Gce-Geogrpahy-Gft-From-2016-Pdf 2

GCE AS/A LEVEL
WJEC GCE AS/A LEVEL in

GEOGRAPHY
APPROVED BY QUALIFICATIONS WALES
GUIDANCE FOR TEACHING

Part 2
Teaching from 2016
This Qualifications Wales regulated qualification is not available to centres in England.

Contents
Introduction 3
Aims of the Guidance for Teaching 4
Assessment Strategy 5
Command Word Glossary 8
Delivering the Specification 10
 Summary of Assessment 10
 Specialised Concepts 11
Amplification of Content and Learning Plans 12
 Global Systems and Global Governance – Water and Carbon cycles 12
 Global Systems and Global Governance – Processes and patterns of global migration 31
 Global Systems and Global Governance – Earth's oceans 39
 Tectonic Hazards 48
 Contemporary Themes in Geography – Ecosystems 58
 Contemporary Themes in Geography – Economic Growth and Challenge: India 69
 Contemporary Themes in Geography - Economic Growth and Challenge: China 79
 Contemporary Themes in Geography – Development in an African Context 96
 Contemporary Themes in Geography – Energy Challenge and Dilemmas 105
 Contemporary Themes in Geography – Weather and Climate 115
Fieldwork Opportunities 129
Integrating Skills – Practical Approaches 130
Introduction
2
The WJEC A level Geography specification encourages learners to apply geographical
knowledge, theory and skills to the world around them. In turn this will enable learners to
develop a critical understanding of the world’s people, places and environments in the 21st
century. Learners should be able to develop both knowledge and understanding of
contemporary geographical concepts together with transferable skills that will enable
learners to progress to higher education and a range of employment opportunities.
The focus of the specification is to develop an enthusiasm for and competence in geography
by using contemporary real-world contexts, from a range of specified spatial scales, and
through engagement with and practical application of geographical skills and techniques in
the field. This specification draws on both physical and human geography, explores people-
environment interactions and encourages development of fieldwork at the local level to
enable learners to pose enquiry questions.
The specification covers the required subject content at an appropriate level of rigour and
challenge for a GCE AS and A level qualification. The content is organised into the required
core and a non-core component as prescribed by the Geography GCE AS and A level
subject content July 2014
The four core themes; knowledge and understanding
1) Water and carbon cycles (A2)

2) Landscape systems (AS)
3) Global systems and global governance (A2)
4) Changing place; changing places (AS)
The non-core compulsory theme at A2 is Tectonic Hazards. Whilst the additional non-core
optional themes at A2 allow for rigour and in-depth treatment and also provide flexibility for
teachers to select themes to develop a course of study suited both to their interests and
circumstances. The specialised concepts and geographical skills (quantitative and qualitative
skills and approaches) are embedded in the core and non-core content.
In addition to this guide support is provided in the following ways:
• Specimen papers and mark schemes

• Face-to-face CPD events
• Online examination reviews
• Examiners’ reports on each question paper
• Free access to past question papers and mark schemes via the secure website
• Free online resources
The specification, latest news and resources are available on the Geography webpage
Aims of the Guidance for Teaching
3
The principal aim of the Guidance for Teaching document is to offer support to teachers in
the delivery of the new Geography specification and to offer guidance on the requirements of
the qualification and the assessment process.
The guidance is not intended as a comprehensive reference, but as support for professional
teachers to develop stimulating and exciting courses tailored to the needs and skills of their
own students in their particular institutions. In addition, it must not be used instead of the
specification, but must be used to support the delivery of it.
The Guidance offers assistance to teachers with regard to possible classroom activities and
links to digital resources (both our own, freely available, digital materials and some from
external sources) to provide ideas when planning interesting, topical and engaging lessons.
Please be aware that many of the resources mentioned in this Guidance are web-based and
accessed via hyperlinks. As a result, you are advised to view this Guidance electronically.
4
Assessment Strategy
Assessment Objectives and their related command words
The table below illustrates how the Assessment Objectives (AOs) are divided and shows where they are also sub-divided into strands and
elements. Some examples of the command words that could be used in examination papers when addressing these AOs have also been
included. Furthermore, the final column includes some sample questions to give an example of how the various AOs would be addressed
in an examination paper.
Assessment Strands Elements Example Example questions from Sample Assessment Materials
Objective command words
AO1 Define
N/A This AO is a Identify Explain how earthquakes produce tsunamis. (5 marks)
Demonstrate single State
knowledge and element. Describe Describe the demographic and economic impacts of the eruption
understanding of Distinguish of one volcano. (10 marks)
places, Explain
environments, Give an example
concepts, Outline
processes,
interactions and
change, at a
variety of scales.
AO2: 1a – Apply Analyse Analyse why the impacts of volcanic activity vary.
N/A knowledge Compare (20 marks)
Apply knowledge and Contrast
and understanding understanding Explain why Analyse why processes associated with earthquake activity often
in different in result in hazards. (20 marks)
contexts to different
5
interpret, analyse contexts to
and evaluate analyse
geographical geographical
information and information and
issues. issues.
1b – Apply Suggest Suggest one reason why the sea wall has been breached.
knowledge Interpret (3 marks)
and
understanding Suggest three human factors that may explain why the areas
in shown in Figure 5 have a high mortality risk.
different (9 marks)
contexts to
interpret Suggest the short-term responses that could be used to mitigate
geographical the consequences of changes shown in Figure 6.
information and (10 marks)
issues.
1c – Apply Assess Describe and justify the choice of case study area used for
knowledge Discuss your fieldwork investigation in physical geography.
and Justify (9 marks)
understanding Evaluate
in Examine Assess the success of strategies implemented in China to
different To what extent manage one environmental problem associated with economic
contexts to growth. (22 marks)
evaluate
geographical To what extent can the damaging effects of high-pressure
information and systems be minimised?
issues. (22 marks)
6
AO3: 1– Calculate Use Figure 1 to outline why ‘managed retreat’ is a positive choice
investigate N/A Describe for Cwm Ivy.
Use a variety of geographical (pattern/variations) (5 marks)
relevant questions Draw
quantitative, and issues Identify Use Figure 2 to describe the extent of coastline erosion in
qualitative and Label Wales compared to that in Scotland.
fieldwork skills to: State (3 marks)
 investigate Select
geographical Estimate
questions and
issues 2 – interpret, Explain Using Figure 2, analyse conflicting perspectives about the use of
 interpret, analyse and Compare Thornton Moor.
analyse and evaluate Suggest (5 marks)
evaluate data data and
and evidence evidence Use Figure 2 to describe the distribution of Portuguese migrants
 construct in the selected regions of Wales. Include relevant figures in your
arguments answer.
and draw (3 marks)
conclusions.
3 – construct Analyse
arguments To what extent
and draw Assess
conclusions Discuss
Evaluate
Adapted from GCE Subject Level Guidance for Geography March 2015
7
Command words glossary
Define Give the precise meaning of a term, phrase or concept
Identify Point out and name from a number of possibilities
State Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation
Describe Identify distinctive features and give descriptive, factual detail. Describe
how…
Distinguish Make clear the differences between two or more concepts
Explain Give an account; factual detail eg of a process
Give an Provide accurate evidence (response given demonstrates knowledge

example and understanding)
Outline Give a brief summary of the main characteristics
Analyse Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure
Compare Give a point by point identification of similarities and differences
Contrast Give a point by point identification of differences only
Explain why Give reasons or causes and show an understanding of why something
has occurred/ applied to resource
Suggest Put forward plausible and informed ideas based on wider geographical
knowledge and understanding
Interpret In relation to NEA and skills – bring out the meaning, explain
Assess Goes beyond knowledge and understanding to weigh up the importance

of the subject. This means there are a number of possible
explanations/arguments/outcomes. The main possible
explanations/arguments/outcomes should be given with justification on
which is/are favoured
Discuss Goes beyond knowledge and understanding to offer a considered

review that includes a range of arguments or factors with more than one
side of the evidence given with supporting examples. It becomes a
written debate, identifying through description and explanation, both
positive and negative points and reaches a conclusion from the debate
Justify Goes beyond knowledge and understanding to explain why the choice
given is better than other possible options
Evaluate Goes beyond knowledge and understanding to evaluate. Requires a

judgement about the overall quality or value of the feature(s)/issue(s) in
terms of the strengths and limitations. Supporting evidence should be
clearly given. A viewpoint, after consideration of the evidence should be
given, with personal judgement/opinion
8
Examine Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the
assumption and interrelationships of the issue, and is often followed by
the ‘role of’ or ‘importance’
To what Goes beyond a knowledge and understanding to give possible

extent/How far explanations for and against and justify a viewpoint(s)
do you agree?
Calculate Ascertain by reckoning
Draw Draw to represent, an accurate diagram or graph
Identify Point out and name from a number of possibilities
Label Add labels to a diagram
State Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation
Select Pick out the most appropriate material
Estimate Obtain an approximate mathematical or statistical value
9
Delivering the Specification
Summary of assessment
A2 Unit 3: Global Systems and Global Governance
Written examination: 2 hours

24% of qualification
96 marks
Section A: Global Systems

Water and Carbon Cycles: two compulsory structured questions with data response and one
extended response question
Section B: Global Governance: Change and Challenges

Processes and patterns of global migration and global governance of the Earth's oceans: two
compulsory structured questions with data response and one extended response question
Section C: 21st Century Challenges

One compulsory extended response question drawing on Units 1, 2 and 3 with resource
material
A2 Unit 4: Contemporary Themes in Geography
Written examination: 2 hours

64 marks
Section A: Tectonic Hazards

One compulsory extended response question
Section B: Contemporary Themes in Geography

Select two optional themes from four:
 Ecosystems
 Economic Growth and Challenge: India or China or Development in Sub-Saharan
Africa Energy Challenges and Dilemmas
 Weather and Climate
Two essay questions, one on each chosen theme
A2 Unit 5: Independent Investigation
Non-exam assessment: 3000 – 4000 words

80 marks
One written independent investigation, based on the collection of both primary data and
secondary information
10
Specialised concepts
Specialised concepts are relevant to the core and non-core content. These must include the
concepts of:
 Causality
 Equilibrium
 Feedback
 Identity
 Inequality
 Interdependence
 Globalisation
 Mitigation and adaptation
 Representation
 Risk
 Resilience
 Sustainability
 Systems
 Thresholds
Integration of the specialised concepts is illustrated in the introduction to each unit within the
specification. Reference is made to these concepts within this guide to further highlight
possible opportunities for discussion with your students.
Note also that 'Geography Review' is starting to address these concepts in more detail within
the publication.
 Vol 30 (1) looks in detail at mitigation and adaptation in differing contexts
 Vol 30 (3) addresses feedback in numerous physical and human contexts
11
Amplification of content and Learning plans
This section gives examples of planning for each of the units. The first column of each plan is taken directly from the specification. The second
gives some additional elaboration of the Geographical content column in the specification. The third column provides possible learning ideas,
opportunities and/or resources. Teachers should read the amplification of content across the whole focus box before considering the teaching
ideas and resources suggested. Other approaches and exemplar materials are equally valid and teachers are encouraged to develop their own
approaches to the specification that best suits the needs of themselves, their location and the needs of their particular learners. The
approaches below are designed as guidance in order to provide starting points and are neither comprehensive nor mandatory.
Additional resource links can also be viewed here
Water and Carbon cycles
Focus Amplification of content Teaching/learning approaches and resources
3.1.1 The Candidates should have knowledge of the main inputs, What are the main elements of the global water cycle?
concepts of outputs, stores and flows which comprise the water cycle
system and mass at a global scale. This might include quantitative data  Students discuss the main stores and flows with reference to
balance showing the percentages of water in each store and the a system diagram (e.g. Dunn page 3), and reflect on the
volumes of water (in cubic kilometres). They should be usefulness of system theory
familiar with the subject-specific terminology which  Complete a table (i) outlining each element of the water cycle
appears in the specification, including cryosphere, (ii) assessing briefly whether these flows and stores have
groundwater, and mass balance. These are all important varied over time
terms which could feature legitimately in examination
questions, and must not be misunderstood.
How do different global water stores compare in terms of
their size, distribution and characteristics?
Candidates should understand that hydrological stores  Discussion of students’ prior knowledge (where applicable) of
water stores including the cryosphere and groundwater
12
change in size over varying timescales. A sensible stores
approach to take might be to examine, firstly, seasonal  Lecture or independent research focusing on ‘tricky’ parts of
changes in glacial accumulation and ablation, and the the focus box, for example geological factors affecting
implications of this for other hydrological flows and stores. groundwater storage
Secondly, possible effects of naturally-occurring  Make use of numerical data (from text book diagrams) to
phenomena lasting years or decades, such as El Niño, can perform simple calculations (e.g. percentages of water held in
be explored. Finally, students should be made aware of different stores)
storage changes over very long timescales, including
glacial and inter-glacial periods. The depth of learning
should be commensurate with the time available: only an How and why have water stores changed in the past?
overview of these changes and the factors and processes
 Discussion of students’ prior knowledge (where applicable) of
responsible is expected. The key specialized geographic
past glacial epochs. Most A level Geography textbooks will
concept of equilibrium might also be introduced here,
give a sound account of this. Alternatively, use:
along with an understanding of dynamic equilibrium i.e. the
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNiMhjPHPu0
way balance is achieved in the long term through the
 A starting point for further independent research into
operation of processes and fluxes operating over different
changing water and ice storage:
timescales.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1nSIj9tvhbY
 If time allows, the ‘snowball earth’ film:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NgpQci6iWx0
As part of this focus box, candidates will gain an
understanding of the main transfers occurring within and
between land, ocean, atmosphere and cryosphere. These How is an appreciation of time and scale important for the
include evaporation, precipitation, ice ablation, surface study of water flows and transfers?
runoff and groundwater movements. An important focus
for teaching and learning is the different range of  Group/pair research work reviewing the content of focus
timescales over which these processes operate. The boxes 3.1.1 and classifying transfers according to the time
transition from a full glacial to interglacial period - and the scale and spatial scale they operate over
carbon transfer changes this brings - may last hundreds or Reading Geography Review 25(1) pages 38-41 for an
thousands of years. Significant transfer changes canalso account of small-scale hill slope transfers operating over
hours and days
13
take place on much shorter timescales e.g. the onset of
the annual monsoon in East Asia. There are also spatial
contrasts to explore here. Candidates can reflect on the
global impact of sea level rise that would follow e.g. if
Greenland were to become ice free.
3.1.2 Catchment Candidates should know about catchment hydrology and What are the main hydrological inputs in a drainage basin
hydrology – the the way the drainage basin operates as a system. This and how do they operate?
drainage basin extends and deepens knowledge gained from the global
as a system overview provided by the previous focus box. Firstly,  This can be taught, or group/pair research work can be
candidates should understand precipitation variables carried out. This topic is covered in most A level textbooks,
including amount, duration and intensity. As part of this for both past and present courses (e.g. Dunn Chapter 1)
work they might develop their quantitative skills by  A PowerPoint containing relevant slides is available at:
studying precipitation data linked with flood events. This https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/media/Documents/magaz
will help them comprehend how short duration (but high ine-
intensity rainfall) can cause flooding, yet so too may low extras/Geography%20Review/Geog%20Rev%20Vol%2029%
intensity (but long duration) rainfall. Precipitation type is 20No%201/GeographyReview29_1_Rivers.pptx?ext=.pptx
another important influence and candidates might
appreciate the extreme intensity which can be associated
What are the main hydrological flows in a drainage basin
with frontal precipitation.
and how do they operate?
 This can be taught, or group/pair research work can be

Drainage basin hydrological flows should be studied in carried out. This topic is covered in most A level textbooks,
depth, particularly if candidates are using this topic as a for both past and present courses (e.g. Dunn Chapter 1)
frame for the independent investigation. Candidates  Geography Review 25(1) pages 38-41 provides a detailed
should be able to do more than merely list these flows. account of overland flow, as does
They might additionally explore the relative importance https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclerunoff.html
and role of different flows in different geographical  A PowerPoint containing relevant slides is available at:
contexts, such as humid or arid environments, and the http://gis.ess.washington.edu/grg/courses/ess326/5-
interrelationship between these flows. Throughflow, stem Hydrology.ppt
14
flow, infiltration, overland flow mechanisms, percolation,
groundwater flow and channel flow are all mentioned in the What are the main hydrological outputs in a drainage basin
specification. Progression from GCSE is expected in and how do they operate?
candidates’ understanding of overland flow. They should
be aware of two different causes, namely saturation  This topic is covered in most A level textbooks, for both past
overland flow and infiltration excess overland flow. They and present courses (e.g. Dunn Chapter 1)
might also be aware of the importance of overland flow  There is no shortage of consolidation work that can be
contributing areas within the catchment. carried out using hydrograph questions from past A level
examination papers; for example, WJEC Specification (from
2009) http://pastpapers.download.wjec.co.uk/w12-1201-
01.pdf or Edexcel Specification A 1991-2008
Drainage basin stores should be studied in depth and
candidates should be able to do more than merely list
them. These include the interception store, vegetation
store, surface store, soil moisture store, channel store and
groundwater store. The interconnections and relative
importance of the stores might be studied. For instance,
the vegetation store plays an important role in determining
the effectiveness of the soil moisture store. Plant roots
help to aerate the soil; humus derived from organic matter
can retain water in the soil.
Catchment outputs include evaporation, transpiration and

channel discharge. Candidates should be aware of
temporal and spatial variations in the importance of these
outputs. Marked seasonal changes can be observed in
some contexts. Different types of vegetation are adapted
to the environment in ways which may maximize or
minimize rates of transpiration, for instance the tropical
15
rainforest and coniferous forest. Looking ahead to focus
box 2.1.7, it may be useful to explore transpiration rates in
the tropical rainforest and the temperate grassland.
3.1.3 Temporal Candidates should understand what is meant by the river What are the main characteristics of river regimes?
variations in river regime as the pattern of river flow, or discharge, over a
discharge period of time (typically one year). They should appreciate  Group/pair research work developing quantitative skills using
how simple and complex regimes are the outcome of the river regime data (bar charts); each group researches a
range of geographical characteristics including seasonal different regime and results are shared. For example,
variations in precipitation and temperature, drainage basin Russian regimes: http://www.rusnature.info/geo/05_3.htm
relief and human influences such as dam and reservoir or the River Colorado: http://noc.ac.uk/science-
construction. The Colorado River is a widely used and technology/marine-resources/minerals-products/metals-
popular case study that could be applied here. sulphides-nodules
What factors affect river regimes?

Candidates should know about storm hydrographs and be
able to identify the main components including baseflow,  Students can make use of this Geography in the News (RGS-
rising limb, peak discharge, falling (or recessional) limb. In IBG) case study of the River Colorado (also widely covered
addition to simple single peak hydrographs they might by text books)
examine more complex discharge patterns over long time http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/School+Members+Area/
periods in order to demonstrate clear progression from Landscape+processes/Regime+change.htm
GCSE level.
How is the shape of river hydrographs influenced by
different climatic factors and processes?
Candidates should be able to ask and answer
geographical questions about hydrographs, such as: why  This topic is covered in most A level textbooks, for both past
is hydrograph A flashy and hydrograph B non-flashy? and present courses (e.g. Dunn Chapter 1)
They will be aware of the climatic factors that could play a  Students can work in pairs or independently to investigate
high intensity rainfall events, for example:
16
role, particularly precipitation duration and precipitation http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8376031.stm
intensity. High intensity rainfall can generate a very  Students can work in pairs or independently to investigate
different hydrograph shape compared with one generated long duration rainfall events, for example:
by prolonged rainfall. The seasonal effects of evaporation http://www.rbwm.gov.uk/public/Environment_Agency_Winter
and transpiration rates are also important, particularly _2012_Flood_Event_Report.pdf
when antecedent conditions come into play. The flashiest
hydrographs are associated with high intensity rainfall
falling on previously saturated soil at a time of year when How is the shape of river hydrographs influenced by non-
evaporation and transpiration outputs are minimal. climatic catchment factors and processes?
 This resource includes information about the Rhone and

Colorado rivers, and also serves as a plenary for focus box
Finally, candidates should understand the importance of 3.1.3 in its entirety. Students can work with this material
non-climatic influences on storm hydrographs, including independently prior to group discussion and idea sharing:
the size and shape of the drainage basin, drainage http://www.pearsonschoolsandfecolleges.co.uk/Secondary/Ot
density, slope angles, land use and vegetation type. Again, her/Humanities/Heinemann1619Geography/Samples/Sample
it could be useful to establish links here with tropical materials/AS_Level_Geog_Edexcel.pdf
rainforest and temperate grassland vegetation types, given  Students can consolidate this focus box using:
that these are relevant to focus box 3.1.7. Soil and rock https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclerunoff.html
porosity and permeability are also important influences.
Water movements through soil and rock must also be
understood in focus box 3.1.6 and 3.1.8. Within the
scheme of work, this could be a good place to establish
some synoptic links with carbon flows and fluxes.
3.1.4 Candidates should understand the causes of uplift and the How do condensation and clouds form?
Precipitation and resulting processes of condensation and cloud formation.
excess runoff The three main causes are orographic/relief, frontal and  This topic is covered in most A level textbooks, for both past
within the water convection mechanisms. Candidates should learn to use and present courses (e.g. Raw page 103 and Dunn page 7).
cycle terminology carefully, particularly in relation to frontal  Independent reading for students:
17
rainfall caused by the interaction of contrasting air masses https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclecondensation.html
along the polar front. They might also go beyond listing of
the three causes and additionally consider interactions, for
instance when a weather front crosses a relief barrier. What are the mechanisms of precipitation formation?
 This is a complex area of science. A relatively simple account

is found at
Theories of precipitation formation should be understood. https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleprecipitation.htm
The two recognized theories are (1) the collision whereas more detailed tutorials are also available online,
mechanism, wherein super condensation nuclei generate such as:
large heavy water droplets which collide with smaller https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WByQ3yKxj1s&t=11s
droplets sweeping them a long into their wake and (2) the A further video showing the Bergeron process:
Bergeron-Findeisen theory of ice-crystal growth. The last https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-UXpJ3KRO_sl
of these is a complex theory involving supercooled water  The collision theory is outlined in this short film:
droplets and ice crystals. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WByQ3yKxj1s
Why is excessive runoff generated in certain climatic zones?

