B
C
 UNIT I

ENGINEERING CURVES
 UNIT - I

CURVES AND PROJECTION OF POINTS AND LINES 9+9

• Construction of Engineering Curves: Conic Sections – Ellipse,Parabola,

Hyperbola using Eccentricity method, Cycloid, Involute of Circle and
Pentagon.
• Projection: Orthographic Projection – Principal Planes, Projection of
Points using Four Angles of Projection, Projection of Straight Lines – Lines
parallel or inclined to one or both planes using Rotating Line Method in
First Angle of Projection
ENGINEERING CURVES

Various types of curves which are commonly used in engineering practices are

• Conic sections

• Cycloidal curves

• Involute

• Evolutes

• Spirals

• Helix.
What is Cone ?

▪ It is a surface generated by moving a Straight line

keeping one of its end fixed & other end makes a Vertex/Apex
closed curve.
▪ The fixed point is known as vertex or apex.
▪ The closed curve is known as base.
▪ If the base/closed curve is a circle, we get a cone. 90º
▪ If the base/closed curve is a polygon, we get a
pyramid. Base
 What is Cone ?

▪ The line joins apex to the center of base is called

axis. Vertex/Apex

▪ If axes is perpendicular to base, it is called as right

Cone Axis
circular cone.
Generator
▪ If axis of cone is not perpendicular to base, it is
called as oblique cone. 90º

▪ The line joins vertex/ apex to the circumference of a

cone is known as generator.
Base
CONICS

▪ Definition :- The section obtained by the intersection of a right circular cone

by a cutting plane in different position relative to the axis of the cone are
called CONICS.
 CONIC SECTIONS

Ellipse

Section Plane
Section Plane
Section Plane Through Generators Hyperbola
Parallel to Axis.
Parellel to Base

Circle
Section Plane Parallel
to end generator.
 CONIC SECTIONS

• When the section plane is inclined to the axis and cuts all the generators on one
side of the apex, the section is an ellipse.

• When the section plane is inclined to the axis and is parallel to one of the
generators, the section is a parabola.

• A hyperbola is a plane curve having two separate parts or branches, formed when
two cones that point towards one another are intersected by a plane that is parallel
to the axes of the cones.
 CONIC SECTIONS
• The conic may be defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane in such a way that
the ratio of its distances from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant.
• The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line, the directrix.
• The ratio of “the distance of the point from the focus to the distance of the point from
the directrix” is called eccentricity and is denoted by “e”. It is always
(i) ellipse : e < 1 (ii) parabola : e = 1 (iii) hyperbola : e > 1
• The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to directrix is called the axis.
• The point at which the conic cuts its axis is called the vertex.
ECCENTRICITY

Distance of the moving point from the focus

e=
Distance of the moving point from the directrix

Note
If the e < 1, curve obtained is Ellipse
If the e = 1, curve obtained is Parabola
If the e > 1, curve obtained is Hyperbola
 An ellipse

• Use of elliptical curves is made in arches, bridges, dams, monuments, manholes,

glands and stuffing-boxes etc.
• 𝑥2 𝑦2
Mathematically an ellipse can be described by the equation, 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 = 1

• Here 'a' and 'b' are half the length of major and minor axes of the ellipse and x and y
coordinates.
An Ellipse:
Directrix
3’ Directrix
A A’
50 2’
To construct an ellipse P2
P3

1’
when the distance of the E P1

focus from the directrix is

equal to 50 mm and
C . V. 1 F . 2 3
.
F’ . V’ Axis
C’
T M

eccentricity is 2/3 P’1

P
. P’2
P’3
B B’
N T
A Parabola:
T
A 50 P4
N P3

To construct a parabola,
P . P2

E
P1
when the distance of the
N

focus from the directrix is 50 C

. V 1
2
3
4 D
F
mm. T
P’1

P’2

P’3
P’4
B
 65
A Hyperbola: A
P4

P3

P2
Construct a hyperbola, when E
P1
T
the distance of the focus from

the directrix is 65 mm and

C . V
II
1
2
3
4
F
D
eccentricity is 3/2.
M

P’1

N P’2

P’3
P’4
B
T
 Cycloidal Curves
• These curves are generated by a fixed point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls
without slipping along a fixed straight line or a circle.

• The rolling circle is called generating

circle and the fixed straight line or circle is
termed directing line or directing circle.
Cycloidal curves are used in tooth profile
of gears of a dial gauge.
To construct a cycloid, given the diameter 40mm of the generating circle.

T
6’ 6”

5” 7” P
Φ40 4” 8” T
9’ C . . . . . . . . . . .
C1
3”
C2 3’ C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
C9
C10
9”
. C11

10”
2”

1”
11”
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A B
M
126
EPICYCLOID

• The curve generated by a point on the

circumference of a circle, which rolls without
slipping along another circle outside it, is
called an epicycloid.
A circle of diameter 50mm rolls on the outside of another circle of diameter
180mm without slipping. Draw the path traced by a point on the smaller circle
6” T

5” 7”
P
4”
. . . . .
. C4
.
C5 C6
C7
C8 8”
T
R25 3” . C3
. C9

.
C2 9”
C1

2”
M
C10
.
C11
Tangent - TT
Normal - PM
10”
1”
11”

𝒓
𝜽= x 360° = 𝟐𝟓 x 360° = 100°
𝑹 𝟗𝟎
Hypocycloid

• A curve traced by a point on the

circumference of a circle rolling
internally on the circumference of a fixed
circle.
 A circle of diameter 50mm rolls along the inside of another circle of diameter 200mm
without slipping. Draw the path traced by a point on the smallercircle

. . . . . .
. . C6 C7 10” 11” T
.
C5 C8 C9 9”
Φ50

1” 2” 3”
. . C3
C2 4”
C4

5”
7”
P
C10

8”
C11
Tangent - TT

. C1 6” Normal - PM
T

90°

𝒓 𝟐𝟓
𝜽= x 360° = x 360° = 90°
𝑹 𝟏𝟎𝟎
INVOLUTE

• The involute is a curve traced out by

an end of a piece of thread unwound
from a circle or a polygon, the
thread being kept tight.

• It may also be defined as a curve

traced out by a point in a straight
line which rolls without slipping
along a circle or a polygon.
INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE

P2

P3 Q
P1

4 to p
P4 4
3
5
2
6
1
7 A 8
P5 P
P8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P7
P6 D
Draw the involute of a pentagon of side 35 mm. Draw a tangent and a
normal at any point on the curve.
P1
P

P2

4
2

1
5 P
P3 P5
175

P4
 UNIT I

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
 UNIT - I
CURVES AND PROJECTION OF POINTS AND LINES 9+9

• Construction of Engineering Curves: Conic Sections – Ellipse,Parabola,

Hyperbola using Eccentricity method, Cycloid, Involute of Circle and
Pentagon.
• Projection: Orthographic Projection – Principal Planes, Projection of
Points using Four Angles of Projection, Projection of Straight Lines – Lines
parallel or inclined to one or both planes using Rotating Line Method in
First Angle of Projection
Projections
Projections
Perspective Projection Parallel Projection
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS - Principle.

• 'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means right angled drawing.
• When the projectors are perpendicular to the plane on which the projection
is obtained, it is known as orthographic projection.
• It is a parallel projection technique in which different views of an object are
projected on different reference planes observing perpendicular to respective
reference plane.
Reference planes or Principal planes

• Horizontal Plane (HP)

• Vertical Frontal Plane ( VP )
• Side Or Profile Plane ( PP)

Views in Orthographic projections

• Front View (FV) - FV is a view projected on VP.
• Top View (TV) - TV is a view projected on HP.
• Side View (SV) - SV is a view projected on PP.
Orthographic Rules:

To draw on drawing sheet: 2 Dimensional

• Always Rotate the HP 90° through clockwise
• Always Rotate the PP 90° anti-clockwise for LSV
• Always Rotate the PP 90° clockwise for RSV
• OBJECT - Orientation and position will be described in the problem
• OBSERVER - Always standing in front of first quadrant vertical plane
• Terms ‘ABOVE’ & ‘BELOW’ with respective to H.P.
• Terms ‘INFRONT’ & ‘BEHIND’ with respective to V.P
QUADRANT PATTERN
VP

Observer

2nd Quad. 1ST Quad.

Y

XY HP

X
3rd Quad. 4th Quad.
PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS

VP PP
Y
FV LSV

X Y

TV
X HP
 PLANES

PRINCIPAL PLANES
HP AND VP

AUXILIARY PLANES

Auxiliary Vertical Plane Auxiliary Inclined Plane Profile Plane ( P.P.)

(A.V.P.) (A.I.P.)

Ø
A.V.P.
⊥ to Hp &  to Vp


 Orthographic Projections

First Angle Projections Method Third Angle Projections Method

Object is in 1st Quadrant object is in 3rd Quadrant.
( FV above X-Y, TV below X-Y) ( TV above X-Y, FV below X-Y)

NOTE:- TV
FV
HP term is used in 1st Angle method
& X Y
X Y For the same Ground term is used
in 3rd Angle method of projections FV
TV
G L

Symbolic Representation
NOTATIONS

OBJECT POINT A LINE AB

IT’S TOP VIEW a ab
IT’S FRONT VIEW a’ a’ b’
IT’S SIDE VIEW a” a” b”
Projection of points
Defining a point in different Quadrants

VP

Observer
1ST Quad.
2nd Quad.

Point behind VP, above HP Point infront of VP, above HP

XY HP

3rd Quad. 4th Quad.

Point behind VP, below HP Point infront of VP, below HP
POINT “A” IN 1ST QUADRANT

m
VP a’
A
a’

n
OBSERVER

n
HP VP
X HP Y

m
a
a
POINT “B” IN 2nd QUADRANT

m
VP b
b
B
b’ b’

m
OBSERVER

n
n

VP HP
X Y
HP b
 POINT “C” IN 3rd QUADRANT

VP
c
c

OBSERVER

m
HP
c HP
X VP Y
n

n
C c’
m c’
VP OBSERVER

d HP

X VP HP Y

n
m
d’
D d’
d m
d
POINT “A” on HP and In front of VP

VP

OBSERVER

m
a’ VP
HP HP Y
X
a’ A

m
a a
POINT “A” in VP above HP

a’
VP
A
a’

OBSERVER

n
n

HP
VP
a
X a HP Y
Draw the projections of the following points, keeping the distance between the projectors as
30 mm on the common reference line.

A. Point A, 30 mm above HP and 25 mm infront of VP.

B. Point B, in VP and 25 mm above HP
C. Point C, on HP and 30 mm infront of VP.
D. Point D, 25 mm above HP and 30 mm behind VP.
E. Point E, on HP and 40 mm behind VP.
F. Point F, 25 mm below HP and 40 mm behind VP.
G. Point G, on VP and 40 mm below HP
H. Point H, 30 mm below HP and 40 mm infront of VP.
I. Point I, is contained by both HP and VP.
 POINT A POINT B POINT C POINT DD POINT EE POINT F POINT GG POINT H POINT II
e F f H
a’ d
b’

d’

40
40
25
30
30

25

c’ g i,i’ VP
X b e’ HP Y

25
25

30
40
30

40
a f’ h’
c g’

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 h 30
2
b’

A point A is on both HP and VP.

Another point B is 40 mm above

40
a’b’ = 50 mm
HP and 40 mm infront of VP.
a,a’
Draw the projections when the
X Y
line joining their plans is 50
mm. Also draw and measure the

40
line joining their elevations
b
 UNIT I

PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES.

AIM:- TO DRAW IT’S PROJECTIONS – FV, TV and Traces

 UNIT - I
CURVES AND PROJECTION OF POINTS AND LINES 9+9

• Construction of Engineering Curves: Conic Sections – Ellipse,Parabola,

Hyperbola using Eccentricity method, Cycloid, Involute of Circle and
Pentagon.
• Projection: Orthographic Projection – Principal Planes, Projection of
Points using Four Angles of Projection
• Projection of Straight Lines – Lines parallel or inclined to one or both
planes using Rotating Line Method in First Angle of Projection
Required data to draw projections

• True length or apparent length

• Position of it’s ends with relevant to HP & VP

• It’s inclinations with HP & VP

NOTATIONS

OBJECT LINE AB
TRUE LINE AB
IT’S FRONT VIEW a’ b’
IT’S TOP VIEW ab
IT’S SIDE VIEW a” b”
IT’S INCLINATION WITH HP θ
IT’S INCLINATION WITH VP 
POSITIONS OF LINE
1. A LINE PERPENDICULAR TO HP AND PARALLEL TO VP

2. A LINE PERPENDICULAR TO VP AND PARALLEL TO HP

3. A LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH HP & VP.

4. A LINE INCLINED TO HP & PARALLEL TO VP.

5. A LINE INCLINED TO VP & PARALLEL TO HP.

6. A LINE INCLINED TO BOTH REFERENCE PLANES.

TRACES OF STRAIGHT LINES
The point of intersection of a line with a plane
Horizontal trace
The point of intersection of a line or line-produced with the HP is
termed the horizontal trace of the line usually represented by the letter HT.
Vertical trace
The point of intersection of a line or line-produced with the VP is known
as the vertical trace of the line denoted by the letters VT.
A Line perpendicular to HP &
Parallel to VP (Pictorial Presentation)
Orthographic Projection

a’

a’

FV A
b’
Y V.P.
b’ X H.P. Y

B a, (b)
HT
X HT a, (b)
TV
A Line perpendicular to VP &
Parallel to HP Orthographic Projection

VT a’, (b’)
a’, (b’)
VT
FV B

A V.P.
Y H.P.
X Y

b
b

X TV

a
A Line Parallel to (Pictorial Presentation)
both HP and VP
Orthographic Projection

b’
FV a b
B
a’

A Y V.P.
X H.P. Y

b
X a b
TV
a
NO VT and HT
A Line inclined to HP and
parallel to VP
Orthographic Projection

b’
b’

B
a’ 


a’ Y


h’ V.P.
A X H.P.
Y
h’ b

a
X HT. a b
 A Line inclined to VP and
parallel to HP
Orthographic Projection
Apparent length
b’ VT a’ b’

a’
v
φ V.P.
VT A B H.P.
Y
X Y

a φ
φ
v a b
X b

True length
A Line inclined to both HP and VP
For Tv For Tv
V.P.
b’
b’ b’
FV
B B a’ 
 
Y Y
X Y
a’ a’

A A a 
 
X X
a T.V. b a T.V. b TV

H.P. b
3
A line AB, 75 mm long is parallel to both HP and VP. The point A is 25 mm above HP and point B is
40 mm infront of VP. Draw its projections.

a’ b’

25
V.P.

X H.P. Y
a’b’ – Front View
ab - Top View

40
a b
75
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
4 A line CD, 60 mm long is contained by HP and 20 mm infront of VP. Draw its projections.

c’ d’ V.P.

X H.P. Y
c’d’ – Front View

20
cd - Top View

c d
60

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

5 A line PQ, 75 mm long is contained by VP and 30 mm above HP. Draw its projections.

75

p’ q’

30
V.P.

X p q H.P. Y

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

6 A line EF, 70 mm long is perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. One end of the line E, is 15 mm above HP
and 30 mm infront of VP. Draw its projections.

f’

70
e’

15
V.P.

X H.P. Y

30
(e) f ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
7 A line GH, has one of its end G on HP and 15 mm infront of VP. The other end H is 65 mm
above HP. Draw its projections, when the line is perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP.

h’

65
V.P.

X g’ H.P. Y

15
(g) h
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
8 A line IJ, 75 mm long is perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP. Draw its projections, when one
of its end I, is 15 mm above HP and 20 mm infront of VP.

(i’)j’

15
V.P.
X H.P. Y

20
i

75
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
j
9

n’(m’)
A line MN, is perpendicular to VP

20
and parallel to HP. One end of V.P.

the line is 20 mm above HP, 25 X H.P. Y

25
mm infront of VP and the other
end is 75 mm infront of VP. Draw m
X = 50 mm

75
its projections and determine its
length.

X
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm n
10
A line PQ, 65 mm long is inclined at 45° to HP and parallel to VP. The end P is 25 mm above
HP and 20 mm infront of VP. Draw the projections of the line PQ.

q’

p’

25 V.P.

X H.P. Y
20

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm p q

 11

One end R of a line RS, is 20

mm above HP and 25 mm
s’
infront of VP. The other end S
is 60 mm above HP. Draw its
X = 72 mm

60
projections when the top view Ѳ = 35°

Ѳ
of the line measures 60 mm. r’

20
Also determine the true V.P.

length of the line and the X H.P. Y

angle of inclination of the 25

line with HP. r s
60
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
12 A line AB, 55 mm long is parallel to HP and inclined at 35° to the VP. The end A is 20
mm above HP and 15 mm infront of VP. Draw its projections
a’ b’

20
V.P.

X H.P. Y
15

b
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
13
A line AB, 60 mm long lies in HP and has its end A in both HP and VP. Draw its
projections when the line is inclined at 40° to VP and parallel to HP.

a a’ b’ V.P.

