Robotic Exoskeleton

A Seminar Report on

ROBOTIC EXOSKELETON
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

By
B. Lakshmi Tanmai
(17A31A0261)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, KAKINADA & Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade
1-378, A.D.B. Road, Surampalem, Near Peddapuram-533437

2017-21

Page 1
Robotic Exoskeleton

INDEX

• Introduction

• Literature Survey

• System Development

• Advantages

• Applications

• Future Scope

• Conclusion

• References

Page 2
Robotic Exoskeleton

1. INTRODUCTION

From old science-fiction movies like Aliens to the new ones like Avengers, it
has been common in films to feature fascinating robotic exoskeletons. But their
availability in real life is much more usual than one would notice.

The term exoskeleton literally means an external skeleton structure wherein

the skeletal system is outside an organism’s body, as seen in arthropods like spiders,
insects, and crustaceans. Borrowing and translating this idea, just like many other
innovations, the military was the first to combine robotics and bio-mechatronics to
create wearable frameworks that could be worn on a specific body part, or even on the
entire body, to boost a human being’s performance.

Unlike an autonomous robot, it does not replace the worker altogether. Neither
does it work like a prosthetic that replaces the original amputated body part.
According to a report from Markets and Markets, the exoskeleton market is predicted
to grow to 2,810.5 million dollars by 2023.

Fig-1: Robotic Exoskeleton

1.1 Necessity

The capabilities and benefits offered by the exoskeletons make them ideal for
use in almost every industry, including medical, agriculture, automobile, construction,
manufacturing, and so on. These can help people maintain fitness and prevent health
issues as well as help those who face hardships in performing daily tasks.

Page 3
Robotic Exoskeleton

Their use in industries helps workers avoid chronic health issues. These can
also prove to be highly beneficial for first responders and firefighters in disastrous
situations. For example, NASA’s X1 robotic exoskeleton would allow astronauts to
improve their exercises by the addition of resistance force. The data can be recorded
and sent to Earth, where doctors can provide feedback.

Exosuits are designed for multiple medical conditions, including stroke,

cerebral palsy (CP), incomplete spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis (MS), traumatic
brain injury (TBI), and many more. These help patients in regaining limb strength and
perform day-to-day tasks that involve walking or using their arms. Exosuits enable
paraplegics to stand up and walk at a consistent pace again. These can help in dealing
with obesity and balancing body parameters caused by increased sitting time and
decreased level of physical activity.

On-board sensors enable accurate tracking of a patient’s progress over time;

the data is valuable in ensuring a balanced approach. This reduces the work of
therapists as assistance can be simply customised to the needs of individual patients.

During body movements, nerve signals are sent from the brain to muscles via
motor neurons. To give it a more natural feel, bio-sensors are attached now a days so
that a wearer’s intention can be understood in advance from the bio-signals received,
and response from exoskeleton can be simultaneous. Researchers are also working on
electroencephalogram (EEG) bio-sensors that can measure activity across the user’s
head. The suits can be mobile or fixed/suspended according to requirements.

Page 4
Robotic Exoskeleton

1.2 Theme

Robotic exoskeletons or powered exoskeletons are considered wearable

robotic units controlled by computer boards to power a system of motors, pneumatics,
levers, or hydraulics to restore locomotion. Exoskeletons have emerged as an
advantageous tool for rehabilitation for disabled individuals with spinal cord injury
(SCI). Rehabilitation specialists, clinicians, researchers, and patients welcome their
use for over ground ambulation.

Fig-2: Person getting up with the help of Exoskeleton

Exoskeletons are wearable devices placed on user’s body to augment,

reinforce, or restore human performance. Materials range from metal and carbon to
fiber, soft, and elastic parts. Exoskeletons help prevent musculoskeletal disorders in
workers that cost companies billions each year. Factory workers who use
exoskeletons have less back and shoulder pain, and they are able to be more
physically active both on the clock and off.

