Music Movement and Learning

MUSIC, MOVEMENT, AND LEARNING 93
evolutionary links between the two, clearly, humans are predisposed to

respond to the properties of music through bodily movement (Blacking,
1973; Campbell, 1998; Hsu, 1981, Moog, 1976; Moorhead and Pond, 1978;
Trehub, 2003 ). As such, movement is an integral component of musical expe-
rience, cutting across time, culture, and geography.
Movement as Ends and Means

Music, Movement, and Learning ...-<'
Movement as part of any musical ~xperience can be viewed as ends or means.

"~" When people spontaneously move' to music, they often do so naturally, for
sheer pleasure. This is commonly observed when an adult spontaneously taps
CARLOS R. ABRIL his foot while listening to music or when a preschooler jumps rhythmically to
·' a song she is singing. In these cases, movement is an end in itself. Another
example is the formal practice of creating and/o~ performing to music, using
the body as the primary artistic medium of expression as in ballet or modern
dance. Movement is a unique way of expressing emotions that cannot be
contained in words or a way of emulating the emotions expressed in music.
Movement as part of the musical experience can also serve as a means to
Music and movement of the body are two naturally linked phenomena of an end. The most obvious example, which relates directly to producing music,
human proportions. This is evident from the earliest years of life, when infants is moving to create musical sounds on an instrument or the body. This is
orient their heads toward a music-generating sound source (e.g., Fassbender, accomplished through fine motor movements such as plucking·a string on a
1996), to later years, when children move their bodies to music with greater cello, or gross motor movements such as striking a taiko drum. However,
control and in culturally stylized ways (e.g., Blacking, 1967; Campbell, 1998; lines between means and end can become blurred when, for example, chil-
Moog, 1976) or adults moVe to music for therapeutic purposes (e.g., Frego, dren march for the simple pleasure of moving to music, as well as for the
2009). In fact, movement may be among the first human responses to music. sound they might produce with their feet.
Noting children's propensity to move as they produce music, some researchers In educational settings, movement is used for a variety of reasons. It might
have claimed the tvvo behaviors might be one and the same (Moorhead and be used as a means to develop or reinforce conceptual knowledge, skill, or
Pond, 1978). Others contend that the inherent properties of music create the understanding. For example, music teachers who seek to reinforce the con-
real or imagined sense of movement. For example, philosopher Steven Davies cept of steady beat might ask their students to walk to the beat of a song.
claims that "movement is heard in music" and music is "experienced as Movement can also be used as a nonverbal means to make music perception
significantly similar to human behavior" (2003, p. 132). and interpretation visible. It can also be used as a means for accommodating
The connection betvveen movement and music may reside in the human and/or developing the kinesthetic learning style.
brain, where the motor and auditory systems are neurologically linked (Dura,
1998; Janata and Grafton, 2003; Repp, 2006; Sacks, 2007). Movement,
music, and nonverbal processing of spatial information are all thought to be Movement as Knowing
the responsibility of the right region of the brain, and much of that region has
been found to become activated when people move their bodies, with or
Although verblfland mathematical ways of knowing are most highly prized
without music (Hanna, 2008). Researchers have found that music practice
in Western societies, other forms of knowing are important because they
which includes physical movement "results in enlarged representations of
offer the potential for communication, understanding, and expressi~n. In
somatosenory [sic] and auditory cortex ... as well as the motor areas in the
fact, Gardner (1983) proposed that kinesthetic intelligence is one of many
brain" (Davidson, 2009, p. 365). Daniel Levitin (2006) suggests that music
human intelligences, representing a unique way of thinking, solving prob-
experiences such as singing and playing instruments were a part of the evolu~
lems, and representing knowledge. The Cartesian notion of a mind-body
tionary process, helping humans refine their motor skills. Regardless of
dualism, which had at one time been a prevalent way of thinking, has been
whether the nature of music invokes movement or there are neural or
rejected by many who contend that bodily movement can represent important
94 MENC HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON MUSIC LEARNING MUSIC, MOVEMENT, AND LEARNING 95
forms of knowing and thinking (Dura, 1998; Juntunen and Hyvonen, 2004; musical experience, where it is enacted in culturally specific ways that serve
Reimer, 2003; Seitz, 2005). Some assert that purposeful movements or ges- as both ends (e.g., artistic expression, body awareness) and means (e.g.,
tures are ineffable reflections of a person's knowledge and represent ways musical skill development, producing music). One area of movement and
ideas can be conveyed without the use of discursive forms (Garber, Alibali, music that is of particular interest to music educators is how it might be used
and Goldin-Meadow, 1998; Wis, 1993). Like music, movement and dance to facilitate musical learning. This is what the present chapter seeks to
are ways of expressing that which words cannot contain (Dura, 1998; Reimer, examine in further depth.
2003). Juntunen and Hyvonen (2004) go as far to argue that movement is a
metaphor for music and serves as a conceptual bridge to musical learning.
While movement might be a unique way of knowing, discrete from music, Purpose, Procedures, and Terminology
the evidence seems overwhelming that the two are related. The body can
serve as an important medium through which to embody music and demon- While there are pedagogical and·'·theoretical books in which movement is
strate musical knowledge.
central to the music-learning experience (e.g., Abramson, 1998; Jaques-
Dalcroze, 1921; Schnebly-Black and Moore, 1997) and a respectable body of
·' research literature on movement has emerged in the last 30 years, there seem
Movement in Music Teaching and Learning to be no monographs or cohesive book sections in the music education liter-
ature that focus on research examining the relationship between movement
Given the undeniable relationship between music and movement, and the and music learning. Intuitively, many educators believe that engaging learners
fact that music making requires the simultaneous application of various in purposeful movement experiences is beneficial to general and specific fac-
sensory modalities, including the kinesthetic, it follows that the use of ets of musical ability and knowledge. Extant research might be able to shed
movement would be a logical part of music learning and teaching processes. light on these beliefs and practices. The purpose of this chapter is to provide
Its use is suggested in K-8 music textbook series (Bond et al., 2008), as well a broad view of the research literature on movement for its potential to
as music methods texts for preservice educators (Anderson and Lawrence, inform future research and application in myriad learning settings.
2004; Campbell and Scott-Kassner; 2006; Richardson and Atterbury, 2001). Initial searches for articles and monographs on movement, education,
It also plays a prominent role in some commonly used music teaching music, understanding, and learning yielded hundreds of citations that were
approaches, most notably Dalcroze and Orff. Using movement to develop categorized into one of three categories: historical/theoretical, contextual,
learning may be done based on the assurq.ption that these experiences help and empirical. Because the literature on movement was so large and encom-
students internalize or reinforce certain music concepts. Pedagogical articles passed so many disciplines, documents that did not examine movement in
and ·books advocate for its use in developing rhythmic competence (Dalby, terms of its relationship to music or music-learning processes were not
2005; Shehan, 1987; Weikart, 1989), musical expressivity (Carlson, 1980; included. Studies were read and judgments were made as to their relevance,
Schnebly-Black and Moore, 1997), conceptual knowledge (Neil, 1990), and importance, and suitability for the chapter. Research on conducting, of which
overall musicality (Campbell and Scott-Kassner; 2006; Woods, 1987). there was a respectable amount, was included only if it examined conducting
Furthermore, learning dances from specific cultures is thought to deepen not as an end, but as a means for developing musical understanding and
understanding of musical practices and people (Longden and Weikart, 1998; knowledge. While music education was the primary focus, research in other
McCarthy, 1996; Shehan, 1984). fields was included if it was thought to shed light on movement's relationship
The pedagogical literature on movement in music education iS primarily to musical understanding.
geared toward working with students at the preschool and elementary levels. The chapter begins by examining the use of movement in music teaching
And while there is some discussion .about using movement with students in and le~rning processes from a historicai and theoretical perspective. This is
in~trumental music and/or at the secondary level (O'Toole, 2003; Regelski, followed by a consideration of several contextual issues that influence the
2004; Schleuter, 1997), it is limited in scope and far less prominent. This may ways moveffiefltis currently being used by music teachers and the ways
be a consequence of the nature of music programs in secondary schools, learners respond to these experiences. The next major section encompasses a
which are primarily large Western European-style performing ensembles review of evidence-based research literature that relates directly to the-inusic
(Abril and Gault, 2008), or the notion that movement is more relevant and experience. The chapter concludes with a discussion of patterns, implications
effective for use with children than adolescents or adults. for practice, and suggestions for future research.