X H.P. Y

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

 UNIT - I

Straight Lines (Inclined to both Principal Planes)

A.Kumaraswamy
 Drawing Practice:
• Maintain 100% cleanliness.
• Fix mini drafter properly and use it effectively – save more time.
• Show perfect distinction between thick and thin lines.
• Encircle Question Number with instrument (Ex: Pro-circle)
• Write question statement in both notebook and drawing sheet using lettering practice
• Practice in Drawing notebook using basic instruments and reproduce in the drawing sheet
• Do not draw directly on the drawing sheet with out containing correct solution in the notebook.
• Practice all problems given in the tutorial book in the notebook.
• Draw only required number of problems on the drawing sheet prescribed by the instructor.
(interested students may submit all problems – imparts more practice)
• Draw proper dimensioning lines (maintain far distance from object line)
• Draw 1:3 type arrow head only.
• Do not erase thins lines anywhere.
POSITIONS OF LINE

1. A LINE PERPENDICULAR TO HP AND PARALLEL TO VP

2. A LINE PERPENDICULAR TO VP AND PARALLEL TO HP

3. A LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH HP & VP.

4. A LINE INCLINED TO HP & PARALLEL TO VP.

5. A LINE INCLINED TO VP & PARALLEL TO HP.

6. A LINE INCLINED TO BOTH REFERENCE PLANES.

Three methods to solve when a line inclined to both the principal
planes:

• Rotating Line Method

• Auxiliary Plane Method
• Rotating Trapezoidal Plane Method
NOTATIONS
OBJECT LINE AB
TRUE LINE AB

IT’S FRONT VIEW a’ b’

IT’S TOP VIEW ab

IT’S SIDE VIEW a” b”

IT’S TRUE INCLINATION WITH HP θ

IT’S TRUE INCLINATION WITH VP φ

IT’S APPARENT INCLINATION WITH HP α
IT’S APPARENT INCLINATION WITH VP β
 Angle :

Possible to solve:

1. When θ + φ = 90° (Projections will vertical straight lines on a single projector)

2. When θ + φ < 90° ( Projections will inclined straight lines on two projectors )

3. When θ + φ > 90° ( Impossible )

Pictorial Presentation Orthographic Projection

For Tv b’

FV
b’
a’ 
B

Y
V.P.
a’
X H.P. Y
A

X a
a T.V. b 

TV

b
Rotating Line method:

Steps : For a true line AB

1. Assume the line is kept inclined to HP (θ) and parallel to VP. Draw a’b1’(True length
in FV) and ab1 (Apparent length in TV) .

2. Assume the line is kept inclined to VP (φ) and parallel to HP. Draw ab2 (True length
in TV) and a’b2’ (Apparent length in FV ).

3. Draw the locus line parallel to reference line for the end B through b1’ and b2 .

4. Rotate the ab1 and a’b2’ to meet locus line. Mark the intersection point as b and b’.

5. Join the final projections ab and a’b’.

Cross check

1. a’ and a , b’ and b should lie on the same projector line….

2. The projector line joining a’ to a and b’ to b should be perpendicular to

reference line
Procedure to draw projections of a straight line inclined to both
principal planes
• With given θ, draw true line with the inclination with
b’ b1’ Locus of b’
respect to HP. Mark the ends with a’ (above HP or on
HP) and b1’. Draw its topview parallel to VP and mark
as a and b1. α

m
θ b2’
a’
• With given φ, draw true line with the inclination

k
with respect to VP. Mark the ends with a (below v h’ V.P.
X H.P. Y
HP or on HP) and b2. Draw its frontview parallel VT HT

l
to HP and mark as a and b2’. a b1

n
φ
• Draw the Locus Lines for b’ and b β

• Rotate the Top and Front views with a’ and a as centers Locus of b
b b2
respectively till meeting the Locus lines.
• Draw Final front and top view projection
 1
b’ b1’ Locus of b’

A line AB, 75mm long is inclined

b2’

30°
at 30° to HP and 45° to VP. The a’
end A is 25 mm above HP and 20
HT

25
VT
mm infront of VP. Draw the h’ v V.P.

X H.P. Y
projections of the line and also

20
locate its traces. b1
a

Θ + φ = 30 ° + 45° = 75 °

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

Locus of b

b b2
2
A line CD, 60 mm long, d’ d1’ Locus of d’

has one of its ends C on

VP and 25 mm above HP. HT

30°
Draw the projections of c’ d2’
VT
the line CD if it makes 30°

25
to HP and 40° to VP. Also h’ v d1 V.P.
X c Y
locate the vertical and H.P.

horizontal traces.
Θ + φ = 30 ° + 40° = 70 °
Locus of d
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm d d2
 3

b’ b1’ Locus of b’
One end A of a line AB, 75 mm
long is in both HP and VP. The
line is inclined at 40° to the
HP and 35° to the VP. Draw its
projections. a a’ b1 b2 ’ V.P.
X H.P. Y

Θ + φ = 35 ° + 40° = 75 °

Locus of b
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm b2
b
 4
A straight line 85 mm long has
b’ b1’ Locus of b’
one end 15mm infront of VP and
10 mm above HP, while the other

35
end is 50 mm infront of VP and
b2’
45 mm above HP. Draw the plan a’

10
v h’ V.P.
X
and elevation of the line. H.P. Y

15
VT HT
a b1
Determine the inclinations of the
line to HP and VP. Locate the

35
traces of the line. α = β = 26°
Locus of b
Θ + φ = ?° ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm b b2
 5 VT

A straight line 70 mm long a’ b2 ’

has one end 15 mm infront

of VP and 50 mm above HP,
b1’

50
while the other end is 35 b’

20
mm infront of VP and 20 v h’ V.P.

X Y
mm above HP. Draw the H.P.

15
b1

35
plan and elevation of the a

line and determine its b2

b
traces.
HT
Θ + φ = ?°
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
 6 α = 27°

β = 23°
’
A line AB 70 mm long has its end a’ b2
B, 25 mm above HP and 30 mm
infront of VP. The end A is 55 mm
Locus of b’
away from the reference planes.

55
’
b’ b1
Draw the projections and find its

25
V.P.
inclinations with VP and HP. H.P. Y
X

30
b b2 Locus of b

55

β°
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
a b1
 7 Ɵ = 34°
Φ = 25°
p’ q2’
The end P of a line PQ is 50 mm
away from both the reference

50
planes and the other end Q is Locus of q’
q’ q1’
20 mm above HP and 25 mm

20
V.P.
infront of VP. Draw the
X H.P. Y

projections of the line PQ and

25
q q2 Locus of q
find its true inclinations with

50

Φ°
HP and VP if the length of the
line is 60 mm. p q1

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

8 VT

b’ Locus of b’
b1’
A line AB of 75 mm long has
one of its ends 60 mm infront of
’
VP and 20 mm above HP. The b2
a’
other end is 20 mm infront of

20
h’ V.P.

VP and is above HP. The top X

v H.P. Y

20
b b2 Locus of b
view of the line is 55 mm long.

60
Draw its front view. Also locate
its traces. a
55 b1
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
HT
 9

’
The end P of a line PQ, 70 mm q’ q1 Locus of q’

long is 15 mm above HP and 20

’
mm infront of the VP. The end Q is p’

40
q2

40 mm above HP and the top view

15
V.P.

of the line is inclined at 45˚ to the X H.P. Y

20
VP. Draw the projections of the
p q1
line and find its true inclinations
with VP and HP.
Ɵ = 20°
Φ = 40° Locus of q

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm q q2

10 b’ b1
’
Locus of b’

End A of the line AB of 75 mm

long is 50 mm infront of VP and
15 mm above HP. End B is 15 mm
b2’
infront of VP and above HP. The a’

15
V.P.
top view of the line is measured X H.P. Y

15
b b2 Locus of b
to be 50 mm long. Determine the

50
length of its elevation and the
true inclination of the line.
a b1
a’b’= 66mm
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
Ɵ = 48°
Φ = 28°
 11 VT q2
’

p’
The top view of a line PQ makes
an angle of 300 with the horizontal

65
and has a length of 100 mm. The
end Q is in the HP and P is in the
p q1’q 1 V.P. Locus of q’
VP and 65 mm above the HP.
X q’ H.P. Y
Draw the projections of the line
and find its true length and true
inclinations with the reference
Locus of q
planes. Also show its traces. HT q q2
TL = 120mm
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
Ɵ = 33°
Φ = 25°
 VT
12 60
’
b2
a’
A line measuring 80 mm long has
one of its ends 60 mm above HP

60
and 20 mm in front of VP. The Locus of b’

b’ b1’

15
other end is 15 mm above HP and h’ V.P.
X v H.P. Y
in front of VP. The front view of

20
a
the line is 60 mm long. Draw its b1

top view. Also locate its traces.

Locus of b

b b2
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
HT
 13
’
b’ b1 Locus of b’
The front view of line AB, 90 mm
long measures 65 mm and is
inclined at 45˚ to HP. Its one end
’
A is 15 mm above HP and on VP. b2

Draw the projections of the line a’

15
V.P.
and find its inclinations with HP X a b1 H.P. Y

and VP.

Ɵ = 30°
Φ = 43°
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
Locus of b

b b2
14
’
q’ q1 Locus of q’

A line PQ 60 mm long has its end

P, 15 mm above HP and 20 mm
infront of VP. Its top and front q2’
p’ 40
view measures 50 mm and 40 mm

15
V.P.

respectively. Draw its projections X H.P. Y

50

20
and determine the true
p q1
inclinations with HP and VP

Ɵ = 32°
Φ = 48° Locus of q
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
q q2
 ’
b’ b1 Locus of b’
15

A line AB 60 mm long, has its end b2’

a’
A 30 mm above HP and 25 mm in
55

30
front of VP. The top view and front
V.P.
view has a length of 40 and 55 mm X H.P. Y
40

25
respectively. Draw its projections.
a
b1

Locus of b

b b2
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
 ’
16 f ’ f1 Locus of f’

A line EF, 85 mm long has its end E,

25 mm above HP and 20 mm in front
of VP. The plan and elevation of the ’
e’ f2
line measures 55 mm and 70 mm 70

25
respectively. Draw the projections of V.P.

the line and find its true inclinations X 55 H.P. Y

20
with HP and VP. f1
e

Ɵ = 50°
Φ = 35°
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
Locus of f

f f2
 17
b’ b1’ Locus of b’
The plan and elevation of a line
AB are inclined at 35° and 50° to TL = 73 mm
Ɵ = 43°
the XY line respectively. One end
Φ = 25°

50
of the line is touching both HP
’
and VP. The other end is 50mm b1 b2 V.P.

X a, a’ H.P. Y
above HP. Find its true length and
true angle of inclinations with HP
Locus of b
and VP.
b b2

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

 ’
q’ q1 Locus of q’
18

A line PQ has one of its extremities 15

55
’
mm above HP and 10 mm in front of VP. p’ q2
The end Q is 55 mm above HP and line

15
V.P.
is inclined at 300 to HP. The distance
X p H.P. Y
between the end projectors of the line 10 q1
when measured parallel to the line of
intersection of HP and VP is 50mm.
Draw the projections of the line and Locus of q

find its true length and true inclination 50 q q2

TL = 79 mm
with VP.
Φ = 37°
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
19

End A of the line AB is 15 mm b’ b1

’ Locus of b’

above HP and 20 mm in front of

VP. The other end is 50 mm

50
above HP and 65 mm in front of b2’
a’

15
VP. The distance between the V.P.

X H.P. Y
end projectors is 50 mm. Draw

20
a b1
the projections and find the true
inclinations and true length of

65
TL = 77 mm
the line. Ɵ = 26°
Φ = 36°
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm Locus of b

50 b b2
 20
’
Locus of b’
b’ b1
The distance between the end
projectors passing through the end
points of a line AB is 60 mm. The end A ’
b2
is 15 mm above HP and 10 mm in front a’

15
VT, HT
of VP. The end B is 35 mm in front of V.P.
X Y

10
VP. The line AB appears 70 mm long in b1 H.P.
a

35
the front view. Complete the projections
by rotating line method and find the Locus of b

true length of the line and its b b2

60
TL = 75 mm
inclinations with HP and VP. Also locate
Ɵ = 29°
its traces. Φ = 20°
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
 ’
s’ Locus of s’
21 s1

A line RS, 65 mm long has

its end R, 15 mm above the
’
HP and 15 mm infront of r’ s2
VP. The line is inclined at

15
V.P.
550 to the HP and 350 to the X H.P. Y

15
r
VP. Draw its projections. s1

Ɵ + Φ = 90°
s Locus of s
s2

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

22 b’ b1’ Locus of b’

Draw the projections of a

straight-line AB, 100 mm
long, inclinedat 450 to HP ’
a’ b b2 ,b2 Locus of b V.P.
and 300 to VP. The end A is in

30°
X H.P. Y
HP and the end B is in VP.

a b1

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

23
b’ b1’ Locus of b’

A line 100 mm long has its lower end in

HP and the upper end in VP. Its plan
and elevation measure 80 mm and 70
mm respectively. Draw the projections ’
a’ b b2 ,b2 Locus of b V.P.
of the line and find its True

Φ°
X H.P. Y
inclinations with HP and VP.

Ɵ = 37°
Φ = 45°

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm a 70 b1

80
24 b’ b1’ Locus of b’

’
m’

30°
a2
b2’
The mid point of line AB, 80 mm Locus of a’

long is 80 mm above HP and 50 a1’ a’

80
mm infront of VP. The line is
inclined at 30˚ to HP and 45˚ to
VP. Draw its projections. V.P.

X H.P. Y

a Locus of a
a2

50
b1
a1 m

Locus of b
b b2
 25 b’ b1’ Locus of b’

A line AB of length 80 mm is inclined

at 45° to HP and 30° to VP. The point
a2’ b2’
C is on the line which situated 20 mm c’
Locus of a’
from the end A and is 30 mm above

30
a1’ a’
HP and 40 mm infront of VP. Draw V.P.

H.P. Y
the projections of the line. X

40
a Locus of a
a2
b1
a1 c

Locus of b

b b2
 26
q’ VT
Locus of q’
The distance between the projectors q1’
through the VT and the HT of a line
PQ is 70 mm and that between the

45
q2’
projectors through the ends is 40
p’

15
mm. The VT is 45 mm above the HP
h’ v V.P.
Locus of q
and the HT is 30 mm in front of the X q
H.P. Y
q2

Φ°
VP. P is 15 mm above the HP. Draw

30
the front and top views of the line.
p q1
Also find the true length and the
HT
inclinations of the line with the HP
TL = 50 mm
and the VP. Ɵ = 30 °
Φ = 23°
27 c’ Locus of c’
c1’

The distance between the

projectors of a line CD is 70 mm.
Its ends C and D are in front of c2’ d’
the VP at 60 mm and 30 mm
respectively from the VP. The HT
h’ v V.P.
of the line is 15 mm in front of the X H.P. Y

15
VP. The line is inclined at 35° to

30
c1 HT
VT
the HP. Draw the projections of
60 d

Φ°
the line and find its true
inclination with the VP. Also Locus of c

locate its VT. c2 c

Φ = 32°
28 q’ q1’ Locus of q’

A line PQ has its ends 10 mm

and 45 mm above the HP and the

45
p’ q2’
length of its front view is 70 mm.
v h’

10
V.P.
The line is inclined at 25° to the
X H.P. Y

15
HP. The HT of the line is 15 mm
VT
HT q1
in front of the VP. Draw the
p
projections of the line and find
its true length and true
inclination with the VP. Also,
show its VT. Locus of q
q q2
TL = 82mm
Φ = 32°
 UNIT II

PROJECTIONS OF PLANE SURFACES.

AIM:- TO DRAW IT’S PROJECTIONS – FV, TV and Traces

PROJECTION OF PLANES AND SOLIDS 6+9

• Projection of Plane Figures – Inclined to any one Principal Plane

• Projection of Solids – Simple Solids (Prisms, Pyramids, Cone and
Cylinder) axis inclined to any one Principal Plane
 Projections of Planes

• A plane is a two dimensional object having length and breadth only.

• Thickness is negligible.

A. KUMARASWAMY. AP, MECH

 Types of Planes

1. Perpendicular plane which have their surface perpendicular to any one of

the reference planes and parallel or inclined to the other reference plane.