Exoskeletons can transfer weight of a user’s arm from shoulders, neck, and
upper body to the body’s core reducing physical stresses. Mechanical support systems
activate as user’s arm is raised and releases as the arm is lowered by means of a
network of cables, pulleys, and springs to transfer body weight.

Industrial exoskeletons mirror the structure of an operator’s limbs, joints, and

muscles. It works to amplify capabilities or reduce fatigue. Exoskeletons are used to
support body weight, assist with lifting, help maintain loads, or stabilize the user’s
body. Unlike power exoskeletons, unpowered exoskeletons increase strength and
provide stability through human-guided flexion/extension and locking mechanisms.

Page 5
Robotic Exoskeleton

Rigid exoskeletons can result in stress and fatigue due to their weight and unnatural
movement of the suit. Companies are now incorporating soft, lightweight materials.

Fig-3: Person wearing exoskeleton

Page 6
Robotic Exoskeleton

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Introduction
Human exoskeletons add the strength and endurance of robotics to a human’s
innate intellect and adaptability to help people transport heavy loads over rough,
unpredictable terrain. The Berkeley lower extremity exoskeleton (BLEEX) is the first
human exoskeleton that was successfully demonstrated to walk energetically
autonomous while supporting its own weight plus an external payload. This paper
details the design of the electric motor actuation for BLEEX and compares it to the
previously designed hydraulic actuation scheme. Clinical gait analysis data was used
to approximate the torques, angles and powers required at the exoskeleton’s leg joints.
Appropriately sized motors and gearing are selected, and put through a thorough
power analysis. The compact electric joint design is described and the final electric
joint performance is compared with BLEEX’s previous hydraulic actuation. Overall,
the electric actuation scheme is about twice as efficient and twice as heavy as the
hydraulic actuation.

Although wheels are useful for moving heavy loads over flat surfaces, legged
locomotion has many advantages on rough and unpredictable terrain. Legs can adapt
to a wide variety of environments, such as rocky slopes and staircases, which are
impassable by wheeled vehicles. However, legged robots have difficulty balancing
and navigating while manoeuvring through the inherently rough terrains that favour
legs over wheels. Lower extremity exoskeletons seek to bypass these problems by
closely integrating a human’s intelligence and adaptability with the strength and
endurance of robotic legs.

Berkeley’s lower extremity exoskeleton (BLEEX) is comprised of two

actuated anthropomorphic robotic legs that a person ‘wears’ (Fig. 4). As the person
moves through any manoeuvre, the exoskeleton legs support the backpack payload
mounted to the exoskeleton’s torso without the person actively ‘driving’ the system.
Thus, BLEEX provides the operator with load-carrying capability and endurance
through versatile legged locomotion. BLEEX is the first energetically autonomous
robotic exoskeleton that was successfully demonstrated to provide the operator with

Page 7
Robotic Exoskeleton

the ability to carry significant loads with minimal effort over any type of terrain. This
is accomplished through four critical features: a novel control scheme, high-powered
compact power supplies, special communication protocol and electronics, and a
design architecture to decrease the complexity and power consumption.
Possible applications include helping soldiers, disaster relief workers, wildfire
fighters and other emergency personnel to carry major loads without the strain
typically associated with demanding labour.

Fig-4: Conceptual sketch of a lower extremity exoskeleton.

2.2 History
Even though the field of robotics, and even humanoid robotics, has a history
of successful projects, there have been relatively few attempts at powered
exoskeletons and even fewer that have been demonstrated to work. The first active
exoskeletons were at General Electric (GE) and the Mihajlo Pupin Institute in the late
1960s and early 1970s. The Hardiman project was a large, full-body exoskeleton, but
safety concerns and complexity issues prevented it from ever walking. The Mihajlo
Pupin lower extremity exoskeleton was designed to help rehabilitate paraplegics, but
it only followed pre-programmed walking motions, which limited its usefulness.
Neither exoskeleton could carry its own power source and operate autonomously. In
the mid-1980s, Kazerooni initiated several research projects on upper extremity
exoskeleton systems, billed as ‘human extenders. The main function of an upper
extremity exoskeleton is human power augmentation for manipulation of heavy and
bulky objects. These systems, which are also known as assist devices or human power
extenders, can simulate forces on a worker’s arms and torso.