Music and movement are inextricably connected and mutually reinforcing Terminology related to movement and music education has been applied
phenomena. This might explain why movement is an inherent part of the inconsistently in various l:>odies of literature. In an effort to remain consistent
96 iI···
MENC HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON MUSIC LEARNING I
within this chapter, here are some operational definitions of I''
applied terms. Dance is thought to be a Western concept with no dftbis approach to music education include solfege rhythmique and I
in other cultures outside the West (Kaepple1; 2000). While music and Cr< 6visation. The games, exercises, and activities used in this approach are
are seen as one and the same in some cultures (Merriam, 1964; Nett], nor to help students develop musicianship by the internalization of
in the West, these two concepts remain distinct. Dance researchers through· muscles and nerves and externalizations through bodily
term dance to include any expressive human movement arising from ),[movements. Seitz (2005) provides some examples of Dalcroze-type activities:
processes (Barr and Lewin, 1994; Hanna, 2008; Kaeppler, 2000). It .~·:>;i-"tu·dents will toss bean bags or balls across the floor m rhythm ... tap on the
come as no surprise, then, that dance is usually viewed as being peri \'; ':·::/ ;ano to different rhythms in unison, [or] clap their hands together while
to music education. For the purposes of this chapter, dance is a creative · ·P · lower leg mdvements in different meters" (p. 423). 1 Jaques-Dalcroze
cess of moving
ognized ways. the body in space and time, in structured and culturally theonzed that people should develop their musicality and kinesthetic aware-
rtess through active sensory experiences before more cerebral musical training
Purposeful movement will be used to refer to external body movemenfl begins (Schnebly-Black and Moore;·· 1997). He believed that the use of
used as a means to a nonmovement or dance end. While purposeful movement .movement served as primary vehicle to access musical understanding and as
can be dancelike, it differs from dance in that it is not created or experienced a_ way to connect the mind, body, and spirit in the musical experience (Jaques-
for !ts own sake (Hanna, 1982). Purposeful movement, or just movement Dalcroze, 1921). The Dalcroze approach continues to be discussed and prac-
herein, can be a creative manipulation of the body, but the primary function . ticed in music education around the world today. Many consider it to be a
is not centered on movement for its own sake. Purposeful movement can be viable approach for facilitating the development of musical skill, knowledge,
subdivided into directive movement, which is directed and/or planned out by and understanding for children and adults.
one or more people (i.e., choreographed), and creative movement, which is In 1908, Charles Farnsworth traveled to Europe to study innovative music
learner-driven, exploratory, and free. education. practices of the time. That is where he first observed Dalcroze
Locomotor refers to any movement in which a person travels through teaching approaches in practice and recognized its potential for use in
space, from one place to another. Examples of locomotor movement include American music education (Mark and Gary, 2007). In a book published one
walking, skipping, crawling, and galloping. Nonlocomotor movement takes :year later, he advocated using movement in music education as a way to
place around the axis of the body and does not carry a person from one motivate children to focus on songs and to develop rhythmic competence
place to another. Examples of nonlocomotor movements include clapping, (Farnsworth, 1909). In the 1920s, Mabelle Glenn was responsible for incor-
stomping, and kicking. Other terms are described as they arise in the context porating many of the movement-based ideas of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the
of this chapter.
textbook series she edited, World of Music (Mark and Gary, 2007). Another
influential leader in music education, James Mursell (1937), asserted that
muscular responses to music were essential to learning rhythm. Specifically,
he believed that movement was necessary for developing an understanding of
Historical and Theoretical Issues
melodic rhythms (phrasing) (Campbell, 1991). In the United States, the work
of the aforementioned individuals helped to provide a theoretical, practical,
In a historical study of movement in music education, Campbell(1991) traced and empirical basis for using movement in music classrooms.
the use of movement in American music education to the late-19th- and While there was a momentum towar~ including movement in classrooms,
early-20th-century efforts of educational reformers like John Dewey, Friedrich there was some resistance to its application in the music curriculum (Campbell,
Froebel, and G. Stanley Hall. These leaders of the progressive movement in 1991). In the early 20th century, Thaddeus Giddings (1929) asserted that
education believed that instruction in schools should be child-centered, movement was not an effective or efficient way of using time during music
meaning classroom activities should arise from children's natural interests instruction, believing efforts should focus on developing students' ability to
and curiosities. They advocated for the inclusion of music and movement in read music instead. He recommended that rhythmic movement be taught
the school curriculum because they were considered to be of natural interest within the phys!caf education curriculum. Although there were some excep-
to children and a way they learn. tions, music textbooks at the time focused primarily on singing, with few to
Around the same time, the experiments ana writings of Emile Jaques- no pedagogical suggestions for the use of movement (Campbell, 1991). In
Dalcroze were noticed by music educators in the United States (Lewis, 1998; most schools of the early 20th century, dance and rhythmic movement· edu-
Mark and Gary, 2007). Jaques-Dalcroze developed a system of rhythmic cation fell under the auspices of physical education, not music education
training through movement called Eurhythmics, which is just one part of (Carter, 1984; Volk, 1998).
a three-pronged approach commonly referred to as "Dalcroze." The other Rudolf von Laban was another major figure in movement and dance edu-
cation who had an impact on music education. He believed that movement
should be learned by all people as a way to develop self-awareness and crea- the Orff approach is that movement is inextricably linked with music and
tivity (Laban and Ullmann, 1971). Although his theories of movement (devel- that the two are mutually reinforcing (Frazee and Kreute~ 1987). Orff (1977)
oped before 1950) were more typically applied in dance and physical asserted that Western society generally stifled the innate human need to move
education, they eventually made their way into music teaching and learning to music, which limited people's ability to fully develop as human beings. In
practices (Brooks, 1993; Gordon, 2007; Lewis, 1998). Laban asserted there the Orff approach, movement is used to provide students with opportunities
were four factors of bodily movement (time, space, flow, and weight) and to move in free, creative, and expressive ways (creative movement), as well as
eight basic actions (punch, slash, dab, flick, press, wring, glide, and float) in structured and planned ways (directive movement) (Choksy et al., 2001).
(Laban and Ullmann, 1971). These concepts were thought to encompass a Today, teachers who seek certification in the Orff approach are required to
movement vocabulary that could be notated or used pedagogically. The successfully complete course work in movement, among other areas of
application of Laban's ideas to music education came in interpreting move- study. . .
ments through music and expressing music perceptions through movement, Physical education specialist,. Phyllis Weikart developed a teaching
using the aforementioned factors and actions as guiding prompts or approach called education through movement. It is grounded in the belief
conceptual frames (Gordon, 2007; Nash, 1974; Woods, 1987). In recent that movement serves as a way to enhance learning in many subjects, including
years;\there has been an emerging interest in applying Laban's ideas to con- music (Weikart, 1989). She describes key movement experiences as an impor-
ducting (e.g., Billingham, 2009; Gambetta, 2005). tant grounding for music learning. The key experiences are acting upon
Music educator and composer Zoltan Kodily sought to apply movement directions for movement, describing movements, moving in both nonloco-
as a means to better singing in his method ofmusic education (Choksy, 1981; motor and locomotor ways, and moving with objects. It is primarily focused
Johnston, 1986). This primarily entailed the use of hand signs (commonly on children in preschool through grade three. Weikart's teaching model
attributed to John Curwen and Sarah Glover), which represented different includes three components meant to be applied in sequence: (1) separate, or
solfege syllables that could be used in conjunction with singing (Landis and · teach movement through modeling using only one of three modes of presen-
Carde~ 1990). Engaging the visual and kinesthetic modalities was thought to tation at a time (visual, aural, or kinesthetic); (2) simplify, or teach movement
help children develop a better sense of intervallic relationships (Choksy, by starting with the simplistic ac~ions and gradually building on them; and
Abramson, Gillespie, Woods, and York, 2001; Choksy, 1999). While folk (3) facilitate, or provide students with opportunities to engage with movement
dances, action songs, and other forms of movement might be used as part of ideas such that they construct knowledge for themselves. Weikart (1989) also
the Kodaly method, they are considered tangential, not fundamental (Choksy developed a detailed hierarchy of movement type·s, based on. their level of
et al., 2001). Kodaly believed that movement should be used only as a means difficulty. In their book on elementary music education, Carlton and Weikart
to help children develop musical knowledge and eventually be weaned away. (1994) assert that a foundation in movement (the Weikart method) is essential
· In the words of Kodaly: "You can truly understand music only if you hear in laying a foundation for musical development.