2. Oblique plane which have their surface inclined to both the reference
planes.
Positions of a Plane Surfaces

Perpendicular planes
▪ Surface of the plane kept perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP
▪ Surface of the plane kept perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP
▪ Surface of the plane kept perpendicular to both HP and VP
▪ Surface of the plane kept inclined to HP and perpendicular to VP
▪ Surface of the plane kept inclined to VP and perpendicular to HP
Oblique plane
▪ Surface of the plane kept inclined to both HP & VP
Traces of planes

▪ A plane, extended if necessary, will meet the reference planes in lines unless it is
parallel to any one of them. These lines are called traces of planes.

▪ The line in which the plane meets the H.P is called the horizontal trace or H.T of
the plane.

▪ The line in which the plane meets the V.P is called the vertical trace or V.T of the
plane.
Plane surfaces

Pentagon Hexagon
Square Rectangle Triangle

Rhombus Heptogon Octagon

Rhomboid
ETC……

Parallelograms
Trapezoid Trapezium
Simple Position

Points to remember :
• When a plane surface is parallel to HP, top view shows its true shape &
size. Therefore, draw the top view first. Project the front view from it.

• When a plane surface is parallel to VP, front view shows its true shape &
size. Therefore, draw the front view first. Project the top view from it.
Surface of the plane kept perpendicular to
HP and parallel to VP NO VT
a' d'

d'

a' D
c' b' c'
A VP
b' C HP Y
X

B
(c), d HT

(b), a (b), a (c), d

Surface of the plane kept perpendicular to VP
and parallel to HP
b’,(a’) VT c’,(d’)

c’,(d’)
D
b’,(a’) VP
X HP Y
C
A
B d
a d
c
a
b

b c
NO HT
Surface of the plane kept perpendicular
to both HP and VP (a‘)d’

VT
(a‘)d’ (b’)c’

A
VT

VP
(b’)c’ D X HP Y

B
(b), a
(b), a C
(c), d

HT
(c), d
Surface of the plane kept inclined to VP and perpendicular
to HP
a’ b’

b’ Φ

VT
B

VT
a’
d’ c’
A
VP
c’ C
X Φ HP Y
Φ
d’
b(c)
D b(c
)
a(d)
a(d)
Surface of the plane kept inclined to HP and
perpendicular to VP
a’(d’)

b’(c’)

a’(d’) b’(c’) ϴ VP
D ϴ X HP Y
C

d c
c B
A
ϴ

HT
d b

a
a b
 1
A Square lamina of side 40 mm has a’ (d’) b’ c’
its surface parallel to and 20 mm
20
above HP. Draw its projections VP
when one of its sides is inclined at X HP Y
d
300 to the VP.

□40
b
2
f
’
A Hexagonal plate of 30 mm side a’
e’
has its surface parallel to VP and 20
mm in front of it. Draw the 30

projections when one of its sides is

d’
b’
perpendicular to HP.
c’

VP
X HP Y
20

a(b) f(c) e(d)

 3

A Pentagonal plane of side 30 mm is parallel to e’

30
VP and perpendicular to HP. Draw its d’

projections when one of its corners is on HP

and the side containing the resting corner is
a’
c’
inclined
at 250 to HP. VP
X b’ HP Y

a e (b) d c
 4 c1’(d1’)

b1’(e1’)
A Hexagonal plate with 30
mm side has its surface a’(f’) b’(e’) c’(d’) a1’(f1’) VP
perpendicular to VP and X HP Y
20
inclined at 450 to HP. Draw its
e e1
projections when one of its
f f1
sides is on HP and the corner
d d1
nearer to the VP is 20 mm in
30
front of it.

a c a1 c1

b b1
 5 g’ g 1’

Φ60 h’ h’ f1’
f’

A Circular plane of 60 mm
a’
diameter has its plane e’ a 1’ e1’

vertical and inclined at 400

40
to VP. Its centre is 40 mm d’ b1 ’ d1’
b’
above HP and 35 mm c’ c1’ VP
HP Y
infront of VP. Draw its X 40°

projections. 35
a1
h1(b1)

a h(b) g(c) f(d) e g1(c1)

f1(d1)
e1
 A 60° Set square has its shortest edge of length 40
6 mm kept perpendicular to the VP so that the
projection of the set square on the HP is an
b’
isosceles triangle of side 40 mm. Draw the
projections of the set square and find the
inclination of the set square with the HP.

a’(c’) a’(c’)
b’ VP
X 40 HP Y
c
c1 b1
b

40 Ɵ° = 53°

a
a1
 X1
7 f’
(f’)e’ e’’
’

a’’ d’’
A regular hexagonal plate of (a’)d’

side 30mm has its surface

perpendicular to both HP and c’(b’)
C’’
b’’
VP. Draw its projections when VP
X HP Y
two of its sides are parallel to
a
HP.
f(b)

e(c)

d
Y1
 UNIT II

PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS

AIM: TO DRAW IT’S PROJECTIONS – FV, TV and SV

PROJECTION OF PLANES AND SOLIDS 6+9

• Projection of Plane Figures – Inclined to any one Principal Plane

• Projection of Solids – Simple Solids (Prisms, Pyramids, Cone and
Cylinder) axis inclined to any one Principal Plane
Projections of Solids (Axis perpendicular to one Plane)
Basic building blocks

• Components have different shapes.

• Any component will be formed of a single solid or combination of solids of
different shapes.
• The most common geometrical solids are prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres,
pyramids.
• Thus, drawing of components like machine parts require a thorough knowledge
of projections basic solids.
Projection of Solids

• A solid has three dimensions- length, breadth and thickness.

• At least two orthographic views are necessary to represent a solid.
• Sometimes, additional views projected on auxiliary planes become
necessary to make the complete description of a solid.
Types of Solids

1. Polyhedra

2. Solids of Revolution
Polyhedra:

• A polyhedron is defined as a solid bounded by planes called faces.

• When all the faces are equal and regular, the polyhedron is said to be regular.
• Seven regular polyhedra :
• Tetrahedron
• Cube or hexahedron
• Octahedron
• Dodecahedron
• Icosahedron
• Prism
• Pyramid
Tetrahedron: Cube or hexahedron

• It has four equal faces, each an • It has six faces, all equal squares.
equilateral triangle.
Octahedron

• It has eight equal equilateral triangles as faces.

Dodecahedron :

• It has twelve equal and regular pentagons as faces.

Icosahedron :

• It has twenty faces, all equal equilateral triangles.

Prism

• This is a polyhedron having two equal and similar faces called its ends or
bases, parallel to each other and joined by other faces which are
parallelograms.
• The imaginary line joining the centres of the bases is called the axis.
• A right and regular prism has its axis perpendicular to the bases.
• All its faces are equal rectangles.
Triangular Prism

Vertices (points)

6
Edges (lines)

9
Faces (planes)

5
The base has 3 sides.
Rectangular Prism

The base has 4 sides. Vertices (points)

8
Edges (lines)

12
Faces (planes)

6
Pentagonal Prism

The base has 5 sides. Vertices (points)

10
Edges (lines)
15

Faces (planes)

7
Hexagonal Prism

The base has 6 sides. Vertices (points)

12

Edges (lines)

18

Faces (planes)

8
Octagonal Prism

The base has 8 sides.

Vertices (points)

16

Edges (lines)

24

Faces (planes)

10
Pyramid:

• This is a polyhedron having a plane figure as a base and a number of triangular

faces meeting at a point called the vertex or apex.
• The imaginary line joining the apex with the centre of the base is its axis.
• A right and regular pyramid has its axis perpendicular to the base which is a
regular plane figure.
• Its faces are all equal isosceles triangles.
Triangular Pyramid

The base has 3 sides.

Vertices (points)

Apex or vertex 4

Edges (lines)

Slant Faces (planes)

3
Rectangular Pyramid

The base has 4 sides.

Vertices (points)

Apex or vertex 5

Edges (lines)

Slant Faces (planes)

4
Pentagonal Pyramid

The base has 5 sides.

Vertices (points)

Apex or vertex 6

Edges (lines)

10

Slant Faces (planes)

5
Hexagonal Pyramid

The base has 6 sides.

Vertices (points)
Apex or vertex
7

Edges (lines)

12

Slant Faces (planes)

6
Features of a Solid

Axis
Invisible Edge Corner/Vertex
Base
Edge

Axis

Lateral Face

Faces Invisible Edge

Base
Base edge
Features of a Solid

Axis
Apexor Vertex • Oblique prisms and pyramids
have their axes inclined to their
Slant Edge
bases. (Not in syllabus)
Slant Face
• Prisms and pyramids are named
according to the shape of their
bases, as triangular, square,
pentagonal, hexagonal etc.
Base
Base edge
Solids of revolution:

• Cylinder
• Cone
• Sphere

Cylinder :
• A right circular cylinder is a solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about
one of its sides which remains fixed.
• It has two equal circular bases.
• The line joining the centres of the bases is the axis. It is perpendicular to the bases.
Cylinder :
Cone :
• A right circular cone is a solid generated by the revolution of a right-angled
triangle about one of its perpendicular sides which is fixed.
• It has one circular base.
• Its axis joins the apex with the centre of the base to which it is perpendicular.
• Straight lines drawn from the apex to the circumference of the base-circle are all
equal and are called generators of the cone.
• The length of the generator is the slant height of the cone.

***Oblique cylinders and cones have their axes inclined to their bases.
Cone :
Sphere :

• A sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a semi-circle about its diameter

as the axis.
• The mid-point of the diameter is the centre of the sphere.
• All points on the surface of the sphere are equidistant from its centre.
Frustum

• When a pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel to its base, Thus removing the
top portion, the remaining portion is called its frustum
 Truncated Solids

• When a solid is cut by a plane inclined to the base it is said to be truncated.

• ***In our syllabus, mostly right and regular solids are prescribed. Hence, when a
solid is named without any qualification, it should be understood as being right
and regular.
Projections of Solids - Positions

A solid position may be defined by its axis position. Hence,

1. Solid axis perpendicular to the HP and parallel to VP.

TUTORIAL VI
2. Solid axis perpendicular to the VP and parallel to HP.

3. Solid axis parallel to both the HP and the VP.

4. Solid axis inclined to the VP and parallel to the HP. TUTORIAL VII

5. Solid axis inclined to the HP and parallel to the VP.

6. Solid axis inclined to both HP and VP. Not in

syllabus
Steps

1. Start the projection that shows the true shape and size of the base.
2. Identify the axis which is perpendicular to the any one reference plane.
3. On that reference plane draw the true shape.
4. When the axis is parallel to both the reference planes, the true shape of the base
can be seen from its side view where an auxiliary plane perpendicular to both
the reference planes can be used.
5. When the axis is inclined to any one reference plane, assume the axis is
perpendicular to that plane and draw the initial step, then proceed to inclined
position.
Axis perpendicular to the H.P. Parallel to VP:
c’
a’,(b’)

50
C
B

d’,(e’) f’ VP
X HP Y
A b,(e)

F
c,(f )
E

40
D
a,(d)
1
a’ d’ b’ c’

40

Draw the projections of the Cube

of side 40 mm resting on its base 1’ 4’ 2’ 3’ VP
X HP Y
on the HP and one of its vertical d,(4) 35°

faces inclined at 35° to the VP.

c,(3)

a,(1)

40

b,(2)
2
o’

A Tetrahedron with a 60 mm 60

edge is resting on HP on one of

a’ c’ VP
its face in such a way that one of b’
X HP Y
45°
its face edges is inclined at 45°to
c
the VP. Draw is projections.

a 60
 a’ b’ e’ c’ d’
3

A Pentagonal prism of base side 60

35 mm and axis length 60 mm

rests on the HP with it is base in 1’ 2’ 5’ 3’ 4’ VP
X HP Y
such a way that one of its base e,(5)
30°

edge is inclined at 30° to the VP.

d,(4)
a,(1)
Draw its projections.

35

c,(3)
b,(2)
 o’
4

60
A Hexagonal pyramid of base side 30
mm and axis length 60 mm rests on
the HP on its base. Draw its VP
X a’ b’(f’) c’(e’) d’ HP Y
projections when one of the base
f e
edge is parallel to VP and the solid
axis is perpendicular to HP.
a d
o

b c
30
5
o’

A Pentagonal pyramid of base side

55
30 mm and axis length 55 mm rests
on the HP on its base, in such a way
VP
that one of its base edges is inclined a’ b’ d’
X e’ c’ HP Y
30°
at 30° to VP and the solid axis is
e
perpendicular to HP. Draw its
d
projections a

30
c
b
6 Axis perpendicular to the VP & Parallel to HP: d’,(4’)

40

a’,(1’)
A Cube of side 40 mm is resting on
the HP on one of its edges. Draw its
c’,(3’)
projections when one of its faces
VP
containing the resting edge is X b’,(2’) HP Y

inclined at 40° to the HP, and the 1 2 4 3

solid axis is perpendicular to VP.

40

a b d c
7 d’
e’

A Pentagonal pyramid of base side

30
30 mm and axis length 60 mm rests
o’
c’
on the HP on one of its base corner, a’

in such a way that one of the base a e d c VP

X b,b’ HP Y
edges containing the resting corner
makes 40° to the HP. Draw its
projections when the axis is 60

perpendicular to the VP and the

base is touching the VP.
o
 φ30
8
o’
A right Circular cone of base a’ b’

diameter 30 mm and axis length 60

mm is resting on the HP on one of VP
X HP Y
its base circumferential point and o

has its axis perpendicular to VP.

Draw its projections when its apex is
60
nearer to VP.

a b
 f ’,(6’) e’,(5’)
9
35

a’,(1’)
A Hexagonal prism of base side d’,(4’)

25 mm and axis length 55 mm

VP
lies on the ground on one of its X b’,(2’) c’,(3’) HP Y
15
1 6,(2) 5,(3) 4
rectangular faces with its axis
perpendicular to VP. Draw its
projections when one of its end
55
faces is 15 mm infront of VP.

a f,(b) e,(c) d
10 Axis Parallel to HP & VP : X1

55
25

a’’(1”)
A Pentagonal prism of base a’ 1’ b’’(2”)
b’ 2’
side 25 mm and axis length 55
mm lies on the HP on one of e’ 5’
c’ 3’ e’’(5”) c’’(3”)
its longer lateral edges with its 30°
d’ 4’ VP
axis parallel to both HP and VP.
X d’’(4”) HP Y
5
Draw its projections when one e
a 1
of its rectangular faces
d 4
containing the resting edge is
inclined at 30° to the HP. b 2
c 3

Y1
 X1
11 30 f’
f’
’
e’,(a’)
A hexagonal pyramid of base e’’
a’’
o’
side 30 mm and axis length
o’’
60 mm lies on the HP on one d’,(b’)
d’’ 30°
b’’
of its corners of the base with c’ VP
its axis parallel to both HP X c’’ HP Y
a,(b)
and VP. One of the base edges
containing the resting corner
o f,(c)
is inclined at an angle of 30°
to HP. Draw its plan and
elevation.
60 c,(d)

Y1
 X1
12
a’ a’’
b’’
b’
A pentagonal pyramid of base 30

side 30 mm and axis length o’ e’

o’’
60 mm lies on the HP on one e’’
c’ c’’ 30°
of its corners of the base with d’ VP

its axis parallel to both HP X e d’’ HP Y

and VP. One of the base edges a

o d
containing the resting corner
is inclined at an angle of 30°
b
to HP. Draw its plan and c

elevation. 60

Y1
 Projections of Solids

(Axis Inclined to one Plane)

 PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS WITH AXES INCLINED TO ONE OF THE
REFERENCE PLANES AND PARALLEL TO THE OTHER
In this case, the projections are drawn in two stages.

• Stage I : In the initial stage, the solid is assumed to be in simple position

• Stage II : Final projections may be obtained by one of the following two methods:

• (i) Change of position method: The position of one of the views is altered as
required and the other view projected from it.

• (ii) Change of reference line (auxiliary plane) method: A new reference

line is drawn according to the required conditions, to represent an auxiliary
plane and the final view projected on it.
 1 Initial Position Change of position Method

a’ a1’
b’(c’)
A Triangular prism of base
side 35 mm and axis length
55 b1’(c1’)
55mm rests on the HP on p1’

one of its base edge. Draw

p’ q’(r’) V.P.

35°
its projections when the X q1’(r1’) H.P. Y

solid axis is inclined at c,(r) r1 c1

35°to the HP and parallel to

a,(p) a1
VP. p1

b,(q) q1 b1
35

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

 Initial Position Change of position Method
2
b’(a’) c’(d’) a1’(b1’)

A Square prism of base

side 35 mm and axis q1’(p1’)
60 c1’(d1’)
length 60 mm rests on
one of its base edges on
r’(s’) V.P.
the HP with its axis X q’(p’) r1’(s1’) Y
H.P.
inclined at 30° to the HP
d,(s) p1 s1 a1 d1
and parallel to the VP. a,(p)

Draw its top and front

views.
b,(q) c,(r) q1 r1 b1 c1
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm □ 35
 Initial Position Change of position Method
3
b’(a’) c’(d’)
(a1’)b1’

A rectangular prism 50 x
70 c1’(d1’)
25 mm base and length q1’(p1’)

70 mm rests with one of

its longer edges of the V.P.