Page 8
Robotic Exoskeleton

In Japan, the Kanagawa Institute of Technology has demonstrated a full-body

‘wearable power suit’, powered by unique pneumatic actuators. The actuation forces
are controlled by measuring the hardness of the corresponding human muscles, but it
lacks of a portable power supply. Tsukuba University in Japan has successfully
demonstrated the lightweight power assist device, HAL. Alternatively, researchers at
Hokkaido University in Japan are creating a power assist device for the lower back.
Attached at the thigh and torso, the device uses electromyography sensors to control
its electric motors.
The BLEEX project is an energetically autonomous exoskeleton capable of
carrying its own weight plus an external payload. All previous exoskeletons are either
tethered to a fixed power supply or not strong enough to carry an external load.
BLEEX is not an orthosis or a brace; unlike the above systems, it is designed to carry
a heavy load by transferring the load weight to the ground (not to the wearer). The
controller controls the exoskeleton through measurements of the exoskeleton itself. A
series of high specific power and specific energy power supplies were developed that
were small enough to make BLEEX a true field-operational system.

Degrees Of Freedom (DOF):

To ensure maximum safety and minimum collisions with the environment and
operator, the BLEEX architecture is almost anthropomorphic. This means the
BLEEX leg kinematics are similar, but not identical, to the human leg kinematics.
Generally, BLEEX has ankle, knee and hip joints like a person. The BLEEX
ankle has 3 d.o.f. just like a human ankle joint. However, only the BLEEX ankle
dorsi/plantar flexion joint is aligned with the comparable human joint. BLEEX has
only the flexion/extension d.o.f. at the knee joint. The human knee has movement in
all 3 d.o.f., but the motion in the flexion/extension direction is the largest by far.
Additionally, the BLEEX knee flexion/extension joint is a rotary joint, while the
human knee flexion/extension is a complex sliding and rotation between the femur
and the tibia. For the hip, BLEEX has 3 d.o.f. like a human hip joint. However, like
the ankle, only the BLEEX hip flexion/extension joint is aligned with the human hip.
BLEEX’s final d.o.f. is compliancy built into the front of the foot to yield similar
flexibility to human toe joints.

Page 9
Robotic Exoskeleton

Fig-5: Exoskeleton Of d.o.f.

During the human walking cycle (shown in above Fig.), each leg alternates
between a stance phase when the foot is on the ground, supporting load and a swing
phase when the foot is in the air. The leg switches from swing to stance at heel-strike
(0% in Fig. and subsequent plots) and it switches back to swing phase at toe-off (at
around 60% of the gait cycle in above fig. and subsequent plots).

Fig-6: Phases of walking. The walking cycle begins with the start of the stance
phase (foot on the ground) at heel-strike followed by toe-off and the swing phase(foot
off the ground) beginning at around 60% of the cycle.

Page 10
Robotic Exoskeleton

3. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Introduction

Robotic exoskeletons have emerged as rehabilitation tool that may ameliorate

several of the existing health-related consequences after spinal cord injury (SCI).
However, evidence to support its clinical application is still lacking considering their
prohibitive cost. This is to highlight the main limitations and potential benefits of
using exoskeletons in the rehabilitation of persons with SCI. We have recognized two
main areas relevant to the design of exoskeletons and to their applications on major
health consequences after SCI.