music with no bodily movement at all-only in your brain, only if the music Edwin Gordon's music learning theory (MLT) has been characterized as a
is flying freely in your head without any touch to the earth" (Johnston, 1986, comprehensive method for developing audiation, a term used to describe
p. 14). hearing and comprehending music cognitively, without the presence of the
The Orff approach to music teaching and learning evolVed, in part, based sound (Gordon, 2007). The application of movement in MLT has been
on the assumption that dance arises from music and music arises from dance. strongly influenced by the work of Laban, Jaques-Dalcroze, and Weikart and
In the early years of its development, Carl Orff and his collaborators experi- is thought to serve as a vehicle for facilitating musical thinking (Valerio,
mented with integrating dance and musical arts by providing dancers with Reynolds, Taggart, Bolton, and Gordon, 1998). Claiming that rhythm is not
the opportunity to make music and musicians the opportunity to dance an intellectually processed concept (unlike audiation), Gordon (2007) con-
(Choksy et al., 2001; Shamrock, 1997). Carl Orff and Gunild Keetman (his tends it is best learned kinesthetically-through body movements. Specifically,
dose collaborator) were greatly influenced by the ideas ·of Jaques-Dalcroze movement is g_s_e.d as a way to develop awareness of rhythmic concepts
and Laban (Orff, 1977). Many years after these initial experiments in music (i.e., meter, ~aero and micro beats, melodic rhythms), which are thought to
and dance education, Orff continued to posit that movement was a vital improve musical performance. Like many music educators before him,
component of the music-learning experience. He stated that music should not Gordon asserts that movement is an essential means to improved musician-
be taught on its own; he believed that it should be a "unity with movement, ship. He states that "young children depend on uninhibited movement to
dance, and speech" (1977, p. 6). Much like proponents of the progressive grasp meaning of and to c;:ventually audiate meter in a consistent tempo.
movement in education, Orff (1977) believed that movement was important Thus, when children are given freedom to explore movement, they develop a
in the education of children because it was a natural way they responded to relaxed feeling as they move, which is the best foundation for formal music
their world in general and music in particular. An underlying assumption of instruction" (Gordon, 1997, p. 247).
MENC HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON MUSIC LEARNING MUSIC, MOVEMENT, AND LEARNING 101
100
The National Standards in Music Education (Consortium of National The music~like sounds infants choose to move to provide clues about their
Arts Ed~cation Associations, 1994) do not include movement as one perceptions. Research has found a strong relationship between a mother's
nine content standards, but it is addressed as one of several fundamental speech, which is quite music-like (Ilari, 2009), and an infant's movements
ways students can respond to music, as well as develop skills and (Condon and Sander, 1974; Gruhn, 2002). Some have theorized that ele-
knowledge in music. More specifically, movement is described as a way rnental syntactic and prosodic language structures are innately processed by
children (K-4) can demonstrate their perceptions of music and learn music infants through bodily movements (Condon, 1975). Interestingly, Nakata
through direct sensory experiences. Interestingly, involving students in and Trehub (2004) noted decreased limb movements and increased attentive-
movement experiences is not included in the standards above the fourth ness (measured through visual fixation) when infants were presented with
grade. Dance, however, is illentioned in reference tci one of many arts audiovisual displays of maternal singing. Researchers claim that decreased
forms students should be able to relate to music. Active experiences spontaneous movement is a direct result of increased attention. Another
moving in the classroom may be seen as more relevant and/or effective for theory is that children feel comforted by the sounds of their mothers' voices,
use with children in music instruction than it is for use with adolescents which. leads to reduced heart rates, associated with decreased body move-
or adults. ments·. These studies suggest links between infants' movements to sound and
Movement has played a role in American music education from as far cognition.
back as the early 20th century. It has been applied in myriad ways to reach other researchers have studied the nature of movement responses to music
the specific learning goals that align with a given music education philos~ in the first months of life. In a classic study of young children, Moog (1976)
ophy. Many teaching approaches and methods consider the use of purposeful found that the first physical movements to music included limb extensions,
movement as a means to help learners reach specific goals (e.g., better bouncing, and swaying; prior to the 18th month, children moved to music in
singing, rhythm, expression). This speaks to the somewhat pervasive peda~ repetitive but unsynchronized ways. As the infants matured, however, they
gogical assumptions among advocates for movement in inusic education, became better able to control their movements, which permitted them to
that movement is an effective tool for developing skills, knowledge, and respond to music in ways that seemed (to observers at least) to reflect the
understanding. music. Hicks (1993) also found that chlldren 6 and 14 months of age
responded to music most often through physical responses but noted a
sequence of movement types. Children most commonly and first moved
through orienting responses, followed by nonpulsating, then pulsating move-
Contextual Issues ments in the body. These purposeful physical responses were found to pre-
cede vocal responses to music, furthering the case that movement is a primary
form of response to music. These two observational studies note develop-
Developmental issues in Young Children
mental trends in the ways children move to music, indicating greater direct
It seems clear that humans are predisposed to physically move to music, yet relationships between musical stimuli and movements.
many questions remain: What is the nature and context of those movements? Movement and musical production also seem to be closely related in
How do they change as people mature? Researchers have examined young chlldren. In their landmark study of young children's unhampered
spontaneous movements to music in the earliest years of life, a period that is music making, Moorhead and Pond (1978) stated: "The constant simulta-
least affected by culture. This knowledge might provide educators and neous occurrence of musical production and rhythmically bodily movement,
researchers with a better understanding of the ways humans process as beating a drum or ringing a bell while marching, led to the belief that the
and come to understand music, which have implications for practice and rhythmic factors of physical movement and musical production are related if
research. not identical" (p. 31). At times, music seemed to spark movement; at other
The first human respo~ses to music are manifest through movements of times, movement seemed to invoke music making. Children moved for the
the body. Researchers have found that infants respond to music-like sounds sheer enjoymentof moving; at other times, they seemed to move as a means
through movements of their heads and eyes, as ways of orienting toward a of making sounds. For example, children stomped to make sounds with their
given sound source (Papousek, 1996; Pouthas, 1996; Trehub, 2003). These feet. Similar reasons for moving were observed and described in a more con-
physical responses are thought to serve as indicators of music perception, temporary ethnographic study of children's music making in the United States
including preference and attention (Ilari, 2002). Although movement in the (Campbell, 1998).
earliest months of life does not seem to reflect specific properties of music, Moorhead and Pond (1978) noted patterns in the unique, recurring
movement toward a sound source is a purposeful physical response to movement habits of individual preschool children as they engaged with
music. m_usic. Some children moved in ways that reflect scenes from life (someone
102 MENC HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON MUSIC LEARNING MUSIC, MOVEMENT, AND LEARN1NG 103
swimming or driving a car). Other children moved in more stylized

dance-like ways to music that was being played or to music they produce
1 i,~ociocultural Factors
Rhythmic movements observed seemed to be reproductions or interpret:
tions of the rhythmic qualities of music. Other times, they were performeif' social environment plays a role in the ways children respond to music
for the purpose of creating sound. Children were often observed chanthi:if -;::through movement. One study reported that children with severe intellectual
and singing softly as they walked around the room, yet running was responded with movements to music sung or played by a care-
accompanied by louder chants. Movement speed (or intensity) may be a more frequently than to other nonhuman music stimuli, such as music
children naturally express dynamics (or intensity) of music they produce. and music toys (DeBedout and Worden, 2006). Metz (1989)
can speculate that this might be the same for music transmitted througn,--, that when adults provided verbal suggestions, descriptions, or
another performer or a recording. encouragement, children's physiql responses became more aligned with the
Children's creative movement responses to music were examined in musical elements. Teacher modeling and verbal prodding were also found to
another observational study (Sims, 1985). Children between the ages of be effective in increasing the diversity of movement responses in young chil-
anQ 5 were asked to move freely to three different musical experts in an dren. Children are also affected by those they observe. From as young as 18
experimental environment that controlled for peer or adult modeling; months, children copy movements they see modeled by teachers and care-
Music excerpts lasted a little under a minute each and were chosen to rep~ givers when listening or performing music (Metz, 1989; Reynolds, 1995).
resent a variety of styles and tempi. Responses were videotaped, and two Research findings indicate that preschool (Flohr and Brown, 1979) and upper
observers were asked to analyze the type of movements in 5-second inter~ elementary students (Ferguson, 2004) are highly influenced by their peers
vals based on the following a priori movement categorizations: locomotor; when moving creatively to music. Clearly, the ways humans move are highly
axial movements (nonlocomotor, large body movements), and small motor influenced by individuals in their social environs.