X q’(p’) r’(s’) r1’(s1’) H.P. Y

base on HP, and the axis
is inclined at 30° to HP a,(p) d,(s) p1 s1 a1
d1

and parallel to VP. Draw

its projections. 50

c,(r)
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm b,(q) q1 c1
25 b1
r1
 Initial Position Change of position Method
4
a1’

A Pentagonal prism of base a’ b’(e’) c’(d’) b1’(e1’)

side 25 mm and axis length

c1’(d1’)

55 mm rests on the HP on
55 p1’
one of its base edges. Draw
q1’(t1’)
its projections when the
V.P.
solid axis is inclined at 45° to X
p’ q’(t’) r’(s’)
r1’(s1’)
H.P. Y
the HP and parallel to the e,(t)
t1 e1
d,(s) d1
VP. Draw the projections of s1

the prism by auxiliary a,(p)

p1 a1
c1
position method. r1
25 c,(r)
b1
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm b,(q) q1
 Initial Position Change of position Method
5
b1’(a1’)

b’(a’) c’(f’) e’(d’) 21’(11’)

A Hexagonal prism of base c1’(f1’)

side 30 mm and axis length

31’(61’)
40 e1’(d 1’)
40 mm is resting on the HP
on one of its base edge. Draw 3’(6’) V.P.
2’(1’) 4’(5’) 41’(51’)
X 61 f1 H.P. Y
its projections when the base f,(6)

a,(1)
containing the resting edge e,(5)
11 51 a1 e1
is inclined at 60° to the HP
30
and the solid axis is parallel 41 b1 d1
d,(4)
to VP. b,(2) 21

c,(3) 31 c1

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

 6

o’ o1’
A square pyramid of base
side 30 mm and axis
50
length 50 mm rests on the a1’(d1’)

HP on one of its base

V.P.
edge. Draw its projections
X a’(d’) b’(c’) b1’(c1’) Y
d1 c1 H.P.
when the solid axis is d c

inclined at 40°to HP and o1

parallel to VP. o

a b a1 b1
□ 30
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
7

o’
A Pentagonal pyramid o1’
of base edge 30 mm a1’
60 b1’(e1’)
and axis length 60 mm
rests on one of its base
V.P.
edges on the HP with
a’ b’(e’) c’(d’) c1’(d1’) Y
X H.P.
its axis inclined at 30° e e1

to the HP and parallel d

d1
to the VP. Draw its top a o
a1 o1
and front views. c1
c
30
b1
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm b
 8

o’ o1’
A pentagonal pyramid
of base edge 25 mm and
axis length 60 mm rest
60
on the base side on HP a1’

such that the highest 20 b1’(e1’)

V.P.
base corner is 20 mm a’
c1’(d 1’)
X b’(e’) c’(d’) H.P. Y
above HP. Its axis is e e1

d d1
parallel to the VP. Draw
o a1
its top and front views. a o1

c1
c
25
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm b
b1
 9

o’ o1’

A hexagonal pyramid
of base side 25 mm and 60
a1’(f1’)

axis length 55 mm rests

b1’(e1’)

on the HP on one its

V.P.
base edge. The solid X a’(f’) b’(e’) c’(d’) c1’(d1’)
H.P. Y
e e1
axis is inclined at 40°to
f d
f1
HP and parallel to VP. d1
o
25
Draw its projections. o1
c1
c a1
a

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm b b1

10

Draw the projections of a o’ o1’

square pyramid of base side 25

mm and altitude 50 mm when
50
its rests on the ground on one
of its base edges
perpendicular to the VP and a1’(d1’)
□
V.P.
b1’(c1’)
X a’(d’) b’(c’) H.P. Y
the triangular face containing d1 c1
d c
the resting edge is
perpendicular to the VP and o1
o

the HP. a b a1 b1
□ 25
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
11 o’
o1’

A Pentagonal pyramid of
base side 30 mm and
75
altitude 75 mm rests on the
HP on one of its base edges
a1’
such that the triangular face b1’(e1’) V.P.
a’ □
containing the resting edge b’(e’) c’(d’)
e1
c1’(d1’)
H.P. Y
X e
is perpendicular to both HP d d1

and the VP. Draw its

a o a1
projections. o1

30
c c1
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm b1
b
12 o1’
o’

A Hexagonal pyramid of
base side 30 mm and altitude 75

75 mm rests on the HP on
one of its base edges such a1’(f1’)
b1’(e1’)
that the triangular face □ V.P.
X a’(f’) b’(e’) e c’(d’) e1 c1’(d1’) H.P. Y
containing the resting edge
f1 d1
is perpendicular to both HP f
d

and the VP. Draw its

30 o1
o
projections.
c a1 c1
a

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

b b1
13

o’

Draw the projections of

the square pyramid of a1’(d1’)

100
base side 60mm and
altitude 100mm when it
lies on the ground on one b1’(c1’) V.P
.
b’(c’) o1’ H.P. Y
X a’(d’)
of its triangular faces / c c1 d1
d
slant faces and the solid
axis is parallel to the VP. o o1

a b b1 a1
□ 60
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
SCALE: 1:2
14
o’

a1’

A Pentagonal pyramid of
55 b1’(e1’)
base side 30 mm and axis
length 55 mm rests on
V.P.
the ground on one of its a’
b’(e’) c’(d’) c1’(d1’) o1’ H.P. Y
X e1
lateral surface with its e
d d1
solid axis parallel to VP.
Draw its projections. a o a1
o1

c
c1
30

b b1
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
15

o’

a1’(f1’)
A Hexagonal pyramid
of base side 30 mm 60

and axis length 60 b1’(e1’)

mm rests on the HP o1’ V.P.

X a’(f’) b’(e’) c’(d’) c1’(d1’)
on one of its H.P. Y
e e1
triangular faces with
f
d d1 f1
its axis parallel to VP.
Draw its projections. 30 o1
o
c
a c1 a1

b b1
 16

b1’(a1’)
Draw the projections of a b’(a’) c’(e’) d’
Pentagonal prism of 25 mm
c1’(e1’)
side and axis length 50 mm q1’(p1’)

d1’
resting on the HP on one of its 50

corner in such a way that the r1’(t1’)

two base edges passing V.P.

X q’(p’) r’(t’) s’ s1’ H.P. Y
through it makes equal t1 e1
e,(t)
a,(p) p1
inclinations with HP. Draw its a1
s1 d1
projections when the solid 25
d,(s)

axis is inclined at 30° to the b1

q1
b,(q) c1
ground and parallel to VP. r1
c,(r)
17
a1’

a’ p1’ d1’(b1’)
d’(b’) c’
Draw the projections
of a Cube of side 40 c1’
40 q1’(s 1’)
mm when it rests on
V.P.
the ground on one of □
X p’ q’(s’) r’ r1’ H.P. Y
s1 d1
its corners with the d,(s)

solid diagonal vertical.

p1 c1
a,(p)
c,(r) a1(r1)

q1 b1
b,(q)
 a1’
18
b1’(f1’)
a’ b’(f’) c’(e’)
d’
Draw the projections of a 11’

Hexagonal prism of 25 mm c1’(e1’)

21’(61’)
side and axis length 50 mm 50 d1
’
resting on the HP on one of
31’(51’)
its corner in such a way that 1’ 2’(6’) 3’(5’) 4’ V.P.
51 41’
X e,(5) 61 f1 e1 H.P. Y
the two base edges passing f,(6)

through it makes equal

a,(1) d,(4) 11 a1 d1
inclinations with HP. Draw its 41

projections when the solid 25

axis is inclined at 30° to the c,(3)

21 31 b1 c1
b,(2)

ground and parallel to VP.

 a1’
19 b1’(f1’)

a’ b’(f’) c’(e’) d’
c1’(e1’)
A hexagonal prism of
d1’
base side 25mm and 11’
55
axis length 55 mm rest
21’(61’)

on the HP on one of its

base corners such that 31’(51’)
V.P.
1’ 2’(6’)
□
X 3’(5’) 4’ 41 ’ Y
the solid diagonal e,(5) 61 51 f1 e1
H.P.
f,(6)
passing through that
corner is perpendicular a,(1) d,(4) 11 d1
41 a1
to the HP. Draw its
25
projections.
21 31 b1 c1
b,(2) c,(3)
 20 a1’

a’ d’(j’) g’
d1’(j1’)

A Cylinder of base
g1’
diameter 50 mm and
(11’)

axis length 60 mm is 60

41’(101’)
resting on the HP on a
base circumferential 1’ 4’(10’) VP
X 7’ 7 1’
point so that its axis is Φ50 j(10) 101 j1 HP Y
k(11) i(9)
inclined at 45° to the l(12) h(8)
111 91
81
k1 i1
121 l1 h1
HP and parallel to the g(7) 11 71 a1 g1
a(1)
VP. Draw its plan and b1
f(6) 21 61 f1
b(2)
elevation. 31 51 c1 e1
c(3) e(5)
d(4) 41 d1
 a1’
21
a’ d’(j’) g’ d1’(j1’)

A cylinder of g1 ’
diameter 35 mm and
11 ’
axis length 55 mm is 55

resting on the ground 41’(101’)

on its base. It is then 1’ 4’(10’) 7’ VP

X 7 1’
HP Y
tilted such that a Φ35 j(10) 101 j1
k(11)
i(9)
111 91
solid diagonal is l(12) h(8)
k1 i1

121 81 l1 h1
vertical. Draw its 11 71 a1 g1
a(1)
g(7)
projections. 21 61 b1 f1
b(2) f(6)
31 51 c1 e1
c(3) e(5)
d(4) 41
d1
Note: a’ 7’ is considered as solid diagonal
 22

o’
A square pyramid of base side o1’

40 mm and axis length 65 mm

a1’

rests on the HP on one of its 65

base corners in such a way b1’(d1’)

that the base edges containing

a’ b’(d’) c’ c 1’ V.P
the resting corner is equally X d1
.H.P.
Y
d
inclined to the HP. Draw its
projections when the solid c
a1 c1 o1
a
o
axis is inclined at 40° to the
HP and parallel to VP.
b b1
 23

o’
A Pentagonal pyramid of base o1’
edge 30 mm and axis length 60
b1’(a’)

mm rests on one of its base

60
corners on the HP in such a way
c1’(e1’)
that the two base edges
V.P.
containing the resting corner is X b’(a’) c’(e’) d’ d1’ H.P. Y
e e1
equally inclined to HP. Draw its a1
a

projections with its solid axis

o d d1 o1
30
inclined at 30° to the HP and
parallel to the VP. Draw its top b b1
and front views. c c1
 24
o’
o1’

Draw the projections of a1’

hexagonal pyramid of b1’(f1’)

55
base side 25 mm and
axis length 55 mm c1’(e 1’)
V.P.
resting on the HP on c’(e’)
a’ b’(f’) d’ d1 ’
X H.P. Y
one of its base corner. f e f1 e1

The axis of the solid is

inclined at 30° to the HP a d1 o1
o d a1
and parallel to VP.
25
b c
b1 c1
 o’
25
o1 ’
a1’
A Cone of base
70
diameter 50 mm and
altitude 70 mm rests on d1’(j1’)

the HP on a base VP
a’ g’
g1 ’
circumferential point X d’(j’) HP Y
j1
Φ50 k
j
with its axis is inclined i k1
i1
l l1
at 30° to the HP and h h1

a1
parallel to the VP. Draw a
g g1 o1 ’

its front and top views. b b1 f1

f
e1
c c1
e
d d1
26

o1’
o’
A square pyramid of
base side 40 mm and
axis length 65 mm rests 65
a1’
on the HP on one of its
b1’(d1’)

base corners in such a V.P

a’ □ .
c’ c 1’ Y
b’(d’) d1 H.P.
way that the slant edge d
X
containing the resting
corner is perpendicular a1
a o1 c 1
o c
to HP and parallel to VP.
Draw the projections.
b1
b
 27
o1’
A Pentagonal pyramid of base o’

edge 30 mm and axis length 60

mm rests on one of its base
corners on the HP in such a 60

way that the two base edges b1’(a’)

c1’(e1’)
containing the resting corner V.P.
c’(e’) d’
□
e1 Y
is equally inclined to HP. Draw X b’(a’)
d1’ H.P.
e a1
a
its projections when the slant
edge containing the resting o o1
30 d1
d
edge is perpendicular to HP
and parallel to VP. b b1

c
c1
 28
o1’
o’
Draw the projections of
hexagonal pyramid of
55
base side 25 mm and axis a1’
b1’(f1’)
length 55 mm resting on
the HP on one of its base
c1’(e1’)
□ V.P.
a’ b’(f’) c’(e’) d’ d1’ H.P.
X Y
f1 e1
corner and the slant edge f e

containing the resting

a1 o1
a
corner is perpendicular to d d1
o

HP and parallel to VP.

25
c b1 c1
b
 29 o1 ’
o’

A cone of base diameter

50 mm and axis length 60 60
a1’
mm has one of its base
circumferential points on a’ d’(j’) g’
d1’(j1’)
g1’ VP
HP. Draw its projections HP Y
X Φ50 k
j j1
i1
i k1
when one of the
l l1 h1
h
generators of the cone is
a1 o 1 g1
a
perpendicular to HP and g

b1
parallel to VP. b f f1
e1
c e c1
d d1
30

o’

A square pyramid of a1’

base side 40 mm and

65
axis length 65 mm b1’(d1’)

rests on the HP on one

a’ b’(d’) c’ V.P
.
of its slant edges. X
c 1’ o1’ H.P. Y
d d1
Draw its projections
when the solid axis is a1 o1
a c
o c1
parallel to VP.

b b1
31

A Pentagonal pyramid of o’
base side 30 mm and axis
b1’(a’)
length 55 mm rests on
the ground on one of its 55

lateral edges such that c1’(e1’)

o1’V.P.
the triangular faces d1’
c’(e’) d’
X b’(a’) H.P. Y
containing the resting e e1
a
edge is equally inclined to a1
d1 o1
HP. Draw its projections 30 o
d

when the solid axis is b1

b
parallel to VP. c c1
 32

o’
A Hexagonal pyramid a1’

of base side 30 mm and

b1’(f1’)
axis length 60 mm rests
60
on the HP on one of its
e1’(c1’)
slant edges in such a
d1 ’ V.P. o1’
way that the triangular a’ b’(f’) c’(e’) d’
X e e1 f1 H.P. Y
f
face containing the
resting edge is equally
a d d1 a1 o1
inclined to HP and the o

solid axis parallel to VP.

30
Draw its projections.
b c c1 b1
33
o’

a1’

A Cone of base
60
diameter 50 mm and
d1’(j1’)

axis length 60mm

o1 ’
has one of its a’ g’ VP
X d’(j’) g1 ’
HP Y
generators on HP Φ50 j j1
k i k1

with the solid axis h l1

i1
l h1

parallel to VP. Draw a1 o1 ’

a
g
its projections. g1

b f b1 f1
e1
c e c1
d d1
 34
f’,(6’) e’,(5’) 61 ’ 51 ’ f1 ’ e1 ’
25

A Hexagonal prism of 11 ’ d1 ’
a’,(1’) d’,(4’) 41 ’
a1 ’
base side 25 mm and
axis length 50 mm is b’,(2’) c’,(3’) 21’ 31
’
41 ’ b1 ’ c1 ’ V.P.