Candidates should understand the most important
contexts for excess runoff generation. In the UK this  Group reading and discussion of library or online materials
includes prolonged precipitation and intense storms. dealing with monsoon rainfall, prolonged and intense rainfall
Causes may include frontal rainfall in winter or convection (e.g. hurricanes) and ice melting. Students working in pairs or
events in summer. In either case, examples and groups can each present a short PowerPoint dealing with one
supporting data can be used to support arguments. of these three scenarios. These topics are covered in most A
Looking further afield, candidates should have knowledge level textbooks, for both past and present courses. Online
and understanding of monsoon rain events (e.g. in East support can be found at:
Asia) and snowmelt discharge events (e.g. the River  https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclesnowmelt.htm
Colorado).  http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/monsoon/
 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/nasas-imerg-
measures-hurricane-earls-deadly-rainfall-in-mexico
Candidates are expected to have studied how changing
18
land use and river basin mismanagement can result in
excess runoff generation. Typically, this may involve a
study of deforestation and flooding in the Ganges delta, How and why is excessive runoff generated by certain
which would also support the study of tropical rainforest human activities?
removal affecting the carbon cycle, and links between the
 This topic (and the associated topic human causes of
water and carbon cycles in focus box 3.1.9. River basin
flooding) is covered in most A level textbooks, for both past
mismanagement can be studied at contrasting spatial
and present courses. Land use and river basin
scales. There may be a local example in proximity to the
mismanagement should be focused on.
school where new build properties have been sited
 Excessive runoff and flooding in Wales:
unwisely on a flood plain, or where vegetation and forest
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/201403280846
have been removed. In Wales and Scotland, forestry
22/http:/www.environment-
commission land must be managed carefully in order to
agency.gov.uk/static/documents/Research/ENV0005_Flo
avoid excess run off generation when timber is harvested.
oding_in_Wales_ENGLISH_AW_LR(1).pdf
3.1.5 Deficit Candidates should understand the causes of deficit within What are the meteorological causes of water cycle deficits?
within the water the water cycle. Firstly, they must study meteorological
cycle causes, including seasonal variations or longer term  This topic is covered in depth by Dunn Chapter 2, pages 23-
climate change. Seasonal variations in the UK can be the 29; the UK 1976 drought can be researched here:
focus here, and the way these have sometimes been http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/School+Members+Area/
extreme. The UK drought of 1976 remains a standout case Hazards+and+risk/Drought+doubt.htm
study which is widely supported with resources online and  A useful overview of seasonal water deficits (using Athens as
in textbooks. The advantage of using a past case study - an example) appears here:
as opposed to projected climate change impacts - is that http://www.pearsonschoolsandfecolleges.co.uk/Secondary/Ot
recorded data and evidence can be used to support her/Humanities/Heinemann1619Geography/Samples/Sample
arguments (as opposed to hypothetical scenarios). materials/AS_Level_Geog_Edexcel.pdf
However, it is important for candidates to understand that
deficits may worsen in the future. This will reinforce
What are the human causes of water cycle deficits?
teaching of focus box 3.1.9 which asks for students to
study changing patterns of precipitation on account of  This topic is covered in depth by Dunn Chapter 2, pages 45-
19
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, and projected 57. This account also links the idea of a water cycle deficit
climate change. with the concept of water insecurity risk. Risk is one of the
key geographic concepts underpinning the A level course.
Human causes of water deficit include aquifer depletion What strategies are there to manage aquifers in order to
and the extraction of surface water resources. Candidates tackle water deficit?
should understand the human pressures that may lead to
these outcomes, including population growth, agricultural  Introductory reading about aquifers can be found at:
demands and the use of water by industry. Arguments https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwaquifer.html
ought to be grounded in evidence. Possible examples to  Working in pairs, students can research an aquifer which is
use include the Ogallala aquifer, which stretches from under stress, and any artificial attempts to recharge it, for
Texas to South Dakota (the water level is dropping 90 to example:.
150 cm per year) or the inland Aral Sea, which has all but o https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-
vanished. More than any other water body in the world, the ogallala-aquifer/
Aral Sea has come to epitomize the devastating economic o http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2016/0
and ecological effects of excessive demands placed upon 8/vanishing-midwest-ogallala-aquifer-drought/
freshwater water stores. It may be possible to synthesise o http://www.groundwateruk.org/Rising_Groundwater_i
ideas within this focus box by exploring the depletion of n_Central_London.aspx
reservoirs during the 1976 drought.
Candidates should have knowledge and understanding of

natural and artificial recharge of aquifers to address any
deficit which develops. Aquifers are permeable porous
water bearing rocks such as chalk. Artesian aquifers
develop where sedimentary rocks have formed a syncline
or basin like structure, with of the aquifer confined between
impermeable rock layers. The geology of the London
Basin provides a good example of this and also of the
20
pressures linked with high rates of abstraction. In
addressing natural recharge, emphasis should be placed
on the timescales over which this made occur, and the
desirability of this (in the case of the London Basin,
recharge threatens buildings and underground train
tunnels with flooding, and so must be prevented).
3.1.6 The global Candidates should understand the main inputs, outputs, What are the main elements of the carbon cycle?
carbon cycle stores and flows in the carbon cycle. This will include an
overview of the size of various stores measured in  Students discuss prior learning at KS3-5 geography and
gigatons of carbon (GtC), for instance the atmosphere science that relates to carbon stores and flows, including
contains 600 billion tonnes of carbon or 600 GtC. As part knowledge and understanding of ecosystems, biomes and
of this foundation work, the concept of mass balance atmospheric carbon
should also be introduced.  Teaching and learning support is provided in course text
books for 2016 (first teaching) A level Geography, for
example: Dunn pages 78-80; there is an overview of the topic
at: https://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/6FDC37EC-9324-4CE7-
Candidates should know about carbon pathways and
8A96-86DFCA1EABB0/0/SCO_WaterandCarbonCycling.pdf
processes, and how they operate at varying spatial and
 Students complete a table (i) outlining the main flows/stores/
temporal scales. At the local (and short-term) scale, this
inputs/outputs (ii) quantifying these (GtC) values)
includes the role of plants in carbon sequestration,
photosynthesis, respiration and decomposition.
Candidates should understand these processes in some How is carbon exchanged between the atmosphere and the
detail (they may use the chemical equation for land (ecosystems)?
photosynthesis, for example). They should also have some
familiarity with correct technical terms such as glucose,  Students discuss prior learning at KS3-5 geography and
carbohydrates, metabolism. They should appreciate the science that relates to photosynthesis, respiration and
link between carbon sequestration in vegetation and the decomposition; and the origins of carbon-rich fossil fuels
release into the atmosphere of carbon dioxide following  Teaching and learning support is provided in course text
21
fossil fuel combustion. example: Raw pages 106-108
How is carbon exchanged between the ocean and the

Candidates should understand the larger scale fluxes or atmosphere?
exchanges that take place between the ocean and the
atmosphere including absorption by biota and the diffusion  A highly detailed account is provided by Dunn pages 83-84;
of carbon dioxide in and out of the oceans. The oceans are further support (at a high academic level) is provided at:
the world's largest carbon store: 50 times greater in size https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch7s7
than that of the atmosphere. 93 per cent of carbon dioxide -3-4.html
is stored in undersea algae plants and coral, with the  The topic is complex and will require a homework
remainder in a dissolved form. The exchange flux between consolidation exercise such as: Explain the different ways
oceans and atmosphere operates on a timescale of in which carbon is transferred from the atmosphere to
several hundred years and this should be appreciated. the ocean (AO1 task; 5 marks)
How is carbon exchanged between the continents (land) and

Finally, carbon pathways and processes between the land oceans?
and oceans at the continental scale should be studied.
The role of chemical weathering is extremely important  Students discuss prior learning at KS3-5 geography and
and candidates are expected to have basic knowledge of science that relates to chemical weathering (carbonation) and
the chemical processes and compounds involved. river solute loads
Candidates might be expected to have some familiarity  Teaching and learning support is provided in course text
with technical terms such as calcium bicarbonate, and to books for 2016 (first teaching) A level Geography, for
use examples of particular landscapes such as the example: Skinner pages 33-34
Yorkshire Dales or Tibetan Plateau from which carbon is
removed in solute form by the combined processes of
weathering and water transport. Finally, they should
understand that the formation of new calcium-rich
sediments and rocks below the oceans is part of the
carbon cycle too. Carbon sequestration in sediments can
22
operate over a timescale of millions of years.
3.1.7 Carbon Candidates should gain an overview of the varying size of What are the main characteristics or rainforest and
stores in different different carbon stores found in both tropical rainforest and temperate grassland carbon stores and cycles?
biomes in temperate grassland biomes (thereby extending their
GCSE or KS3 biome studies). Carbon cycling is part of the  Students discuss prior learning at KS3-5 geography and
nutrient cycle, and nutrient cycles for both biomes could be science that relates to biome nutrient cycling (including
studied as a starting point to think about how climatic carbon), and soil fertility
factors have affected the size of the stores (note that  Teaching and learning support is provided in course text
carbon does not circulate in the same way that nutrients books for 2016 (first teaching) A level Geography, for
such as potassium do, however). example: Raw pages 110-114
 Also see: https://www.slideshare.net/geographyalltheway/ib-
geography-ecosystems-nutrient-cycling
Climatic factors including temperature, precipitation and

light influence the large size of the biomass nutrient store How can human activity result in changes to carbon stored
in the rainforest and the large soil nutrient store found in in biomes and ecosystems?
temperate grasslands. As part of this work, candidates will
understand that carbon is an important component of soil  Students discuss prior learning at KS3-5 geography and
organic matter. science that relates to biome and ecosystem removal e.g.
tropical rainforest removal, urbanisation and monoculture
nutrient cycling. They can construct a table which contains
facts about each activity but also assesses critically the
Candidates should understand the main human influences
extent to which vegetation (and thus carbon storage) is
on changing sizes of carbon stores. In particular, the land
entirely lost or modified (particularly in the case of forest
use changes of deforestation, afforestation and agricultural
clearance for agriculture)
activity should be studied in some detail by using
 Teaching and learning support is provided in course text
examples. These may usefully relate to the required
studies of tropical rainforest and temperate grassland e.g.
example: Skinner pages 31-33 and 45-46.
deforestation in Amazonia averaged around 17,500 square
 Positive changes are reviewed at:
23
kilometres per year during the 1980s and 1990s. Forest http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/soils/soil-
trees typically store around 180 tonnes of carbon per carbon/increasing-soil-organic-carbon-of-agricultural-land
hectare above ground. Data such as these can be used to
calculate changes in carbon storage. Soil erosion
occurring in the USA during the 1920s and 1930s (the
'Dust Bowl') is another well-known and relevant example.
Positive changes on carbon storage can also be studied in
relation to agricultural activity. These are manure, plant
debris, composts and biosolids from sewage which are
applied to agricultural soils. They are all high in organic
carbon and therefore represent additional carbon inputs to
the system.
3.1.8 Changing Originally, peatlands covered over four million km² or 3 per How is peat formed and why does this lead to increased
carbon stores in cent of the surface of the planet; they occur on all carbon storage?
peatlands over continents, from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones and
time from sea level to high alpine conditions. It is estimated that  Group/pair research work exploring the formation and
peat stores more than 250 GtC (gigatons of carbon) significance of peat / peatlands / peat moorlands. Different
worldwide. Candidates are expected to study carbon groups of students could investigate a different peat area
storage in peatlands in some detail. Firstly, they should within the UK prior to sharing findings with the rest of class.
understand the process of peat formation and the resulting Useful websites include:
accumulation of carbon. This is a relatively complex o Wales: https://www.forestry.gov.uk/fr/INFD-8Z7BSH
chemical process and candidates will need to take care o Scotland: http://www.snh.gov.uk/about-scotlands-
with terminology (such as aerobic and anaerobic). Many nature/habitats-and-ecosystems/mountains-heaths-
universities and agricultural/environmental organizations and-bogs/peat-bogs/
offer educational support online that helps introduce o England:
students to peat formation. Context should be added http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/3
through the use of located examples of peat formation, 0021
such as the western coast and islands of Scotland, or  This topic is also supported by Teaching Geography 42(1)
24
Welsh peatlands. The timescale over which peat has (Spring 2017) pages 26-29
formed in these environments should be understood and  Students can independently investigate peat formation using:
links may be usefully established with natural periods of http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5872e/x5872e05.htm
climate change including the end of the Pleistocene
glaciation.
How does peat extraction and land drainage lead to a
reduction in carbon storage?
Candidates should gain an overview of the human  Group/pair research work exploring the human uses of peat /
pressures on peatlands. Peat extraction was practiced by peatlands / peat moorlands, and ways in which this leads to
subsistence communities in the British Isles in the past degradation and the loss of carbon storage. Different groups
and continues to be an important fuel source in some rural of students could investigate a different peat uses. Useful
areas today. Peat is also used in some industries such as websites include: section 1, pages 10-11 of
whisky production. In addition to direct pressures on peat, http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/30021?c
indirect impacts arise from drainage programmes. ategory=24011
 A quantitative analysis of peat removal and carbon storage
loss can be carried out using data from section 5 of
However, harm done to peat stores has led to http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/30021?c
management efforts to restore this environment, ategory=24011
particularly in high income countries such as the UK
(which leads the way). This part of the course lends itself What strategies are there for the restoration of peatlands?
well to student-led investigative work. There are many UK
 Group discussion of one historical and one contemporary
websites that provide extensive details of peat restoration
example e.g. http://www.wildlifetrusts.org/peatlands
schemes. These include Wildlife Trust, Forestry
 This topic is also supported by Teaching Geography 42(1)
Commission and Scottish National Heritage resources.
(Spring 2017) pages 26-29
Efforts may involve re-establishing a plant cover
dominated by peatland species including sphagnum
mosses, and re-wetting harvested sites by raising and
stabilizing the water table near the surface.
25
Part of the impetus for restoration has been provided by
greenhouse gas emission targets. Peatlands are sinks and
sources of natural greenhouse gases, particularly carbon
dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). By restoring peat
environments, local and national governments can offset
greenhouse gas emissions produced by economic activity.
This also gives economic value to peatlands within a
carbon trading economy such as that which exists in the
European Union. Links can be established here with the
ecosystem services approach.
3.1.9 Links Candidates should think critically about the synoptic links Why is atmospheric carbon storage increasing?
between the that can be established between water and carbon cycle
water and carbon studies. In the first instance this can be done through a  Students discuss prior learning at KS3-5 geography and
cycles study of the causes and consequences of recent increases science that relates to anthropogenic greenhouse gas
in the atmospheric carbon store on account of emissions
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.  Teaching and learning support is provided in course text
example: Skinner pages 39-40
 A short NASA film is still available at:
Candidates need to understand the science behind this,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ab6jV4VBWZE
including the energy budget or balance between incoming
and outgoing solar radiation. They should study the
What does an increase in the greenhouse gas emissions
evidence for increasing greenhouse gas emissions in the
result in energy budget changes and a warming climate?
atmosphere and the accompanying claim that recent
 Students discuss prior learning at KS3-5 geography and
increases are unprecedented in their scale and rate.
science
Amongst the many possible impacts of increasing
atmospheric carbon storage, candidates should pay
26
particular attention to effects on the water cycle and example: Dunn pages 87-88
Earth's oceans. They should consult the most recent  Up-to-date information on the rise in global means
available reports on precipitation patterns, extreme surface temperature (GMST) can be found in Geography
weather and river discharge. A consensus has emerged Review 30(3) pages 35-37 and at the IPCC website (2014
amongst UK meteorologists that the UK has entered a report) https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
flood-rich period marked by more intense winter rainfall report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf
events. This is in line with IPCC climate change
projections. What are the main projected impacts of climate change on
water and carbon stores and cycling?

The other focus for students is sea level rise and books for 2016 (first teaching) A level Geography, for
acidification of the oceans. The relative decline in the size example: Skinner pages 34-38. Note that the focus
of ice storage and the accompanying increase in ocean should be on water and carbon storage. Students can
storage is a key water cycle change which is predicted to devise a table which includes climate change impacts
accelerate during the 21st century. Acidification of the such as tree line and biome shifts and outlines what the
oceans follows on from increased oceanic sequestration of net impact would be for carbon storage, or for water cycle
carbon dioxide. A brief overview of the ecological effects movements in particular contexts. Alternatively, this
of this should be gained e.g. coral bleaching. might be done using spider diagrams
 Online support of climate change impacts (but remember
to customise the material in ways which emphasise the
Finally candidates should investigate links between the implications for water and carbon storage) is provided at
water and carbon cycles at the local scale. Some may http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate-
even want to pursue this as a topic for their independent guide/science/uk/obs-projections-impacts
investigation. The links which are explored might include  Geography Review 30(4) provides an account of the
seasonal changes which are naturally occurring. At some global carbon cycle and climate change
times of the year, high rates of runoff flush large amounts
of organic matter including leaves into rivers. High outputs
of water from the basin coincide with high output of carbon In what ways are carbon and water cycles linked at the local
in biomass transported away from the basin by river flow.
27
Another approach might be to look at how local land use scale?
changes such as ploughing or the harvesting of crops
have effects for both water and carbon cycling. This part  A useful starting point for local studies is:
of the specification is open to interpretation and there is no https://www.geography-fieldwork.org/a-level/water-
prescribed route for inquiry. carbon/
As part of their geography A level, candidates are Students can work together in pairs to devise inquiry questions
expected to gain an understanding of specialised concepts linking the two cycles
including feedback, thresholds and equilibrium in
natural systems. It is required that they do so as part of
their study of water and carbon cycles. If they are already
familiar with these concepts from of the study of other
topics such as landscapes, then all that is required here is
revision and reflection of what has already been learned
prior to its application in a new context. Alternatively,
teachers who deliver the water and carbon cycle early in
the A level course may choose to introduce these
concepts for the first time here.
3.1.10 Feedback The specification requires students to consider for In system theory, what is meant by feedback, thresholds and
within and examples of feedback occurring within and between of the equilibrium?
between the water and carbon cycles. These include
carbon and water  Teaching and learning support is provided in course text
cycles 1. Methane feedback: as global mean surface books for 2016 (first teaching) A level Geography, for
temperature increases, widescale permafrost melting example:
is occurring at high latitudes in Russia and Canada. o Skinner pages 02-03 (feedback and equilibrium)
Large amounts of methane, which is a powerful o Dunn page 301 (thresholds)
greenhouse gas, are stored in frozen soils. As the  Also see the on-going ‘Geographical ideas’ series in
temperature rises, more methane is released which Geography Review, for example feedback in 30(3) pages 27-
accelerates anthropogenic warming further. This is a 29
28
relatively simple feedback mechanism for students to
understand.
2. Cryosphere (ice) feedback, for example: accelerated What feedback effects are there within and between the
melting of arctic ice, land based glaciers and water and carbon cycles, in relation to a warming climate?
permafrost due to the loss of snow cover and
 Students can work in small groups to each investigate a
associated changes in albedo.
different feedback mechanism prior to sharing their findings
3. Terrestrial carbon feedback: this can include the way
via a brief presentation. For example:
changes in vegetation or drainage will also impact on
o Methane feedback: Raw page 117
soils and their ability to store carbon.
o Cryosphere (ice albedo) feedback: Dunn page 118
4. Marine carbon feedback: this is a complex area of
o Terrestrial carbon feedback (soil erosion following
science and candidates are only expected to gain a
deforestation):
brief overview of possible ways in which different
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/222537003_fig1_Fig-
ocean functions might interrelate with one another in
1-Simple-deforestation-feedback-loop
ways which provide feedback effects. For instance,
o Marine carbon feedback:
seawater can, through inorganic processes, absorb
https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch
large amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere. Sea water
7s7-3-4.html
absorption may increase if atmospheric levels rise.
However, warmer water is less effective at absorbing
What are the implications of these feedback effects for the
carbon dioxide, and so the effects may be limited
planet and its people?
beyond a certain point of atmospheric warming. Also,
ocean acidification impacts on coral growth and other  This is a broad question which students can investigate
marine ecosystems in ways which may reduce independently as a plenary exercise. For example, they could
biological sequestration of carbon dioxide in the collect information about cryosphere impacts at high latitudes
oceans. where feedback effects and warming are expected to be
strongest: http://www.grida.no/publications/geo-ice-snow/
Finally, students should have knowledge of the

Also see Raw pages 312-318
implications of system feedback effects for life on Earth,
including people. This can be studied by exploring the
contrasting IPCC climate change projections which have
29
factored in the possibility of accelerated warming on
account of positive feedback effects such as Arctic
permafrost thawing. This is a good opportunity for
students to develop quantitative skills by studying different
projections and estimates, and by reviewing the ranges of
possibilities put forward by scientists as likely outcomes.
Recommended reading:
 Oakes, S. (2017) WJEC/Eduqas A-level Geography Student Guide 4: Water and carbon cycles, Banbury: Hodder Education
 Raw, M., Palmer, A., Stiff, P., Barker, D. and Harris, H. (2016) OCR A Level Geography Second Edition, Banbury: Hodder Education
 Dunn, C., Warn, S., Oakes, S., Holmes, D., Adams, K. and Witherick, M. (2016) Edexcel A level Geography Book 1 Third Edition, Banbury:
Hodder Education
 Skinner, S., Banks, P., Whittaker, I., Abbiss, P. and Fyfe, H. (2016) AQA A-level Geography Fourth Edition, Banbury: Hodder Education
30
Processes and patterns of global migration
3.2.1 Globalisation, Through their study of Changing Places, Do we live in a 'borderless world'?
migration and a candidates will be aware of the key specialised
shrinking world geographic concept of globalisation. Here, this  Students could conduct their own research on the origins of
understanding can be reinforced in a different a piece of technology e.g. mobile phone. Students should
context as they study and understand the make links to as many countries as possible illustrating a
increasing economic, social, political, cultural, ‘borderless world’
environmental and technological connections  Define 'globalisation' through reading and discussion of
between countries and regions. This creates, in Geography Review Vol. 29 (3)
theory, a ‘borderless world’. As these
connections continue to grow regions and
How can we classify migration?
countries become more interdependent.
 In small groups, students are given a type of migration to
research focusing on case studies, the reasons for the
Candidates should understand the fundamental migration and the consequences. Students present their
distinctions between differing types of migration. understanding to the class and differences between the
The classification of migrants as national or types of migrations are highlighted e.g. Migrant crisis:
international, forced or voluntary and temporary Migration to Europe explained in graphics
or permanent, will need to be studied. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-34131911
Candidates should also appreciate the need to  Use of 'Who lives where' data to map migration patterns in
map international migration, and should be Europe
familiar with the patterns seen both historically https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1FMw_ZTIZxZNtjw
and currently e.g. migration to the E.U. YdUr6oRBnfJ0L1tTh5uWWyReEUHmw/edit#gid=0
Candidates should appreciate the difficulties in  Useful resource to show global patterns
accurately quantifying migration in a constantly http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-32912867
31
changing world.
What are the most important factors in creating a shrinking

world?
Candidates are expected to have knowledge of
the main factors that have led to increased  Students could debate the relative importance of the factors
globalisation such as the reduction in cost and creating a shrinking world using 'Impacts of globalisation on
increased availability of transport, the rapid migration' by Andy Pink, Issue 1, Geofile Series 35, 2016 or
growth in communication and information Geography Review February 2015 ‘ICT and Globalisation’ or
technology and media representations of places. Geography Review April 2014 ‘Football in Africa: migration,
identity and globalisation’
3.2.2 Causes of Candidates should understand the causes of What factors drive international out-migration?
international international out-migration. The key specialised
economic migration geographic concept of causality might be  Students could identify different push factors in the following
introduced here. The main 'push' factors such as article (a long piece but case studies can be easily extracted
poverty, primary commodity prices and poor e.g. migration from Bangladesh to the Gulf States p. 17-21)
access to markets within the global system https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08a7fed91
should be discussed. 5d622c000787/WP1_Drivers_of_Migration.pdf
What have been the recent drivers of migration?