movements (nonlocomotor, small body movements). Among al122 children: Researchers have sought to determine if there are gender d~fferences in
tested, the frequency of movement types was distributed almost equally: the ways children move to music. In an observational study of 3- through
locomotor movements (28.69 percent), axial movements (21.88 percent), 5-year-old children, Miller (1983) found that girls had a tendency to move
small motor movements (21.67 percent), and no movements (27.33 per~ to music more often than boys. The older girls were found to imitate one
cent). Most individual children limited their movement types to a few. another's movements more often than boys. In another observational study
Older children who moved rhythmically were found to synchronize with of children's natural music-making behaviors, Campbell (1998) noted that
1
the beat more often than young children. There were no significant differ- 'both boys and girls exhibited continuous motor activity, but while boys
ences in movements by gender. These findings might not be indicative of the ·typically used their whole bodies, the movement of girls often showed an
way children move in naturalistic settings. Children are likely to move very isolation of one or two body parts, such as clapping and stamping" (p. 18).
differently when they are in their bedrooms listening to music or making Other gender differences were noted by Boone and Cunningham (2001) in
music by themselves or in more social environments. Nonetheless, it is the ways that boys and girls expressed emotion in music through movement
interesting that children were rather limited in their movement vocabu~ (described further in the section on expressivity). In contrast to these studies,
laries, and their abilities to express music through movement continued to Sims (1985) found no differences in movement type by gender-possibly
develop with age. explained by the experimental testing conditions or the a priori categories
In a study of preschool children's creative movements to music in free play used to measure and classify movements. Despite these findings, the research
conditions of a classroom, Metz (1989) observed that children were in tune . suggests gender differences in the quality and effort of movements.
to certain elements of the music heard. For example, children would cease The studies of children described in this section provide a window into the
movement during silences and resume when the music played again. Although ways humans spontaneously move to music. Despite common beliefs,
the speed and intensity of their creative movements changed for each musical research haS-demonstrated that from the earliest years of life, children move
example, indicating they were aware that the music was different, their move- in purposeful ways to music. Although those movements might not be directly
ments did not always correspond to the style, pitch, or dynamics of the music. or obviously reflective of music to an adult observer, even from the. earliest
Curiously, Moorhead and Pond (1978) noted that children were able to per- months of life, they do serve a purpose. A lack of movement, while rio't indic-
ceive dynamic changes as inferred by changes in their movements. It may be ative of the music elements, might be an indicator of it1creased attention to
that children are able to encode and express through movement, music they music. There seem to be developmental trends, where movements are more
produce more effectively than music they hear. Findings suggest that certain closely related to music elements with maturity. These 'responses can come
music elements or ways music is transmitted are more easily perceived or into greater alignment with music with suggestions or through modeling
naturally expressed through movement th:m ::.rP rrrh,N orovided bv a teacher or other care2:iver.
Children's movements to music are diverse and unique to each individu-al ::relation to action songs. Movement was important to teachers because they
but are also highly dependent on and mediated by social context. Obvioushic ·,believed it was a reflection of students' .ethnic cultures and it helped them
as children mature, their environment has an increased impact on how i ',,develop their kinesthetic intelligence. Temmerman (2000) studied Australian
choose to move (or not move) with and to music. The body of research ··,:·\:·:~.,·preschool programs to obs~rve_ how moven:ent was being utilized in music
spontaneous movements to music made and heard in the preschool years instruction and what mearung 1t had for children. Movement was found to
gests a number of movement categories that might be helpful for purpo$es be. an integral part of preschool music curricula and was used for a variety of
classification: {1) functional, or movement that serves a specific function: .means and ends. For example, it was used during listening activities, to
(e.g., orienting one's head or eyes to a sound source) and is not an expressidn accompany singing, to reinforce music concepts, to develop bodily aware-
or interpretation of the music heard or performed; (2) rhythmic, or movement ness, and to develop social skills. The children in these programs were asked
that is reflective of the rhythmic elements of the music produced or heard to describe their preference for myriad music classroom activities. Of all
might be realized for the sounds it produces (e.g., stomping feet) or the kin- ' music activities that were part of theSe programs, movement and dance were
esthetic feeling it induces; (3) creative, or movement that expresses a ranked most positively among students. In describing why, the children
combination of elements (e.g., dynamics, melody, expression) in music pro~ ·referred to the active nature of movement and the joy they felt moving freely
ducetl or heard, freely created by the mover; (4) dramatic, or movement that and creatively to music.
imitates some scene from life experience (e.g., someone cooking or swimming);
and (5) dance, or stylized movement that is culturally recognized as dance.
Any of these five movement categories can be nonlocomotor, locomotor, or a Student Attitudes and Preferences
combination. They have all been commonly observed in children's natural
engagements with music. Researchers studying student attitudes and preferences have found that
movement is a classroom activity generally enjoyed by students. Carlson
(1983) studied the effects of a movement-based instructional curriculum on
Time and Nature of Instruction fifth-grade students' attitudes toward the music program. Results indicated
·that students in the movement group were more positive toward overall
Given humans' propensity to move to music and the historical preponder- music instruction than those in a control group (no movement). Males in
ance of pedagogical endorsenients regarding the use of movement in music the treatment group responded more· positively to movement-based
instruction, one might assume that its use is pervasive in music education instruction than did their female counterparts. Besides the gender difference,
practices. A number of studies have measured the amount of time devoted to similar results were reported for high school students in a choral ensemble
movement in the music classroom. About 30 years ago, researchers found (McCoy, 1989). It should be noted that these results might be explained by
that movement was commonly used in many elementary music classrooms, the Hawthorne effect, which suggests any new or special treatment will
although it only comprised a small proportion of class time (Forsythe, 1977; yield a positive result. Bowles. (1998) found that students were more positive
Moore, 1981; Wagner and Strul, 1979). In another study examining uses of toward moving creatively than toward moving in a directive, dance-like
music class time, researchers reported that elementary music teachers trained manner, across and within grade levels (K-5). While playing instruments
in Orff Schulwerk used movement an average of 26.14 percent, which was was the preferred music activity (chosen by 50 percent of students), dancing/
more than any other music activity (Wang and Sogin, 1997). It should be moving was ranked second (15 percent), followed very closely by singing
noted that there was a high degree of variability among teachers across all (14 percent). ,
music activities that were observed. Connors (1995) reported that elementary Some researchers have examined students' preferences for various pre-
specialists in a large urban school district used movement in their music sentation modalities (i.e., visual, kinesthetic, aural). When asked to interpret
classes with all grade levels, although it was used more often in lower than music through listening experiences, Kerchner (2000) found that second-
upper elementary grades. In addition to knowing "if," "how much," and and· fifth-gracl.e-students preferred using visual (iconic images representing
"with whom," some researchers have questioned "how" and "to what ends" music) to kinesthetic (creative movements representing music) modes of rep-
movement is being applied in practice. resentation. Similarly, Dunn (1994) found that students preferred to have
In a recent study, American preschool teachers surveyed claimed to use music presented through visual rather than kinesthetic modalities in £class-
directive movement activities with preschool students in conjunction with room setting. It would be interesting to know if the preference for visual
singing (Nardo, Custodero, Persellin, and Fox, 2006). The majority of these modalities noted in these studies can be explained by the manner in which
teachers (72 percent) reported teaching movement by serving as models and music is transmitted and/or experienced in contemporary culture. Alternately,
asking students to imitate them. The most common use of movement was in visual modes of presentation or representation might seem more valuable to
106 MENC HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON MUSIC LbAKNING MUSIC, MOVEMENT, AND LEARNING 107
children because of their permanence. In contrast, kinesthetic mnrl .. " that increases in age correspond with decrease in personal tempo, for
rePresentation are temporal and fleeting. Children might also ~,;;~:;~,')<,Qoth locomotor and nonlocomotor movements (Drake, J o~es, a~d Baruch,
self-conscious about using kinesthetic representations in the companv-rif- •'''iOOO; Frega, 1996; Loong, 1999; Walters, 1983). Phys1cal (hmbs) and
their peers. · (heartbeat rates) differences might explain these maturation
Research confirms that movement is being used in music instruction,
dally at the preschool and elementary levels. The reasons for using move Like Walters (1983), Loong (1999) found that individual children were
in music instruction vary, from developing body awareness, to hofioring fairly consistent in their personal tempi for a given performing task. However,
dent cultures, to reinforcing music concepts. While movement is not ternpi performed by these preschoolers varied according to the task and were
sarily the preferred music classroom activity or mode of representation found to be less variable among individuals. There were significant differ-
presentation, there is evidence that students express positive attitudes towara ences in mean beats per minute between instrument types used to create a
movement throughout various grade levels. Students' preferences beat. The following are personal.teinpo ranges by instrument type: scraping
movement activities are likely to be dependent on the nature of the experi~_··:·.~ instruments (111.09-113.53 bpm), striking instruments (140.18-142.39
ences provided by teachers. It should be noted that with the exception of one,. bpm), and shaking instruments (162.90-167.93 bpm). This is likely to be a
all·bf the studies in this section on uses and attitudes focused on formal result of the size of the movements required to make a sound on each of the
learning experiences of elementary and preschool age children. instrument types and the greater complexity of playing a scraping or striking
instrument, which involve two hands, each responsible for different types of
movement. It is interesting to note the small variability imong children on a
Research on Movement and Music learning given instrument type.