X H.P. Y
lying on the HP on 1 2,(6) 5,(3) 4
51,(31)

one of its rectangular 21,(61)

faces with its axis 11

d1
50
inclined at 45° to the
e1,(c1)

VP. Draw its

d
projections. a f,(b) e,(c) f1,(b1)

a1
35

25 e’,(5’) 51 ’
e1 ’
A Pentagonal prism
11 ’
of base side 25 mm a’,(1’)
d’,(4’) a1 ’ d1 ’
41 ’
and axis length 55
mm is resting on b’,(2’) c’,(3’) 21’ 31
’
V.P.
41 b1 ’ c1 ’
HP on one of its X 31 H.P. Y
1 2 5 3 4
rectangular faces 51

with its axis 11

21

inclined at 45°to 55
d1

e1
the VP. Draw its
e1

projections.
b1
a e c d a1
b
 36

d’ c’ d1’ c1 ’

A Square pyramid of
o’
o1 ’
base side 30 mm and 30

axis length 50 mm a1 ’ V.P.

rests on the HP on X a’ b’ b1 ’ H.P. Y
c1(b1)
d(a) c(b)
one of its base edge.
Draw its projections
when the solid axis is d1(a1)
50
inclined at 45° to VP
and parallel to HP.
o1

o
37

25 e1 ’
e’

A pentagonal pyramid
a1 ’ d1 ’
of base side 25 mm and d’ o1 ’
a’
o’
axis length 55 mm rests
b1’ V.P.
on the HP on one of its b’ c’ c1 ’
X H.P. Y
d1
base edge. Draw its a b e c d
c1

projections when the

e1

solid axis is inclined at b1

55 a1
40° to VP and parallel
to HP
o1

o
38

f’ e’ f1 ’ e1 ’
25
A hexagonal pyramid
of base side 25 mm and o’
a1 ’ d1 ’ o1 ’

a’ d’
axis length 55 mm
rests on the HP on one c’ b1’ V.P.
c1 ’
X b’ d1 H.P. Y
of its base edge. Draw f,(b)
a e,(c) d
e1,(c1)
its projections when
the solid axis is
inclined at 30° to VP 55 f1,(b1)
a1
o1
and parallel to HP.

o
39
c’,(r’) r1 ’ c1 ’

35
A square prism of
base side 35 mm and q1 ’ d1 ’

d’,(s’) s1 ’ b1’
b’,(q’)
axis length 60 mm
lies on the HP on one V.P.
a’,(p’) p1’ q1 a1 ’ H.P. Y
of its longer edges X
s r(p) q
with its rectangular
r1(p1)
faces equally inclined
b1
to the HP. Draw its
60 s1
projections when its c1(a1)

axis is inclined at 30°

to the VP. d c(a) b d1
 40
d’,(s’) s1 ’ d1 ’
25
A Pentagonal prism of c’,(r’)
r1 ’
c1 ’

base side 25 mm and axis t1 ’ e1 ’

e’,(t’)
length 55 mm lies on the
b1 ’
HP on one of its lateral b’,(q’)
p1’
q1
’
V.P.
a’,(p’) a1 ’ H.P. Y
edges in such a way that X
r1(q 1)
t s(p) r(q)
one of its rectangular
face is perpendicular to s1(p1)

HP. Draw its projections t1

55
when the solid axis is
c1(b1)

inclined at 40° to the VP

and parallel to the HP d1a1
e d(a) c(b)
e1
 41

A Pentagonal prism of base 25

side 25 mm and axis length d’,(s’) c’,(r’)

s1 ’ r1 ’ d1 ’ c1 ’

55 mm lies on the HP on one

t1 ’ q1’ e1 ’ b1 ’
of its lateral edges in such a e’,(t’)
b’,(q’)
V.P.
way that the rectangular a’,(p’) p1’ q1 a1 ’
X r1
H.P. Y
faces containing the lateral p r q
t s
p1
edge is equally inclined to
s1
t1 b1
HP. Draw its projections
c1
55
when the solid axis is a1

inclined at 35° to VP and d1

e1
parallel to the HP. e d
a c b
42
d1 ’
s1 ’
d’,(s’) c’,(r’)
r1 ’ c1 ’
A Pentagonal prism of 25

side of base 25 mm and t1 ’ e1 ’

e’,(t’)
axis 55 mm long is resting b’,(q’)
q1’ b1 ’

V.P.
on a lateral edge on HP. a’,(p’) p1’ a1 ’ H.P.
X Y
q1
The rectangular face t s p r q r1

containing that edge is

p1
inclined at 30° to the HP s1

and the solid axis is 55 t1

b1
inclined at 40° to the VP. c1

Draw its projections. a1

e d a c b d1

e1
43
u1 ’ f1 ’
f’,(u’)
Draw the projections of a t1 ’
a’,(p’) e’,(t’) a1 ’ e1 ’
hexagonal prism of base side p1 ’

20 mm and axis length 50 20

d1 ’
mm when it is lying on the q1’ b1 ’
d’,(s’) s1 ’
b’,(q’)
ground on one of its lateral V.P.
’
edge, in such a way that the c’,(r’) r1 c1 ’ H.P. Y
X
two rectangular faces t1,(s1)
p(q) u,(r) t,(s)
containing the resting edge
is equally inclined to HP. u1,(r1)

Draw its projections when

p1(q1) e1,(d1)
the axis is inclined at 35°to 50
the VP and parallel to the
f1,(c1)
HP.

a(b) f,(c) e,(d) a1 (b1)

 44 j’(10’)
Φ50 k(11) 101 ’ j1
i’(9’) 91 ’
111 ’ k1 ’ i1 ’
l(12) 81 ’
h’(8’) 121 ’ h1 ’
A Cylinder of base l1 ’
11 ’ 71 ’ a1 ’ g1 ’
a’(1’)
g’(7’)
diameter 50 mm and
21 ’ 61 ’ b1 ’ f1
b’(2’)
axis length 60 mm f’(6’)
31 ’ 51 ’ c1 ’ e1 ’
c’(3’) e’(5’)
VP
rests on the HP on X d’(4’) 41 ’
71 d1’ HP Y
one of its generators.
1 4(10) 7
Draw its projections 41(101)

when the cylinder g1’

axis is inclined at 30° 11

60
to the VP and d1(j1)

parallel to HP.
g a1
a (d)j
 45

A Square pyramid of base 30

c’ c1 ’

side 30 mm and axis length

d1 ’
50 mm rests on the HP on d’
o’ o1 ’
b’ b1 ’
one of its base corners with
V.P.
a base side containing the a’
a1’ b1
X H.P. Y
resting corner makes an d a c b
c1
angle of 35°with the HP.
a1
Draw its projection when
the solid axis is inclined at 50 d1
o1
30° to the VP and the vertex
is away from the VP.
o
46
d’ d1 ’
A hexagonal pyramid of
e’
base side 25 mm and axis c’ e1 ’
c1 ’
o’
o1 ’
length 55 mm rests on 25
b1 ’
the HP on one of its base f1’
f’ b’
V.P.
corner in such a way that
a1 ’
X a’ c1,(b1) H.P. Y
two of its base edge is
e,(f) d,(a) C(b)
equally inclined to the d1,(a1)

HP. Draw its projections e1 (f1)

when the solid axis is 55

o1
inclined at 40° to the VP
and parallel to HP.
o
47

d’ c’ c1’ d1 ’

A square pyramid of o’
30 o1 ’
base side 30 mm and
b1 ’ V.P.
axis length 60 mm rests a’ b’ a1 ’ o1
X c1(b1) H.P. Y
on the HP on one of its
d(a) c(b)
base edge and has one of
its lateral surface on VP d1a1

with the solid axis

parallel to the HP. Draw 60

its projections.

o
 48
e’ e1 ’

30
d’ d1 ’

o’
A Pentagonal pyramid a’ o1 ’
a1 ’

of base side 30 mm
c’ c1’
and axis length 55 mm b’
b1 ’
V.P.
rests on the VP on one a e(b) d(c) d1(c1) o1
X H.P. Y
of its lateral surface
with its solid axis 55 e1b1

parallel to HP. Draw

a1
its projections
o
 49
e’ e1 ’

f’ d1 ’ f1 ’
A Hexagonal pyramid d’
o’ o1 ’
of base side 30 mm 30

c1 ’
and axis length 60 a’ c’ a1 ’
b’
mm rests on the VP V.P.
a,(f) e,(b) d(c) b1’
o1
on one of its X
d1(c1) H.P. Y

triangular faces with

e1,(b1)
its axis parallel to HP. 60

Draw its projections.

a1 (f1)

o
 50

d’ d1 ’
30
A square pyramid of
base side 30 mm and o’ c’ c1 ’ o1 ’
a’ a1 ’
axis length 60 mm
rests on the HP on one b1’ V.P.
c1 o1
b’ Y
of its base corner and X H.P.
a d,(b) c
has one of its lateral d1,(b1)

edge on VP with the

solid axis parallel to 60 a1

the HP. Draw its

projections.

o
51 j’ j1’
Φ50 k’
i’
i1 ’ k1 ’
l’ l1 ’
h’ h1 ’
o’
A cone of base a’ g1 ’ a1 ’ o1’
g’
diameter 50 mm and f1 ’ b1 ’
b’ f’
axis length 60 mm 40 e1 ’ c1 ’
c’ e’
has one of its d’ d1’
a j(d) g g1 VP
generators on VP with HP
X o1 Y
the solid axis parallel
j1 (d1)
to and 40 mm above
60
the HP. Draw its
projections. a1

o
 52
35
d1 ’
d’

e’ e1 ’

o’ c’ c1 ’ o1 ’
A pentagonal pyramid
a1 ’
of base side 35 mm and
a’

axis length 60 mm has b’ b1’ V.P.

c1 o1
X H.P.
one of its lateral edges e,(a) d,(b) c Y
d1,(b1)
on VP and the solid axis
is parallel to HP.
60 e1 (a1)

o
53
30

f’ e’ e1 ’ f1 ’

o’
A Hexagonal pyramid d’ d1 ’ a1 ’ o1 ’
a’

of base side 30 mm
and axis length 60
b’
c’
V.P.
c1’ b1 ’
mm has one of its d1 o1
X H.P. Y
a
lateral edge on VP and f,(b) e(c) d
e1,(c1)

the solid axis is

parallel to HP. Draw
f1 (b1)
its projections. 60

a1

o
54
c’ c1 ’
50

A Tetrahedron of edges
a’ o’ a1 ’ o1 ’
50 mm rest on one of its
edges on the VP. One of
the faces containing the b’
b1’
V.P.
resting edge is inclined c1b1)
X H.P. Y
at 30° to the VP. Draw its
a c(b)
projections of the o1

tetrahedron when the

resting edge is normal to 50
a1

the HP.
o
55
o’
a’

b1’(d1’)
A square pyramid of CG
60
base side 30 mm and c 1’
CG
axis length 60 mm is
15
o1’ V.P.
suspended by means
a’ b’(d’) c’
X H.P. Y
of a string from one of d1
d

its base corners with

a c c1 a1 o1
its axis parallel to VP. o
Draw its projections.
b 30 b1

𝟏 𝟏
CG = 𝟒 × 𝒉 = 𝟒 × 60 = 15 mm

Note: The pyramid is suspended from the corner “A”

 56
o’
d1’

A Pentagonal pyramid of base

c1’(e1’)
side 25 mm and 60 mm height is
60
suspended from a string attached CG
b1’(a’)
to one corner of the base of the CG

pyramid. The string is held, such 15

V.P.
that the apex of the pyramid is b’(a’) c’(e’)
X
d’ o1’ H.P. Y
e e1
just touching HP. The axis of the
a a1
pyramid is parallel to VP. Draw
the projections of the pyramid. o
d1
30
d
o1

𝟏 𝟏 b b1
CG = 𝟒 × 𝒉 = 𝟒 × 60 = 15 mm c c1

Note: The pyramid is suspended from the corner “D”

 a1’
57 o’
b1’(f1’)

A Hexagonal pyramid
of base side 30 mm 60 c1’(e1’)
CG

CG
and axis length 60
d1’ o1’
15
mm is suspended by
V.P.
b’(f’) c’(e’) d’
means of a string X a’ H.P. Y

from one of its base f

e e1 f1

corners with its axis

parallel to VP. Draw a d d1 a1 o1
o
its projections.
30
𝟏 𝟏
CG = ×𝒉 = × 60 = 15 mm c
𝟒 𝟒 b c1 b1

Note: The pyramid is suspended from the corner “A”

 a1’
58 b1’(f1’)

a’ b’(f’) c’(e’) d’
c1’(e1’)

A Hexagonal prism of d1
11’ ’
base side 25 mm and axis 50
21’(61’)
length 50 mm is
suspended freely by 31’(51’)
V.P.
1’ 2’(6’)
□
means of a string from X 3’(5’) 4’ 41’
H.P.
Y
61 51 f1 e1
f,(6) e,(5)
one of its base corners
with its axis parallel to
a,(1) d,(4) 11 d1
VP. Draw its projections. 41 a1

25

21 31 c1
c,(3) b1
b,(2)

Note: The prism is suspended from the corner “A”

• SECTION OF SOLIDS & DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES

• Section of Solids – Sectional views of simple vertical solids

cut by section plane inclined to any one Principal Plane.
• Development of Surfaces – Development of lateral
surfaces of truncated and frustum of simple solids
Sections of Solids
SECTIONING
NECESSITY OF
SECTION VIEW
 SECTIONING A SOLID.

• An object (here a solid) is cut by some OBSERVER

imaginary cutting plane to understand
ASSUME
internal details of that object. UPPER PART
• The action of cutting is called SECTIONING a REMOVED

solid & The plane of cutting is called SECTION

PLANE.
• Section plane perpendicular to VP and
inclined to HP. (This is a definition of A.I.P.)
• NOTE:- This section plane appears as a straight
line in FV.
SECTIONING A SOLID.

• Section Plane perpendicular to HP and inclined to

VP. (This is a definition of an A.V.P.)
• NOTE:- This section plane appears as a straight line
in TV.
• Remember:-
• 1. After launching a section plane either in FV or TV,
ASSUME
the part towards observer is assumed to be LOWER PART
removed. REMOVED

• 2. As far as possible the smaller part is assumed to OBSERVER

be removed.
 For TV

SECTION
PLANE

IMPORTANT TERMS TRUE SHAPE

Of SECTION
IN SECTIONING.
x y
Apparent Shape
of section
SECTION LINES
(450 to XY)

SECTIONAL T.V.
Typical Section Planes &Typical Shapes of Sections.

Section Plane Ellipse Section Plane Hyperbola

Section PlaneTriangle Through Generators Section Plane Parallel
to end generator. Parallel to Axis.
Through Apex

Ellipse Trapezium

Cylinder through Sq. Pyramid through

generators. all slant edges
Representation of Section Plane
Types of Sectional Planes and Sectional Views
Classification of Section Planes

❑ Plane Perpendicular to VP and Parallel to HP

❑ Plane Perpendicular to HP and Parallel to VP

❑ Plane Perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP

❑ Plane Perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP

❑ Plane Perpendicular to both VP and HP

❑ Plane inclined both VP and HP

 Section Views

The object Conventional hidden line technique

• Many times the interior of an object is so complicated that it is impossible or very difficult to
represent that interior with conventional hidden lines.
• This often causes confusion in reading and interpreting the drawing. Therefore, sectioning is
required in these cases.
 Section Views

The object cut Section technique

• Sectioning is a technique by which the object is sliced and the cutaway view of the part is then drawn.
• To show the construction clearly in many hollow objects, the front part is imagined to be removed to reveal the
interior surface.
• Where and when this occurs the edges are represented with solid lines and the cut surface is crosshatched or
section lined.
• The interior detail is now shown more clearly because the hidden lines have been replaced with visible object
lines.
Hatching

The spacing between lines may vary from 1.5 mm for small sectioned areas to
3 mm for large sectioned areas.
1
a’ 1’ d’ b’ 2’ c’

A cube of side 40 mm rests with

one of its square faces on HP such 40

that one of its vertical square faces

VP
is inclined at 30° to VP. A section X p’ 4’ s’ q’ 3’ r’ HP Y

plane, parallel to VP and d,(s)

perpendicular to HP passes
through the solid at a distance of c,(r)

10 mm away from its vertical axis

a,(p)
and infront of it. Draw its top view, 1,(4) 2,(3) 10

sectional front view.

b,(q)
 o’
2

A Hexagonal pyramid of base side 30

60
2’ 3’
mm and axis length 60 mm rests on
the HP on its base such that one of its
base edges is parallel to VP and the VP

X a’ 1’ b’(f’) c’(e’) 4’ d’ HP Y
solid axis is perpendicular to HP. A
cutting plane parallel to VP and
f e
perpendicular to HP cuts the solid at a 30

distance of 15 mm away from the axis.