Candidates are expected to understand both
historic and current migration policies that  Students could watch the video and create a table with
restrict and encourage the movement of explanations of the reasons why young Romanians leave
economic migrants. Relevant examples might their country? http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-
be; freedom of movement within the EU; 25181607
legislation involved with the colonial past and  Students could watch the video and prioritise the
the Commonwealth; and the migration of importance of differing push and pull factors on migration
diaspora communities both locally and globally. from Haiti to the USA. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-
us-canada-17039167
32
 Students could read the article on how Britain and
Poland came to be intertwined from a historic aspect.
Candidates should understand how superpower Students, individually or in small groups, could be
economies can attract economic migrants to provided with a time period to assess the migration
advance the host country's economic power and between Poland and the UK and to complete further
political status. Candidates should study policies research to present to the rest of the class focusing on
designed to attract highly skilled migrants to the the causes of large scale migration
host nation. A suitable example could be the http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-28979789
points system used by the Australian
government. Governments such as those in the
UK or China create global hubs for investment How do superpowers attract migrants to their own
further attracting highly valued migrants. East advantage?
London Tech City, backed by the UK
government as a technology hub for new  A class based discussion of the benefits of points based
industries, could serve as a relevant example immigration systems in countries such as Australia and
here. Canada. Some useful leads on differing policies can be
found here http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-
29594642
 How are the Chinese government trying to turn Shanghai
into a global hub
http://www.postwesternworld.com/2015/08/24/shanghai-
global-financial/
 Why London is a global hub for migration
http://www.economist.com/node/21557524
3.2.3 Candidates should understand the economic, What are the consequences of migration and how is it
Consequences and social, environmental and political managed?
management of consequences for the source and host nations
international or regions due to economic migration.  Students could read the article and try to explain the cost
Candidates need to appreciate that economic and benefits to the host or receiving country from
33
economic migration migration has an impact on a local, national and migration. The class could have a debate on arguing
global scale, but that these impacts can bring whether migration brings gains or further issues to
opportunities as well as challenges to societies countries. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-
concerned (e.g. a ‘brain gain’ would bring 25880373
economic benefits and increased  Students assess the success of the management of
multiculturalism but could also give rise to migration between Mexico to USA focusing on the new
increased racism and discrimination). shelters opening to enable migrants to
recover http://bbc.in/Q4vqAt
 Individually or in small groups, students could research
Candidates need to understand that as different migration policies including the key themes of
international migration continues to accelerate, the policy, the effectiveness of the policy and the
countries and regions come to rely increasingly features of the policy that focuses on highly skilled/highly
on each other creating an ever shrinking and valued migrants. Students could present their findings to
interdependent world. the class and similarities and differences can be
highlighted between migration policies
 Students could summarise the resources below to
investigate the positive and negatives consequences of
Candidates should study the migration policies
migration for the host country, the exporting country and
adopted by both source and host countries to
for the migrants themselves
manage migration flows. Candidates should
recognise the difficulties that exist in managing Geography Review, September 2015 ‘EU migration to the UK’
conflicting views held by individuals and groups
regarding the consequences of migration, and in Geography Review, September 2014 ‘Forced Labour in the UK:
particular, cultural change. The UK will need to Why are migrants so vulnerable?’
form the basis of study here but the study could
be extended to include other regions of interest.
3.2.4 Causes, Candidates should be able to clearly distinguish What are the causes of international refugee movements?
consequences, and between refugees and economic migrants but
The GA have a range of excellent teaching ideas and resources
34
management of should also understand that the distinction is on migration and refugees here
refugee movements sometimes blurred by economic refugees who
are seeking economic gain but claim  Students could research the definitions and the
persecution in the host country. differences between refugees, asylum seekers and
economic migrants
 Students could watch the video on the large scale
displacement of Afghans due to war and environmental
Candidates should understand the causes of
disasters. Students need to create a flow diagram
international and internal refugee movements.
focusing on the causes and the consequences of such a
These can include persecution, war, natural
large scale movement of people
disasters or economic injustices such as land
http://www.aljazeera.com/video/asia/2012/05/201251220
grabs. Such drivers can be local or on a much
388160962.html
larger scale, leading to national inter-regional or
 Students could read and summarise the resource below
international migration.
to gain some understanding of the causes of refugees
during the Arab spring which prompted the biggest
migrant wave since second world war
Candidates need to understand the economic, http://www.theguardian.com/world/commentisfree/2015/j
social and political consequences of the an/03/arab-spring-migrant-wave-instability-war
movement of refugees into neighbouring  Students could use the resources below to create a table
countries and more developed economies. to categorise the consequences of refugees into
Candidates should be aware of some of the economic, social and political
more apparent issues surrounding housing,
discrimination and repatriation. The recent J. Crispin and F Jegede, Population, Resources and
Syrian Refugee crisis could give current context Development, Second edition Page 72
to this study as candidates discuss the
Read Geography Review Vol. 30 (1) pages 2-5 on 'Forced
consequences of migration for the refugees
migrants in the UK'
themselves and for people in host countries
such as Turkey, Jordan or Sweden. The key  Students could attempt to interpret the map of the
geographic concepts of risk and resilience (i.e. number of asylum seekers and investigate the patterns
the ability of countries to deal with the influx of identified to present to the rest of the class.
35
refugees on a grand scale) would likely be http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/interactive/20
considered when delivering the content covered 12/apr/05/asylum-seekers-2011-mapped
in this focus box.
How successful are attempts to manage refugee

movements?
Candidates should understand the management
of refugees by UNHCR, national governments  Individually or in small groups, students should research
and NGOs. UNHCR serves as the ‘guardian’ of the impact and the role of different groups who manage
the 1951 Refugee Convention and other refugees such as NGO’s, international communities
associated international laws and agreements. It through the work of UNHCR, national governments and
has a mandate to protect refugees, stateless regional governments
people and people displaced internally. On a
daily basis it helps millions of people worldwide D. Waugh, Geography An Integrated Approach, 2nd edition,
at a cost of around US$5 billion annually. Page 344
UNHCR works often with the UN’s World Health
 Research into war torn states
Organisation (WHO) to provide camps, shelter,
http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-world-s-most-war-
food and medicine to people who have fled
torn-countries.html
conflict. It is key that candidates understand the
 States such as Djibouti are powerless to control the flows
effectiveness of the management strategies, but
of refugees and migrants through the country
also the difficulties of working with the different
http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/aid/countries/factsheets/dji
stake holders to implement the management
bouti_en.pdf
policies successfully.
https://www.theguardian.com/global-
development/2016/may/23/all-roads-djibouti-refugees-
flee-yemen-civil-war-migrants-head-there
Candidates should understand the issues of
powerless states in conflict or disasters to
manage the movement of groups of people,
including refugees, soldiers and militia groups,
36
when borders are less controlled.
3.2.5 Causes, Candidates should understand the push factors What are the causes of rural-urban migration in developing
consequences, and in encouraging rural-urban migration in countries?
management of developing countries including mechanised
rural-urban agriculture, MNC’s, land grabs, displacement of  Students could research examples of mass migration
migration in indigenous peoples by global systems and from rural to urban areas in developing countries such as
developing countries environmental challenges. Again, the key China, India, Brazil and Turkey. In small teams, each
geographical concept of causality could be group is given a different developing country to research
considered. and identify push and pull factors leading to migration.
Discussion can help to identify similar factors across
many countries
Candidates should understand the pull factors in

encouraging rural-urban migration in developing What are the consequences of rural-urban migration in
countries including large scale employment, the developing countries?
feeling of being ‘modern’, freedom from
pressures from the family and more  Students could read the article and evaluate to what
opportunities for higher quality education and extent migration is beneficial to the exporting region.
healthcare. Impact of migration: The villages made up of the women
left behind http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-
14386472 #geographyteacher Aug 10, 2011
 Students could read the article and identify the cause
Candidates should understand the economic,
and consequences of rural-urban migration in China. In
social, environmental and political
small groups, each group is given a section of the article
consequences on both rural and urban areas
to summarise to the rest of the class
due to rural-urban migration in the emerging
http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/chinas-young-rural-
countries such as an ageing population,
urban-migrants-search-fortune-happiness-and-
economic gain, remittance and social tension.
independence
Candidates need to appreciate that rural-urban
37
migration can bring benefits as well as  Students could be split into 3 groups – the causes, the
challenges to societies within a country. consequences and the management strategies. Using
the resource and further research, students have to
create a presentation for the rest of the class. The
presentations lead to a discussion on the effectiveness of
the management strategies to overcome the original
issues (the push and pull factors) and to address the on-
going issues (the consequences)
http://geographyfieldwork.com/SaoPauloManagement.ht
m
J. Crispin and F Jegede, Population, Resources and

Development, Second edition Page 66-68
D. Waugh, Geography An Integrated Approach, 2nd edition,

Page 342
 Waugh, D. (2000) Geography An Integrated Approach, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press (revised editions available)
 J. Crispin and F Jegede, (2000) Population, Resources and Development, 2nd edition, Collins
38
Global Governance of the Earth's oceans
3.2.6 Global Candidates should understand the main purpose of What are the main post-1945 supranational institutions for
governance of the Post-1945 supranational institutions for global global governance?
Earth’s oceans governance including UN and UNESCO, EU, G7/G8,
G20, G77 and NATO. This will include an overview of  Students discuss the difference between government and
membership of these organisations and reasons for governance
their existence. Understanding is also required of the  Complete a table (i) outlining the membership/purpose of the
difference between government (and the rule of law) specified supranational institutions (ii) assessing whether
and governance (steering mechanisms). these institutions have legal powers or merely advise and
steer
Candidates should know about the main laws and Which laws and agreements regulate use of the oceans?
agreements regulating the use of the Earth’s oceans
in ways that promote sustainable economic growth  Lecture or independent research - UNCLOS and EEZ for
and geopolitical stability. They need to understand example
the difference between a law and an agreement, and http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/conventio
should gain an overview of relevant work of the UN, n_historical_perspective.htm
(e.g. establishing the UN Convention on the Law of  Discussion of students’ prior knowledge (where applicable) of
the Sea (UNCLOS) and the exclusive economic zone SDGs and CITES
(EEZ)). They should also consider the contribution
towards sustainable use of the oceans and oceanic
ecosystems made by other UN agreements including What is a superpower? In what ways do oceans have
sustainable development goals (SDGs) and CITES. strategic value and create security issues for states?
 Geography Review 29(3) provides an account of what a

superpower is (Question and Answer feature);
Candidates should understand the term global
39
superpower and be able to provide supporting  A starting point for independent research into security issues:
examples of global superpowers. They need to http://www.marketwatch.com/story/forget-somalia-this-the-
appreciate the strategic value of the oceans for global new-sea-piracy-hot-spot-2015-10-07
superpowers, with reference to both economic and
military power. They should understand how maritime
trade is increasingly affected by security issues, and How has the UK's past role as a maritime power helped to
the implications of disruption to global energy and create a network of connected places?
commodity flows at oil transit chokepoints (such as
 Group/pair research work using maps and history websites.
the Suez and Panama canals) must be understood.
Note: enduring connections may be political (Commonwealth
Students need to appreciate the issues affecting
membership) or cultural (countries where English is an official
governance of these chokepoints. Also, an example
language)
of a piracy hotspot must be studied, such as the
Indonesian coast, along with possible governance
solutions.
Candidates should understand the connections

between states and populations across the globe that
are a legacy of the UK's past role as a maritime
power. Candidates should appreciate that, at a local
scale, maritime cities, such as Bristol and Liverpool,
are especially well-connected places. They need to
be aware of the existence of the Commonwealth and
of enduring links between the UK and its ex-colonies
in the post-war period, epitomised by the journey of
the HMS Windrush from Jamaica to the UK in 1948.
3.2.7 Global flows Candidates should gain an overview of changing What are the main trends and patterns for shipping
40
of shipping and sea trends and patterns/networks of shipping, including movement, including containers and oil tankers?
cables containers and oil tankers. They will understand that
movements fluctuate over time in line with global  For patterns, group/pair research work should focus on
economic trends and new markets. They need to be exploring world maps
familiar with some ways in which shipping is  For contemporary trends use newspaper reports e.g. Financial
regulated, such as controls on cleaning (e.g. under Times https://next.ft.com/content/1e98963c-1853-11e6-bb7d-
UNCLOS, It is illegal for ships that have recently ee563a5a1cc1
delivered oil to use seawater to wash out their tanks.
Single-hulled oil tankers were phased out after the
How are shipping networks regulated?
Prestige sank off the coast of Spain in 2002).
 Relevant UNCLOS provisions can be investigated at source:
http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/uncl
os/unclos_e.pdf
Candidates should understand why the growth of
smuggling and people trafficking are issues of
concern and are expected to have supporting Why is there growing concern about smuggling and people
knowledge of the scale of such problems. They trafficking growing? What can be done?
should also have knowledge of the outcomes of
international efforts to manage these flows.  Group/pair research work focusing on the causes and political
Candidates should be able to draw on specific reaction to the Mediterranean crisis
evidence for support, for instance the issue of
migrants crossing the Mediterranean and the
What are the main trends and patterns for seafloor cable data
European Union’s response to the ensuing crisis.
network growth? What causes and uses are driving data
network growth?
Candidates should gain an overview of changing  Group discussion of cable map, for example:
trends and patterns in the growth of seafloor cable http://www.submarinecablemap.com/#/
data networks, including recent connectivity gains in  Reading on global wealth and consumption trends:
previously unconnected areas such as the East Geography Review 27(1) page 9
African coastline. They need to understand the
41
causes of this network growth (e.g. emerging markets
and new consumer demand, or government planning)
and should have an overview of the varied ways in What physical risks are seafloor cable data networks
which different societies are making economic and exposed to? How are they protected?
social use of planetary-scale data networks.
 Guardian map of seafloor cables includes examples of
damage:
https://twistedsifter.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/map-of-
Candidates are expected to have knowledge of the undersea-submarine-cables-around-the-
risk which tsunamis and undersea landslides pose to world.jpg?w=800&h=487
seafloor cable data networks and the consequences
for global systems when network functions are  An overview providing the basis for a Socratic seminar:
impaired (e.g. earthquakes and underwater http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-
movements near Taiwan). They are expected also to tech/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-undersea-
be familiar with the global governance of seafloor cables-that-power-your-internet-and-why-theyre-at-
cable data networks, including international a6710581.html
conventions which have been in place since the
1880s for telegraph and telephone cables.
3.2.8 Sovereignty Candidates should gain an overview of the What are the main distribution patterns for ocean minerals
of ocean resources distribution of major ocean resources including and fossil fuels?
minerals and fossil fuels, both on the continental shelf
and in deeper water. They are expected to have  Group/pair research work using maps: each group researches
knowledge of the historical establishment and a different resources (oil, gas and metals) and results are
subsequent reproduction of territorial limits and shared.
sovereign rights that benefit some states but not  For example: http://noc.ac.uk/science-technology/marine-
others. The EEZ is the area of water extending 200 resources/minerals-products/metals-sulphides-nodules
miles from a state’s shoreline. The coastal state has
the right to exploit, develop, manage and conserve all
42
resources found in its adjacent waters. This includes How are territorial limits and sovereign rights over marine
both biotic (fish) and abiotic (oil, gas or minerals) resources established?
resources found in the water, or on the ocean floor, of
the EEZ.  Lecture or independent research on main elements of EEZ
rules
Candidates should understand how the contested Why are islands often a source of geopolitical tensions
ownership of islands and surrounding sea beds can between states?
be a source of geopolitical tension, using examples
such as the South China Sea (China and the  Group discussion of one historical and one contemporary
Philippines) and the Falkland Islands. They also need example
to have knowledge of the global governance of Arctic  For example, South China Sea (2016) involving China:
Ocean resources and appreciate the management https://www.theguardian.com/world/south-china-sea
interactions that occur between the local scale
(claims of indigenous people), the national scale
(including claims of rival superpowers Russia and the What attempts have been made to establish ownership of
USA) and the international scale (the Arctic Council). Arctic Ocean resources?
 Students can make use of this legacy A-level exercise dealing

with the Arctic:
Candidates should understand the injustices which http://qualifications.pearson.com/content/dam/pdf/A-
arise from the unequal access to ocean resources Level/Geography/2013/Exam-
amongst the world’s states and nations. They need to materials/W47879A_GCE_Geography_6GE03_June_2015_P
have knowledge of the geographical consequences S2.pdf
of isolation for poor landlocked countries, such as
long-term developmental issues and subsequent
governance of this issue. UNCLOS states that the 42 What Injustices arise from the unequal access of states to
states with no sea coast have a right of access to and ocean resources?
from the ocean for the purpose of enjoying ‘the
 Group reading and discussion:
freedom of the high seas’. Candidates should be
43
familiar with an example of an indigenous coastal http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21650574-why-its-
population who claim to have been treated unjustly in better-have-coastline-interiors
relation to ocean resource use in their coastal waters  Extension reading:
(e.g. Alaska). http://unohrlls.org/UserFiles/File/LLDC%20Documents/UNCL
OS%20June%202012/UNCLOS%20Panel%20Summary%20
Report%20FINAL.pdf
What injustices arise from some indigenous people’s lack of

access to ocean resources?
 Group reading of the “subsistence issue” and discussion of

how this issue interrelates with ideas of justice and equity for
people
https://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/ala
ska-native-subsistence-a-matter-cultural-survival
3.2.9 Managing Candidates should understand the concept of the What is meant by the Global Commons?
marine Global Commons. They should appreciate how this
environments concept has informed changing approaches and  Reading: http://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/700FB902-27EC-
attitudes to the management of the Earth's oceans (a 46E1-9872-
global common) over time. The example of whaling BB91A41421EF/0/GlobalSystemsandGlobalGovernanceFinal.
could be used as an illustration of the tragedy of the pdf
commons which required remedy (IWC). The  Research the history of whaling and the reasons why the IWC
students' understanding of the key geographical was established to avert ‘the tragedy of the commons’ :
concept of mitigation could be introduced or http://www.jstor.org/stable/24359530?seq=1#page_scan_tab_
reinforced here to encourage application of contents
knowledge to a different context.  Reading: Geography Review 30 (4) pages 22-24 on the Arctic
Ocean
44
Candidates should understand the causes of over- What are the causes of over-exploitation of marine
exploitation of marine ecosystems, including ecosystems? What are the consequences of this for
consumer demand in developed and emerging ourselves and others?
economies, and weak or ineffective governance of
the oceans as a global common. They should  In pairs/groups, students can examine educational materials
understand what the direct and indirect from the Fish Fight campaign: http://www.fishfight.net/
consequences of over-exploitation of marine life  Geography Review 28(3) pages 10-13
(such as fish or coral) are, or could be, both for their
own community and other affected communities.
Why is more sustainable management of marine
Candidates should focus on (i) impacts on long-term
environments needed for long-term global growth and
global food availability and (ii) sustainable
stability?
development for communities dependent on fishing
or marine/coastal tourism.  Group reading and discussion of library or online materials
dealing with fish stock collapse for example:
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/ocean
s/seafood/understanding-the-problem/overfishing-history/cod-
fishery-canadian/
Candidates should understand the concept of
sustainable development with combined/holistic
social, economic and environmental goals. They What local actions help support sustainable management of
need to appreciate why there is an urgent need for marine environments?
sustainable management of marine environments in
order to promote long-term global economic growth  A useful starting point for local research and the possible
and stability: failure to safeguard marine ecosystem basis for an NEA topic:
stocks poses a serious threat to long-term human http://gov.wales/topics/environmentcountryside/marineandfish
well-being. Candidates should have knowledge of eries/compliance-monitoring/commercial-sea-fisheries-
local initiatives such as no-catch zones (in Scotland’s regulation-bylaw/?lang=en
Lamlash Bay), European fishing quotas limits and
45
local conservation measures (policies for North
Wales Sea Fisheries), all of which aim to safeguard
local environments, societies and economies in the
long-term.
3.2.10 Managing Candidates should have knowledge of the global What are the causes and consequences of ocean pollution
ocean pollution pattern of oil spills and affected areas and its and garbage patches? What are the causes and
correlation with global trade networks. They should consequences of eutrophic dead-zones?
also understand the role of ocean currents and poor
governance of terrestrial waste disposal (especially  Lecture or reading using
plastic waste) in the creation of oceanic garbage http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/Teaching+resources/Key
patches, notably in the North Pacific. They should be +Stage+5+resources/21st+Century+Challenges/Plastic+polluti
familiar with the global pattern of major eutrophic on+in+the+oceans.htm
dead-zones and understand how terrestrial run-off  Discussion starting points include
gives rise to this phenomenon, and the risks and http://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/dead-zone/ and
issues it creates. http://www.nola.com/environment/index.ssf/2014/02/tulane_to
_announce_1_million_d.html (with map)
Candidates should have knowledge of the potential What strategies are there to manage marine waste at different
contribution that strategies at varying scales can geographic scales, from global conventions to local (citizen-
make to the reduction of marine waste. They need to led) actions?
be aware of global conventions (UNLOS),
international EU rules on waste management,  Lecture or student reading using:
national UK legislation and local awareness-raising https://21stcenturychallenges.org/plastic-pollution-in-the-
and actions such as beach clean-up led by ocean/
campaigning non-governmental organisations and
citizen groups. Candidates should understand that
these actions at different scales collectively How do different geographical scales of governance interact
46
contribute to the global governance of oceans and in UNESCO marine heritage sites?
coastal waters.
As a starting point use UNESCO links:
http://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/marine_wh_l
affoley_douvere.pdf and
Candidates should have knowledge of one in-depth https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/marine_natural_heritage_and
case study of an ocean issue which highlights the _the_world_heritage_list.pdf
different geographical scales of governance and the
way they interact with one another; examples can be
selected from the UNESCO marine heritage site list.
 Oakes, S. (2017) WJEC/Eduqas A-level Geography Student Guide 5: Global Governance: Change and challenges, Hodder Education
47
Tectonic Hazards
4.1.1 Tectonic processes An overview of the Earth’s internal structure should be What are the characteristics of the earth's
and hazards given so that students have a context in which to place structure?
tectonic processes. Students should understand the
layered structure of the earth (inner core, outer core,  http://www.burkemuseum.org/geo_history_wa/The
mantle, including the asthenosphere, and crust) and %20Restless%20Earth%20v.2.0.htm - Earth
have knowledge of the significant boundaries structure and processes
(Lehmann discontinuity between inner and outer core,  http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/ -
Gutenberg discontinuity between outer core and lecture notes of Tulane University
mantle and Mohorovicic discontinuity between mantle  http://openhighschoolcourses.org/mod/book/tool/pr
and crust) Students should have a knowledge of the int/index.php?id=6645#ch2989 text and audio
physical characteristics (thickness, composition and
physical behaviour) of each layer. Candidates should For introduction see Chapter 2 of Tectonic Hazards;
recognise the difference between oceanic and Dunn and Degg (2012)
continental crust.
The mechanisms that generate movement of tectonic