The design prospective refers to safety concerns, fitting time and speed of
exoskeletons. The health prospective refers to factors similar to body weight, physical
activity, pressure injuries and bone health. Clinical trials are currently underway to
address some of these limitations and to maximize the benefits in rehabilitation
settings. Future directions highlight the need to use exoskeletons in conjunction with
other existing and emerging technologies similar to functional electrical stimulation
and brain-computer interface to address major limitations. Exoskeletons have the
potential to revolutionize rehabilitation following SCI; however, it is still premature to
make solid recommendations about their clinical use after SCI. The topic of
exoskeletons is timely given the number of devices currently being studied as well as
purchased by facilities for rehabilitation purposes in medical centres or for home use.
Exoskeletons have emerged as an advantageous rehabilitation tool for disabled
individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI). Rehabilitation specialists, clinicians,
researchers, and patients welcome their use for over ground ambulation. Compared to
previously existing locomotor training paradigms, exoskeletons may offer a great deal
of independence in medical centres and communities including shopping malls, local
parks and movie theatres as well as improving the level of physical activity. There is a
pressing need for this population to improve their levels of physical activity. This
feature may encourage continuous usage of exoskeletons in conjunction with
wheelchairs.

Page 11
Robotic Exoskeleton

Fig-7: Purpose and type of Hand Exoskeleton

Types of Exoskeletons:

There can be many types of exoskeletons based on different classifications.

Depending on the powering mechanism, there are mainly two types—passive and
active. Passive systems are without actuators, sensors, motors, or batteries, are less
expensive and mostly preferred by skilled workers in factories. Since these do not
have any electrical power source, motion is controlled with springs and dampers.
Take the example of Airframe exoskeleton from the tech company Levitate
Technologies. It uses a pulley mechanism instead of electricity.

Powered or active exoskeletons use data from sensors to monitor and respond
to persons’ movements. Different ways of powering the exoskeletons, including
pneumatics, electrical motors, and hydraulics, can be used to improve the strength and
endurance of a person’s body.

Page 12
Robotic Exoskeleton

Fig-8: Different types of Robotic Exoskeleton

3.2 Working
How does it work?

Interaction of exoskeleton with the user involves three main steps sense,
decision, and execution. Fitted with motorised muscles usually, the suit makes it
easier to work with heavy objects as it makes them feel much lighter, and hence easier
to lift and move.

Advancements in robotics are helping in the creation of intelligent solutions.

Predictive algorithms and artificial intelligence allow a faster response from
exoskeletons in real time.

The cognitive human-robot interaction part consists of algorithms and control

strategies to deal with how the user controls the exoskeleton. Sensing and decision-
making are made possible using the information from human operators as well as
sensors in the wearables.

The focus is on decreasing stress and strain that is usually exerted on muscles
and joints.

Page 13
Robotic Exoskeleton

Fig-9: Classification and working of Exoskeleton

For physical human-robot interaction, in case of lifting, for example, the

weight of arms is transferred to cores of the neck, shoulder, and back for even
distribution of energy. When the body part (here, arm) comes back to its resting
position, the support is slowly taken off.

These wearables can be made of either rigid materials like carbon fibre or
sometimes soft materials such as special kinds of fabric, depending on the application
requirements. The actuators made with soft materials are also lightweight, making
them useful for such places as the ankle and hand, which require careful movements.

Testing of performance is done via measurement of the interaction forces

between the device and the user’s limbs during the execution of a task.

Potential benefits of robotic exoskeletons:

➢ Increasing user independence.
➢ Secondary benefits such as improved bowel/bladder function, decreased
chronic pain, reduced spasticity and increased bone marrow density.
➢ The reduction of energy required by the user to move joints, i.e., knee, hip and
ankle, as this load is taken by the exoskeleton itself.

Page 14
Robotic Exoskeleton

➢ Providing repetitive, long and intense physiotherapy sessions, yet reducing

both therapist burden and healthcare costs.
➢ Providing measurements of several kinematics and dynamic parameters of
patient limb movement and therefore performance related indicators (e.g.,
range of motion, velocity, smoothness) to objectively quantify patient
progress.

3.3 Features & Specifications

Exoskeleton motor selection:

The objective is to find the smallest motor that can successfully provide the
motor torques given by the equation below.