Draw its top view, sectional front view. d
a
o
15

2 3 4
1

b c
 o’
3
20
1’ 2’ 4’ 5’
3’
A pentagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm
60
and axis length 60 mm rests on the HP on
its base in such a way that one of its base
edges is parallel to VP and the solid axis
VP
perpendicular to HP. A section plane X
a’ e’ b’ d’ c’ HP Y

parallel to the ground and perpendicular e

d
to VP cuts the solid axis at a distance of 20
4
mm away from the vertex. Draw its front 2

1 5
view and sectional top view. a
3 c

30
b
 21
31
True Shape
5

41
11
A pentagonal prism of base side 40
mm and axis length 75 mm rests on the 51
e’ b’ d’ c’
a’ 3’
HP on one of its ends with a 25
4’
rectangular face parallel to the VP. It is 2’
5’
cut by a plane perpendicular to the VP, 1’
75

inclined at 300 to the HP and meeting

VP
the solid axis at 25 mm from the top p’ t’ q’ s’ r’
X HP Y
5 4 d(s)
face. Draw the front, sectional top view e(t)

and true shape of the section.

a(p) c(r)
1 3

40
Sectional top view 2
b(q)
 41
31
6 51

True shape

61
21

A hexagonal prism of base side 25 mm 5’

11 a’ b’(f’) c’(e’) 4’
and axis length 50 mm rests on the HP 81 71 d’
6’ 3’
on its base .in such a way that one of its
50
rectangular face is parallel to VP. It is
25
2’ 7’
cut by a plane inclined at 50° to the base 1’
8’ VP
p’ q’(u’) r’(t’) s’
and bisecting the solid axis. Draw the X HP Y
f(u) 6 e(t)
7
front view, sectional top view and true
8 5
shape of the section.. Sectional top view a(p) d(s)

4
1

25 2 3
b(q) c(r)
 21
31
7
True shape
11 41

o’
A square pyramid of base 30 mm and
axis 60 mm long is standing on the HP
3’
with its base edge equally inclined to
4’ 60
2’
VP. It is cut by a section plane 1’

30
perpendicular to the VP and inclined
VP
at 30° to the HP, bisecting the axis. X a’ b’(d’) c’ HP

Draw the sectional top view and the d

true shape of the section, if the upper 4

a
portion is removed. Sectional top view 1 3 c

30
b
8 True shape

A rectangular pyramid of base 30 mm X

50 mm and axis 50 mm is resting on its
base with the longer edge of the base
Front view
parallel to VP. It is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to the VP, inclined at 30°
to HP and passing through a point on
the axis 20 mm from the apex. Draw the
front view, the sectional top view and
the true shape of such a section of the Sectional top view

pyramid
 True shape
9

A pentagonal pyramid, side of base 30

mm and height 52 mm, stands with its
Front view
base on HP and an edge of the base is
parallel to VP and nearer to it. It is cut
by a plane perpendicular to VP,
inclined at 40° to HP and passing
through a point on the axis, 32 mm
above the base. Draw the sectional top Sectional top view

view and true shape of the section.

10

A hexagonal pyramid of base side 30

mm and height 60mm rests vertically True shape

on its base on the ground with two of

Front view
its base sides parallel to VP. Is is cut by
a sectional plane inclined at 30° to HP
and perpendicular to YP and meeting
the axis at the midpoint. Draw the
front view, the sectional top view and
the true shape of such a section of the
pyramid Sectional top view
11 True shape

A hexagonal pyramid of base side 25 mm and

axis 55mm length rests on its base on the HP Front view

with two base edges perpendicular to the VP.

It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the VP
and inclined at 30° to the HP meeting the
axis at 20 mm from the vertex. Draw the
front view, sectional top view and the true
shape of the section.
Sectional top view
 51 61

12 41
True shape
31
71

81
21
A cylinder of diameter 50 mm and 91
11 101
111
height 60 mm rests on its base on HP. (7’)

a’ j’(d’) 6’ g’

It is cut by a plane perpendicular to VP (8’) 5’

15
4’
(9’)
and inclined at 45°to HP. The cutting
3’ (10’)
2’ 60
plane meets the axis at a distance of 15 1’ (11’)

mm from the top face. Draw the

VP

sectional plan and true shape of the X HP Y

10 j 9 8i
k
section. 7
Φ50
11 l h

a g
1

2b f

Sectional top view 6

3 c 5e
d
4
13

Front view
A cone of base diameter 65 mm and axis
80 mm long is resting on its base on HP. It
True shape
is cut by a section plane perpendicular to
VP and inclined at 45° to HP. The cutting
plane passes through the axis at a distance
of 40 mm above HP. Draw the sectional
top view and true shape of the section.

Sectional top view

 11
14 111 21
31
o’
101
41

91
1’
3’
(11’) 2’
(10’)
51
A Cone of base diameter 50 mm and (9’)
4’
60
61
altitude 60 mm rests on its base on the 81

HP. It is cut by a plane perpendicular

5’ (8’) 71
to the VP and parallel to one of the a’ g’ VP
6’
X HP Y
extreme generators, 10 mm away from (7’)

j
it. Draw the sectional top view and k 8
i 7
Φ50
h
true shape of the section. l 9

11 10
1
a g
2
3

b 4
f
5
c e6
d
15

A Cone of base diameter 40 mm and

altitude 50 mm rests on its base on HP.
It is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to VP and inclined at 80o
to HP, passing through the apex. Draw
the front view, sectional top view and
true shape of the section
 Sectional front view
16 a’ 1’ 2’ d’

50
A hexagonal prism of base side 25 mm and
height 50 mm rests on the HP on one of its
VP
ends with two rectangular faces parallel to the 4’ 3’ HP Y
X
f e
VP. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the HP
and inclined at 50° to the VP at a distance of 1 (4)
Top view
d
41 ’ a
10mm away from the axis. Draw the .top view,
sectional front view and true shape of the (3) 25
b 2 c
section. 11’
31 ’

True shape
21 ’
17
Sectional front view

A pentagonal pyramid of base side 25 mm and

axis length 60 mm rests on the HP on its base
with an edge of the base parallel to the VP. It is
cut by a vertical plane inclined at 45° to the VP
at a distance of 8 mm away from the axis. Draw
the top view, sectional front view and true
shape of the section.

True shape Top view

 Sectional front view
18 o’

3’

4’
A hexagonal pyramid of base side 25mm and axis 55 2’

55 mm rests on HP on its base with two edges

parallel to VP. It is cut by a vertical plane inclined a’ d’ VP
1’ 5’
X HP Y
at 30° to VP and cutting the pyramid at a distance f
e
25
of 6 mm away from the plan of the axis. Draw the
1
top view, sectional front view and true shape of a
2 o
d
3
Top view
the section.. 4

,
11 5

b c

51 ,
21 ,

41
31 , ,
True shape
19

Sectional front view

A cylinder of base diameter 60mm and axis
height 65 mm is resting on the ground on its
base. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to HP,
inclined at 30° to VP that passes through a
point at a distance of 15 mm away from the
Top view
axis. Draw the sectional elevation and true
shape of the section

True shape
 o’

20 Sectional front view

80
4’
A vertical cone of diameter 60 mm, height 80 3’

5’
mm is cut by a cutting plane perpendicular to 2’

HP and is inclined at 40° to VP, passing VP

a’ g’
through a point at a distance of 15 mm away X 1’
j
6’
HP Y
k i
from the axis. Draw the sectional elevation Φ50
l h
and true shape of the section 1
2
a g
3
11’ Top view
4
b
5 f

21 ’ c e
True shape 6
d
15
31 ’
61 ’
41 ’
51 ’
21
Front view

True shape

A cone of diameter 55 mm and axis

height 70 mm is resting on the
ground on its base. A section
plane perpendicular to both HP
and VP cuts the solid at a distance
of 7 mm away from the axis. Draw
the sectional elevation and true
shape of the section.

Top view
 Front view
22

True shape

A square pyramid of base side 35 mm

and axis length 60 mm is resting the
HP on its base with a side of base
inclined at 45° to the VP. It is cut by a
plane perpendicular to both HP and
VP meeting at a distance of 10mm away
from the axis. Draw its top view, front
view and true shape of the section.

Top view
 61

51
23 11

a’ 41
b’(d’) c’
A cube of side 50 mm is placed and cut by a (1’)6’
21

31
plane in such a way that the true shape of the
50 (2’)5’
section is regular hexagon. Draw the front and
VP
top views of the cube and find the inclination
X p’ q’(s’) (3’)4’ r’ HP Y
of the cutting plane with the HP.
2 d(s)

1 3

a(p) c(r)

6 4
50
5
b(q)
24

A Tetrahedron of edge 60 mm rests on the HP

on one of its face such that one of the edges
of the resting face is perpendicular to VP. It is
cut by a plane perpendicular to VP and
inclined to the HP in such a way that the true
shape of the section is an isosceles triangle
of base 40 mm and altitude 30 mm. Find the
inclination of the cutting plane with the HP.
Also draw the front view, sectional top view
and true shape of the section
25
Front view

A tetrahedron of edge 30 mm rests on the

True shape
HP on one of its faces. It is cut by a plane
perpendicular to the VP and inclined to
the HP such that the true shape of the
section is a square. Draw the front view
showing the cutting plane, sectional top
view and the true shape of the section

Sectional top view

26 Front view True shape

A square pyramid of base side 50 mm and

height 65 mm is resting on HP with a base
edge parallel to VP. It is cut by a plane
perpendicular to VP, inclined to HP in such a
way that the true shape is a trapezium of
sides 40 mm and 20 mm. Draw the projection
and the find the angle of the cutting plane.
Also draw the true shape of the section

Sectional top view

27 True shape

Front view

A cone of base diameter 40 mm and

altitude 50 mm rests on its base on HP. It
is cut by a section plane perpendicular to
VP and inclined to HP in such a way that
the true shape of the section is an
isosceles triangle of base 25 mm. Draw the
front view, sectional top view and true
shape of the section

Sectional top view

28

A Sphere of diameter 80 mm is cut by a HT inclined at 40o

to VP. The cutting plane is located at a minimum distance
of 20 mm from the center of the sphere. Draw its top
view, sectional front view and true shape of the section.
29

A cone of base diameter 40 mm and height

50 mm rests on its base on the HP. It is cut
by a plane perpendicular to the VP and
inclined at 400 to the HP. The cutting
plane meets the axis at 20 mm from the
vertex. Draw the sectional top view and the
true shape of the section.
30

A Hexagonal pyramid of base side 25 mm

and axis 55 mm rests on HP on its base
with two edges parallel to VP. It is cut by a
vertical plane inclined at 30o to VP and
cutting the pyramid at a distance of 6
mm away from the plan of the axis. Draw
the top view, sectional front view and
true shape of the section.
 21
41
31
11
61

31

2’ g’
A Cylinder of diameter 50mm and height 65 a’
1’ j’(d’)
81
51
4’
3’
mm rests on its base on the HP. It is cut by a 101

71
plane Perpendicular to the VP and inclined 5’
6’
91
121
65
111
at 600 to the HP. The cutting plane meets the
40 8’
7’
axis at a distance of 40 mm above the base.
9’
VP
Draw the sectional top view and the true 10’
11’
X HP Y
12’

shape of the section. k 3

j 5
7 i
1
9
l h Φ50
11

a g

12
b f
10
2 e8
4
c 6
32

A Pentagonal prism of base side 25 mm

and axis length 55 mm rests on the HP
on its base such that one of its base
edges is perpendicular to VP and the
solid axis is perpendicular to HP. A
section plane parallel to the base and
perpendicular to VP cuts the solid axis
at a distance of 15 mm away from the
top face. Draw its front view and
sectional top view.
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES
• SECTION OF SOLIDS & DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES

• Section of Solids – Sectional views of simple vertical solids

cut by section plane inclined to any one Principal Plane.
• Development of Surfaces – Development of lateral
surfaces of truncated and frustum of simple solids
Prior skill set…

✓ First angle projection

✓ Lines and its types

✓ Projection of plane surfaces

✓ Projection of solids

✓ Sectioning of solids
Convention…

ALL DIMENTIONS ARE IN “mm”

Development of Surfaces

“The development of surface of an object is the unrolling or unfolding of all

surfaces of an object on a plane.”

Otherwise,

“If the surface of a solid is laid out on a plain surface, the shape thus

obtained is called the development of that solid.”

Principle of Development:

Every line on the development should show the true length of the

corresponding line on the surface which is developed.

Applications of Development of Surfaces

❖ Sheet metal work

❖ Marine and automotive body building

❖ Construction of storage vessels

❖ Computer and electronic casings

❖ Boilers

❖ Chimneys

❖ Etc …..
Methods of Development

❑ Parallel Line Development or Stretch out line method (prism, cylinder)

❑ Radial Line Development (pyramid, cone)

❑ Triangulation Development (transition pieces)

❑ Approximate Development (double curved or warped surfaces – sphere,

paraboloid, ellipsoid, hyperboloid and helicoid.

Parallel Line Development

Stretch Line

Seam Line

VP
X HP Y

Fold Line
Radial Line Development

Vertex

Seam Line

VP

X HP Y

Fold Line
Triangulation Development

VP
HP Y
X

Fold Lin
Approximate Development

Lune
 A1”

E1” A1’

E1’

B1”
D1

Steps involved in C1
E1

Development of B1’ A1
A’
B1

a solid A1’
E’

E
C
E”

B’
B A

A’ B”
A”
Possible Cases in Development of Solids

• Lateral Surface Development

• Excluding top & base of a vertical solid

• Complete Solid Development

• Including top & base of a vertical solid

Development of simple solids

Cylinder: A Rectangle

D
D

Where H= Height D= base diameter

 Complete Development

Cube: Six Squares.

Tetrahedron: Four Equilateral Triangles

Complete Development
Prisms: (No.of Rectangles)

H= Height S = Edge of base

Complete Development

S
 ′𝐑′𝐨𝐟 𝐁𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐂𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐥𝐞
Cone: Sector of circle 𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 =
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐬𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡
× 𝟑𝟔𝟎°

L R=Base circle radius.

L=Slant height.

 = R
L
3600

Complete Development

R
Pyramids: (No.of triangles)

s s

L= Slant edge. S = Edge of base Complete Development

 1

A Rectangular prism of cross section 45 X 30 mm and height 55 mm rests on the ground on one of its ends
with one of its longer edges of the base inclined at 300 to the VP. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to VP and
inclined at 300 to the HP. The cutting plane meets the axis at a point 45 mm above the base. Draw the
development of the surface of the lower part of the prism.
 4 1
(4’)
3’ 3 4
2’ 2
30˚

5’ 5

1’ 55 1 1
45

VP

X a’ d’ b’ c’ HP Y A B C D A
d 30˚
5

4
D C
1 c
a

3
30
45
2
b
 2

A Hexagonal prism of side 30 mm and axis length 60 mm is resting

on HP on its base with two of its vertical faces perpendicular to VP. It
is cut by a plane inclined at 500 to HP and perpendicular to VP and
meets the axis of prism at a distance of 10mm from the top end.
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the prism.
 3

A Pentagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis length 60mm is resting on HP on its base with a side of
base parallel to VP. It is cut by a plane inclined at 350 to HP and perpendicular to VP and meets the axis at a
distance of 35 mm from the base. Draw the development of the lower portion of the prism.
 3

3’ 3

4’ 4
35˚
2’ 2
60

5’ 5

1’ 35 1 1

VP

X a’ e’ b’ d’ c’ HP Y A B C D E A
(5)e d (4)

B E
a
c (3)
(1)

A
30
(2) b
 4

A Cylinder of base diameter 50 mm and axis length 65 mm resting on HP on its base is cut by a plane inclined
at 600 to HP and perpendicular to VP. The cutting plane passes through a point on the axis at a distance of 25
mm from the top end. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the right portion of the cylinder
 a’ g’ 6 7
4
6’ (7’)
(8’) 5’ 5 8
25

60˚
(9’) 4’ 4 9

65

3 10
(10’) 3’

2 11
2’ (11’) VP

X 1’ (12’) j Y A 1 B C H L 12 A
i
HP D E F G I J K
k 7 πD
l
h
12 Φ50
A Cylinder of base diameter 50 mm and axis length 65 mm resting on
a g HP on its base is cut by a plane inclined at 600 to HP and

1 perpendicular to VP. The cutting plane passes through a point on the

b f axis at a distance of 25 mm from the top end. Draw the development

c e6 of the lateral surface of the right portion of the cylinder

d
A Cylinder of diameter 50 mm and axis height 65 mm is cut by a plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at
60° to the HP into two equal parts. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the truncated solid.