What mechanisms generate the movements of the
plates should be understood. This could start with
tectonic plates at different margins?
internal heating and lead to convection currents, ridge
push and slab pull.
 http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap3-
The mechanics of plate movement can be linked to Plate-Margins/Mid-plate/Hawaiian-Islands - good
the processes operating at different margins; explanations and visuals
diverging, converging (ocean/ocean,  http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/9a60ce
ocean/continental and continental/continental) and ac-7574-4a2c-ba64-e45e8035f4e6/life-on-fire-hot-
conservative. These processes can also be applied to spots/
48
hot spots. Note that as the unit is about hazards the How do we explain the global distribution of
focus is on process rather than the production of tectonic hazards?
specific landforms other than volcanoes.
http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ess05.sci.e
Students should know the distribution of earthquakes ss.earthsys.tectonic/tectonic-plates-earthquakes-and-
and volcanoes with an emphasis on their link to plate volcanoes/
boundaries and hot spots. They should understand the http://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/fact-
link between earthquakes and volcanoes and tectonic sheet/why_do_earthquakes_happen
processes.
http://www.decodedscience.org/the-pacific-ring-of-fire-
The impact of tectonic hazards is partially dependent source-of-major-earthquakes-and-volcanic-
on the physical characteristics of earthquakes and activity/26828 - the Ring of Fire case study
volcanoes. Students should know that earthquakes
and volcanoes vary in magnitude - Mercalli and http://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/fact-
Richter scales for earthquakes and Volcanic sheet/how_often_do_earthquakes_occur
Explosively Index for volcanoes. The hazard profile of
earthquakes and volcanoes can also be characterised
by:
 predictability - the probability of an event occurring

over time and space
 the frequency - the return interval of events of a
certain size using the idea that the larger the event
the less frequently it occurs
 duration - the length of time that a hazard exists
using the concept that the longer the hazard the
severe it is likely to be
 the speed of onset - the time difference between
the start of the event and its peak
49
 areal extent - the size of the area covered by the
hazard
4.1.2 Volcanoes, Students should have a knowledge and understanding What are the main types of volcano and
processes, hazards and of the characteristics of the major types of volcano eruptions?
their impacts including shield, composite and cinder. Differences in
shape, structure and composition can be identified. http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/vo
These characteristics can be related to the nature of lclandforms.htm
different volcanic eruption types. Particular reference
can be made to explosive and effusive eruptions.
The type of volcano and eruption type can be related What is the difference between an explosive and
to tectonic situation effusive eruption?
Volcanic processes lead to the production of particular https://laulima.hawaii.edu/access/content/group/2c084

hazards and these can often be related to the type of cc1-8f08-442b-80e8-
volcano: ed89faa22c33/book/chapter10/volcanoes.htm
• pyroclastic flows - superheated clouds of ash, gas
and small tephra that travel at high speeds https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Bm1L3iGnEU -
• lava flows - rivers of molten rock that pour from an effusive eruptions
erupting vent
• ash fall - fragments of rock produced when magma https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EupnfA-
or rock is ejected during an explosive eruption PDaw&list=PLkTSXWtpqL230x1i3quAeNqiDUtUfPAA
• lahars - a mixture of water and rock fragments that s&index=2 - explosive eruptions
flows down the slopes of a volcano
• jokulhlaups - sudden discharge of glacial meltwater
How do differing volcanic hazards impact on
• volcanic landslides - large masses of debris that
people?
move rapidly down the volcanoes slopes and are
triggered by a variety of processes
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs002-97/ - volcanic hazards
• toxic gases - gases within the magma that are
released when it rises to the surface and pressure is
50
released http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vhp/hazards.html - hazards
processes and impacts
Students must study examples of at least two
contrasting contexts the risk and impacts of volcanic http://www.decodedscience.org/jokulhlaups-glacial-
activity. The contexts chosen by centres could cover flash-floods-release-meltwater/49179 - jokulhlaups
volcanic activity in a number of situations such as formation
contrasting levels of development, contrasting
populations, contrasting types of volcano etc. For volcanoes, see also Chapter 5 of Tectonic
When studying the examples there is the opportunity Hazards; Dunn and Degg (2012)
to incorporate material from 3.1.5 to provide this focus
box with a context. It would be possible to explore the
key geographical concept of inequality in this context.
The study of each example should be organised so

that impacts can be discussed using as a number of
categories. The presence and importance of these
categories will vary with the examples chosen but can
be seen as:
 demographic - mortality, migration, population
structure changes
 economic - costs of losses
 social - health, infrastructure, families
 environmental - biosphere, lithosphere
hydrosphere, atmosphere
These impacts can be (i) primary in that they are the

immediate and direct consequence of the event or (ii)
secondary in that they are indirect consequences of
the event.
The areal scale of the impact can be local (in the
51
immediate vicinity of the event), regional (at a broader
scale that can range in scale according to the event
studied) or global (at a world wide scale)
It is recognised that detailed exemplar material for

volcanic events may not fall within the last two
decades but they should not be historic in character.
4.1.3 Earthquakes, Students should have a knowledge and understanding What are the main characteristics of earthquake
processes, hazards and of the mechanisms that lead to earthquake events. events?
their impacts The main characteristics of earthquake events should
be understood including: The GA have a range of excellent teaching ideas and
focus - the point within the earth at which the resources on tectonics (including a range of case
earthquake originates studies of recent earthquakes) here
depth of focus - shallow, intermediate and deep focus
epicentre - the point on the earth's surface vertically http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/lessons/indiv/davis/inprogre
above the focus ss/QuakesEng3.html - definitions and diagrams
Students should understand the character of P and S
waves and how they are generated by earthquakes. http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/hazards/eart
hquakes/SeismicWaves.html - types of seismic wave
Earthquakes, and the associated wave movements,
produce a number of hazards including: http://www.slideshare.net/tudorgeog/341-earthquake-
 ground shaking - the vibration of the earth during hazards-1063365 - Powerpoint on hazards
an earthquake caused by seismic waves
 liquefaction - the way in which the soil liquifies https://geogabout.wordpress.com/2015/04/25/nepal-
during an earthquake. The water separates from earthquake-2015/ - Nepal earthquake, 2015
the soil particles and rises to the surface
 landslides - on steep slopes the vibration causes http://geogabout.blogspot.co.uk/search/label/Japan%2
by earthquakes can trigger landslides and 0earthquake%202011 - Sendai earthquake and
mudflows (sometimes linked to liquefaction) tsunami, 2011
52
 tsunamis - earthquakes cause the bodily
displacement of large bodies of water by Students could use this structured presentation to
movement of the sea floor. organise a comparison of two earthquake events
http://slideplayer.com/slide/6965720/
Students must study examples of at least two
contrasting contexts the risk and impacts of seismic For earthquakes, see also Chapter 3 of Tectonic
activity. The contexts chosen by centres could cover Hazards; Dunn and Degg (2012)
earthquakes in a number of situations such as
contrasting levels of development, contrasting For tsunami, see also Chapter 4 of Tectonic Hazards;
populations, depth of focus etc. When studying the Dunn and Degg (2012)
examples there is the opportunity to incorporate
material from 3.1.5 to provide this focus box with a
context.
The study of each example should be organised so

that impacts can be discussed using as a number of
categories. The presence and importance of these
categories will vary with the examples chosen but can
be seen as:
 demographic - mortality, migration, population
structure changes
 economic - costs of losses
 social - health, infrastructure, families
 environmental - biosphere, lithosphere
These impacts can be (i) primary in that they are the

immediate and direct consequence of the event or (ii)
secondary in that they are indirect consequences of
the event.
53
The areal scale of the impact can be local (in the
immediate vicinity of the event), regional (at a broader
scale that can range in scale according to the event
studied) or global (at a world wide scale).
4.1.4 Human factors Students should understand the difference between Why are some places more vulnerable than others
affecting risk and risk (the probability of a hazard event causing harmful to tectonic hazards?
vulnerability consequences) and vulnerability (the geographic
conditions that affect the susceptibility of a community http://21stcenturychallenges.org/natural-hazards-2/ -
to a hazard or the impacts of a hazard) David Sanderson videos
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog030/node/379
There are a number of factors affecting the risk and
vulnerability of a place or community to tectonic discussion of various factors influencing risk and
hazards. vulnerability
 economic factors that can be related to the wealth
of the place or community. This is linked to both https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vvRojV-Z1rk - Why
the level of development and technology. Where was Haiti so vulnerable?
wealth and technology is present then impacts can
be managed by responses such as preparation, See also Chapter 1 of Tectonic Hazards; Dunn and
prediction and mitigation Degg (2012)
 social factors such as the population density where
more people are at risk in densely populated
areas. Population structures can contain high
proportions of age and gender groups that are
susceptible to hazards. Public education can
reduce the vulnerability by empowering and
making the population more adaptive.
 political factors such as good governance and
preparation of emergency services can reduce the
54
vulnerability of a population
 geographical factors associated with the location of
the tectonic event can impact upon vulnerability.
The populations and facilities associated with
urban and rural environments can affect
vulnerability. The time of day will affect the
exposure of a population as this will impact on the
number of people in circulation. Isolation will
impact on access for emergency services.
These factors can be examined with a theoretical

focus but can also be seen in the context of the
examples used to illustrate the impacts of volcanoes
and earthquakes. In this form they will have variable
application and each case study need not cover all
factors nor have equal application.
4.1.5 Responses to Strategies used to manage volcanic hazards can be How successful are the responses to volcanic
tectonic hazards divided into those that attempt to predict and warn hazards?
populations about the event, those that attempt to
mitigate the impacts of the event and those that http://www.wikihow.com/Survive-a-Volcanic-Eruption -
respond to the event. All attempt to increase the general advice and student friendly
resilience of the population.
Monitoring, prediction and warnings take a number of http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/vesuvius/predict.html -
forms depending on the hazard. These have a varying predicting volcanic eruptions
degree of accuracy and effectiveness. http://www.scmp.com/news/asia/east-
Techniques of mitigation take a variety of forms asia/article/1849838/families-near-japanese-volcano-
according to the event and wealth of the country. sakurajima-evacuated-major - evacuation and alert
These include building design, home preparedness, levels near Sakurajima volcano in Japan, 2015
physical defences, evacuation, land use control,
55
preparation of emergency services etc.
Strategies that respond to the event can be divided
into short and long-term responses. These can be
defined as rescue followed by rehabilitation followed
by reconstruction. The hazard management cycle
offers a way of organising responses.
The range of responses used to manage tectonic
hazards can be studied in the context of the examples
used to illustrate the impacts of volcanoes. An
exhaustive study of all responses is not required.
4.1.6 Responses to As above, students should be aware that strategies to How successful are the responses to earthquake
earthquakes and tsunami manage the impacts of earthquake and tsunami and tsunami hazards?
hazards can be divided into those that attempt to
predict and warn populations about the event, those http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6197766.s
that attempt to mitigate the impacts of the event and tm – D.A.R.T. tsunami warning system in Indian
those that respond to the event. All attempt to Ocean
increase the resilience of the population.
Monitoring, prediction and warnings take a number of http://www.kochi-
forms depending on the hazard. These have a varying kia.or.jp/earthquake/english/?s=00&ss=000-01 -
degree of accuracy and effectiveness. strategies to deal with earthquakes in Kochi, Japan
Techniques of mitigation take a variety of forms
according to the event and wealth of the country. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uwCABmP3uQ4 –
Strategies that respond to the event can be divided between 35th and 45th minute of programme (hazard
into short and long-term responses. These can be management in Japan)
defined as rescue followed by rehabilitation followed
by reconstruction. The hazard management cycle
offers a way of organising responses.
The range of responses used to manage these
hazards can be studied in the context of the examples
56
used to illustrate the impacts of earthquakes and
tsunami. An exhaustive study of all responses is not
required.
 Warn, S. (2017) WJEC/Eduqas A-level Geography Student Guide 2/3: Changing Landscapes and Tectonic Hazards, Hodder Education.
 Dunn, C. and Degg, M. (2012) Top Spec Geography – Tectonic Hazards, Geographical Association.
57
Contemporary Themes in Geography - Ecosystems
4.2.1 The value and There are essentially two types of ecosystem; What are the main types of ecosystem and how do they
distribution of ecosystems terrestrial and aquatic. Students should be able provide for humans?
to name and describe the differences between
the four major terrestrial ecosystems; Different types of ecosystems
Mountain, Grassland, Desert and Forest and http://www.ecosystem.org/types-of-ecosystems
also the two main aquatic ecosystems;
Freshwater and Marine. INTERACTIVE - See an amazing tapestry of world
ecosystems
Students should be able to appreciate the http://story.maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?ap
value of ecosystems as providers of goods and pid=dc91db9f6409462b887ebb1695b9c201&webmap=dd6f7f
services for the survival and well-being of 93d54341a69a47002696cf5744 …
humans. Ecosystems provide food, water,
timber, air purification through photosynthesis, FACTFILE -
soil formation and pollination. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/info/pubs/docs/ecosys
tem.pdf
An example of where ecosystems provide
commodity goods for humanity would be a VIDEO - Ecosystem Services:
coral reef. This is an ecosystem in which fish https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BCH1Gre3Mg0
and coral formations, rock and seawater
interact together. Some 500 million people The UK National Ecosystem Assessment (UK NEA) was the
worldwide use coral reefs for tourism, fishing, first analysis of the UK’s natural environment in terms of the
pearl culture and other activities. benefits it provides to society and continuing economic
prosperity carried out in 2011.
Experts have identified four different kinds of
services, all vital to human health and well-
58
being:
Provisioning services supply the goods
themselves, such as food, water, timber and
fibre.
Regulating services govern climate and
rainfall, water (e.g. flooding), waste, and the
spread of disease.
Cultural services cover the beauty, inspiration
and recreation that contribute to our spiritual
welfare.
Supporting services include soil formation,
photosynthesis and nutrient cycling, which
underpin growth and production.
Ecosystems also benefit the well-being of

humans including medicines, gene pools and
providing increased resilience to hazards.
Students need to be aware of the;

 Distribution of the major global biomes;
rainforest, tundra
 Relationship between temperature /
precipitation and the distribution of
biomes including forests, grasslands
and deserts
4.2.2 The structure and Students should understand that an ecosystem How do differing ecosystems function?
functioning of ecosystems is a system with both biotic and abiotic
components. QUIZLET - contains learning materials, various games,
spelling challenges and a test.
59
Biotic elements are the living parts of an
ecosystem, such as plants and animals. Ecosystem Interactions: useful diagrams of energy flows,
Abiotic elements are the non-living parts such trophic levels and nutrient cycle http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
as climate and soil. Both biotic and abiotic level/geography/ecosystems/revise-it/ecosystem-processes
components are linked together through
nutrient cycles and energy flow. Profiles of four different biomes
http://revisegeography.weebly.com/uploads/7/2/5/0/7250096/
Students must also be able to explain the biomes.pdf
structure of the biotic components in an
ecosystem and be able to give examples of Tropical Rainforest Biome - case study Prezi presentation
autotrophs, saprotrophs and heterotrophs in a
functioning ecosystem. Useful nutrient cycle diagrams for a tropical rainforest:
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/ecosystems/revise-
Energy flows within an ecosystem via the food it/the-tropical-rainforest
chain and at different trophic levels energy is
either dispersed, diminished or degraded. Hot Desert Biome - case study Prezi presentation
Useful nutrient cycle diagram for a desert:
Students should be able to compare the
nutrient cycles of two biomes, explaining the Nutrient Cycling SlideShare
size of stores and rates of flow. The tropical http://www.slideshare.net/geographyalltheway/ib-geography-
rainforest and desert biomes provide good ecosystems-nutrient-cycling
comparison opportunities as they are have
largely varying amounts of precipitation and Primary Productivity Table compares the different NPP's for 9
evaporation rates. different ecosystems.
An understanding of the different net levels of Comparative tables and figures on NPP
primary productivity linked to the presence of http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/le
limiting factors such as; temperature, moisture, ctures/kling/energyflow/energyflow.html
light and nutrient availability.
60
Primary production is the production of organic
matter from inorganic carbon sources; this
usually occurs through photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis carried out by all plants in an
ecosystem is called the gross primary
production (GPP) 49-60% of the GPP is
consumed during plant respiration. The
remainder that is not used up in respiration is
known as net primary production (NPP).
The two main factors that contribute to the

NPP of a biome are P to E ratios (Precipitation
to Evaporation) and how far away from the
equator they are located (and therefore their
proximity to the sun).
4.2.3 Biodiversity under Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as What are the main threats to biodiversity?
threat does disturbance and succession.
FACTFILE -
Students should be aware of the ways in which http://www.greenfacts.org/en/ecosystems/ecosystems-
biodiversity can be measured. greenfacts.pdf
Threats to biodiversity from direct action and Maps to show biodiversity scores for the UK and the rest of
indirect action operating at a range of scales the World http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-
from local to global should also be studied. curation/research/projects/worldmap/diversity/index.html
Rising deforestation in the heart of the Amazon - in
Tropical rainforests such as the Amazon pictures http://www.theguardian.com/environment/damian-
rainforest are particularly at risk from carrington-blog/gallery/2011/jul/11/amazon-rainforest-
deforestation and mineral exploitation. deforestation-in-pictures
61
Coral reefs such as the Great Barrier Reef's
biodiversity is also under threat due to climate
change and coral bleaching. Which ecosystems are at the greatest risk?
Wetlands such as the East Anglian Fens Amazon rainforest deforestation rises sharply -
biodiversity is under threat also because of http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-13449792
industry, pollution and tourism.
VIDEO - The Fight for Amazonia - Raids in the Rainforest:
First in three part series
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sf6MHwmyt04
VIDEO - Brazilian city's boom threatens Amazon

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-17643589
VIDEO - Damming the Amazon: Brazil plans 20 HEP dams

by 2025. Indigenous residents & rainforest threatened
http://www.nytimes.com/video/world/americas/100000001526
824/damming-the-amazon.html
VIDEO - Illegal mining in Peru destroying #Amazon:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QyvntL7pqws
ARTICLE - Coral Reefs: Ecosystems of Environmental and

Human Value http://www.globalissues.org/article/173/coral-
reefs
VIDEO - Great Barrier Reef Threatened by Coal Mining
62
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nw1AA5YbX-c
ARTICLE - Wetlands Under Threat WWF

http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/WETTHRE
ATSENG.doc
GEOFILE - Biodiversity under threat – Freshwater

wetlands in the East Anglian Fens
https://meltbabymelt.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/wicken-fen-
draft-version-gf631.pdf
4.2.4 Conserving Students should be made aware of a range of To what extent can we conserve biodiversity?
biodiversity strategies to conserve biodiversity, from total
protection through no access to sustainable MAGAZINE - A complete outline and review of ongoing bird
use. conservation in Nepal, very detailed with lots of case study
material (2012).
According to the United Nations, fragile
environments include arid and semi-arid The Habitat Directive website outlines the names of species,
areas, mountainous areas, polar locations, nature and biodiversity law and strategies to conserve
freshwater and intertidal wetlands, biodiversity.
rainforests and coral reefs.
Biodiversity 2020 a DEFRA publication (2011); A strategy for
An awareness of conservation issues including England’s wildlife and ecosystem services. The biodiversity
decisions on which habitats and/or species to strategy for England builds on the Natural Environment White
conserve. The Habitat Directive ensures the Paper and provides a comprehensive picture of how UK are
conservation of over 1000 rare, threatened or implementing our international and EU commitments. It sets
endemic animal and plant species. Some 200 out the strategic direction for biodiversity policy for the next
rare and characteristic habitat types are also decade on land (including rivers and lakes) and at sea. There
targeted for conservation in their own right. is also a progress update available (2013).
63
The Darwin Initiative Project database can be accessed
The UK Government have established a grants through the following link
scheme called The Darwin Initiative. It helps http://www.darwininitiative.org.uk/project/ecosystems-biomes/
to protect biodiversity and the natural
environment through locally based Why is the rainforest important?
projects worldwide. The initiative funds projects
that help countries rich in biodiversity but poor VIDEO - Sustainable management of the rainforest in Costa
in financial resources to meet their objectives. Rica
Students should be aware of the different Costa Rica management overview
projects that it has supported and how these
projects have helped to conserve biodiversity VIDEO - The cost of #sustainability: Environmental Special.
and how successful they have been. Destruction of Amazon in search of gold #Peru
http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/countingthecost/2012/
05/2012511105242122194.html
21st Century Challenges - Britain’s biodiversity
4.2.5 Ecosystems at a local Students should be able to describe and What influences succession within an ecosystem?
scale explain the succession of one ecosystem at a
local scale. In the UK local ecosystem may The Land Cover Map 2007 (LCM2007) is the latest land
encompass deciduous woodland, sand cover map to be produced by the Centre for Ecology &
dunes and wetland areas. Hydrology. It has been derived from satellite images and
Students should be able to describe the digital cartography and gives land cover information for the
primary and secondary successions in their entire UK. Land cover is based on UK Biodiversity Action
chosen ecosystem. Plan Broad Habitats.
Succession is the changes that occur over Opportunities for fieldwork fit well into the teaching of this
time as a plant community reaches a seral particular focus. The Royal Geographical Society has
provided some useful help on different fieldwork techniques
64
climax. It is influenced by; competition, number to investigate succession through transects of local
of new species and environmental stress. ecosystems.
Students should be aware of the differences VIDEO - Ecological Succession: From Pioneer to Climax
between a primary and secondary Communities. Easy to understand video with accompanying
succession. transcript and quiz available to follow the video.
A secondary succession is a succession that ANIMATION - Forest Succession

develops on land that has previously been ANIMATION - Forest Primary Succession
vegetated. For example, an area might have
been cleared for farming, but later
abandoned. This abandoned land becomes
colonised in a secondary succession.
There are a number of arresting physical

factors that can prevent vegetation from
reaching the natural climax, examples of these
are;
 grazing by animals
 spontaneous fire (as a result of
lightening or intense heat)
 mudflow
 disease
 change in climate
 volcanic eruption
The arresting factors create subclimax

communities. It is only when these are
65
removes that a climax community can be
reached.
Plant successions can be stopped from

reaching the climatic climax, or deflected
towards a different climax, by human
interference. The resulting vegetation is known
as a plagioclimax. Examples of human activity
that create plagioclimaxes are:
 deforestation or afforestation
 animal grazing or trampling
 fire clearance
4.2.6 The Arctic tundra Students should be familiar with the What are the main characteristics of the Arctic tundra
biome characteristics of the climate, plants, animals biome?
and soils of the Arctic tundra biome.
Tundra profile
They should also be aware of the http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/tundra.
interdependence between the climate, plants, html
animals and soils of the Arctic tundra biome
and the impact a changing climate has on the More detailed profile of the Tundra biome
interrelationships between these https://prezi.com/dclly6q5efwp/arctic-tundra-biome/
characteristics.
PODCAST - Global Warming and the Arctic Tundra
http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p02w3dfd Historically the
short summers and cold winters meant that the tundra
regions were too cold for trees to grow tall, leaving a
landscape dominated by grasses, flowering plants and low
shrubs. But recent warming has led to the shrubs getting
66
taller, and more dense in some parts. And taller shrubs
means that the snow does not lay in a smooth blanket, losing
the insulating effect in winter and reducing the amount of
sunlight reflected back out to space.
Why are cold environments often viewed as ‘fragile’?
Cold environment ecosystems