A motor and gearing combination is successful if the required torque as above

falls below the motor’s winding and current limit lines further the average required
torque (i.e., average torque over a cycle from torque equation) must be below the
motor’s temperature line. The required motor torque for BLEEX’s joints, using torque
equation, are calculated and plotted in below figures for level ground walking. As
seen, the most limiting factor in the motor selection is heat dissipation. Smaller
motors could produce the required torques, but would generate significantly more heat
and reach much larger motor temperatures. Using a bus voltage of 144 V, the electric
motors selected to power the flexion joints of BLEEX.

Page 15
Robotic Exoskeleton

Fig-10: The required motor torque for the ankle as calculated from the Clinical Gait
Analysis (CGA) torques for level walking and using torque equation should be less
than the winding and current lines.

Fig-11: The required motor toque for the knee as calculated from the CGA torques for
level walking and using the torque equation should be less than the winding and
current lines.

Page 16
Robotic Exoskeleton

Fig-12: The required motor torque for the hip as calculated from the CGA torques for
level walking and using torque equation should be less than the winding and current
lines.

Power Analysis:

This section examines the electric actuation power efficiency in detail and
outlines the various areas of power loss. A careful analysis of the power dissipation is
helpful in selecting the most power efficient motor/gearing combination and
estimating the efficiency of the electric actuation.
To analyse the power losses throughout the system, the required powers were
calculated at each level where inefficiencies were added into the model. As a starting
reference, the desired mechanical power at the joint is calculated by:

From the desired mechanical joint power additional power is consumed by the
harmonic drive friction described. Also included in the friction losses is the torque to
overcome the motor’s viscous friction which leads to extra power equal to 𝐷𝜃 2 . Also,
the torque used to accelerate the motor and gearing’s rotational inertias consumes
power equal to I𝜃̇𝜃̈. Finally, 𝑇 2 /𝐾 2 watts of power are lost in heat generated by the
resistance of the motor’s windings. The estimated power losses at the electrically
actuated joints during level ground walking at 1.3 m/s in figures below (the plots go

Page 17
Robotic Exoskeleton

from heel-strike to subsequent heel-strike). For these plots, the solid line shows the
desired mechanical joint power and the dashed line illustrates the total electrical
power required to produce that desired power. The shaded areas between these two
illustrate the various power losses expected from the electrical joint.

Fig-13: Power consumption at the ankle during level walking. The ankle requires
93W of electrical power to produce 13.5W of mechanical output during level walking.

Fig-14:Power consumption at the knee during level walking. The knee requires 81W
of electrical power during level walking even though the joint nedds toabsorb 17W of
mechanical power. Gear friction is the major inefficiency at the knee joint.

Page 18
Robotic Exoskeleton

The estimated ankle power losses are shown in Fig. 13. Overall, the joint is
15% efficient, requiring 93Wto produce 13.5Wof mechanical output. The ankle
shows fairly equal amounts of power dissipated by gearing friction, motor inertia, heat
and the amplifier during its large power spike in the late stance.

The estimated knee power losses are shown in Fig. 14. The required knee joint
power, as measured from the CGA data, is unique because it is usually dissipating
(negative) power. The torques during stance are generally large, which creates big
heat losses, but when the knee is being back-driven the stance torques are large
enough to back-drive the harmonic drive and turn the electric motor into a generator
producing power.

However, during swing, the torques are less than TNL, so the power is lost in
back-drive friction and then additional power is necessary to actually turn the joint.
This leads to large inertial losses and friction losses during the swing phase. While the
mechanical output required is −17 W, the electric joint requires an estimated 81 W of
power to perform the walking motion. The estimated hip power losses are shown in
Fig. 15. Overall, the estimated hip efficiency is 9.5%. Friction losses and heat losses
dominate the power consumption of the hip during level ground walking.

Fig-15:Power consumption at the hip during level walking. The hip requires 81W of
electrical power to create the 7.7W of mechanical output power during level walking.

Page 19
Robotic Exoskeleton

Electric Joint Hardware:

The main advantage of electrical actuation over hydraulic actuation is the

increased power efficiency, but the main disadvantage is the increased size and
weight of the actuated joints. Therefore, how much electric actuation is preferred to
hydraulic actuation is directly impacted by how small and lightweight the electrically
powered joints can be designed. Figure 16 illustrates the final electric joint hardware
design and the following sections discuss details of this design.