5
 6

A rectangular pyramid 60 mm x 50 mm and height 75 mm is resting on its

base on HP with its longer base edges parallel to VP. It is sectioned by a
plane perpendicular to VP, inclined at 65° to HP and passing through the
mid-point of the axis. Develop the lateral surfaces of the cut pyramid
 7

A Hexagonal pyramid of base side 25 mm and altitude 50 mm is

resting vertically on its base on the ground with two of the side of the
base perpendicular to the VP. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to VP
and inclined at 400 to the HP. The cutting plane bisects the axis of the
pyramid. Draw the development of the lateral surfaces of the pyramid.
 8

A regular pentagonal pyramid of side 40 mm and altitude 75 mm has its base on HP with a side of base
perpendicular to VP. The pyramid is cut by a section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 300 to the HP.
The cutting plane meets the axis of the pyramid at a point 30 mm below the vertex. Obtain the development
of the remaining part of the pyramid.
 o’ 8

30 B
3’
2’ 30
79 C
4’
75
1’ 1
5’
A

C
VP E
X a’ e’ b’ d’ c’ HP Y
d

e B
5
4 A
3

2 1
c
o
1
A
79 O
40
a

b
 9

A right circular cone of base diameter 60 mm and height 70 mm is resting on its base on the ground. It is cut
by a plane inclined at 300 to HP and perpendicular to VP. The cutting plane bisects the axis of the cone. Draw
the development of the lateral surface of the truncated cone.
 o’ ′𝑹′𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆
9
𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 "𝜽" = × 𝟑𝟔𝟎°
𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
30
= × 360° = 142.1° ≈ 142°
76
7’
6’ 76
5’ 30
76
4’ 9’ 8’
70 1 O
3’ 10’ A
2’ 11’
1’ 12’ 2
35 3 θ
B 4
5
6 7
VP 8 1
9 12
a’ j g’ Y C 10
X HP 11
k i
D
l h A
Φ60

E L
a g
o F
K
G
J
b f H I

c e
d
 10

A Cone of base diameter 60 mm and height 70 mm is resting on its base

on the ground. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the VP and parallel to
the HP at a distance of 20 mm from the vertex. It is also cut by a plane
inclined at 400 to the base and meeting the axis at a point 20 mm above
the base. Draw the developmentof the lateral surface of the cut cone.
10
 11

A Pentagonal prism of base side 25 mm and height 60 mm stands on one of its ends on the HP with a
rectangular face parallel to the VP. A hole of diameter 30 mm is drilled centrally through the prism in such a
way that the axis of the hole bisects the axis of the prism at right angles. The axis of the hole is
perpendicular to the VP. Draw the development of the lateral surfaces of the prism.
 11

7 7 7
6 8
6 8 6
8
Φ30

60 5 1 5 5
1
1
o

2 4 2 4 4 2
30
3 3 3

VP

a’ c’ HP Y A m p q r C s D E n A
X e d B
125

n s

a c
m r
p q
25

b
 12

A Square pyramid of base side 35 mm and axis 60 mm rests on its base on the HP with one of the sides of
the base inclined at 300 to the VP. A string is wound round the surfaces of the pyramid starting from left
extreme point on the base and ending at the same point. Find the shortest length of the string required. Also
trace the path of the string in the front and top views.
 o’

12

85 3 D
4 60
C
2 1
A

4
B
1 VP
3
X HP Y
30˚

2
d

1
A
c 85 O
3
o
a 1

35 2

b
 13

A cone of base diameter 60 mm and height 70 mm rests vertically on its

base on the ground. A string is wound round the curved surface of the
cone starting from the left extreme point on the base and ending at the
same point. Find the shortest length of the string required. Also, trace
the path of the string in the front and the top views.
 14

A Cone of base diameter 60 mm and axis height 70 mm is resting

on the HP on its base. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to both
HP and VP, 10 mm away from the axis. Draw the development of
lateral surfaces
 15

A right regular Hexagonal pyramid of 30 mm side of base and height 70mm stands with its base on HP. A
through circular hole of 30 mm diameter is drilled through the pyramid such that the axis of the hole is
perpendicular to VP and intersects the axis of the pyramid at a distance of 20 mm above the base. Draw the
development of the lateral surface of the pyramid showing the true shapes of the holes formed on it.
 o’ 15

77

7’ 77
65 Φ30 8’ 6’ 7’
15’ A
14’ 16’
1
9’ 5’
1’ 13’ 8
P

12’ 10’ 7
20 2’ 4’
11’ 2
3’
3’ 6
VP 15
B 14
X a’ b’ (f’) c’ (e’) d’ HP Y
16 13
3
f e 5
4 9
r
s A
C 12
S
10
d Q
a 11
o F
D
R
E
p
q

b 30 c
 16

A Funnel tapers from a circular opening of diameter 70 mm to a circular opening of diameter 20 mm

over an axial length of 50 mm and extends axially to a further distance of 40 mm. There is a cylindrical
portion of height 15 mm above the tapering portion. Develop the funnel.
16 A A
15
𝜋𝐷 = 219.9 ≈220

B ′𝑅 ′𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒

50 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 "θ" = × 360°
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
35
= × 360° = 157.5° ≈ 158°
80 80
80

40
C

C
VP
B θ
HP Y 𝜋𝐷 = 62.8 ≈ 63
X

Φ20

Φ70
PICTORIAL PROJECTION
• Introduction to Pictorial Projection, Isometric Projection – Principle,
Isometric Planes, Isometric Scales, Isometric Projection of simple solids and
their combination.
• Free Hand Drawing - Orthographic views of simple blocks from their
Isometric view, Isometric view of simple blocks from their Orthographic
views.
Free Hand Drawing
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

To draw projections of any object,

A) Object : {Machine element with it’s description, well defined.}

B) Observer : { Direction of view}

C) 3D view of the object, {Isometric preferably}

D) Views to draw: {FV, TV and RSV or LSV}

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS {MACHINE ELEMENTS}

✓ Object is observed in three directions.

✓ The directions should be normal to the respective planes.
✓ And now project three different views on those planes.
✓ These veiws are front view, top view and side view.
▪ Front view is a view projected on vertical plane (VP)
▪ Top view is a view projected on horizontal plane (HP)
▪ Side view is a view projected on profile plane (PP)
✓ Recognize surfaces perpendicular to the arrow directions
 FOR T.V.
FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION

• In this method, the object is assumed to

be situated in first quadrant means
above HP & infront of VP.
• Object is in between observer & plane.

VP PP

FV LSV

TV

HP
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT BY
FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

x y

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT BY FIRST ANGLE
PROJECTION METHOD
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECTBY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT BY FIRST
ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT BY FIRST
ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT BY FIRST
ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
 FRONT VIEW
FOR T.V.

X Y

TOP VIEW
FOR T.V.
FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
FOR T.V.
FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
FOR T.V.
FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
FOR T.V.

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
FOR T.V.

FV

x y

TV
FOR T.V.
FV SV

x y

ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

TV
FOR T.V.
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

FV SV

x y

40

TV
FOR T.V. ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

FV SV

x y

TOP VIEW
X Y
F.V. L.S.V.
 FOR T.V.
FV

X Y

TV
FOR T.V.

X Y
FOR T.V.

FV

X Y

TV
F.V. S.V.
FOR T.V.

FV

X Y

TV
FOR T.V.

F.V.

X Y

T.V.
X Y
FV LSV
 1 Front View Left Side View

40

20
10
VP
X Y
HP

40
40 20

10

10
F 40

20
80
Top View
 Front View Left Side View
2

Draw the top view, front view and left

side views of the object shown in the

64
3 X 16
diagram. All the dimensions are in
millimeters.
VP
X Y
100 HP

30
90
30
120
Top View
3
Front View Left Side View

Draw the top view, front view and

left side views of the object shown
in the diagram. All the dimensions

60
are in millimeters.

10
VP
X 20 Y
10 30 10
HP

10

30

40
Φ10
90

Top View
 4 Right Side View Front View

Draw the top view, front view and right 15

side views of the object shown in the

diagram. All the dimensions are in

30
millimeters.

60

24
8
VP
X Y
15 15 30 24 HP

54
30
90

Top View
 5
Right Side View Front View

25 66
Draw the top view, front view and right side
views of the object shown in the diagram. All

20
the dimensions are in millimeters.

40
VP
X 50 Y
HP

25
50
32

Φ20
Top View
 6 Right Side View Front View
R16 Φ20

Draw the top view, front view and right side

views of the object shown in the diagram. All
R6

30
the dimensions are in millimeters.

12
20
VP
40 16 HP Y
X
40

60

12
20
100

Top View
 7
Front View Left side virw

Draw the top view, front view and left side

views of the object shown in the diagram.

18
40
All the dimensions are in millimeters.

12
VP

X HP Y
Φ50 Φ30

12
40
12 20
100

Top View
 8
Right Side View Front View

Draw the top view, front view and

right side views of the object
shown in the diagram. All the

35
50
dimensions are in millimeters.

VP
Φ20 HP Y
X

50

12
19
15
20
100

Top View
 9 Right Side View Front View

Draw the top view, front view and

right side views of the object
8

40
shown in the diagram. All the
dimensions are in millimeters.
8
VP

X HP Y

22
33 9
100

Top View
10
Front View Left Side View
8
Draw the top view, front view 8

and left side views of the

object shown in the diagram.

20
All the dimensions are in 8

millimeters. VP

X HP
16

32

12
20 20 16

56

Top View
11 Right Side View Front View
16 24
R48 8 8
Draw the top view, front view and right
side views of the object shown in the
diagram. All the dimensions are in

40
millimeters.

28
28
VP
HP Y
X

12

40
16
22

16
20
96

Top View
12 Right Side View Front View
24
14 8
Draw the top view, front view and right side
views of the object shown in the diagram. All
the dimensions are in millimeters.

16
8
VP

X HP Y

24
32
16
12

18 20 18

Top View
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
 UNIT - IV

PICTORIAL PROJECTION 6+9

• Introduction to Pictorial Projection, Isometric Projection – Principle,
Isometric Planes, Isometric Scales, Isometric Projection of simple solids and
their combination.
• Free Hand Drawing - Orthographic views of simple blocks from their
Isometric view, Isometric view of simple blocks from their Orthographic
views.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Isometric Projection

Projections of simple solids

Sections of solids
METHODS OF PROJECTION

▪ Orthographic projection

▪ Isometric projection

▪ Oblique projection

▪ Perspective projection.
Isometric Projection

▪ It is a method of producing pictorial view of an object showing all three

faces of the object simultaneously on a single reference plane.

▪ It is a type of parallel projection

▪ The angles between any two of the three coordinate axes is 120°

▪ The actual (True) sizes can be measured directly from Isometric view.
3D Drawings in Different Ways

Purpose of isometric drawing is to understand overall shape, size &

appearance of an object prior to it’s production.
ISO CONDITION.

H
H

In this 3-d drawing of an object, all three dimensional axes are mentained
at equal inclinations with each other.( 1200)
ISOMETRIC TERMINOLOGY

• The three coordinate axes are called isometric axes

• Any line parallel to isometric axes is called isometric line

• A non-isometric line is a line not parallel to any one of the three

isometric axis
• In isometric projection of cube, the faces of the cube and any plane
parallel to them is called isometric planes
Principle of Isometric Projection

RQ, RS and RV are isometric axes

ISO PLANES

ISO 30-30 plane ISO 30-90 plane

CONSTRUCTION OF ISO SCALE.

D
4

C
2
H 4

1
H
3

0 1

0
A B

Isometric Length= 0.82 x True length

 TYPES OF ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

ISOMETRIC VIEW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Drawn by using True scale Drawn by using Isometric scale
( True dimensions ) ( Reduced dimensions )

H H
Difference Between Isometric view and Isometric Projection

ISOMETRIC DRAWING = ISOMETRIC VIEW

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION = 0.82 x ISOMETRIC VIEW

ISOMETRIC OF PLANE FIGURES

SHAPE: RECTANGLE F.V. T.V.

D
H
A D D
A

C
C
A
B C
B B

TRIANGLE B
H
1 B 3 B
3
1
3 A A
1
2 A
2 2
ISOMETRIC OF PLANE FIGURES

SHAPE: PENTAGON F.V. 4 T.V.

H E

1 E 1
4 D 4
D
E
A D A
1 3
3 A C
B C
2 B
B
3 2 2
C

HEXAGON
ISOMETRIC OF PLANE FIGURES

SHAPE: CIRCLE F.V. T.V.

SEMI CIRCLE
 DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A CIRCLE IF IT IS A TV OR FV.

Points Method
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A CIRCLE IF IT IS A TV OR FV.

Four Centre Method

2

A B

3 4

D C

1
 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF BASE OF ISOMETRIC VIEW OF PENTAGONAL PYRAMID STANDING
PENTAGONAL PYRAMID STANDING ON H.P. ON H.P. (Height is added from center of pentagon)

D
E
4

1 3 D
C E
A

B
2 1
3
C
A

B
2
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE FIGURE SHOWN WITH DIMENTIONS (ON RIGHT
SIDE) CONSIDERING IT FIRST AS F.V. AND THEN T.V.
25 R

50

FRONT VIEW

100

TOP VIEW
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF PENTAGONALL ISOMETRIC VIEW OF HEXAGONAL
PRISM LYING ON H.P. PRISM STANDING ON H.P.

1 E
D

C 3
B

2
CYLINDER LYING ON H.P. CYLINDER STANDING ON H.P.
HALF CYLINDER LYING ON H.P. HALF CYLINDER STANDING ON H.P.
( with f lat face // to H.P.) ( ON IT’S SEMICIRCULAR BASE)
Draw the isometric view of a cylinder resting on one of its ends on the HP.

VP
X HP Y
 o’

4 O
Draw the isometric F
view of a hexagonal E
55
A O1 3
pyramid of base of
O
side 15 mm and D
1
height 55 mm B
o1 ’ VP
C 2
resting on its base X a’ b’(f’) c’(e’) d’ HP Y

4 f e
on the lIP with two 3
3
sides of the base
a d
o1 o
parallel to the VP F E D
2
15 1 2 4 O1 C
b m c
A
B
1
Draw the isometric view of a right circular cone of base diameter 34 mm and height 60 mm
when it is resting on its base on the HP. And also draw isometric view when the cone is in

60

VP
X HP Y
Φ34
1A

a’ b’(f’) d’
c’(e’)
E D
Draw the isometric
F
view of (a) Hexagonal
50
prism (b) Pentagonal A C
B
prism of base side 25
VP 3
p’
mm and axis height X q’(u’) r’(t’) s’ HP Y
T
f,(u) e,(t) S
4 3
50 mm when it rests
U
on one of its ends on 4 2
a,(p) d,(s) R
the HP with one of its P

base sides parallel to 25 Q

1
2
VP. 1
b,(q) c,(r)
1B

a’ e’ b’ d’ c’

D
C
E
50

B
A
VP
X p’ t’ q’ s’ r’ HP Y 3
e,(t) d,(s) S
4 3
R
T
4 2
a,(p) c,(r)
Q
P

1 1
2
b,(q)
25
2A

Draw the isometric view of

70
(a) Cylinder (b) Cone of
base diameter 60 mm
and axis length 70mm VP

when it’s resting on its X HP Y

base on HP. Φ60

2B

70

VP
X HP Y

Φ60
 o’ O
3A

3
Draw the isometric 60 E
projection of (a) F

Hexagonal Pyramid (b) 4 D

Pentagonal pyramid of VP O1 2
A
X a’(b’) c’(f’) d’(e’) HP Y
base side 30 mm and C
f
4 3 B
axis length 60 mm 1
a e
when it rests on its base
with one of its base side 30
450
o

perpendicular to VP. d 300

b

1 2
c
3B
o’

450

300

60
O

VP
X a’(b’) c’(e’) d’ Y
HP
4 e 3
3
a E
D

25 d 4
o O1 2
A
C
b
B
1 c 2 1
4

A Hexagonal prism of base edge 25 mm and height 50 mm rests on the HP

on its base with two of its rectangular face perpendicular to the VP. It is cut
by a plane inclined at 300 to HP and perpendicular to VP at a distance of 40
mm from its base. Draw the isometric view of the truncated prism.
4
U E
t’(u’)
F

r’(s’) D
S T
p’(q’) 50 A
40 C
B

VP 3 R
Q
X b’(a’) c’(f’) e’(d’) Y
HP
f E
4 3 F
u e
P
a
D
4
2
25 A

C
b d
t B

1 c 2 1
5

A Pentagonal prism of base side 35 mm and axis length 70 mm rests on

the ground with its two adjacent rectangular faces equally inclined to VP
and nearer to the observer. A section plane perpendicular to the VP and
inclined at 450 to the HP passes through a point on the axis 50 mm above
the base of the prism. Draw the isometric projection of the truncated
prism.
5
3’,(4”)

5’
D
5 4
2’
C
E
70 3
6’
1’
50 A B

6 2
VP
a’ e’ d’ c’
X
e
b’
d
HP Y 3
4 3 D

C
E 1
4 2
a c 450
A
B
300
1 2
35 b 1
6

A Pentagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and axis length 65 mm is resting

on HP on its base with a side of base perpendicular to VP. It is cut by a plane
inclined at 300 to HP and perpendicular to VP and passes through a point at a
distance of 30 mm from the apex. Draw the isometric view of the remaining
portion of the pyramid.
6 o’

30
3’
4 3
2’(4’)

65
1’(5’)
5
2
3

D
1
VP C
X a’(e’) b’(d’) c’ HP Y
d
4 3 4
e
2
4 E
5
B
30 c
o 3
A
1
2
1
a
1 2
b
7

Draw the isometric view of a frustum of a Hexagonal pyramid when it is

resting on its base on the HP with two sides of the base parallel to the VP. The
side of base is 30 mm and top face is 10 mm. The height of the frustum is 55
mm.
7 g’ h’(l’) i’(k’) j’

K
L J
55
I
G H

VP
X b’(f’) c’(e’) d’
a’
HP Y 3
f e 3
4 E
D
l k
F
a
g d 4 2
j

h i C
A
30
1 B
10 c 2
b
1
8

A Cylinder of base diameter 60 mm and height 70 mm rests with its base on

HP. A section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 450 to HP passes
through the axis at a distance of 50 mm above its base. Draw the isometric
view of the truncated cylinder showing the cut surface..
8

a’ d’(j’) 6’ 7’ g’
5’ 8 7
8’