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/tundra.htm
Cold environment soils and nutrient cycling
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418612/North-
America/41450/Grassland-desert-and-tundra-soils
4.2.7 Sustainable use of Students should be able to explain what the What are the issues associated with the development of
the Arctic tundra biome threats to the Arctic tundra currently are, cold environments?
including;
Trans-Alaskan pipeline - http://www.alyeska-
 climate change pipe.com/Default.asp
 mineral exploitation ANWR - http://www.anwr.org/
 tourism Siberian oil crisis -
http://www.helsinki.fi/~lauhakan/whale/decay/pechora.html
They should be able to explain what the threat
is and the stakeholders involved and the PODCAST - A life with Tundra (an insight into the life of a
importance of using this particular biome subsistence hunter)
sustainably (in terms of economic, social and http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00hrg65
environmental sustainability).
GEOFILE - Decision making exercise on fossil fuel
Consideration should be given of the view of exploration in the Mackenzie valley
the indigenous populations and how these https://geographyalevelslc.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/geofil
conflict with the other stakeholders. The key e-high-technology-for-energy-in-the-arctic.pdf
67
geographical concept of resilience (of native
peoples) could be revisited during discussion. BROCHURE - WWF: Linking Tourism and Conservation in
the Arctic
At least two strategies used to manage the Ten Principles for Arctic Tourism, Code of Conduct for Tour
Arctic tundra biome should be studied and Operators in the Arctic and Code of Conduct for Arctic
evaluated in terms of sustainability. Tourists
VIDEO - Arctic Peoples

http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/arctic/arcti
c_peoples/
MAGAZINE - The EU and The Arctic: an in-depth look at EU

policy and conservation projects
http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/thecircle0116_web.pdf
 Holmes, D (2006) Contemporary Case Studies: Ecosystems and Biodiversity, Phillip Allan Updates
68
Contemporary Themes in Geography - Economic Growth and Challenge: either India or China
INDIA
4.3.1 The physical The Indian subcontinent covers a vast What are the main features of India's physical
background of India geographical area of 3.3 million sq. km and environment?
therefore has a wide range of physical features
that can be studied. The Himalayas separates 'Maps of India’ provides maps of the physical geography of
the country from mainland Asia and lies India along with summaries of the main geographical
between 8° 4′ and 37° 6′ north of the Equator. features:
It is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal in the http://www.mapsofindia.com/geography/
east, The Arabian Sea in the west and the
Indian Ocean to the south. Introduction to India – low level but provides a basic
background to the physical geography of the country: BBC
Relief and drainage patterns – A suggested Class Clips: http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/clips/z6mhyrd
approach could be to classify India into several
physical regions and look at the relief and Although aimed at key stage 3 the Royal Geographical
drainage patterns within each one. For Society provides useful background information on India:
example: The Himalayan Mountains to the http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/Teaching+resources/Ke
North, The Indo-Gangetic Plain (which is y+Stage+3+resources/New+India/New+India.htm
dominated by three major rivers – The Ganges,
the Indus and the Brahmaputra), The Summary explanation of the monsoon climate:
Peninnsular Plateau, The Coastal Plains, The http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-
Thar Desert and The Islands level/AQA/Year%2013/Weather%20and%20climate/Tropics/T
ropics%20-%20monsoons.htm
Characteristics and patterns of climate – A
wide range of climates can be observed in How Indian monsoon rains are caused, BBC Class Clips:
India varying from arid desert in the west, http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/clips/zhxg9j6
69
humid tropical climates in the far south and
alpine tundra in the Himalayan north. The
climate is strongly influenced by the Thar A good link to an animation that helps explain the
Desert and the Himalayas and encounters four Intertropical Convergence Zone:
different types of season associated with the http://www2.palomar.edu/users/pdeen/Animations/23_Weath
monsoon. The movement of the Intertropical erPat.swf
Convergence Zone can be studied in the
context of the monsoon rainfall and how it Water resources and use in India can be found here:
affects climate within India. http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/156948/
Water availability - Rivers can be identified as

sources of water availability. A suggested
classification of rivers could be the Himalayan,
the Deccan, the coastal and the rivers of the
inland drainage basin. Rivers in India fluctuate
greatly in volume due to the presence of the
monsoon and/ or being snow-fed from the
Himalayas. Water availability becomes more
limited nearer the Thar Desert in the west.
4.3.2 The demographic, With the fastest growing population in the world How have the demographic, social and cultural
social and cultural it is estimated that India will overtake China as characteristics of India changed?
characteristics of India the most populated country by 2030 and
currently has a population of 1.2 billion (2015). Background to India’s economic and political history and
India is organised as a federation of states and demographics:
union territories which have substantial political Miller, G. and Warn, S. (2010). Emerging Superpowers:
independence. India and China: The Geographical Association, pgs. 9-10
& 16-21
Factors affecting population distribution,
growth and structure - Population distribution India’s demographics:
70
can be studied by observing the regional Marriott, A. (2005). Demographic Change and Population
differences between the north and south of the Policy in China and India: Nelson Thorne Geofile online
country. The population is concentrated in the
fertile northern floodplains where subsistence Demographic profile of India (2014):
agriculture dominates and 47% of the http://www.indexmundi.com/india/demographics_profile.html
population growth is concentrated into just 4
states. Census data confirms that India’s rate India, The World’s Largest Democracy: BBC Class Clips:
of increase is slowing with sharp regional http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/clips/z6mhyrd
variations, ranging from 5.1% in Nagaland to
just 1% in Kerala. The growing proportion of What is India’s Caste System?, BBC, February 2009;
Indian’s over 60 and the unbalanced sex ratio http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-35650616
at birth can also be observed.
Useful summary of caste in India:
Political systems and governance http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/indias-caste-
influencing social change including health, system.html
education and welfare – Being the world’s
largest democracy and having a federal style of
government has greatly influenced the impact
on health, education and welfare in India.
However, it should also be noted that whilst
democracy is assumed to be beneficial, it has
led to India having a poor reputation in terms of
burdensome bureaucracy, corruption and
conflict between state and central government.
Cultural influences including attitudes to

gender, the caste system in India – India’s
cultural influences are strong, particularly in the
rural areas that account for over 70% of the
population. The caste system is deeply rooted
71
in India’s culture and there are many issues
that stem from this. India also has a high ratio
of males to females and there are particular
attitudes towards gender that are often
reported in the media.
4.3.3 Opportunities and The physical environment has played a major What opportunities and constraints for economic
constraints of India's role in India’s economic development. development are presented by India's physical
physical environment environment?
The resource base including energy
sources and minerals – India has a wealth of How the monsoon affects economic activity in India:
energy and mineral resources that can be http://monsoon.yale.edu/monsoon-affects-economy-health-in-
studied. There are coal and bauxite reserves india/
that are relatively unexplored and unutilised.
Copper and gold are also present but under Natural resources in India;
explored. http://www.importantindia.com/12331/types-of-natural-
resources-in-india/
The physical environment including relief,
climate and water availability - The How the monsoon affects India’s economy:
agricultural sector in India is very strong and http://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi/how-monsoon-affects-
provides employment for the majority of the indian-economy/story-I90fyG2LbcSuc4VnDktiNM.html
population. The fertile floodplains of the north
are the result of its unique physical The fertile North of India:
environment and as such support a successful http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/business/22indiafood.ht
agricultural sector. However, the remote ml?_r=0
mountainous regions can often prohibit the
development of industry and services.
Constraining effects of climate variability

on human activity including droughts and
72
floods – The distribution of human activities
can be linked to the variability of climate. The
arid climate of the Thar Desert presents a
major constraint in the west whilst the
monsoon rainfall can be hugely disruptive in
the growing urban areas as it weakens
infrastructure. Droughts and floods can be
studied in the context of agriculture and urban
activities where they can affect electricity
supply, sanitation and water contamination.
4.3.4 The economic and There have been major changes to India’s How have political changes in India impacted on the
political background of India economic policy after independence in 1947 development of the economy?
and again in 1991 as an outcome of economic
crisis. The socialist government post 1947 India’s path to economic development:
ensured a high level of state control of key http://www.tutor2u.net/geography/reference/indias-path-to-
industries. Today the economy has had a economic-development
major about-turn, opening it up to economic
globalisation since economic reform in 1991. Economic change in India:
Miller, G. and Warn, S. (2010). Emerging Superpowers:
Distribution of economic activity can be India and China: The Geographical Association, pgs. 36-43
studied by looking at the sectors involved.
Agriculture, manufacturing and the service India’s claim to superpower status and economic growth:
sector have a different distribution of activity. Dunn, C. (2010). Contemporary Case studies:
There is a disparity between urban and rural Superpowers: Philip Allan Updates, pgs. 63-66
areas as well as between states. Comparisons
can be made between the economic activity Background on key growth industries and SEZs:
present in the metropolitan areas of Mumbai Brown, M. (2013). India: A case study of a Newly
and Delhi and that of remote rural settlements Industrialising Country: Nelson Thorne Geofile online
within states themselves. There is also scope
73
to compare states such as Kerala with Bihar or Democracy in India:
Uttar Pradesh. http://www.importantindia.com/10586/essay-on-democracy-
in-india/
Influence of political systems of democracy
in India on economic change – After a major Guide to India’s Special economic Zones: http://www.india-
economic crisis in 1991 when India had to briefing.com/news/guide-indias-special-economic-zones-
borrow money from the International Monetary 9162.html/
Fund there was a change in government And…
policy. This economic reform led to http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2005-07-
globalisation of the economy. Students need to 08/news/27506703_1_special-economic-zone-act-sez-act-
be aware of the impact these changes have sez-bill
had on the economy.
Role of government in the location and

development of economic activity – A study
of Special Economic Zones in India would
provide a good example of the influence that
the government has had. The controversy
surrounding these zones adds additional depth
to the discussion.
4.3.5 The global Post-reform India has emerged as a leading How has India grown as a global power?
importance of India world economy. It is certainly a demographic
superpower with considerable influence Growth of call centres in India:
worldwide. India is a nuclear power, is Nash, S. (2010). Globalisation of services – Calling India:
strategically important and has developed Nelson Thorne Geofile online
world class services, often being named ‘the
back office of the world’ Growth of Bangalore’s economy and the importance of
outsourcing: Emerging superpowers: Booming
74
Recent changes in the size and structure of Bangalore. (2010). [DVD] Pumpkin Interactive Ltd
India's economy – There needs to be an
understanding of the scale of the economy as TedTalk: Hans Rosling, Asia’s Rise How and When (2009)
well as the importance of the service sector as http://www.ted.com/talks/hans_rosling_asia_s_rise_how_and
a percentage of GDP. Students should also _when
appreciate that a large agricultural base still
dominates and there is a considerable Case Study of Tata: Emerging TNC:
economic contribution from the manufacturing Dunn, C. (2010). Contemporary Case studies:
sector. Superpowers: Philip Allan Updates, pgs. 66-67
The global shift, outsourcing and Case study of Coca Cola – hugely successful but often
offshoring including the role of India as the controversial TNC in India: http://www.coca-colaindia.com/
global outsourcing capita - A study needs to
be made of outsourcing as one of the keys to Geocases: India: The rapid growth of the service sector:
India’s success. The focus should not only http://www.geocases1.co.uk/india1.htm
include call centres but other back office
administrative work and software development. Tata’s Global Influence, 2011 (Chairperson has now
Numerous examples can be found to illustrate changed) http://www.economist.com/node/18285497
this such as British Airways and American
Express. Map and brief summary of the G-20 nations:
http://www.mapsofworld.com/world-maps/g20-countries.html
Influence of India’s use of political (soft)
power in the wider world including its
participation in global organisations,
governance, conventions and treaties – This
could be looked at in the context of India’s
influence as a founder member of GATT, a
member of the G20 and as one of the BRICS
4.3.6 Threats to India’s There is a complicated relationship between What are the main threats to India's sustainable
75
environment associated the environment and economic growth. The development?
with economic growth environmental impact of uncontrolled
development across India has been mostly The environmental impact of economic growth :
negative as the country addresses the Miller, G. and Warn, S. (2010). Emerging Superpowers:
challenges of poverty. The risks posed to the India and China: The Geographical Association, pgs. 48-53
environment will continue to grow without focus
on sustainable development. Coca Cola’s impact on water resources in India has been
well documented: The Guardian, June 2014
Environmental pressures associated with http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jun/18/indian-
economic growth – These must include fossil officals-coca-cola-plant-water-mehdiganj
fuel use, industrial pollution, soil erosion, The Guardian, March 2006
deforestation and desertification. Each of http://www.theguardian.com/money/2006/mar/19/business.in
these can be looked at in some depth in the dia1
context of India’s rapid economic development.
Strength of feeling towards Coca cola in India can be seen on
Environmental issues of water security, this website (although biased)
food security and energy security – Rapid http://killercoke.org/crimes_india.php
economic development has led to an increased
demand for water, food and energy in both Impact of air pollution on crop yields:
urban and rural areas. Case studies can be http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/nov/03/india-
used to illustrate this such as the need for air-pollution-cutting-crop-yields-by-almost-half
irrigation in rural areas of Gujarat or the
environmental impact of the Narmada dam Environmental pressures in Bangalore: Challenges of
project. Urbanisation: Inequalities in Bangalore. (2010). [DVD]
Pumpkin Interactive Ltd
Environmental pressures associated with
rapid urbanisation – This has led to the
uncontrolled growth of slums in cities with
environmental problems of waste, water and
air pollution. Dharavi slum in Mumbai could
76
provide a suitable example as well as a focus
on the resilience of the population.
4.3.7 Sustainable There has been a long history of environmental How successful are strategies to combat these threats?
development in India concern in India and ensuring sustainable
development has been an issue for some time. Case studies for Sustainable Electricity (Muppandal Wind
People’s movements to raise environmental Farm) and Biogas: Energy Security: India's Sustainable
issues, such as the Chipko protests against the Solutions. (2010). [DVD] Pumpkin Interactive Ltd
exploitation of resources, have been allowed to
develop because of India’s democratic New Delhi’s plans for driving restrictions: The Guardian,
structure. April
Strategies to manage one environmental 2016:http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/apr/15/in
problem associated with economic growth - dias-smog-choked-capital-imposes-driving-restrictions
Several examples are possible here such as
Rainwater harvesting projects in India:
rainwater harvesting projects to manage water
http://indianexpress.com/article/good-news/go-with-the-flow-
shortages in Gujarat or Rajasthan or banning
the-rainwater-harvesting-movement-is-steadily-gaining-
auto-rickshaws in Delhi to combat vehicle
momentum/
pollution.
Delhi’s plans to ban auto rickshaws, Guardian: March 2010
Strategies to improve the security of either http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/mar/18/delhi-plans-
water or food or energy – Strategies can be ban-autorickshaws
local or regional and could be from the state or
Mumbai’s slum solutions, BBC 2008:
NGOs. Biogas production in rural Maharashtra
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7558102.stm
provides a good example of a sustainable
solution to improved energy security. NGO project to improve slums and the lives of people who
live there: The Guardian, April 2016:
Strategies to improve the sustainability of http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/apr/14/slum-women-
urban communities - India’s urban population ahmedabad-india-housing-revolution
has grown rapidly in recent years. This has led
Strategies to improve sustainability in Bangalore:
to a number of challenges that present
77
problems for sustainability. The ways in which Challenges of Urbanisation: Inequalities in Bangalore.
local government and private investors address (2010). [DVD] Pumpkin Interactive Ltd
the growth of slums, increasing inequality and
Decision making exercise to improve the sustainability of a
the informal sector can be studied.
slum. The activity ‘Improving a Shanty Town’ can be adapted
to a real life example such as Dharavi in Mumbai: Leat, D.
(2003). More Thinking Through Geography: Chris Kington
Publishing, pgs. 43 -49
Recommended reading
 Miller, G. and Warn, S. (2010). Emerging Superpowers: India and China: The Geographical Association (revised edition published in
2017)
78
Contemporary Themes in Geography - Economic Growth and Challenge: either India or China
CHINA
4.3.1 The physical Students will need to develop a knowledge of What are the main features of China's physical
background of China the relief of China, from the mountainous environment?
west to the flat terrain in the east. In part, this
pattern was created by China's vast rivers Relief and drainage:
carving their way through the landscape. A http://www.geographynotes.com/articles/relief-features-and-
basic introduction to China's fluvial systems climatic-characteristics-of-china/504
would assist students' understanding of http://www.britannica.com/place/China/Relief
patterns of development. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/china/geog/maps.htm#2a
http://www.britannica.com/place/China/The-eastern-
There are significant climatic variations within region#toc70977
China including vast differences in rainfall
totals. Mean temperature maps can help Climate:
explain differences in the length of the http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat10/sub64/item399.html
growing season across the country. http://www.chinamaps.org/china/china-temperature-map.html
It is important that students grasp the Water Availability:

interconnectivity of these physical aspects https://www.stratfor.com/image/chinas-annual-water-
and that these, in turn, impact on the pattern availability
of economic development.
4.3.2 The demographic, A clear east/west split is evident in terms of How have the demographic, social and cultural
social and cultural distribution of population, as exemplified by characteristics of China changed?
characteristics of China the Heihe–Tengchong line. Internal migration
impacts on population growth patterns in Population distribution:
79
China as migrants tend to be younger leaving http://www.lahistoriaconmapas.com/atlas/china-map/china-
a more elderly rural population and slower population-distribution-map.htm
population growth in rural areas. China's http://www.rgs.org/webcasts/activities/chinacity.html
population has needed to adapt to the new (a quick starter)
economic climate. http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/chinas-young-rural-
Students should be aware of population urban-migrants-search-fortune-happiness-and-independence
growth rates regionally and nationally and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_in_China
how these affect the population structure. https://cac-ib-
These patterns can be explained by the One- geography.wikispaces.com/Chinese+to+Shanghai
Child policy and improvements in health care
in recent years. Students should be aware of Population Growth:
the most recent revisions made to the One- http://www.newgeography.com/content/002218-china-
Child policy. urbanizing-and-moving-east-2010-census
http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/china-
population/
Students will be expected to recognise the http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-34665539
transition made from the state-led economy to http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/11/151113-
a market-led economy after Mao's death in datapoints-china-one-child-policy/
1976. An understanding of the differences http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/29/china-
between communism and capitalism will also abandons-one-child-policy
aid pupils’ understanding of the subsequent
changes seen in Chinese society. The 'Iron Population Structure:
Rice Bowl’ no longer exists; the implications http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-19630110
of this transition for the entire population was http://www.chinausfocus.com/finance-economy/population-
enormous. structure-changes-have-significant-economic-implications/
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/10/1510260929
18.htm
Students should be aware of the disparities http://www.healthdata.org/news-release/rapid-change-china-
that exist in the provision of education, health brings-significant-improvements-health
and welfare within China. These disparities
80
can then be linked to other fields of study Political change:
such as regional economic disparities and http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/5237748.stm
migration patterns. The Hukou system plays a http://www.cnbc.com/2016/01/17/how-chinas-economy-has-
major part in re-enforcing these inequalities evolved-in-charts.html
e.g. lack of rights for families of migrant http://www.cato.org/policy-report/januaryfebruary-2013/how-
workers in cities. Political changes have led to china-became-capitalist
an improvement in the provision of healthcare
in China but inequalities persist - both within Increased inequality due to political systems:
urban areas and between rural and urban https://china.savethechildren.net/sites/china.savethechildren.
areas. net/files/library/Inequality_in_China.pdf
Attitudes towards women are evolving and