Beat Synchronization studies have examined the ways people maintain a

Rhythm beat to music using movements. Synchronization refers to the "coordination
of rhythmic movement with rhythmic sensory stimuli" and is considered
Musical rhythm has many direct corollaries to movement. For example,
fundamental to both music and dance (Repp, 2006, p. 55). People have been
when people talk about moving their bodies to music, they rarely say they are'·
found to have a tendency to anticipate the beat when synchronizing taps
moving to a melody or a particular harmony; people move to the beat or
(small motor,_ nonlocomotor movements) to a metronome, yet when the
rhythm. Furthermore, the ability to synchronize to music is a necessary skill
stimulus includes additional tones in between the beat, or when additional
for both music and dance-two inextricably linked art forms. From the fine
~ovements are inserted between taps, the anticipation tendency disappears
motor skills needed to play the sitar, to the gross motor skills needed to play
(Repp, 2006; Snyder andKrumhansl, 2001). Trained musicians also anticipate
a marimba, the very nature of performance depends on one's ability to move
the beat when tapping, although their asynchrony is far less pronounced
rhythmically. Aware of these connections, Jaques-Dalcroze (1921) went as
than it is for nonmusicians (Aschersleben, 2002). In reviewing a large body
far as to claim that musical rhythm is movement and movement is rhythm. It
of literature on synchronization, Aschersleben (2002) surmised that
should come as no surprise that experiences moving may serve as a way to
"synchronization error is in no way an artifact of the experimental situation
develop or reinforce rhythmic skills or perceptions. A number of studies have
but seems to be necessary for persons to gain the subjective impression of
examined the relationship between movement and rhythm, as well as the via-
being in synchrony" (p. 67). These studies might help to explam the general
bility of using movement as an instructional tool for rhythmic learning.
tendency people have of rushing a pulse expressed through locomotor and
nonlocomotor movements.2
Personal Tempo Several studies have examined the relationship between personal tempo
and the ability to synchronize to a beat. Children of various ages (6, 8, and
Personal tempo is the natural pulse or beat created by an individual through 10) and adiil;s-with and without formal musical training were tested on
locomotor or nonlocomotor movements (e.g., walking or clapping) without beat-tapping ability (with and without a musical stimulus) and tempo dis-
any music stimuli. Knowledge of personal tempo is thought to be important criminations (Drake, Jones, and Baruch, 2000). Researchers reported devel-
because it provides instructors with a baseline understanding of natural opmental changes corresponding with increased age and amount of music
rhythmic tendencies. Walters (1983) reported that personal tempo was fairly training, which included a decreased personal tempo and an improved
consistent for individuals but highly variable among individuals. Kindergarten ability to synchronize with music and discriminate tempi. Results also indi-
through third-grade students were found to have personal tempi that ranged cated that children were more successful Ol;t a synchronization task when the
from 40 beats per minute (bpm) to 210 bpm. Research findings consistently music was closest to their personal tempo. Slower tempi were generally
more challenging for students than were faster tempi. This parncu1ar findil\:: -i::-,;:i.Jetfonnance skills. Dalcroze Eurhythmics has been used as an instructional
is consistent with an earlier study of preschool children (Frega, in several of these studies. Rose (1995) measured the effects of
Furthermore, students classified as having a consistent personal tempo ;;_ :-~.,·rhythmics on the beat competency of students in kindergarten, first grade,
found to be significantly more successful on the synchronization test second grade. Three classes received music instruction through a Dalcroze
those classified as having an inconsistent personal tempo. Both of '<·ipproach, and three classes (c~ntrol groups) received music instr~ction
studies suggest that maturation plays a role in ability to synchronize -PrirtJ.arily through verbal explanations and no movement. At the concluswn of
beat. As such, performance improvements in moving to a beat might 32~week treatment period, a test of beat competency was administered.
expected with advanced age, as well as music training. 'Results revealed a significant difference betvveen groups, in favor of those who
Clearly, certain movements of the body are going to pose a received the movement training through a Dalcroze approach. Other studies
challenge than others for students. In her teaching method, Phyllis have found that using a movement approach in music instruction (Dalcroze. or
(1989) recommends that children experience keeping a steady beat in a Laban) had a positive effect on +·and 5-year-old children's ability to perform
variety of ways but that they should follow a particular sequence, which she macro and micro beats with a song (Blesedell, 1991). No differences were
posited moved gradually from simple· to more complex. One study sought t6 found betvveen the tvvo teaching approaches. It may be that these tvvo
m,asure the validity of this sequence by testing children from 3 through 7 approaches were not distinct enough as they were applied in the instructional
years of age (Jordan, 1994). Beat coordination was found to be significantly treatment. In another study, sixth-grade students who received 10 weeks of
more difficult using the lower body movements (stomps) than upper body movement instruction in the instrumental music classroom were significantly
movements (claps); movements without an end point were significantly more better at a synchronization test than were students who received traditional
difficult than those with an end point; movements asymmetrical to the body rhythm instruction, without the use of movement (Rohwe~ 1998).
were more difficult than symmetrical movements. As found in many prior One study tested the effect of instruction customized to students' personal
studies, ability to keep a beat improved with each successive age level. These tempi on a variety of synchronization tasks (Nelson, 1990). Results indicated
findings were confirmed by a similar study in physical education research that there was no significant difference betvveen those who received the treatment
(Derri, Tsapakidou, Zachopoulou, and Gini, 2001). Both of these studies and those who received training in beat keeping that was not cu~tomized to
served to validate the sequence of movement types (by level of difficulty), as students' personal tempi. This finding stands in contrast to a prior study that
recommended by Weikart in her education through movement teaching did find that children were more successful when tasks were closer to their
method (Weikart, 1989). personal tempi (Drake, Jones, and Baruch, 2000). Another study found no
Some studies have examined the different means through which children difference in synchronization abilities if young children were trained pri-
can express rhythm through movement. In a study of preschool children's marily through locomotor or nonlocomotor movements (Croom, 1998). It
rhythmic abilities using different movement types, researchers concluded that seems that any training or movement experiences maintaining a steady beat
large motor movements were more challenging to control than small motor on one's body can result in an increase in kinesthetic synchronization abilities.
movements (Rainbow and Owen, 1979). This is supported by another study Maturation and other informal experiences with music seem to be the pri-
that found that kindergarten through third-grade students had more diffi. mary explanation for these results. Maturation is a significant factor leading
culties echoing rhythmic patterns through stepping than for clapping or chant- to improvements in motoric music abilities (Gilbert, 1980; Zimmerman 2002).
ing (Schleuter and Schleute~ 1985). As in other studies, there was a positive Perceiving a steady beat is thought to be fundamental to accurate music
relationship betvveen rhythmic test scores and grade level, suggesting matura- performance. Therefore, physically moving one's body to a steady beat while
tion and/or training effect. Rainbow (1980) found that 3- and 4-year-old chil- performing seems to be a logical way to ensure beat perception and improve
dren are more successful at performing rhythms when doing so through performance. To test this notion, Boyle (1970) studied the effects of foot
vocalization rather than movement tasks. The addition of speech while moving tapping on 191 high school instrumentalists' sight-reading abilities. In a care-
during music training might also improve the rhythmic accuracy and expres- fully constructed experimental design, instrumentalists Were divided into tvvo
sivity of rhythmic movements performed by children (McFarland, 2006). groups. Alf grQups received instruction in listening to the beat, as well as
Larger movements of the body seem to be more difficult for children to con- playing and practicing rhythmic patterns, but one group was instructed to
trol with the precision required of rhythmic or synchronized movements. That tap the beat as they performed and the other was not. Results indic~ted that
might explain why children were more successful chanting or speaking students who were instructed to tap their feet to the beat were more success-
rhythms than moving the rhythms through small or large motor movements. ful at a rhythmic sight-reading task than those who were not.