4’
9’ 6
9
3’
70 10 5
’
2’
11’ 50
1’

10
3 4
VP
X HP Y
Φ60
4 j
k i 3 11
3

l h
2
1 2
g 4
a

b f A
c e
1 2
d 1
9

A Cone of base diameter 60 mm and height 65 mm rests with its base on

HP. A cutting plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 300 to HP cuts the
cone such that it passes through a point on the axis at a distance of 30 mm
above the base of the cone. Draw the isometric view of the truncated cone
showing the cut surface.
9 o’

7’
6’
5’
65 9’
8’
4’
8
2’ 3’ 10’ 9 7
11’
1’ 12’ 10 6
30
3
11 5
VP
X a4’ d’(j’) g’
HP Y 4
k i 3 12
Φ60 j
3
11 10
9 h 1 2
l
4 2
12 8

a g
1 7

6
2
b 5 f
3 4

1
c
e
2
1 d
10

A combination of the solids is formed as follows: A frustum of a Cone 25

mm top diameter, 50 mm bottom diameter and 50 mm height is placed
vertically on a Cylindrical block of 75 mm diameter and 25 mm thick such
that both the solids have the common axis. Draw the isometric view of the
combinations of the solid.
10

50

25 3
VP
X Φ75 HP Y

Φ25
Φ50 2
4

1
11

Three square rods of 30mm x 30mm cross section and lengths 100mm,
100mm and 60mm are so nailed together that they form the letter ‘H’. Draw
the isometric view of the letter ‘H’
11

1
12

A dust bin is in the form of a frustum of a hollow Square pyramid with the
base dimensions of 20 mm sides and the top open surface of 45 mm sides.
Draw the isometric view of the hollow dust bin, if its height is 50 mm and
the wall thickness is negligible.
12

1
13

A cylinder of base diameter 30 mm and axis 50 mm is placed on its base

centrally on the top of a square slab of side 50 mm and thickness 20 mm.
Draw the isometric projection of the combination of solids.
13

3
450

300
4
2
14

A hemispherical vessel of diameter 90 mm is placed centrally over a

cylinder of diameter 60 mm and height 75 mm which in turn is kept
centrally over a square prism of base side 80 mm and height 20mm. Draw
the isometric projection of the given position of solids.
14

ISO Radius
True Radius
Perspective Projection
PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
• Perspective Projection of full solids in simple positions

with respect to projection planes by visual ray and

vanishing point method

 Prior Knowledge

• First angle projection concept

• Third angle projection concept
• Projections of solids
 Perspective Projection

• Perspective projection or perspective drawing is the

representation of an object on a plane surface, called
the picture plane, as it would appear to the eye, when
viewed from a fixed position.
• It is a geometric technique used to produce a three-
dimensional graphic image on a plane, corresponding
to what a person actually sees.
• It is a type of photographic projection.
 Perspective Projection

• It may also be defined as the figure formed on the

picture plane when visual rays from the eye to the object
cut the picture plane.
• Perspective is mainly used in architecture.
• By means of perspective, the architect is able to show
how an object would appear when constructed.
 PRINCIPLE OF PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

• In perspective projection, the eye is assumed to be situated

at a definite position relative to the object.
• The vertical plane, which (in perspective) is called the
picture plane, is placed between the object and the eye.
• Visual rays from the eye to the object converge to a point in
the eye and are, therefore, inclined to the picture plane.
• The rays pierce the picture plane and form an image on it.
This image is the perspective of the object.
 Perspective Projection
One point Perspective
Two point Perspective
Auxiliary vanishing points
Perspective Projection

Vanishing point
Perspective Projection
Vanishing point
 Perspective Projection

• Parallel lines appear to convergeas they recede from the spectator.

• Equal distances appear to get shorter.

• Objects of the same size seem to diminish in size as they recede.

 Perspective Projection
Vanishing Point

Vanishing Point

Horizon Line

The height of the horizon line always corresponds to the height of the
spectator’s eye
 Perspective Projection
Top view

CV PP(HL,GL)

Auxiliary Ground Plane

AV,CP
Central Plane

SP
Any
Convenient
Axis of Vision (AV) distance
Station Point (SP)
Horizon Plane
CV’ SP’ HL
III Quadrant

CP
GL

Ground Plane
Front View

12
 Terminology

Top view of the object

d

PP(HL,GL)
a
Visual Rays
SP distance infront of PP

Cone angle

Line through the centre of the object (Central Plane)

Distance of SP from the centre of the object

SP

13
 Terminology
1. Ground plane (GP): It is a horizontal plane on which the object is
assumed to be situated.
2. Station point (S): It is the point where the eye of the observer is
located while viewing the object.
3. Picture plane (PP): It is a vertical transparent plane located between
the station point and the object which is to be viewed. It is the plane
on which the perspective is formed. The FV of perspective elements
and of the object (if necessary) is also projected on this plane.
4. Horizon plane (HP): This imaginary plane is at the level of the eye,
i.e. the station point. It is a horizontal plane, above the ground plane
and at right angles to the picture plane.

14
 Terminology

5. Auxiliary ground plane (AGP): It is a horizontal plane placed above

the horizon plane. The top view of the object and of the perspective
elements projected on this plane.
6. Ground line (GL): The line of intersection of the picture plane with
the ground plane is called the ground line.
7. Horizon line (HL): It is the line in which the horizon plane intersects
the picture plane. It is parallel to the ground line.
8. Perpendicular axis (PA): It is the line drawn through the station point
perpendicular to the picture plane. It is, sometimes called the Line of
sight or Axis of vision.

15
 Terminology

9. Centre of vision (C): The point in which the perpendicular axis

pierces the picture plane is called the centre of vision. It lies on the
horizon line.
10. Central plane (CP): It is an imaginary vertical plane, which passes
through the station point and the centre of vision. It contains the
perpendicular axis. It is perpendicular to both, the picture plane
and the ground plane.
Cone of Vision
blind to
right eye

distorted

30° angle 60° angle

cone of vision

distorted
blind to

left eye

17
 Cone of Vision
A 60° cone of vision gives a good perspective view of an object

The axis of the cone is called the centre line of vision

The picture plane is drawn perpendicular to the centre line of vision

18
 TYPES OF PERSPECTIVES
▪ There are two types of perspectives which are commonly used,
(i) Parallel perspective or One point perspective and
(ii) Angular perspective or Two point perspective.
▪ When an object is positioned in such a way that one of the principal
faces (eg., base or face of a solid) is parallel to the picture plane, the
perspective view obtained is called as parallel perspective or one
point perspective.
▪ When an object is positioned in such a way that the principal faces
are inclined to the picture plane, the perspective view obtained is
called an angular perspective or two point perspective.

19
 METHODS OF DRAWING PERSPECTIVE VIEW

There are two methods to draw the perspective

projection/view of an object.

1. Visual-ray method

2. Vanishing-point method.

20
VISUAL-RAY METHOD

21
 c,(c1)
□25
1
d,(d1) b,(b1)

A Square prism of base 25 X 25 a,(a1)

25
mm and height 40 mm rests on
PP(HL,GL)
the GP with the edges of the d c a b

base making 450 with the PP.

The vertical edge nearer to the
70
PP is 25 mm to the right of the
station point and 25 mm
SP
behind the PP. The station 25
SP’ HL
point is 55mm above GP and 70 C
D
B
A
mm in front of PP. Draw the d’
a’(c’)
b’

55
perspective view of the solid. C1
B1
40
D1
A1

A Kumaraswamy AP/MEC GL
d1’ a1’(c1’) b1’
 d
2 15
30

A Rectangular prism 40X30X15 mm a

rests on the ground on one of its b PP(HL,GL)

a b d c
ends with one of the longest edges
touching the PP and the shortest
edges receding to the left at an 55

angle of 400 to the PP. The nearest

vertical edge is 15 mm to the left of
SP
15
the station point, which is at a
a’ b’ B d’
distance of 55 mm in front of the A
c’
C
D HL
SP’
PP and 30 mm above the ground.
Draw the perspective view of the 40
30
D1
solid. A1 C1
GL
A Kumaraswamy AP/MEC
a1’ b1’ d1’ c1’
B1
 d,(d1)

3 e,(e1)
c,(c1)

25

A Hexagonal prism of base side 25 f,(f1)

b,(b1)

mm and height 50 mm is resting 15

a,(a1)
PP(HL,GL)
with its base on the GP such that one f ed a c b

of its rectangular faces is inclined at

45

300 to the PP and the vertical edge

SP
nearer to PP is 15 mm behind it. The 15

station point is 45 mm in front of the

SP’ HL
PP, 70 mm above the GP and lies in a
D
E CB
central plane, which is 15 mm to the F
e’(f’)
A
c’(b’)

left of the vertical edge nearer to the D1

C1
70 E1

PP. Draw the perspective view of the 50 A1 B1

F1

solid.
GL
A Kumaraswamy AP/MEC f1’(e1’) a1’(d1’) b1’(c1’)
24
 □ 30
4 d c

o
PP(HL,GL)
d a o c b 10
A Square pyramid of base side 30 a b

mm and altitude 40 mm rests on its

50

base on the ground such that one of

its base sides is parallel to the SP
25
picture plane and 10 mm in front of
it. The station point is 50 mm in
SP’ HL
front of the picture plane, 25 mm to
O
o’
the left of the axis of the pyramid
and 55 mm above the ground. Draw 55
40

the perspective view of the pyramid. D

C

GL

a’,(d’) b’,(c’)

A B
A Kumaraswamy AP/MEC
25
 f

5 a
e
o
25

b d

A Hexagonal pyramid of base side 25 c

20
c e PP(HL,GL)
mm and axis length 50 mm is resting a b f o d
on the GP on its base with a side of
base inclined at 300 to PP. The
80
nearest corner to the PP is 20 mm
behind it. The station point is 60
mm above the GP and 80 mm in 50
SP
HL
front of PP and lies in a central SP’
O
o’
plane, which is 50 mm to the left of
the axis of the pyramid. 60
50 E
F
A
D
B
C
GL
A Kumaraswamy AP/MEC
b’,(a’) c’,(f’) d’,(e’) 26
 d
6 26
20
d1

a1 c1 c
a

A frustum of a Square pyramid of b1

base edge 26 mm, top edge 20 mm b

10 d b1 c1 PP(HL,GL)
and height 35 mm rests on its base a a1 d1 b c

on the ground with base edges

45
equally inclined to the PP. The axis
of the frustum is 30 mm to the right
SP
30
of the eye. The eye is 45 mm infront
of the PP and 50 mm above the
SP’ HL
ground. The nearest base corner is D1
A1 C1
B1
10 mm behind the PP. Draw the a1’
c1’
50
perspective projection of the D

35 A C

frustum.
B
GL
A Kumaraswamy AP/MEC
a’ b’,(d’) c 27
 d

7 e
c

20
a b
Draw the perspective view of a
20

Pentagonal prism of base side 20 mm PP(HL,GL)

e a d c b
and height 40 mm when it rests on its
base on the ground plane with one of 45

the rectangular faces parallel to and

SP
20 mm behind the picture plane. The 20

station point is 45 mm infront of the

SP’ HL
PP and 60 mm above the GP. The d C
E c’
A B
observer is 20 mm to the left of the
axis. Use top view and the end view to d
60
C 40
draw the perspective by visual ray E
A B
method.
GL
A Kumaraswamy AP/MEC e’ a’ d’ b’ c’
28
8

A Hexagonal prism of base side 25 mm and axis length 50

mm rests on the ground on one of its rectangular faces
with its axis inclined at 300 to the picture plane. A corner
of the base is touching the PP. The station point is 60 mm
infront of the PP and lies in a central plane that bisects the
axis. The station point is 40 mm above the ground plane.
Draw the perspective view of the prism.

29
8

30
 9

A cylinder of base diameter 50 mm and axis length 50 mm is placed

on GP on its base. The axis of the cylinder is 35 mm behind PP. The
station point is 70 mm in front of PP and 70 mm above GP and is 50
mm to the left of the axis. Draw the perspective projection of the
cylinder.
 g,(g1)
φ50
h,(h1) f,(f1)

9
a,(a1)
e,(e1)

35
b,(b1)
d,(d1)
c,(c1)
b f ce PP(HL,GL)
a h g d

CP
70

SP
50

SP’ HL

H G
F E
A
D
B
C

70 H1 G1
F1
E1 50
A1

B1
D1
C1
GL
a1’ b1’(h1’) c1’(g1’) d1’(f1’) e1’
VANISHING POINT METHOD
10

A square prism of side base 30 mm and height 50 mm rests with

its base on the ground and one of the rectangular faces
inclined at 30° to the picture plane. The nearest vertical edge
touches the PP. The station point is 45 mm in front of the PP, 60
mm above the ground and opposite to the nearest vertical edge
that touches the PP. Draw the perspective view of the prism.
 c,(c1)
10 □ 30

d,(d1)

b,(b1)

VL VR PP(HL,GL)
d a,(a1) c b
a

45

SP
’ ’
VL VR HL
C
D
B
A

60 C1
50

D1
B1

GL
A1
11

A rectangular block 30 × 20 × 15 mm is lying on the ground

plane, on one of its largest faces. A vertical edge is in the PP and
the longer edge containing that face makes an angle of 30° with
the picture plane. The station point is 50 mm in front of the
picture plane, 30 mm above the ground plane and lies in the
central plane which passes through the centre of the block. Draw
the perspective view of the block by vanishing point method.
 11 c,(c1)
30
20

d,(d1)
b,(b1)

VR PP(HL,GL)
VL

d a,(a1) c b
a

50

VL’ VR’ HL

C
D B
30
A
15 C1
D1 B1
GL
A Kumaraswamy AP/M A1
12

A rectangular prism 80 × 60 × 30 mm is placed on the ground,

behind the PP with the longest edges vertical and the shortest
edges receding to the left at an angle of 40° to the PP. The nearest
vertical edge is 10 mm behind the PP and 15 mm to the left of the
observer who is at a distance of 150 mm in front of the PP. The
height of the observer above the ground is 120 mm. Draw the
perspective view of the prism.
 d
30
12 60
c

a
b
VL VR PP(HL,GL)
10
a b d c

50

15 SP
VL’ VR’ HL

A C
B

120

D1 80

C1
A1
GL
B1
b’ c’
13

A frustum of a square pyramid has base edge 26 mm and top

edge 20 mm. The height of the frustum is 35 mm. It rests on its
base on the ground, with the base edges equally inclined to PP.
The axis of the frustum is 30 mm to the right of the eye. The eye
is 55 mm in front of PP and 50 mm above the ground. The
nearest base corner is 10 mm behind the PP. Draw the
perspective projection of the frustum.
 d
13 26
20
d1

a a1 c1 c

b1

b
VL 10 VR PP(HL,GL)
d d1 c1
a a1 b1 b c

55

SP

30
VL’ VR’ HL

D1 C1

A1 B1
b1
50
D 35
A C

A Kumaraswamy AP/ B GL
b
14

A hexagonal prism, side of base 25 mm and height 50 mm with

its base on the ground plane such that one of its rectangular
faces is inclined at 30° to the picture plane and the vertical edge
nearer to PP is 15 mm behind it. The station point is 45 mm in
front of the picture plane, 70 mm above the ground plane and
lies in a central plane which is 15 mm to the left of the vertical
edge nearer to the picture plane. Draw the perspective
projection of the prism.
 4
f(f1)
25
14 a(a1) e(e1)
1

3
b(b1) d(d1)

c(c1)
VL 2 15 VR PP(HL,GL)
c
b af e d

45

SP15

VL’ VR’ HL

A F E

A’f’ B
C D

b’e’ c’d’
F1
A1 E1

50
D1
B1

C1

GL

b1’e1’ c1’d1’ 43
15

A square prism of base 3 cm × 3 cm and height 6 cm stands on

GP with the edge of base making 45° with PP. The nearest
corner is 3 cm to the right of station point and 3 cm behind
the PP. The station point is 5 cm above the GP and 10 cm in
front of the PP. Draw the perspective view of the square
prism.
 d(d1)
30
15
a(a1)
c(c1)

b(b1)
30
VL VR PP(HL,GL)
a d b c

100

30

B b’
A D C
VL’ VR’ HL

60
D1 50

A1 C1
B1 GL 45
b1’
16

A square pyramid of 25 mm base edge and 50 mm axis, rests on the

ground with its base edges equally inclined to PP. The station point is 50
mm above the ground, 45 mm in front of PP and 10 mm to the left of
nearest corner. Draw the perspective projection of the solid
 d
16 25

o
a c

VL VR PP(HL,GL)

a d b c
b

45

10

VL’ O o’ VR’ HL

D 50

A C

GL
A Kumaraswamy AP/ EC 47
B