vary across the country and in different Education:
settings – one change is the increasing https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_China
dominance of females in some modern http://www.buseco.monash.edu.au/units/dru/papers/working-
factories. papers-05/1205-xl-china.pdf
(long but some good information)
92% of the population of China are Han https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D5YyUaqVbho&nohtml5=
Chinese. The remaining 8% consists of 55 False
recognised (and unrecognised) minority
ethnic groups. One minority group whose
treatment under China’s state laws has been The evolution of the Hukou:
highlighted is the Tibetans and this could form https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukou_system
a basis for study. However, there are many http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/31/china-reform-
other groups within Chinese society that are hukou-migrant-workers
considered a minority on the basis of https://futurechallenges.org/local/chinas-hukou-system-
ethnicity, disability or sexuality. Evolving furthers-its-educational-inequality/
attitudes to their position in society could also
be studied. Health:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_reform_in_China
81
The changes outlined can be linked to https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/1306061908
political systems and students should show 25.htm
an understanding of the evolving nature of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5wGLFaVb98w&nohtml5=
political systems within China. False
Welfare:
http://www.theguardian.com/global-
development/2013/apr/23/china-welfare-system-inflexible-
unfair
http://www.theguardian.com/business/economics-
blog/2015/aug/19/china-poverty-inequality-development-goals
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/04/asia_
pac_china0s_wealth_gap/html/1.stm
http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2014/09/iron-rice-bowl-
losing-its-lustre/
Attitudes to women:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/02/chinas-great-
gender-crisis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_China
http://www.economist.com/news/china/21577396-supply-
female-factory-workers-dwindles-blue-collar-women-gain-
clout-girl-power
Minority groups:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23081653
http://asiasociety.org/ethnic-minorities-china
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/8478911.stm
82
4.3.3 Opportunities and Students should be made aware of the What opportunities and constraints for economic
constraints of China’s resource base of China. This can be done via development are presented by China's physical
physical environment maps showing mineral and energy sources environment?
within the country. Students should
understand the role that mineral and resource China's resource base:
exploitation can play in regional economic Students could use the following resources to split a base
development and the development of map of China into regions and create a table outlining the
industry. Students could study how the resource base of each region:
physical environment has played a role in http://www.chinatouristmaps.com/china-maps/maps-of-
developing the economy of China within a resources.html
global context – the location and http://www.mapcruzin.com/free-maps-
development of the container ports could be thematic/china_res_1971.jpg
included here. http://en.chinamining.com.cn/Maps/2006-07-
31/1154313964d292.html
Historically, China has suffered from both http://www.china.org.cn/english/en-shuzi2004/zr/zrzy-kc.htm
droughts and flooding. Coupled with the relief http://en.cgs.gov.cn/Facts/27026.htm
of the land, these two hazards have greatly http://fortune.com/2014/07/11/coal-china/
impacted the patterns of economic
development within the country. Natural http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301420713
disasters can render land less productive and 000469
can lead to food insecurity. This can, in turn,
bring economic hardship and can lead to Global opportunities:
outmigration on a grand scale. http://www.statista.com/topics/1958/natural-resources-in-
china/
Students could study patterns of water http://phys.org/news/2012-07-china-stockpiling-rare-
availability - the presence of water viewed earths.html
either as a factor to aid or to constrain https://chovanec.wordpress.com/2010/10/02/the-politics-of-
development. This can lead to a discussion of rare-earth/
the impact of climate change in China and the https://thebusinessofmining.com/2010/10/04/the-rise-of-
future economic geography of the country. china-in-mining/
83
Students could use this resource to inform a debate on how
Students should also be aware that a plentiful the location of ports help shape economic opportunities within
water supply is vital for industrial a country:
development and that therefore, a lack of http://www.phoenixryzing.org/maps_schedules.html
water resources has impacts far beyond the
agricultural sector. Water:
http://chinawaterrisk.org/resources/analysis-reviews/the-
state-of-chinas-agriculture/
China has attempted to overcome these http://cleantechnica.com/2014/03/22/solar-power-water-use-
natural barriers to development. Initiatives are infographic/
often large scale projects such as the Three Students could use this resource to consider how water
Gorges Dam or the South-North Water availability can affect the location of differing industries:
Project. The sheer scale of these engineering http://www.wri.org/blog/2013/08/majority-
projects inevitably leads to controversy and china%E2%80%99s-proposed-coal-fired-power-plants-
can impact wide areas. Students should located-water-stressed-regions
recognise that these impacts, in addition to
the projects themselves, can bring risks to
the natural environment or peoples and can Droughts and flood:
also lead to further economic opportunities Students could use the following resources to develop a map
and constraints. of flood and drought prone areas in China:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jun/30/china-climate-
change-warning
http://worldwater.org/wp-
content/uploads/sites/22/2013/07/ch05.pdf (page 12 water
conflicts)
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jun/17/china-
evacuation-floods
http://www.ibtimes.com/china-droughts-are-driving-down-
corn-production-forecasts-worlds-second-largest-2201617
http://www.financialsense.com/contributors/evelyn-browning-
84
garris/floods-droughts-crop-problems-china
http://www.icharm.pwri.go.jp/training/pdf2007/07_proposal_re
port/china.pdf (map on slide 3)
Flood response:
Students could use the following resources to evaluate the
success of differing approaches to controlling flooding:
http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_Repo
rt_1302.pdf
http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_Repo
rt_1302.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam#Floods.2C_
agriculture.2C_industry
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jul/19/three-
gorges-dam-flood-test
Water transfer schemes:

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/12/china-water-
diversion-project-beijing-displaced-farmers
http://www.water-technology.net/projects/south_north/
http://english.cntv.cn/2014/09/15/VIDE1410760215506312.sh
tml
Students could present information based on this series of
news reports outlining the South-North Water Project and
assessing its impact on China
http://english.cntv.cn/special/quenchingamightythirst/
Relief:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1941_China_from_th
e_East.jpg
85
4.3.4 The economic and Students should understand how the nature What are the patterns of economic activity in China?
political background of of economic activity varies across China.
China A good starting point would be an overview of Industry by sector:
how employment has changed by industrial Students could complete a short examination style question
sector in recent years and the associated to describe recent changes in employment structure of China.
distribution of economic activity that has http://blogs.reuters.com/felix-salmon/2012/02/02/why-jobs-
emerged. require-cities/
Political upheaval and the adoption of Distribution of industries:

modified communism have led to enormous Using these resources, students could describe the
economic changes in China since 1976. To distribution pattern of various industries within China:
understand these impacts, students should http://fortune.com/2014/07/11/coal-china/
be made aware of the main political changes http://www.steelonthenet.com/maps.html
that have taken place in this recent period. http://revel.unice.fr/eriep/?id=3476
http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2013/03/15/china-the-jobs-
A landmark change was the introduction of report/
the Open Door Policy in 1978 and the http://www.slideshare.net/Fordlovers/fakta-om-
subsequent formation of Special Enterprise fordonsindustrin-china (slide 10)
Zones. Students should be aware of the
characteristics of these zones, including the How have political changes impacted the economy?
formation of joint ventures. The success of
these enterprise zones has exacerbated Political changes:
internal inequalities within China, with https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRZEZVqc_ZU
economic growth concentrated in eastern https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F7AN2D9WISs
areas. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rMTNNe1a9iY
http://csis.org/blog/china-economic-reform-timeline
Town and Village Enterprises saw Students could summarise the main policy changes seen as
unprecedented growth during the 80s and China modernised.
90s and although this growth has slowed in
recent years, TVE's remain as major What role did the government play in determining the
86
employers in rural areas. location and development of economic activity?
As the economy of China continues to evolve

and government policy attempts to push TVEs
economic development to the west and north, https://chinaperspectives.revues.org/773
there will be further changes to the economic https://transformationallogistics.wordpress.com/2008/11/06/tv
picture within China. Students can bring their es-township-and-village-enterprises-in-china/
studies up to date by recognising that the
slowdown in the Chinese export economy
could lead to an economy based on a ‘home’ SEZs
rather than a 'foreign' market. http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/Event/Afric
a/Investing%20in%20Africa%20Forum/2015/investing-in-
africa-forum-chinas-special-economic-zone.pdf
https://prezi.com/5vlibdwvzhtt/how-do-special-economic-
zones-in-china-affect-the-economy-an/
http://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/china-s-special-
economic-zones-and-industrial-clusters-success-and-
challenges
http://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-7976.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ND_Y4hfkesA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y0pq1qM5rJU
Students could use these resources to outline the main
characteristic of SEZ and the impact these had on the
Chinese economy.
Influence of ‘Western’ economies/Joint ventures:

http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2011/12/how-
walmart-is-changing-china/308709/
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/transport/96
84276/Jaguar-Land-Rover-seals-Chinese-joint-venture.html
87
http://chinaautoweb.com/auto-companies/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-20386558
Recent changes in policy:

http://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-shift-away-from-industry-
drains-life-from-a-steel-town-1441652778
http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/1803757/china-
launches-emission-cutting-factory-closure-programme
http://asiahouse.org/chinas-shift-export-led-domestic-
consumption-driven-economy-will-see-6-5-growth/
4.3.5 The global The first point that students must address is In a global context, what have been the recent changes
importance of China the recent changes in size of the Chinese to China's economy?
economy. The term ‘recent’ is not clearly
defined but students should be aware of Economic changes:
changes post 1978, and those that happen http://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/aug/16/chinese-
during the life of the specification. As this economic-boom
guide is being assembled, a question mark https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNObD7GEcQ8&app=de
exists surrounding the health of the Chinese sktop
economy and this should be addressed. http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2015/01/china
China's current position should be put into a s-slowdown
global context. http://fortune.com/2015/01/20/chinas-growth-slowed-to-24-
year-low-in-2014/
Students should also focus on changes to the
economic structure of the country. This could Change in economic structure:
include the shift within the industrial sector http://www.economist.com/blogs/analects/2013/04/economic-
from public to private ownership as well as a rebalancing
shift in employment from primary to http://www.economist.com/news/business-books-
secondary industries and the subsequent quarterly/21627564-private-companies-have-been-hugely-
growth of tertiary industry. underestimated-china-unstated-capitalism
88
The role of China as the workshop of the (Discuss the difference between public and private sector
world should then be developed with a focus jobs)
placed on outsourcing and offshoring. By https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WlSHo61nRWw&nohtml5
developing an understanding of these terms =False
students will become aware of the global https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WWAO3ZhD8_Q&nohtml
shift. This can be done by considering 5=False
shipping patterns and through other (Why is farming playing a less significant proportion of
innovative mapping techniques. Having China’s GDP ?)
considered China’s role as the ‘workshop of http://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/mar/01/chinese-
the world’ this will lead onto the study of manufacturing-decline-sharp-global-downturn-factory-output-
China as a country with increased global china-uk
influence. (Outline reasons for growth of Chinese economy as an
industrial workhouse)
China’s influence and participation in global http://www.wsj.com/articles/as-growth-slows-china-highlights-
organisations, governance, conventions and transition-from-manufacturing-to-service-1453221751
treaties can be studied through several http://www.improving-visualisation.org/vis/id=206
different examples. Firstly students should be
aware of what is meant by ‘soft' or political How did the global shift affect China?
power. Areas where China is wielding
increased power include the United Nations. Outsourcing and offshoring
Students should consider why China is keen http://www.allchinasourcing.com/china_sourcing_advantages.
to gain influence and what impacts this htm
increased influence is likely to have on the http://www.chinabusinessreview.com/chinas-emerging-role-
country. in-global-outsourcing/
http://www.chnsourcing.com/outsourcing-news/about-china-
China joining the WTO was a significant step outsourcing/advantages/
for both the country and the WTO itself. (Why is outsourcing attractive for companies?)
Students should be aware of the benefits of http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21569739-
joining the WTO for China but should also outsourcing-jobs-faraway-places-wane-will-not-solve-wests
have an understanding of why so many http://www.designworldonline.com/offshore-manufacturing-
89
viewed China joining the WTO with suspicion. the-pros-and-cons/
http://www.supplychain247.com/article/mapping_supply_chai
As the leading global emitter of CO2, China's ns_in_the_global_economy
stance on environmental matters is of http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/21/china-
increasing importance. This was illustrated globalrecession
during the Paris climate change negotiations
in 2015. China's influence was significantly How influential is China as a political power?
greater than it was during the Kyoto Protocol Power:
discussions two decades earlier. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_power
Overview:
http://globalgatewayadvisors.com/chinas-growing-role-in-
international-organizations-promotes-cooperation/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China
China and the UN:

http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-un-diplomacy-
idUSTRE6B16Z320101203
http://www.reuters.com/article/us-un-assembly-china-
idUSKCN0RQ0HW20150926
http://www.reuters.com/article/us-un-assembly-china-
idUSKCN0RS1Z120150929
(What are the positive impacts of China’s role in the U.N.?)
WTO:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1702241.stm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQjv-iGWEiQ
(Why was China joining the WTO seen by some as a
controversial matter?)
90
https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/acc_e/s7lu_e.pdf
https://www.cigionline.org/series/looking-back-looking-
forward-china-and-world-trade-organization-10-years-after-
accession
(How has China benefited from being a member of the WTO
and how has China contributed to the WTO?)
http://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-
politics/article/1885376/paris-climate-summit-chinese-
president-urges-world
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/15be0e10-9dca-11e5-b45d-
4812f209f861.html
https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/8356-
What-is-China-s-position-at-Paris-climate-talks-
4.3.6 Threats to China’s Students need to be aware of the serious What are the main threats to China's sustainable
environment associated risks facing the environment due to the development?
with economic growth recent rapid economic growth. The use of
fossil fuels directly impacts air quality in China http://www.resilience.org/stories/2015-02-05/charts-showing-
and contributes to the process of climate the-long-term-gdp-energy-tie
change. Graphs here outline the problem linking Chinese economic
growth to the reliance on fossil fuels.
The rapid growth of industry has had negative
impacts on differing parts of the environment. Impacts of climate change on China:
Many waterways are polluted and industrial http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-32006972
waste has led to an increased incidence of https://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/7458-How-climate-
cancer in some areas - dubbed 'Cancer change-will-impact-China-latest-IPCC-report/en
Villages'. Air quality issues are particularly
91
apparent in urban areas, the cities in China's Cancer villages:
industrial north regularly making international http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/04/china-villages-
headlines. cancer-deaths
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1pbNTvkYSA
Climate change and the intensification of
farming practices have led to soil degradation Water pollution:
which has impacted on the lives of people in http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat10/sub66/item391.html
some of the poorest parts of China.
Air pollution:
Deforestation has led to desertification in the http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/09/airpocalypse-
north and west of China and to soil erosion in now-china-pollution-reaching-record-levels
parts of the country, particularly on the Loess
Plateau. Soil degradation and desertification
http://www.geocases1.co.uk/printable/Desertification%20and
Students need to be aware that land %20land%20degredation%20in%20China.htm
degradation in China leads to the creation of http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12112518
further problems such as food security. The https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iaaXqKKv4ko
recent growth in affluence has increased the
purchasing power of Chinese people and has Deforestation:
enabled the country to become increasingly http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat10/sub66/item389.html
reliant on imports and new technologies for http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-
their food supply. This creates an increasing opinion/article/1204076/deforestation-blame-beijings-pollution
demand for energy and has contributed to
further debate on energy security within Food/ Water security:
China. Lastly, food security cannot be http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-01-21/china-
maintained without water security and as aims-for-food-security-as-pollution-destroys-crop-land
China has become increasingly industrialised http://chinawaterrisk.org/resources/analysis-reviews/the-
the demands on water have increased state-of-chinas-agriculture/
rapidly. These issues of food, energy and http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/ab981e/ab981e0c.htm
water security are interconnected. Failure to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p0cFyHm348w
92
address them will inevitably have a major http://textile-future.com/textile-
impact on the quality of life of China's citizens manufacturing.php?read_article=2366
in the future. There are ample opportunities to
discuss the key geographical concepts of
causality and equilibrium when discussing Energy Security:
the effects of human activity on natural http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-21709881
systems. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/may/19/china-
three-gorges-dam
4.3.7 Sustainable Students should study a strategy or strategies How successful are strategies to combat these threats?
development in China to manage one environmental problem
associated with economic growth. Managing air pollution:
Students will also be expected to show an http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/fightairpollution/
understanding of strategies to sustainably http://www.theguardian.com/environment/chinas-
manage water or food or energy security. choice/2014/jan/23/china-beijing-authorities-measures-tackle-
Listed here are possible threads of study. air-pollution
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=80Z4xnSNAHs&nohtml5=
A final theme of study is sustainable cities. It False
is suggested that similar contexts are used to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zKJhyv-
those already covered during the study of rSUo&nohtml5=False
managing air and water pollution in cities.
However, there are many other good Managing water pollution:
examples of sustainable living in Chinese http://www.ibtimes.com/china-announces-ambitious-plan-
cities. Some of the better ones include the clean-its-water-close-down-polluting-factories-1886320
creation of eco-cities. China’s huge https://beijingtoday.com.cn/2016/03/smelly-waterways-to-be-
expenditure on renewable energy is also part cleaned-by-2018/
of the drive towards a more sustainable way http://www.china.org.cn/environment/2015-
of living and can be viewed within the context 03/26/content_35158000.htm
of helping to create sustainable urban areas.
93
Managing desertification:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/04/china-
desertification
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jfn01u-2rNs
https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22429994-900-great-
wall-of-trees-keeps-chinas-deserts-at-bay/
Improving water security:

http://english.cntv.cn/2015/05/25/VIDE1432560240203185.sh
tml
http://www.aquatechtrade.com/aquatech-news/enhancing-
water-security-in-china/
(a long PDF file – but it does include solutions towards the
end)
Improving food security:

http://www.reuters.com/article/us-syngenta-ag-m-a-
chemchina-idUSKCN0VB1D9
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J0GcAJoRQEk&nohtml5=
False
http://www.theguardian.com/global-
development/2012/may/10/chinese-food-security-
investments-africa
Improving energy security:

http://thediplomat.com/2017/01/deconstructing-chinas-
energy-security-strategy/
94
Sustainable urban communities:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t-
Pjq37Lhqg&nohtml5=False
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/china-hands/chinas-
sustainable-cities_b_7250178.html
https://www.virgin.com/virgin-unite/leadership-and-
advocacy/the-green-energy-race-in-china
Recommended reading
 Miller, G. and Warn, S. (2010). Emerging Superpowers: India and China: The Geographical Association (revised edition published in
2017)
95
Contemporary Themes in Geography - Development in Sub-Saharan Africa
4.3.8 Definitions, The term ‘development’ is difficult to define. It can be How has the definition of development
measures and patterns defined as ‘the progressive improvement in standards of changed?
of development living and quality of life for an increasing proportion of the
population’. The definition is dynamic, due to changing  There are a wide range of websites that
definitions and changes in the development process itself. cover definitions of development, including:
In response to this dynamism, the term ‘development’ has o http://www.worldbank.org/depweb/eng
been defined in many different ways: in economic terms, in lish/sd.html
human terms and increasingly in terms of sustainability. o http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/what-
Until the 1970s development was largely equated with human-development
economic development, hence the drive towards
industrialisation by lesser developed countries. By 1980
the concept of development took in social progress and How have the indicators used to measure
human development. Even before the 1980s, it was development changed?
evident that growing environmental problems associated
with overuse of resources, destruction of the rainforest and  Definition of measures of development can
global warming were threats to both economic progress be taught through a simple card sort to match
and the eradication of poverty – hence in the 1980s and up the terms and the definitions
1990s questions of sustainability became increasingly o Useful definitions http://www.s-
associated with the development process. cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/world-
development/revise-it/measuring-
There are a wide range of development indicators that differences-in-development
could be studied but it is expected that students will be http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-
able to make reference to simple and composite level/AQA/Year%2013/Development
quantitative measures and also to more recent progress %20&%20Globalisation/Background/T
made towards the use of qualitative measures that go ypes%20of%20development.htm
96
beyond covering material conditions towards a
consideration of aspects such as freedom, security, the  Up to date tables of measures of
plight of indigenous groups and sustainability. development can be found at:
 CIA factsheets
The distinction between the development gap and the  UNDP human development reports
development continuum should be clearly understood. The  World Bank
development gap is visible on a global scale, with the  For qualitative indicators:
richest 20% of people consuming around 80% of global o http://www.happyplanetindex.org/
resources, and the poorest 20% earning just 1.3% of
global income. More traditionally, this gap was represented
by the out-dated Brandt-line. It is now more widely What patterns of development can we see in
accepted that development is a dynamic process and that Sub-Saharan Africa?
not all countries will follow the path of the Rostow Model
through defined stages of development. Today, as Students could collect development data for a range
countries develop, they make a gradual transition through of countries and then establish where they fit on a
different stages along the development continuum. continuum. Use of different measures and data will
generate differing patterns. The World Development
Indicators database has mapped Sub-Saharan
Africa based on various development indicators.
Comparing general patterns could be a good starting
Variations in levels of development between regions, point before focusing on the chosen countries.
ethnic groups and genders is becoming increasingly http://data.worldbank.org/products/wdi-maps
important. More recent measures to calculate gender
inequality such as the GEM (Gender Empowerment Variations within countries should be looked at here,
Measure) or GDI (Gender-related Development Index) can depending on the country context chosen.
be used to help identify development patterns in Sub- Ghana shows a well-documented development
Saharan Africa which are different to those generated divide between north and south. Some recent,
through reliance on more traditional income-focused regional data with explanatory comment can be
measures. found here:
http://www.egn.org.gh/categories/developmental-
97
economics/51-bridging-the-ghanaian-development-
divide
4.3.9 The influence of Many factors influence levels of development within a To what extent has the physical environment
physical factors on the country. The influence of its resource base of minerals influenced development?
development of and energy sources should be explored through in-depth
selected countries studies of two countries such as Nigeria, a country with Pages 4 – 7 of this IMF report discusses the
large oil and gas reserves, and a contrasting country such resource base in Sub-Saharan Africa. It contains
as Sierra Leone which has a poor resource base. some useful reading, map resources and data that
could be used by students to assess the effect of a
The nature of soils, relief, climate and water availability are strong resource base on levels of development –
important influences on the development of a country. particularly that of oil rich nations.
Fertile soils and flat, well-irrigated land can lead to the
development of a strong agricultural sector. Water The following article looks at the history of oil
availability is key in Sub-Saharan Africa with many exploration in Nigeria and its impact on development
countries particularly susceptible to periodic droughts. The http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7840310.stm
ongoing effects of climate change are increasing the
vulnerability of countries such as Kenya where a Geofiles 629 (2011) covers many of the physical
significant numbers of arable crops are grown for export factors that affect development in Ethiopia.
and where subsistence farming supports a high proportion
of the rural population.
For many countries the variability of their climate and

ensuing floods or droughts cause them to rely heavily on
aid. This fails to build resilience, hindering long-term
development.
The choice of case studies will be important here. At least

two countries should be studied in depth in order to
exemplify all elements set in the specification.
98
4.3.10 The influence of The influence of trading blocs has been both positive and How have economic factors influenced
economic factors on the negative for Sub-Saharan Africa. Policies of protectionism development?
development of and subsidies, tariffs and quotas imposed on exports from
selected countries Sub-Saharan Africa can severely hinder development.  An investigation into the role of trade blocs
However, accessibility to markets and development of free including that of the EU and OPEC will
trade deals can be beneficial for the region. Africa also has provide an interesting contrast. Looking at
its own trading blocs. The development of intra-regional the impact that these have on the developing
trade on the continent is seen by many as the key to nations of Africa including the role of tariff,
ensuring long-term development. The Tripartite Free Trade quotas and “dumping” of raw materials.
Agreement (TFTA) was signed in Cairo during 2015,  Nigeria will provide a good example of oil as
amalgamating three of Africa's main trading blocs: the a resource and the impact of an MNC on
Southern African Development Community (SADC), the levels of development
East African Community (EAC) and the Common Market  As well as Angola, Sierra Leone or
for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). The creation Zimbabwe could provide contexts for the
of a 'mega bloc' in Africa could positively impact study of conflict diamonds
development in Sub-Saharan Africa in the future.  There are many examples of MNCs who
have chosen to invest in Africa including
The resource curse, also known as the paradox of plenty, General Electric, Wal-Mart
refers to the paradox that countries with an abundance of  Gambia, Rwanda (Geoactive Online 468)
non-renewable natural resources (like fossil fuels and and Kenya have both developed a tourism
certain minerals), tend to have less economic growth, less sector. Success has varied at minimising the
democracy, and worse development outcomes than environmental impact
countries with fewer natural resources. Suitable examples  Fairtrade resources:
for study in Sub-Saharan Africa could include oil o www.fairtrade.org.uk
exploitation or conflict (blood) diamonds funding civil wars o http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/en/farmers
in Angola. -and-workers/cocoa/kuapa-kokoo
 Land grabs by MNC such as palm-oil giant
The availability of cheap labour and the provision of Wilmar in Uganda are discussed in this 2015
99
favourable economic conditions have seen the influence of Guardian article
MNCs increase in the region. An examination of the https://www.theguardian.com/global-
growing influence of MNCs on two or more countries could development-professionals-
look at foreign direct investment, outsourcing and network/2015/mar/13/african-land-grabs-
offshoring or land grabs to grow food or biofuels. companies--financiers-regulation
With its rich natural and cultural resources Sub-Saharan