Other studies have specifically examined the effect of rhythmic movement
Impact of Instruction on Rhythmic Skills A large number of studies have training on rhythmic achievement. Children in one study were provided with
sought to determine the impact of movement instruction on rhythmic movement instruction-20 minutes, once a week, for 28 weeks (Douglass,
1977). A control group received rhythmic training using traditional verbal through a Dalcroze Eurhythmics approach. Findings indicated that children
counting systems. Froseth's "Physical Response to Rhythm in Music" (PPR) in the treatment group were more successful in identifying and responding to
test was used as pretest and posttest measures to determine the ability to echo familiar rhythmic patterns found in unfamiliar musical examples than those
rhythms on a woodblock and clapping. Analysis of the results showed a ·in a control group who did not receive movement instruction. Findings from
significant difference in rhythmic performance abilities, in favor of the both of these studies suggest that as early as infancy, movement experiences
movement group. Moore (1984) also found movement training (through an affect rhythmic perceptions and identification skills.
Orff approach) to have a positive impact on the rhythmic abilities of second- Other studies have yielded confounding results. In one study, sixth-grade
and third-grade students, as measured through an apti.tude test. In another beginning instrumentalists who participated in a movement-based instruc-
study, the use of Laban movement efforts (flow, weight, time, and space) in tional treatment were no more successful than the control group (who
music instruction was found to improve rhythmic performance skills but not received traditional beginning instrumental instruction) on a test "that
rhythmic perceptions of high school students, as measured by several author- assessed the students' abilities to···,perceive degrees of steadiness and tempo
constructed tests Gordan, 1986). change in compared isochronous tap sets" (Rohwer, 1998, p. 418). Lewis
Most studies examining the impact of movement on rhythmic learning (1986) found no significant differences in her study evaluating the effective-
have-~one so in terms of a particular instructional treatment. Kuhlman (1996), ness of movement-based instruction on music perceptions of first- and third-
on the other hand, tested the effects of prior participation in a movement~ grade students. Scores on the rhythmic portions of the dependent measures
based music instruction on beginning instrumentalists' abilities to express (i.e., meter, rhythm patterns, and tempo) were no different between the con-
duple and triple meters in performance. One group of instrumentalists had trol (no movement) and treatment groups (movement).
participated in the 3-year, weekly music program that used education through Gates (1993) found evidence that a visual-aural mode of instruction was
movement (Weikart method) prior to starting the instrumental program. more effective than a kinesthetic-aural mode on first-grade children's rhythmic
Another group did not have this background. All participated in the same achievement. Students who participated in the kinesthetic music classes (i.e.,
instrumental lessons during the period of the study. Results indicated no movement-based) scored significantly lower on a rhythmic achievement test
significant difference between groups on the ability to express meter in a (aural rhythmic discrimination and rhythmic matching tasks) than those in
performance on their instruments. Studying the long-term impact of a the visual group. Rhythmic instruction emphasizing movement seemed to be
particular approach to movement or music education is ripe with possibilities. less effective than similar instruction emphasizing visual modalities. These
In this study, the dependent variable might have been too limited in its scope findings might be explained by the tests used to measure achievement, which
and focus. We can only speculate that a series of varied performance tests may relied on the kinesthetic less than the aural and visual modalities. Interestingly,
have provided some evidence of the impact of past movement training on other studies have found that children prefer visual modes of representation
_current performance skills. Alternately, it is possible that students were not over kinesthetic modes (Dunn, 1994; Kerchner, 2000).
able to make transfers of learning between the 3 years of instruction in general Rhythmic movement is an essential skill in most music-making endeavors.
music and the current instruction in learning to play an instrument. It is an area of the literature that has been of interest to researchers in both
music education and psychology of music. Certain patterns were noted in the
Impact af Instruction on Rhythmic Perception Educative movement literature. First, maturation plays a significant role in myriad rhythmic
experiences with music have been found to shape rhythmic perceptions. In a abilities. As children mature, their ability to synchronize to a beat improves,
carefully designed and controlled experiment of rhythmic perception, infants as do their general rhythmic achievements. Second, when asked to maintain
listened to a 2-minute rhythmic pattern without accented beats (Phillips- a steady beat to music, people have a tendency to anticipate the beat. Musical
Silver and Trainor, 2005). As the rhythm played, half of the infants were training, as well as the type of music stimuli, plays a role in decreasing that
bounced by an adult on every second-beat (duple) and half on every third asynchrony. Third, certain movements are more challenging to children to
beat (triple). After the treatment, listening preferences were tested for two perform with precision. Large motor, locomotor movements are more diffi-
versions of the same rhythmic pattern but with accents on every third or cult than smallmotor, nonlocomotor movements. In fact, nonmovement
second beat added. The experiment was repeated a second time, with infants tasks (verbalizations) seem to be the easiest ways of producing rhythm in
being blindfolded. Results were consistent for both experiments: infants childhood. This is not to say that they should not perform rhythms through
preferred the version (duple or triple) that corresponded with the way they the body at some point, but it might suggest a particular teaching sequence.
had been moved. This suggests that experiences of moving to music affect Fourth, there is no evidence from the research that one movement approach
our music perceptions. is more effective than another in developing rhythmic skills or perceptions.
Joseph (1982) studied the impact on rhythmic perceptions of kindergarten Studies reviewed indicate that any type of movement training is effective in
students of year-long music instruction with a major emphasis on movement improving learners' rhythmic skills. The effectiveness of movement instruction
in music instruction on rhythmic skills seems to be more convincing than it ;ro.usic instruction as a means to improve students' awareness and under-
for rhythmic perceptions. In part, this might be explained by the fact Sfariding of pitch-related concepts.
movement activities were closely related to the dependent measures, However, mixed results were reported in one study. Mueller (1993) sought to
required movement. In other words, instruction was most closely linked determine the effect of movement-based instruction on the melodic perception
the test. of third-grade students. The instructional treatment, desigued to teach melodic
concepts through movement, was administered twice weekly (30 minutes) over
the period of 9 weeks. A control grOup received music lessons focused on melodic
Pitch concepts without the use of movement. The melodic concepts included pitch
Many of the English-language terms applied in reference to pitch are meta- register (high and low), direction (up, down, and same), and progression (steps,
phorical and suggest space, movement, and time. Terms such as up, down~ leaps, and repeats). Components of Colwell's (1979) Silver Burdett Music
higher, lower, step, and leap are used refer to both the relative position Competency Test were used to measure the aforementioned melodic concepts.
pitch and specific movements of the body. While movements of the body are Results indicated a significant difference between the treatment and control group
concrete and provide visual and kinesthetic cues, pitch is abstract and has less test scores for melodic progression, in favor of the movement group. However,
obV~ous bearing on the terms used to describe its movement-except maybe no significant gain scores were found for either group on measures of pitch reg-
in standard notation. Given this semantic relationship, movement might be ister and direction. One wonders if there was a ceiling effect in this study, given
used as a means for developing understanding of pitch concepts. the simplicity of the dependent measure for these children. It may be that any
Several studies have sought to determine if instruction that includes sub- training would have had little impact, one way or another, on test scores.
stantial movement experiences would have an effect on pitch discrimination
abilities. One study examined the effect of a Dalcroze-based approach on 76
Vocal Performance
first-graders' melodic perceptions (Crumplei; 1982). Two intact classes were
provided with twelve 30-minute lessons on melodic concepts using lessons Children have a natural tendency to move as they sing (Campbell, 1998), and
from a popular textbook series that included no movement. The other two ·singing while moving has been noted to seem more "free" than in other con-
intact classes received instruction on the same melodic concepts, taught mak- ditions (Moorhead and Pond, 1978, p. 41). Several studies have sought to
ing extensive use of Dalcroze-based instruction (i.e., movement games and better understand the relationship between movement and singing, two seem-
activities). After the treatment period, students were tested, using a researcher- ingly linked phenomena.
developed measure, on their ability to make pitch register and contour In a longitudinal study on the development of young children's musical
discriminations. In contrast to the textbook group, children in the Dalcroze potential, Gruhn (2002) studied a group of 1- and 2-year-old children in a
group made siguificant gains from the pretest to the posrtest. While there were stimulating musical setting for 15 months, focusing on their attention,
significant differences on mean pretest scores between groups (in favor of the movement, and vocalization. One of the most pertinent results of this study
textbook group), there were no differences on posttest scores. Results from a was the strong correlation found between the coordination, fluency, and syn-
similar study with third- and fifth-grade students support these findings chronization of movements and the accuracy of pitch reproduction in the voice
(Berger, 1999). (Gruhn, 2002). Based on the findings of the study and knowledge of the litera-
Other studies have also confirmed the positive effects of movement tuJ:e, Gruhn stated that "it is difficult to find a neurologically plausible expla-
instruction on pitch perceptions. In one study, kindergarten students were nation because there is no overlap of the cortical areas for movement and voice
provided with either music instruction that included singing and movement production, but there is evidence for a neurophysiological link between gross
or another that only included singing. After 6 weeks of instruction, kinder- and fine motor control in body movement and in muscles engaged in the vocal
gartners in the movement group performed significantly better than their apparatus" (pp. 65-66). These results suggest a rehtionship between fine
counterparts on tests of pitch discrimination {Montgomery, 1997). Steeves motor movements that affect singing intonation and pitch accuracy.