Fig-16: Electric joint hardware.

Page 20
Robotic Exoskeleton

4. ADVANTAGES

There are numerous benefits of using exoskeletons in different fields. Several

reports have findings that prove the safety of exoskeleton training, which indicates a
likely positive growth of this field in future.

Exoskeletons make people less prone to fatigue resulting from performing

repetitive tasks for long durations, musculoskeletal disorders, or long-term injuries
from accidents. Complex movements become easy with them because of jointed
appendages.

These also prevent physical damage on the goods/materials side. Compared to

previously existing options in the market, exoskeletons offer much more flexibility in
work.

Growth in India:

India has also seen an increasing number of companies and startups in this
field, especially in the last five years. In 2015, ReWalk Robotics announced a
partnership with Saimed Innovations, a medical technologies provider, as part of an
effort to distribute their exoskeleton systems in the country.

Being manufactured with a focus on Indian customers, the exoskeletons from

Indian healthcare startup GenElek can do all the necessary work and are available at a
low cost. Their technology works towards strengthening limb and hand movements
for the rehabilitation of patients. It aids in reducing the recovery time too.

In February 2020, at Future Decoded tech summit, Microsoft showcased

BionicYantra as one of the innovative startups on its cloud platform. The Indian
startup developed an exoskeleton for people with spinal injuries to help them move
their limbs in controlled conditions. With the assistance of the Internet of Things
(IoT) and machine learning (ML), the data can be used for keeping a check on
progress achieved and predicting patient recovery

Page 21
Robotic Exoskeleton

Research is ongoing to develop next-gen exosuits by both private and

government sectors, with labs of institutions like Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO)’s Defence Bioengineering and Electro-medical Laboratory
(DEBEL) at the forefront. This is not just essential for adopting technology as a tool
to address social needs, but also for boosting the Indian economy.

Page 22
Robotic Exoskeleton

5. APPLICATIONS

The capabilities and benefits offered by the exoskeletons make them ideal for
use in almost every industry, including medical, agriculture, automobile, construction,
manufacturing, and so on. These can help people maintain fitness and prevent health
issues as well as help those who face hardships in performing daily tasks.

Their use in industries helps workers avoid chronic health issues. These can
also prove to be highly beneficial for first responders and firefighters in disastrous
situations. For example, NASA’s X1 robotic exoskeleton would allow astronauts to
improve their exercises by the addition of resistance force. The data can be recorded
and sent to Earth, where doctors can provide feedback.

As per a World Health Organization report, one billion people or fifteen

percent of the total world population experiences some form of disability. These
people are more vulnerable to adverse socio-economic experiences. In healthcare, the
exosuits are mainly needed in rehabilitation and therapeutic applications to improve
the quality of life of patients.

Exosuits are designed for multiple medical conditions, including stroke,

cerebral palsy (CP), incomplete spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis (MS), traumatic
brain injury (TBI), and many more. These help patients in regaining limb strength and
perform day-to-day tasks that involve walking or using their arms. Exosuits enable
paraplegics to stand up and walk at a consistent pace again. These can help in dealing
with obesity and balancing body parameters caused by increased sitting time and
decreased level of physical activity.

On-board sensors enable accurate tracking of a patient’s progress over time;

the data is valuable in ensuring a balanced approach. This reduces the work of
therapists as assistance can be simply customised to the needs of individual patients.
During body movements, nerve signals are sent from the brain to muscles via motor
neurons. To give it a more natural feel, bio-sensors are attached now a days so that a
wearer’s intention can be understood in advance from the bio-signals received, and

Page 23
Robotic Exoskeleton

response from exoskeleton can be simultaneous. Researchers are also working on

electroencephalogram (EEG) bio-sensors that can measure activity across the user’s
head. The suits can be mobile or fixed/suspended according to requirement.