Africa has enormous potential for the development of
tourism. Although it is still for the most part in the early
stages of development, the sector is growing very quickly.
Its challenges are not linked to its incredible resources, but
rather to broader and longstanding issues facing the
continent such as infrastructure, health and hygiene and
security. However, tourism and eco-tourism are valuable
development tools for some countries in Sub-Saharan
Africa with a significant proportion of GDP generated from
this sector. Kenya and Gambia have established a strong
tourism base, with the new destinations of Rwanda and
Uganda following suit. Issues such as social, economic
and environmental impacts of tourism will need to be
evaluated here as well as issues of sustainability.
Lastly in this section the value of Fairtrade as a strategy to

aid development in particular Sub-Saharan African
countries should be considered.
4.3.11 The influence of There is increasing awareness of the influence of the To what extent have political, social and cultural
political, social and political, social and cultural factors impacting factors influenced development?
cultural factors on the development. Candidates should be given a brief
development of introduction to the colonial history of Sub-Saharan Africa to Political
100
selected countries consider its effect on levels of development in countries  Geofile 727 Division of Sudan
studied. The role of governance, and neo-colonialism,
global organisations and corruption should also be Social
considered. In particular, the increasing presence of China  Geofile 571 “Ebola-achieving zero”
in Sub-Saharan Africa will provide scope for neo-  Geography Review 29 (2) pages 20-21
colonialism discussions with interesting links to be made  Malaria
with Frank’s dependency theory. Social factors studied  Dengue Fever
should include education, health and welfare, both in terms  Yellow fever
of investment and priority for national governments. Social
and cultural constraints should look at the role of women Social and cultural
as well as ethnic divisions and how that hinders  Geofile 671 Women’s role in development
development of the countries studied.
4.3.12 The impact of The transition of a country through the development How has the development process impacted the
development on the continuum leads to enormous societal changes associated natural environment?
environment with consumerism. As consumption increases diets
change and fossil fuel dependency increases and the  Nutritional transition provides a link between
issue of waste disposal, both solid and liquid, become development and development and food
increasing problems for society and governments. As  Lagos provides an urban example of how
urbanisation increases deforestation gathers pace with development has lead to the huge growth of
trees utilised as a source of building materials as well as the city from rural-urban migration and the
fuel. Exploitation of water resources is a continuing issues associated with waste and air pollution
problem without sustainable solutions in many Sub-  Water issues are covered well by:
Saharan African countries. o www.wateraid.org
 For agro-industrialisation it will depend on the
Agro-industrialisation often has a negative impact on the countries chosen but there are sources at:
environments of less developed nations. The o www.farmafrica.org
intensification of agriculture has impacts on rates of soil o www.foe.org.uk
erosion and water usage. The increased use of fertilisers o http://www.theguardian.com/global-
and pesticides affects ecosystems. Agro-industrialisation development/2014/feb/24/gm-crops-
101
also brings an increase in the mechanisation of agriculture european-scientists-africa-promote-
which will has environmental consequences due to biotech
increased energy use and air pollution. o http://www.independent.co.uk/news/w
If countries have follow Rostow’s model of development orld/africa/the-gm-crops-debate-
they may have industrialised with limited attention to the moves-to-africa-and-it-s-just-as-noisy-
environmental impact of this growth. Countries with a 10126512.html
mineral base will have exploited it, again without making
protection of the environment a priority. Both Namibia, Sierra Leone and Nigeria provide
interesting examples of the negative impacts of the
extractive industries on the environment
4.3.13 Challenges of A discussion of the causes (causality) of desertification in How severe are the challenges posed by
desertification Africa, including the human and physical factors will be desertification in Sub-Saharan Africa?
required here. Clear links to poverty and demand for
natural resources should be made. Physical causes could Building on the knowledge from the previous focus
include soil erosion, changing rainfall patterns (including box, students will study issues surrounding
intense rainfall). Human causes include population desertification in greater depth
growth, overgrazing, over cultivation, deforestation, climate
change and war, although this list is not exhaustive. Causes:
 Section 2 of this journal article provides
Social, economic, political and environmental interesting discussion points for students
consequences of desertification need to be examined and http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.ijaf.2013030
will depend on the located examples chosen. 2.03.html#Sec2.2
There are a wide range of strategies that attempt to Consequences:

address the causes and consequences of desertification at  http://www.unesco.org/mab/doc/ekocd/chapt
the individual, national and international level. The Great er11.html
Green wall is a particularly interesting project. This will 
form an 8,000 km natural barrier across the African Strategies to address the above include:
continent. Government policies that address individual  The Great Green Wall
102
causes of desertification, such as rapid population growth, o http://www.greatgreenwall.org/great-
are also valid in this section. green-wall/
o http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10344622
 Alternative fuels
o Biogas chambers
o Upesi stoves
4.3.14 Strategies to There are a wide range of strategies at different scales How successful are strategies to promote
promote development that could be studied here. The choice of country development in Sub-Saharan Africa?
examples from previous focus boxes will most likely form a
basis for studying the strategies being implemented to  International organisations
promote development. o www.worldbank.org
o www.undp.org
The role of national governments in Sub-Saharan Africa is o www.imf.org
complex; they can be the recipients and facilitators of bi-  NGOs
lateral aid projects or can succeed in creating an attractive o http://www.farmafrica.org/
environment for economic investment. The use of o http://practicalaction.org/
industrialisation to facilitate development is seen as a o www.oxfam.org.uk
successful model and is implemented by many Sub-  FDI/MNCs
Saharan African governments. Countries establish Special o http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/79ee41b6-
Economic Zones which can attract MNCs and FDI to boost fd84-11e4-b824-
development. Ethiopia, Nigeria and Zambia are examples 00144feabdc0.html#axzz49IIvNPwd
of countries who have set up SEZs with varying degrees of  As mentioned above there is a wealth of
success. information on China in Africa in Geofile and
Topic Eye articles. Also:
There are a variety of international aid agencies which o http://www.theguardian.com/global-
work at different scales in Sub-Saharan Africa and use development/interactive/2013/apr/29/c
either “top down” or “bottom up” strategies. The work hina-commits-billions-aid-africa-
of NGOs and microfinance schemes have become interactive
prominent in recent years due to a shift in attitude towards o http://www.economist.com/news/middl
103
sustainability and gender equality as part of the e-east-and-africa/21639554-china-
development process. Students should study a range of has-become-big-africa-now-backlash-
examples which can be linked to specific factors hindering one-among-many
development such as gender inequality or food or fuel
poverty. There is a wealth of information available for Bilateral aid could be studied in the context of the
students to research independently on this aspect. An Cahora Bassa Dam in Mozambique or any multitude
assessment or evaluation of the success of these of Chinese investments in HEP or irrigation schemes
strategies should be made.
The World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) How do global financial institutions implement
are two of the most powerful international financial strategies to promote development?
institutions. Historically, they have been the major sources
of lending to African countries and have done important The World Bank's website discusses some of the
work in promoting good governance and evaluating reform development projects funded in Sub-Saharan Africa:
efforts. Recent investments include $1 billion for the Great http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/afr/projects
Lakes region of the DRC with funds earmarked for Their annual report on their work in Africa gives a
financing health and education services, hydroelectric basic introduction to their current role in the region
projects and cross-border trade. The loan is intended as http://www.worldbank.org/en/about/annual-
an incentive to end Congo’s violence, despite the country’s report/regions/afr
endemically poor governance. However, as African One current focus are IPPs (Independent Power
economies grow and governments turn increasingly to Projects) designed to electrify Sub-Saharan Africa
private capital (remittances and FDI) as a source of http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/energy/publication
funding, many argue that the role of these institutions in /independent-power-projects-in-sub-saharan-africa
the region, as long as growth continues, is likely to
diminish in the future.
104
Contemporary Themes in Geography - Energy Challenges and Dilemmas
4.4.1 The classification The objective here is to provide students with an How can we classify energy resources?
and distribution of energy overview of how energy resources are classified.
resources Energy resources are classified as either non- Warn S. Holmes D. AS/A-Level Geography Contemporary
renewable or renewable. Non-renewable Case Studies: The Energy Issue ISBN 978-1-4441-1983-1
resources have been built up over time and, Energy classification pp 12-14
because their rate of formation is very slow, are
finite. Non-renewable resources include fossil For an exercise to sort energy into non-renewable and
fuels. Renewable energy resources yield a renewable categories:
continuous flow that can be consumed in any
given period of time provided current use does http://nationalgeographic.org/activity/energy-sources-and-
not exceed net renewal rates during the same energy-use/
period.
Renewable resources can be further divided into For information on non-renewable fossil fuels:
2 sub-groups, critical or recyclable resources http://www.discoveringfossils.co.uk/fossilfuels.htm
including biomass energy (which require
For some relevant slides see energy exam-board
management to ensure sustainable use) or non-
critical or everlasting resources such as tides, PowerPoint under topic 1 at:
https://geographyalevelslc.com/a-level-unit-3/
waves, wind, running water and sunshine.
Students need to have an overview of the global How are energy resources distributed across the
distribution of fossil fuel stocks and reserves globe?
Direct access to fossil fuel reserves is a
coincidence of geological history and international For the Global distribution of energy resources see:
105
boundaries. Some countries find themselves with http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/z3pppv4/revision/3
more fossil fuel sources than their needs while
others have none. Reserves run down over time, For information on alternatives to fossil fuel sources:
as is the case with gas with the UK’s once http://www.greencitytimes.com/Renewable-
abundant North Sea oil and gas supplies. Energy/renewable-energy.html
Remaining oil and gas will increasingly http://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/renewable-
concentrate in the Middle East over the next 30 energy/
years. http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/alternative-
energy
Alternatives to conventional fossil fuel source See coverage of alternative energy sources in pdf Guide 2
include nuclear, solar, ocean, wind, biomass, pages 47-53 at :
hydrological and geothermal energy. http://www.beaconsdec.org.uk/climate-
change/?doing_wp_cron=1465571024.034233093261718
7500000
4.4.2 Physical factors Students need to know and understand the Which are the most important physical factors in
determining the supply of physical factors that determine the supply of determining the supply of energy?
energy energy. Examples of each of the following
physical factors are required: Warn S. Holmes D. AS/A-Level Geography Contemporary
Geological factors influence oil and gas traps Case Studies: The Energy Issue ISBN 978-1-4441-1983-1
and the formation of deltaic swamps in which coal Patterns of global availability pp 15-22
formed. Direct access to fossil fuel reserves is a
coincidence of geological history and international For the global distribution and production of oil and coal
boundaries. For example Saudi Arabia has large see:
oil reserves and Russia has large oil and gas http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/z3pppv4/revision/3
reserves. Geological factors also influence the For the global distribution of natural gas see:
location of active areas for geothermal energy http://archiv.eurotopics.net/en/home/presseschau/archiv/m
such as Iceland. agazin/magazin_aktuell/gas_2009_01/zahlen_und_fakten_
Certain forms of renewable energy are gasreserven/
106
constrained by climatic factors. Solar power
requires high insolation rates; wind power relies For geothermal energy from active areas see:
on high, constant wind speeds characteristic of http://www.geography-
areas affected by westerly wind belts and site.co.uk/pages/physical/earth/volcanoes/volcanoliving.ht
hydropower is usually linked to areas of high ml
precipitation. http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/gl
Relief factors include the influence of relief on obal-warming/geothermal-profile/
creating suitable locations for dam construction.
The deep, narrow valleys of the west slopes of A map of world solar energy potential can be found at
the Sierra Nevada in California provide sites for http://micro-hydro-power.com
dams and reservoirs such as at Shasta in the
Upper Sacramento River Basin and Oroville on Now that's what I call a solar farm! VIDEO - World's largest
the Feather River. Relief is also important for opens in Abu Dhabi: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-
providing a ‘head’ of water which is stored and middle-east-21830846
then released to drive turbines and generate
hydropower. Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System (ISEGS) in the
Certain locations provide favourable conditions for Mojave Desert:
sustainable energy generation from waves, tides http://www.greencitytimes.com/Sustainability-
(tidal power is restricted to a few estuaries with a News/ivanpah-solar-electric-generating-system.html
very large tidal range such as the River Severn)
and biofuels. Wind power generation in Denmark:
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jan/18/den
mark-broke-world-record-for-wind-power-in-2015
http://denmark.dk/en/green-living/wind-energy/
For information on the Shasta and Oroville dams:

http://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia/shasta-dam
107
Tidal energy:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RX8in2voMl0
http://www.tidallagoonswanseabay.com/ Swansea Bay
tidal lagoon
Vaxjo, Sweden, makes use of its very unique geography,

as over half of the city is covered by forest, to produce
renewable energy. Biomass and biofuels, mostly from
wood chips, sawdust, bark and peat (forestry remnants),
represent the major forms of energy for the city buildings
and buses
http://www.greencitytimes.com/Sustainable-
Cities/vaxjo.html
4.4.3 The changing Students need to know and understand that for all How and why is the demand for energy changing?
demand for energy countries, no matter what their present stage of
development, the demand for energy is rising. Warn S. Holmes D. AS/A-Level Geography Contemporary
Economic factors strongly influence the demand Case Studies: The Energy Issue ISBN 978-1-4441-1983-1
for energy. All economies are increasing their Patterns of consumption pp 28-30
demands for energy. This is especially true of
newly emerging economies, especially the very Changing Patterns of energy consumption
large countries of Brazil, Russia, India and China geographymonkey.com/changing-patte…
(BRIC) where energy for manufacturing is the
main growth. In order to be successful, all Students are asked to use a website to calculate their
economies (including those already developed) carbon footprint and then compare their results with that of
need to grow each year. In one way or another, an older person. This person is asked to complete the
that growth needs energy. Growing international questionnaire as if it were the year they were 18 years old.
trade has led to the transport of goods by air, sea A Venn diagram is available for whiteboard or printing to
and all forms of land transport. Countries that structure the comparisons. One category might indicate
108
experience a low level of development need to little change, whereas another could show a great degree
grow so that large proportions of their populations of change:
can rise out of poverty. The growth in global http://resources.hwb.wales.gov.uk/VTC/2010-
population is the key demographic factor 11/geog/dcells-sustainability/eng/3.1/activities/pl-how-is-
increasing the demand for energy. A range of the-demand-for-energy-changing.html
social factors have increased the demand for
energy. In developed economies, as well as Students are asked to analyse graphs on changing energy
getting to and from work, people want to travel to demand. Selected graphs taken from Key World Energy
see friends, enjoy pastimes and go on holidays. Statistics, International Energy Agency highlight changes
Entertainment, even staying at home and in global energy consumption 1973 -2006 and changes in
watching TV, requires energy. To make life easier different fuel types. Global patterns of oil consumption in
and free up time for leisure, labour saving devices 2009, with annual changes from 1965 -2009 are displayed:
are needed. For many of the social reasons http://resources.hwb.wales.gov.uk/VTC/2010-
above technology has produced equipment that 11/geog/dcells-sustainability/eng/3.1/activities/pl-Global-
requires energy. Car ownership grows Changes-in-Energy-Demand.html
continuously throughout the world. Around the
home, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, TVs, An interactive activity asks the students to categorise a
computers, games consoles, sound systems and series of images into six groups. Three factors that affect
mobile phones have developed. Electronic changing energy demand - economic, social,
gadgets are found in almost all activities. technological. Students also need to determine whether
the images show +ve [increased] demand or –ve
[reduction in] demand.
http://resources.hwb.wales.gov.uk/VTC/2010-
11/geog/dcells-sustainability/eng/3.1/activities/pl-Why-is-
the-demand-for-energy-changing.html
Images and video links provide stimuli for students to

explain the increasing demand for energy in China:
http://resources.hwb.wales.gov.uk/VTC/2010-
11/geog/dcells-sustainability/eng/3.1/activities/pl-Chinas-
109
increasing-demand-for-energy.html
Resources covering the changing demand for energy in

Vietnam are covered in the Resource Folder for WJEC
GCE G4 paper for June 2013
Some relevant exercises can be found at:

http://www.geographypods.com/changing-patterns-of-
energy-consumption-6hrs.html
Students to discuss the relative importance of the factors

influencing the global demand for energy
4.4.4 The global Students need to know and understand factors Who is responsible for the global management of oil
management of oil and influencing the global management of oil and gas. and gas?
gas The imbalance between the supply of and
demand for oil and gas is managed through Warn S. Holmes D. AS/A-Level Geography Contemporary
transfers, storage and pricing. Oil and gas Case Studies: The Energy Issue ISBN 978-1-4441-1983-1
exploration and production is managed by MNCs Geopolitics pp. 16, 23, 94 and gas supplies p.18 and oil
and national governments. Oil supplies are supplies pp 21-2, 52-3 players in the oil and gas industry
managed by OPEC and national governments. p. 57
See ‘the key players involved with energy security’ at:

http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/School+Members+Ar
ea/Ask+the+experts/Global+energy+security.htm
Information on the structure of the industry:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry
110
Useful energy PowerPoint for revision purposes: Energy
security http://www.slideshare.net/anicholls1234/energy-
security-geography
Students could refer to Geography Review 30 (1) pages

26-27 'Cheap oil. Is it a good thing?' to discuss some of
the main impacts of falling oil prices on different countries
4.4.5 Problems Students need to know and understand the What problems are associated with the supply and use
associated with extraction, environmental, political, technological and of energy?
transport and use of economic problems associated with the
energy extraction, transport and use of fossil fuels Warn S. Holmes D. AS/A-Level Geography Contemporary
and other forms of energy. At present, most Case Studies: The Energy Issue ISBN 978-1-4441-1983-1
energy is carbon based. Suitable alternatives are Environmental and social issues pp 38-46
essential. Nuclear is a major supplier worldwide,
but generates debate. It produces long lasting http://resources.hwb.wales.gov.uk/VTC/2010-
dangerous waste, it could fall into the hands of 11/geog/dcells-sustainability/eng/index-energy.html
terrorists or it may be converted to producing Provides a series of activities which investigate problems
nuclear weapons. However, there have been few associated with the supply of energy
leaks and containment is improving, and
otherwise produces clean and plentiful energy. Students to complete a table using all the information:
Wave and wind power have relatively little
damaging impact but much of their potential is yet Problems associated with fossil fuels /
to be developed. Some HEP schemes have led to other form of energy
the release of methane, more powerful as a Extraction Transport Use
greenhouse gas than CO2. Biofuels lead to Environmental
destruction of rainforest and use of agricultural Political
land needed for food. Geothermal, tidal and solar Technological
sources of power have few drawbacks, but the
Economic
range of locations where they can be exploited is
111
limited. Students to discuss the relative importance of the
problems associated with alternative energy and fossil
fuels
4.4.6 Energy mixes and Students need to know and understand that the Which factors influence the energy mix at a local,
development energy mix of a country is the particular national and global scale?
combination of energy sources used within it for
production of power and consumption. Students Warn S. Holmes D. AS/A-Level Geography Contemporary
need to investigate the energy mix at the local, Case Studies: The Energy Issue ISBN 978-1-4441-1983-1
national and global scales. At the local scale Energy mix pp 31-34
students need to research at least 2 examples of
the growing use of appropriate technology for Leapfrogging The Grid: How Solar Is Solving Africa's
sustainable energy micro-generation in Electricity Crisis #energy huffingtonpost.co.uk/edward-
developing countries. At the national scale lowe/le…
students need to research factors influencing
the energy mix of at least 3 countries at VIDEO - How solar lighting is transforming lives in Kenya:
different stages of development (HIC, emerging http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/earthrise/2013/08/2
economy and LIC). At the global scale students 013821385999288.html #energy #geographyteacher
need to know and understand the economic and
political factors affecting world energy prices VIDEO - Solar power for Ethiopia's mobile phone users:
and energy mix (see 4.4.4 and 4.4.7). http://link.brightcove.com/services/player/bcpid165920229
2001?bckey=AQ~~,AAAAmtVJIFk~,TVGOQ5ZTwJbsT0M
q3k9H8GCa4jV3vL4M&bctid=2669785561001
VIDEO: Solar lamps helping millions of Kenyans who do

not have access to electricity
http://www.aljazeera.com/video/africa/2014/03/new-solar-
project-brings-light-kenyans-201432013548123657.html
112
VIDEO - Senegal solar panels provide farming water
http://www.aljazeera.com/video/africa/2014/03/senegal-
solar-panels-provide-farming-water-
20143128333519115.html
Solar-powered lamp-post provides ray of light for Mali:

http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-
matters/2012/dec/28/solar-powered-lamp-post-mali
Relationship between energy use and economic

development
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/ene_com_ene_use-
energy-commercial-use
Commercial energy use by country
Resources covering the energy mix of France, Malaysia

and Botswana are covered in the Resource Folder for
WJEC GCE G4 paper for June 2010
Sweden energy strategy