(1985) examined the effecr of using Curwen hand sigus 3 on interval Bodily ID~ment might both improve singing and reflect the music sung.
identification. Results indicated that children in the hand sign group were In a case srudy of singer Annie Lenox, Davidson (2001) found evidence to
more accurate and quicker to identify intervals than children who were in the suggest that Lenox's singing voice was physically supported and sustained
group that did not use them. In another study, Dunne-Sousa (1988) found through the use of certain external body movements. Liao and Davidson
that children were able to identify a song most accurately through movement (2007) reported that children's movements were reflective of their vocal qual-
cues (corresponding movements for a song) than through other cues, such as ities. For example, ·"the size of the movement reflects the different dynamic
chanted rhythms. These studies provide support for the use of movement in levels and the continuity of movement reflects the articulation" (p. 91). One
114 MENC HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON MUSIC LEARNJN( MUSIC, MOVEMENT, AND LEARNING 115
study found a positive correlation between the size of performers' a unique study, Boone and Cunningham (2001) examined 4- and 5-year-
ments and the level of expressive intention (Davidson, 2009). In Part.,. hildren's ability to encode emotion in music through creative move-
findings are corroborated by other observational studies in the To do so, researchers provided children with a model of ways they
(Campbell, 1998; Moorhead and Pond, 1978). Movements may be used move a teddy bear to express four different emotions (happiness, sad-
only as a means to support the singing voice but also as a way to anger, and fear), along with·corresponding music. Afterwards, children
expressive intentions and production. asked to move a teddy bear themselves to express the emotions they
Movement has also been used as an instructional tool, for the Purpose )ip~rc'eived in eight different musi~ excerpts. ~ach of th:ir performa~ces was
improving singing. To test its viability, Kim (2000) compared the effects of ;>::Videotaped so that adults could v1ew them (w1thout audw) to determme what
weeks of singing instruction and singing inStruction that included ',/;emotion each child was attempting to express through the movements of the
based movement activities (with a focus on Laban efforts) on first-grade ;:;::·!'-teddy bear. Results indicated that children were able to accurately express
dents' singing abilities. A control group received no singing instructin:.:/; ',·,'clnotional meaning in music through creative movements at a level beyond
Children were tested singing a criterion song. Its quality was measured Subsequent analysis found that children were more successful at
three evaluators using Rutkowski's "Singing Voice Development Measure~- , expressing sadness and happiness than they were fear and anger. Five-year-
and\ a researcher-created measure of tonality. Results indicated no children were more accurate than their 4-year-old counterparts, suggest-
differences between the two treatment groups (movement and singing-onlY) ing developmental differences~ Gender differences were also noted. Boys were
and the control group, although there was a small difference in mean group mOre apt to express happiness and anger with more intensity through faster
scores between the movement and singing-only groups. It seems that any: tempi and more upward movements than were girls. Girls were found to
singing instruction, with or without movement, can positively affect chil~ express happiness through more facial affect than boys. Findings of this study
dren's singing. Building on this study, Chen (2007) tested the effect of suggest that young children are able to encode emotions in music and express
locomotor and nonlocomotor movement activities in music instruction on them creatively through movement. A confounding variable in this study was
Taiwanese first-grade children's overall singing performance abilities. Students facial affect, which may have provided substantive cues to judges who were
in the locomotor group were found to significantly outpel:form their counter~ charged with determining what emotion children were expressing. In other
parts in the nonlocomotor group. words, it is not solely movement that was being judged. Given their limited
A similar study was conducted using the high school choral ensemble as vocabularies at this age, movement might provide children with a way to
the unit of analysis. Holt (1992) tested the effect of Laban-based movement communicate emotionS expressed through music.
instruction in choral rehearsals on overall group performance. Four choirs In another study examining emotions, Ebie (2004) sought to determine
received 5 hours of rehearsals and instruction; for two of the choirs, the the effect of four different teaching approaches on 56 middle school students'
instruction included Laban-based movement experiences. The researcher abilities to express four emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, and anger) in
controlled for music singers' music aptitudes. Each group's perfo;-mance their singing. The four instructional approaches were (1) traditional (verbal
on a criterion piece was evaluated by judges using a researcher-designed instructions given by the teacher), (2) aural modeling (the teacher provided
rating scale. Analysis of the results revealed a significant difference bet- examples of how to sing), (3) kinesthetic (students were able to explore dif-
ween the groups, in favor of the movement group. One must use caution ferent ways of expressing emotions through their bodies), and (4) audiovisual
in generalizing these results, given that the unit of evaluation was the choir, (students viewed pictures while listening to pieces of music representing each
and there were only two choirs in each treatment group. The effects of of the four emotions). Results indicated a significant difference between the
movement instruction on singing abilities remain inconclusive, given the traditional approach and the other three approaches, in favor of the latter
results of the reviewed studies and limited body of literature in the area of three. No differences were found among those three approaches. Findings
pitch-related concepts. from this study indicate that instruction that includes mqvement explora-
tions in the choral classroom is more effective in facilitating expressive singing
than verbal--directions alone. With that said, aural modeling and audiovisual
Expressivity approaches were just as effective as movement.
Another study examined the effect of Laban-based practices and ideas
Bodily movement plays a critical role in musical performance. In fact, it is (i.e., effort and shape) in conducting instruction, on college-age students'
thought to reflect and generate the sounds being produced (Davidson, 2001, abilities to perceive expressivity in various performances (Neidlinger, 2003).
2009). Surprisingly, however, few empirical studies have examined the direct Students who 'received the Laban-based conducting instruction applied a
relationship between movement instruction and the ability to perform expres- greater number of movement terms t_o describe and distinguish beMeen var-
sively or perceive expression in music. ious levels of expressive movement in four movement-based performances
than did those students in a control group. However, there were no significant moving as they listen to music, future research might consider ways to
differences on their general perceptions of expressivity in the various move- uncover how and why kinesthetic experiences add to the construction of
ment-based arts forms. It seems logical that, given the Laban instruction, musical meaning or identity. It would also be interesting to know the
participants would apply newly learned terminology in a judgment task. long-term effects of such experiences on students' music perceptions and
Results of this study are inconclusive as to how Laban methods in conducting abilities to listen to music attentively.
instruction might affect students' perceptions of expressivity. These findings
might be a result of the short treatment period (approximately 3 hours and
20 minutes). Future research on the application of Laban ideas and practices Creative Thinking
on learners' perceptions of expressive performance and performance expres-
In the only empirical study found examining movement, music, and crea-
sivity are warranted.
tivity, Gibson (1988) compared ~e impact of 10 weeks of music instruction
{focused on improvisation) with ·m~sic instruction including movement and
visual art on sixth- and seventh-grade students' creativity, as measured by
Musi~ Listening and Perception Webster's "Thinking Creatively with Music" and the Torrance Tests of
Creative Thinking (Torrance, 1999). Students in the multiple arts group
Movement experiences may affect the ways people perceive and represent
made significant gains from pretest to posttest on both measures; students in
music while and after listening. In a study of preschool children, Sims (1986)
the music-only group also made gains, but they were not significant. Results
found that children who were engaged in movement experiences that corre-
of this study suggest that providing students with opportunities to incorpo-
sponded to the music were more attentive during music-listening experiences
rate various artistic media, learning modalities, and senses may be beneficial
than those children who listened passively. While these findings stand in con-
for improving their creative thinking. It cannot be determined from this study
trast to those of a previously reviewed study with infants (Nakatta and
if the movement components, the visual arts components of the lesson, or
Trehub, 2004 ), there may be differences in the ways children of these diverse
both made the difference. Research that isolates factors could be helpful in
age groups respond to and process music. Gromko and Poorman (1998)
pinpointing what impact, if any, movement has on creativity.
sought to compare (1) the effect of listening to music while following a visual
map with (2) listening while moving to the music with a teacher in terms of
perceptions of form. Children who moved to the music scored significantly
better on the measure of form perception than their visual-map counterparts. Patterns and Future Directions
These findings are corroborated by a similar study (Sutter, 1999).