Robotic exoskeleton from ReWalk has even received Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) clearance for personal and rehabilitation use in the United
States. It allows people with SCI to perform leg movements necessary for standing
upright, walking, turning, and also using stairs.

Earlier, huge investment risks caused less manufacturers to tap this market.
But these days, companies are offering fee-based, Robotics-as-a-Service pricing
models for ensuring economic viability. Different types of exoskeletons are now
available commercially. With a decrease in the cost of these wearables, hospital scan
employ a wide variety of exosuits for meeting the needs of various patients.
With advancements in robotic technologies and growing demand from the healthcare
sector for robotic rehabilitation, a number of companies are realising the benefits they
can gain from the adoption of exoskeletons. At CES 2020 even tin Las Vegas, Korean
tech giant Samsung unveiled a fitness exoskeleton as well as a rolling robot that
shows their interest in the healthcare field.

Fig-17: Design process of human-centered exoskeleton

Page 24
Robotic Exoskeleton

6. FUTURE SCOPE

Future directions may need to consider a number of research questions

including the effects of exoskeleton training on acute compared to chronic injury and
weather early use is likely to attenuate or slow the changes that occur in body
composition after SCI. A recent study demonstrated that those with an acute injury (<
1 year) showed improvement in parameters of gait function by 36% compared to only
3% for those with chronic injury. Moreover, it is still unclear whether exoskeleton
training can be used as a task specific training to reinforce neural plasticity and
recovery of gait especially in persons with incomplete SCI. Implementing the
exoskeleton technology with electrical stimulation, epidural stimulation and brain-
computer interphase (BCI) may be available features in future brands. This may
provide the end-user with a control over the robotic limbs via the use of electrical
stimulation, BCI or both.

The technology of the exoskeleton is likely to evolve as more partnerships

developed to produce future generations that are likely to be lighter and faster.
Moreover, robotic exoskeletons may need to be considered within developmental
stages to help children with SCI and other clinical population. This is highly
important to provide early weight bearing and avoid postural abnormalities or
deformities. The National Institutes of Health just released an attempt to help kids
with cerebral palsy to walk on their feet and prevent crouched gait. As cheaper brands
of exoskeletons become available, participants may continue to use them in
conjunction with wheelchairs because of their recognized benefits on spasticity,
physical activity, bowel movement and quality of life after SCI.

Page 25
Robotic Exoskeleton

7. CONCLUSIONS

Robotic exoskeletons involve sensors, actuators, mechanical structures,

algorithms, and control strategies capable of acquiring information to execute a motor
function.
Human exoskeletons add the strength and endurance of robotics to a human’s
innate intellect and adaptability to help people transport heavy loads over rough,
unpredictable terrain.

8. REFERENCES

Page 26
Robotic Exoskeleton

[1]
Y. Hurmuzlu and O. Nwokah, The Mechanical Systems Design Handbook. CRC
Press, BocaRaton, FL (2002).
[2].
B. J. Makinson, General Electric Co., Research and development prototype for
machine augmentation of human strength and endurance, Hardiman I project, General
Electric Report S-71-1056, Schenectady, NY (1971).
[3].
M. Vukobratovic, D. Hristic and Z. Stojiljkovic, Development of active
anthropomorphic exoskeletons, Med. Biol. Eng. 20, 66–80 (1974).
[4].
H. Kazerooni and J. Guo, Human extenders, ASME J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control
115 (1993).
[5].
H. Kazerooni, Human–robot interaction via the transfer of power and information
signals, IEEE Trans. Syst. Cybernet. 20, 450–463 (1990).
[6].
Bach Baunsgaard C, Vig Nissen U, Katrin Brust A, Frotzler A, Ribeill C, Kalke
YB, León N, Gómez B, Samuelsson K, Antepohl W, et al. Gait training after spinal
cord injury: safety, feasibility and gait function following 8 weeks of training with the
exoskeletons from Ekso Bionics. Spinal Cord. 2018; 56:106–116.

Page 27