Experiences of moving spontaneously (i.e., creatively) to music were found The striking connections between music and movement have not gone unno-
to improve children's ability to create graphic notation representing rhythm ticed in music education. For. centuries, music educators have intuitively
and phrasing in a piece of music (Fung and Gromko, 2001). In contrast, find- believed that movement could be a way to develop and reinforce music skills
ings from- a carefully controlled study measuring three instructional treat- and understandings, as well as a way students can demonstrate their
ments (passive, creative movement, structured movement) on listening knowledge. Movement continues to be an area of great interest to music edu-
map-reading skills showed no significant difference by treatment group cators, as evidenced by the number of pedagogical materials, workshops, and
(Gromko and Russell, 2002). These results do not support the findings of the practices that include movement. Its application, however, has mostly been
aforementioned studies. Given that the treatment provided only one listening limited to use with children in formal learning settings. Concomitantly, a
of the musical work before map-reading skills were assessed, the researchers body of research on movement and music learning has emerged, moStly
suggested that futUre work on the effectiveness of movement and aural expe- focusing on the aforementioned age groups and settings. This is the litera-
riences on music perception provide participants with at least one trial before ture's strength, as well as its limitation. Movement, as a teaching and learning
administering a test. tool, may co:tr6iin untapped potential for use with adolescents, adults, and
Although there is one study that does not corroborate the others, evidence older adults in myriad music-learning settings.
leans in favor of using movement with children during listening tasks. The ways humans respond to music through movements Of the b.ody vary
Movement experiences, whether directive or creative, may provide children greatly by culture as early as childhood (Blacking, 1973 ), and there are likely
with opportunities to process the music on their own terms and construct to be marked differences in people's attitudes, behaviors, and learning styles
understanding of the music they hear. Passive listening may not be the most depending on their cultural backgrounds. The majority of studies on
effective in facilitating children's thinking about and/or symbolically repre- movement and learning in the English-language literature were conducted in
senting music. While anecdotal evidence seems to suggest that children enjoy North America and Europe, so caution should be used in generalizing these
118 MENC HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON MUSIC L!IAKNING MUSIC, MOVEMENT, AND LEARNING 119
findings beyond their cultural contexts. Future research in music educaclc t<-'-criietnent as a way to facilitate learning in their everyday lives? Can trans-
might examine movement and music learning from diverse cultural m be made to music teaching and learning? Can movement serve as a way
tives, as a way to better understand human cognition and uncover common '';: _spark creativity? How and to what ends? To date, we cannot answer these
alities and differences among cultures. Given the increasing diversity to Future research might seek to fill these and other lacunae in the
students in schools across North America and the globe, music educatl:6~
research might seek to examine the relationship of culture and the ways
ple respond to and learn music through movement. These findings could sug~
gest new culturally informed pedagogical practices. mary and Implications
Many studies reviewed in this chapter compared "traditional" lessons
curricula with those that included movement. In reading some of the studi Patterns in the research findings of this chapter suggest implicatiOns for music
movement treatments seemed to be more innovative and dynamic than teaching and learning. Research has consistently shown that children have a
provided to control groups. Future research should carefully examine natural need and desire to move to music. Teachers from preschool on should
reliability of the planned and implemented treatments, which might reflect capitalize on this knowledge by providing students with myriad opportu-
res·~~rcher or implementer biases, respectively. This could also help to control nities to move to music. This can give teachers a window into children's
for the Hawthorne effect, which posits that any new or special treatment rn:usic perceptions and also help them develop their understandings of music.
yield positive results. In some studies, it was difficult to discern if it was par~ While initial experiences of moving freely and creatively to music may yield
ticipation in movement activities, the innovative nature of the movement limited responses, teachers can expand the range of movement types by
lessons, the implementer's bias for a particular treatment, or some other providing verbal suggestions and visual models, which might draw attention
factor that explained the positive effects on musical skills and perceptions. to specific elements of music. Moreover, movement can provide children with
Studies that use instructional treatments as their independent variables opportunities to show what they know through nonverbal means, which
should describe these lessons or curricula in as much detail as possible. might provide an equally valid way of demonstrating knowledge. This is
Otherwise, replications and application are next to impossible. Furthermore, especially pertinent for students who have difficulties or are unable to com-
to say that a control group received ''traditional" instruction is not enough municate through a given language (Abril, 2003).
to know what we are comparing. Some studies were excluded from this Studies examining personal terripo and synchronization offer some impli-
chapter because there was little way of discerning the nature of- the instruc- cations for practice. Research suggests that children are more successful at
tional treatment provided. Detail.ed descriptions can better serve educators rhythmic tasks when they are within a r~asonable range of their personal
who might seek to apply these ideas in their own teaching. tempo. Therefore, teachers should take general tempo ranges into consider-
Studies measuring the effect of movement instruction on rhythmic ation when asking children to play instruments or move in certain ways.
performance seemed to be more conclusive than those measuring rhythmic Tasks required of music students should be sequenced from simple to more
perceptions. This may be because the former used dependent variables for the complex. Various studies support the application of Weikart's (1989) hier-
measures that were more closely related to the independent variable. In other archy of movement types with children. Maturation does seem to play a
words, there were fewer transfers of learning required of participants. Those significant role in both an individual's personal tempo and beat-keeping
treatments that are further removed from the chosen measures may require abilities. Research overwhelmingly supports the case that children will nat-
an extended treatment period. Alternately, the instructional treatment should urally improve their synchronization and rhythmic abilities with age and
provide participants with trials in making relevant transfers. Measures are experience. It may be that teachers do not need to spend exorbitant amounts
likely to be most effective when all forms of validity, as well as reliability, of time developing skills in keeping a beat when holistic experiences
have been considered.
engaging with music through listening, moving, playing, and singing may
There are still important questions that remain unanswered: Does suffice.
movement have a different impact on music learning in childhood than in No clear CHfferences in the impact of various movement-music approaches
adolescence or adulthood? If so, what is the nature of these differences, and (i.e., Dalcroze, Kodcily, Orff, Laban) on learning were noted in the literature.
how might this knowledge reshape music education practices in secondary With the exception of a few studies, it seems that any form of movement
and tertiary schools? How can expanded forms of movement (beyond foot instruction was effective in affecting positive changes in participants' rhythmic
tapping and rhythm clapping) be applied in instrumental music settings as a performance abilities and in some facets of perception. As such, teachers
way to develop music skills, improve expressivity, and deepen understanding should consider their curricular objectives and goals, consider if movement
of music? Given limited classroom contact time, one might ask if movement experiences closely relate to them, and make a decision as to the suitability of
is the most effective use of time. How do people, of various cultures, use incorporating movement experiences in instruction. The particular approach
120 MENC HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON MUSIC LEARNING
to movement instruction may be less important than its actual alignmen-t

with specific learning outcomes. 1. See the following references for more examples: Abramson, 1998; Boyarsky,
As compared with rhythmic concepts, the literature examining the z009; Schnebly-Black & Moore, 1997.
of movement instruction on pitch is less developed. However, there is support 2. For a more detailed review of literature on synchronization from a
for the application of movement in developing pitch perception. Given the' psychological perspective, see Repp (2006).
abstract nature of pitch, and the need for learners to perceive pitch changes~ 3. A system of using hand gestures and movements to represent pitch, com~
movement experiences might provide more concrete ways {visual and kines. rnonly applied in the Kodaly teaching method.
thetic) of developing conceptual understanding. The use of Curwen hand
signs and other movements of the body that represent the movement of pitch
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MUSIC, MOVEMENT, AND LEARNING 93

evolutionary links between the two, clearly, humans are predisposed to

Movement as Ends and Means

Movement as part of any musical ~xperience can be viewed as ends or means.

swimming or driving a car). Other children moved in more stylized

Beat Synchronization studies have examined the ways people maintain a

to movement instruction may be less important than its actual alignmen-t

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