Students are given a summary of the Swedish Energy
Policy; energy aims; targets; action plan; and 6 sets of
graphs and statistics on Sweden’s energy use.
Students to discuss the factors influencing a country’s

energy mix
113
4.4.7 The need for Students need to know and understand How sustainable are solutions to meet the demand for energy?
sustainable solutions to policies for demand reduction and
meet the demand increased energy efficiency at the Warn S. Holmes D. AS/A-Level Geography Contemporary Case
for energy global, national and local scale. Students Studies: The Energy Issue ISBN 978-1-4441-1983-1 Cleaning up
also need to know and understand clean coal pp 47-46
technologies for fossil fuels including
carbon capture, carbon sequestration http://www.greencitytimes.com/Sustainability-News/cop21-a-
and gasification and transport historic-step-forward-for-clean-energy.html
technologies.
Students need to assess the See coverage of CCS in pdf Guide 2 pages 46-47 at :
sustainability of alternative energy http://www.beaconsdec.org.uk/climate-
sources. change/?doing_wp_cron=1465571024.0342330932617187500000
VIDEO - Explainer: Carbon capture and storage.

youtube.com/watch?v=BhTlm9…
Resources covering the carbon capture and storage and the

sustainability of alternative energy sources are covered in the
Resource Folder for WJEC GCE G4 paper for June 2010
Students to research the sustainability of alternative energy

sources using information from 4.4.1 and 4.4.5 and determine
whether they are economically viable, socially equitable and
environmentally bearable
 Warn S. Holmes D. (2011) AS/A-Level Geography Contemporary Case Studies: The Energy Issue ISBN 978-1-4441-1983-1
114
Contemporary Themes in Geography - Weather and Climate
4.5.1 .Global controls on The objective is to provide students with an Which factors control the earth's climate?
climate overview of the structure of the atmosphere
including the characteristics of different Use the websites to understand the structure of the
layers. There are four vertical layers within atmosphere:
the atmosphere, each with its own particular
characteristics. Although the atmosphere is http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/introduction-to-
predominantly composed of nitrogen and weather-and-climate/revise-it/heating-of-the-atmosphere
oxygen, important roles are played by trace
substances such as CO2, water vapour, http://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/atmosphere/
ozone and particulate matter. The
troposphere is of most human significance, Use the websites to understand the atmospheric heat budget:
although human impact is detectable in the
stratosphere. The outer limit of the http://www.metlink.org/teachers/useful-links/#energy
atmosphere is set at 1000km, but the vast
majority of our weather and climate is found http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-
within the lower 12km. Students need to level/AQA/Year%2013/Weather%20and%20climate/Structure
know and understand that there are /Heat%20Budget.htm
variations in energy and heat between
latitudes. The tropics have an energy surplus Students try this exercise on the Earth’s energy budget:
as they gain more from insolation than is lost http://education.jlab.org/reading/energy_budget.html
by radiation, but the higher temperate and
polar latitudes have an energy deficiency For an overview of atmospheric circulation and the tri-cellular
losing more by radiation than is gained by model:
insolation (the atmospheric heat budget).
115
This imbalance in energy distribution sets up http://www.metlink.org/teachers/useful-links/#circulation
a transfer of heat energy from the tropics to
higher latitudes. This Global Transfer of http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/introduction-to-
Energy is the basis of global atmospheric weather-and-climate/revise-it/atmospheric-circulation-and-
circulation which gives rise to the high and motion
low pressure belts and the planetary http://geographyforone.wordpress.com/global-atmospheric-
surface winds associated with the earth's system/
major convection cells: the Hadley, Ferrel and
polar cells. These make up the tricellular Students to draw their own diagram of convection cells and
model that controls atmospheric movements pressure belts and superimpose (using tracing paper or
and the redistribution of heat energy. acetate overlay) on the diagram the associated patterns of
Students also need to know and understand winds.
that the solar control of temperature is further
modified by oceanic circulation (with warm For information on the atmospheric heat budget and the
currents transferring water polewards and influence of oceanic circulation, continentality and altitude on
cold currents transferring water climate:
equatorwards), continentality (a land surface
heats up and cools down more quickly than http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/introduction-to-
an ocean surface) and altitude, although weather-and-climate/revise-it/energy-transfers-and-insolation
these elements will be studied in more detail
in 4.5.2. Find out more about the earth's atmosphere and climate
here:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/atmosphere_and_climate
Students to examine the mechanisms by which energy is

redistributed between areas that have a net energy surplus
and those with a net energy deficit
116
4.5.2 .World’s major climate Students need to have a broad knowledge What are the distinctive characteristics of the earth's
types and understanding of the world’s major major climate types?
climatic types, including temperature,
precipitation, winds and pressure VIDEO - What is climate?
characteristics. However, detailed reference
needs to be made to only the UK’s climate Video explaining the characteristics of different global climate
(4.5.3), the Cool temperate western margin zones: Polar, Temperate, Arid, Tropical (savannah, equatorial
climatic type. and monsoon), Mediterranean:
Students should know and understand the http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/weatherandclimatechan
reasons for seasonal variations of climate ge/resourcebank/videos/video_tcm4598364.asp
as follows: the seasonal movement of the
ITCZ including migrations of the heat equator Use the website:
and pressure and wind belts associated with http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/climate
the movement of the sun's overhead position zones.html
over the year together with; the effects of the for an overview of world climate zones.
warm and cool ocean currents and
temperature differences between the Describe and compare the distribution of global climates
continental land masses and neighbouring using an atlas
ocean waters. For the tropical region
seasonal changes can be illustrated by the Use standard A level texts such as ‘Geography – An
Monsoon climate that occurs mainly on the Integrated Approach' D. Waugh and associated text
eastern side of the continental land masses in explanation.
the Tropics extending approximately across 5
– 20 degrees of latitude. The climate is VIDEO - Climate and seasons
marked by a distinct hot, wet and a cooler dry
season which is determined by the annual Use the website: http://geographyforone.wordpress.com/itcz-
movement of the ITCZ between the Tropics and-africa/
and associated movement of pressure belts to see an excellent animation of the ITCZ over Africa.
and the seasonal reversal of winds Students can see how the ITCZ moves over Africa and the
consequent upon this. The Monsoon climate resulting seasonal variations in rainfall. Students can click on
117
regime is most clearly seen over India but individual towns and cities to see climate graphs which also
exists in other regions north and south of the show you how rainfall and temperature varies with the
Equator on the eastern edge of continents seasons.
e.g. East Africa. The wet monsoon season
occurs with the movement of the ITCZ into The Monsoon climate regime is best analysed via annotated
the region bringing an area of low pressure climate sketch maps see e.g. 'Geography – An Integrated
and drawing in hot moist winds from off the Approach' D. Waugh and associated text explanation.
ocean. Rainfall is increased by orographic
uplift where these moist winds are drawn over Use the website:
uplands e.g. the Western Ghats in India. http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-
Reference should be made to temperature, level/AQA/Year%2013/Weather%20and%20climate/Tropics/T
precipitation, winds and pressure change. It ropics%20-%20monsoons.htm
would be pleasing to see students offering for details of the Monsoon climate with particular reference to
some supporting statistics in relation to India
temperature and precipitation changes.
Temperatures are high averaging 30 degrees Professor Iain Stewart explains why India’s intense monsoon
centigrade and humidity is also very high - rains only last for three months a year in the summer
average rainfall is around 200cms decreasing http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/atmosphere_and_climate/
with distance inland. Cyclones and hurricanes climate#p00gd4mg
are frequent towards the end of the rainy
season. The cooler dry season coincides with
the extension of continental high pressure as Monsoons – a resource looking at the link between rainfall
the ITCZ moves back towards the Equator and food production in India Teachers notes and Excel data
and across into the tropics beyond. With high sheet
pressure dominating there is air subsidence
and out blowing winds are dry. Temperatures
remain relatively high at 25 plus degrees
centigrade in lowland areas and evaporation
rates are also high.
118
4.5.3 Climate and weather Students need to know and understand the What are the main characteristics of the UK climate and
of the UK climate and weather of the UK (Cool how can they be explained?
temperate western margin climatic type).
This climatic type is characterised by Comprehensive coverage of this focus box available:
relatively mild temperatures (average http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/the-climate-of-the-
seasonal range 5–20ºC), along with high british-isles.html
humidity and precipitation (averaging 600
mm) throughout the year. However, Britain's Weather
precipitation totals are significantly higher http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-
over upland areas in the face of prevailing level/AQA/Year%2013/Weather%20and%20climate/British%2
moist westerly winds coming off the ocean, 0Isles/British-Air%20masses.htm
e.g. in the Cambrian Mountains of Wales.
Conversely, precipitation totals are low in UK weather defies prediction - Jet streams & ocean currents
rain-shadow areas, e.g. lowland East Anglia. mean UK has some of world's most changeable weather
The temperatures and precipitation figures http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/sep/03/uk-weather-
are mainly influenced by the mid-latitude defies-prediction-forecasters
position, low-pressure belt and the mild
westerly prevailing winds. The latter are VIDEO - Why is British weather so unpredictable?
warmed by warm currents, e.g. the Gulf http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17223307
Stream, on the west margin of landmasses.
Students need to know and understand the VIDEO - Why has it been so wet in the
sources and characteristics of air masses UK? http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/18821920
and their influence on the UK’S weather (the
Polar Continental, Polar Maritime, Arctic VIDEO - How the jet stream influences our weather
Maritime, Tropical Maritime and Tropical http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/18869916
Continental air masses). The weather is
strongly influenced by variations in the VIDEO - The link between depressions and jet streams
position, pattern and amplitude of the jet http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/feeds/24354927
stream influencing the passage of westerly-
moving depressions along the polar front, Additional resources include:
119
with intervening spells of anticyclonic
conditions. Mid-latitude weather systems video
(with downloadable resources)
Depression based exercise where students draw contours of
temperature, pressure and precipitation to work out what the
system looks like:
Student worksheets and notes for teachers.
Use WOW data to track a cold front across the UK and work
out its speed.
Mid-latitude weather systems and air masses practical
exercises.
 Current UK weather conditions from NOAA
 UK weather webcams
Students to define the terms ‘air mass’ and ‘source region’
Students to produce a table summarising the effects of air

masses on the weather of the British Isles in both summer
and winter
4.5.4 Extreme weather Students need to know and understand that What are the causes and consequences of recent and
events there is strong evidence that global warming has cyclic climate change?
led to climate change including extreme weather
events. In some locations, the occurrence of For causes of recent changes, extreme weather hazards and
heat waves has more than doubled due to impacts of climate change already observed, impact on food
human influence. production and on security
Increases in heavy precipitation have probably http://www.metlink.org/ipcc-updates-geography-teachers/#8
also occurred over this time, but vary by region.
It is likely that the number of heavy precipitation This is FAQ 2.2 figure 2 from the WG1 report for the 2013
events over land has increased in more regions IPCC 5AR.
120
than it has decreased in since the mid- WG1 FAQ 2.2 Have There Been Any Changes in Climate
20th century. In the future, it is likely that the Extremes?
global frequency of tropical cyclones will WGII FAQ 1 Are risks of climate change mostly due to
decrease or stay the same, although maximum changes in extremes, changes in average climate, or both?
wind speeds and rainfall will increase. WG1 TFE.9 table 1 Global scale assessment of recent
There has been a poleward shift and extreme weather and climate events
intensification of the mid-latitude depressions in From 4AR: Box TS.5 Extreme Weather Events
the North Atlantic from the 1950s to the early
2000s, which is linked to a poleward shift in
Northern Hemisphere jet streams. What makes people vulnerable to extreme weather
On the basis of current evidence about the events?
observed impacts of climate change on
environmental conditions, climate change will be Extreme weather, rising sea levels & altering local climates
an increasingly important cause of human are affecting an increasing number of people globally
insecurity globally in the future. The greater the geographical.co.uk/nature/climate…
impact of climate change, the harder it is to
adapt.
Extreme weather 'keeps people poor'
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24538078
Climate refugees: the communities displaced by global

warming – video gu.com/p/4ba7t/stw
How Climate Change is Behind the Surge of Migrants to
Europe time.com/4024210/climat…
IPCC links
This is Figure 12.3 from the WGII report for the 2014 IPCC
5AR.
WGII FAQ 12.1: What are the principal threats to human
security from climate change?
WGII FAQ 12.3: How many people could be displaced as a
121
result of climate change?
WGII FAQ12.4: What role does migration play in adaptation
to climate change, particularly in vulnerable regions?
WGII FAQ 12.5: Will climate change cause war between
countries?
4.5.5 Impacts and Students need to have knowledge and What are the impacts of hazards associated with both
management of climatic understanding of the term ‘hazard’ and the high-pressure and low-pressure systems?
hazards impacts of hazards associated with low-
pressure and high-pressure systems in either Use the WJEC & Eduqas AS/A Geography (from 2016)
tropical or temperate climates. The definition of a Resources Index for a range of case studies of the impacts of
climatic hazard is an extreme climatic/weather hazards associated with low-pressure and high-pressure
event(s) causing harm and damage to people, systems
property, infrastructure and the environment. It
includes not only the direct impacts of the Use the following links to research the short and long term
climate/weather event itself but also the other effects of Hurricane Katrina and Typhoon Haiyan
(secondary) hazards 'triggered' by that event http://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/katrina
e.g. landslides 'triggered' by torrential rain. The http://www.metlink.org/secondary/haiyan-yolanda/
impact is dependent upon: the severity of the
event and also the path/track and spatial extent Students to categorise the impacts of their selected low- and
of that weather event; the density distribution of high-pressure events into demographic, economic, social and
the people and density and types of human environmental impacts. Impacts can be further categorised on
activity in the areas affected and the the basis of spatial scale (local/regional) and temporal
preparedness and capacity of the authorities and (short/long term)
the people to cope with the impact of the event
(resilience). In tropical regions low-pressure How successful are strategies to manage climatic
systems hurricanes and cyclones are associated hazards?
with torrential rain and high winds triggering
secondary hazards of flooding, tidal waves and For examples of hurricane management see:
122
sea incursions, landslides, mudflows and wind
borne debris. In temperate regions low-pressure VIDEO - Hurricane preparedness series from NHC
systems are associated with severe storms, youtube.com/watch?v=Fq_1Pw…
heavy rainfall/snowfalls and gale force winds
triggering secondary hazards of flooding, sea VIDEO - World's biggest hurricane simulator aims to improve
insurgences (especially where the deep forecasts youtube.com/watch?v=8QHjtO…
depression coincides with a time of very high
tides), landslides and wind borne debris. In Hurricane preparedness - Using app to allow people to
tropical regions high-pressure systems are communicate after a hurricane in Tahiti f-st.co/6o3Qh1B
associated with low rainfall, high evaporation
rates and drought, triggering secondary hazards Remaking New York City. After Hurricane Sandy, the city's
of a falling water table, loss of vegetation, wild plans to mitigate future disaster
fires, soil erosion and desertification. In aljazeera.com/indepth/featur…
temperate regions high-pressure systems result
in low rainfall and drought, triggering secondary VIDEO - Hurricane defences following
hazards in summer of falling water tables and Katrina youtube.com/watch?v=Cp1RWh…
loss of vegetation. In winter high-pressure
systems are associated with frost and fog and Students to use 'yardsticks' by which the strategies may be
secondary hazards may include temperature evaluated:
inversion with air pollution intensifying the fog 1. Balance of coverage of the different stages – prevention,
conditions. Students should have knowledge of immediate emergency measures, reconstruction and
both the short-term and long-term impacts of restoration of services, long-term measures or
low-pressure climatic hazards on the 2. Evaluation on the basis of the finances and human
environment and human activity. These resources available to the agencies involved in the
should be studied with reference to at least one formulation and implementation of strategies at
specific low- pressure event in either a tropical community/local, regional, national and in some cases
or temperate climate. Students should also have international level or
knowledge and understanding of the short-term 3. On the basis of advances in strategy policies and
and long-term impacts of high- pressure implementation of them compared to those in place prior to
climatic hazards on the environment and the last hazard event or
123
human activity. These should be studied with 4. By comparison with strategies in place elsewhere to meet
reference to at least one specific high pressure a similar hazard event e.g. comparison on an area-to-area
event in either a tropical or temperate climate basis or on a wider scale - strategies in lesser-developed
There may be reference to demographic effects countries may be relatively weak when compared to those
at both time scales such as deaths and long- implemented in developed countries or
term migration. Economic effects may analyse 5. Effectiveness on the evidence of how well strategies in
losses in the short term such as cessation of place reduced the impact of an actual event
production and costs of damage in the long
term, such as the effects on economic activity
and infrastructure. Social effects may include Students to discuss the statement:
observations on health, homelessness and ‘Hazards associated with low-pressure systems have short-
bereavement. There may also be consideration term impacts whereas those associated with high-pressure
of the effects on the environment such as systems have long-term impacts’
landslides, deforestation and salinisation. When
discussing the strategies to manage the
impacts of hazards associated with low-pressure Students to discuss the extent to which the damaging effects
and high-pressure systems, students may of low- and high- pressure systems can be minimised
present logically sequenced points progressing
from monitoring, prediction and warning of future
hazards, immediate response to lessen the
impact once it has occurred to long-term
planning for hazard mitigation. Students should
display a grasp of a number of these, but do not
expect all to be considered as students may
choose to use examples that enable only a
limited number of strategies to be discussed.
124
4.5.6 Impacts of human Students need to know and understand that the How does human activity impact the atmosphere in
activities on the atmosphere main impact of human activity on the urban areas?
at local and regional scales atmosphere at both the local and regional scale
is the formation of urban microclimates. The For information on urban microclimates see:
main impact of human activities in urban areas is
to destroy the existing microclimate and create a http://www.metlink.org/teachers/useful-links/#uhi
new one. Urban areas affect all microclimate
variables. Temperatures increase, particularly http://www.field-studies-
during anticyclonic conditions, in the night and in council.org/urbaneco/urbaneco/introduction/microclimate.htm
winter. Wind characteristics are altered,
including wind speed (reduced through friction or http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/urban-climates.html
increased through channelling between tall
buildings) wind direction and turbulence. http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-
Precipitation levels are higher with level/AQA/Year%2013/Weather%20and%20climate/Microclim
thunderstorms and hail more likely. There are ates/Urban_climates.htm
also changes to the hydrology of urban areas in
terms of humidity levels (lower) and How urban heat islands are making India hotter. Urban
evapotranspiration rates (higher). The increase microclimates = health risks
in particulate matter results in a higher http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-
frequency, duration and intensity of fog, a higher matters/2013/jan/09/delhi-mumbai-urban-heat-islands-india
incidence of cloud, and therefore lower amounts
of sunshine. Human activity also induces Students to discuss factors that influence the size, shape and
changes in atmospheric composition, higher intensity of the ‘urban heat island’
concentrations of gases such as carbon dioxide
and sulphur dioxide and particulates leading to For details and examples of impacts of urban areas on air
particulate pollution, photochemical smog quality
and acid rain. http://geographical.co.uk/nature/climate/item/897-the-
Students need to know and understand geography-of-smog
strategies introduced to reduce the impact of
human activity on urban climates, through land http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/School+Members+Area/
125
use planning and improved urban design, and The+carbon+and+water+cycles+climate+and+change/Urban
improve air quality through transport policies, +Air+Pollution+Smog+in+Chinese+Cities.htm
legislation and technological solutions.
Reducing urban heat island effects
http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/urban-climates.html
Improving air quality

http://geographical.co.uk/nature/climate/item/1583-80-000-
saved-annually-by-eu-air-legislation
http://www.iflscience.com/technology/pollution-guzzling-air-
cleaning-buildings
http://www.xprize.org/news/smog-eating-buildings-battle-air-
pollution
MT: Smog-eating bus shelter developed to combat China’s
deadly air pollution bit.ly/1LuJSxy
pic.twitter.com/bZnAy38fSU
Transport policies:
France - Paris to take breath of fresh air with car-free Sunday
pollution m.france24.com/en/20150926-pa…
Transmilenio rapid bus network, Bogota, Colombia

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IjhMQM8eaVY
Copenhagen, Denmark
http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/oct/16/copenhagen-
cycling-innovation-lycra-louts-green-wave-bike-bridges
126
4.5.7 People, climate and Students need to know and understand the What are the possible impacts of anthropogenic climate
the future impact of anthropogenic climate change on change?
shifting climate belts There is a high risk that the
large magnitudes and high rates of climate For changes in Amazon basin
change this century will result in abrupt and Ecosystem Feedbacks from Carbon and Water Cycle
irreversible regional-scale changes to terrestrial Changes
and freshwater ecosystems, especially in the
Amazon and Arctic, leading to additional climate Boreal-tundra biome shift
change. http://www.metlink.org/climate/ipcc-updates-for-a-level-
Amazon forest to transform to less dense, geography/carbon-cycle-feedbacks/#244
drought- and fire-adapted ecosystems. This
would risk reducing biodiversity in an important http://www.metlink.org/climate/ipcc-updates-for-a-level-
ecosystem, and would reduce the amount of geography/tipping-points/
carbon absorbed from the atmosphere through
photosynthesis. It would also reduce the amount The GA have a wide range of teaching ideas and resources
of evaporation, increasing the warming locally. based around investigating climate change at
http://geography.org.uk/resources/investigatingclimatechange
Students need to know and understand the /
concept of reaching atmospheric tipping point, a
critical threshold when global or regional http://geography.org.uk/resources/beacons-climatechange/
climate changes from one stable state to
another stable state. The tipping point event An online, interactive lesson on climate change from NGfL
may or may not be reversible. Cymru and a newer version here for AS/A2 geography (with
links to the WJEC specification). We recommend avoiding the
Students need to know and understand ‘controversies’ sections which could be misleading.
strategies implemented at the international,
national and local level to both mitigate and How successful are strategies to mitigate and adapt to
adapt to climate change. climate change at a variety of scales?
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions in Poland
127
9. Mitigation Strategies
– The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme
– Developing the Indian solar industry
10. Adaptation Strategies
– The impact of three urban policies in Paris on climate
change adaptation and mitigation
http://www.foe.co.uk/campaigns/climate/climate_change_solu
tions.html
http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/climate
http://livinginthefuture.org/episodes/1-introducing-lammas.php
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/gardening-
blog/video/2011/mar/22/lammas-eco-village-off-grid-video
Students to discuss whether it is easier to adapt to climate

change rather than mitigate against it
Climate change updates for geography teachers can be viewed here

128
Fieldwork Opportunities
The list on Appendix C of the specification provides suggestions of fieldwork opportunities that
may be carried out in relation to each theme. These suggestions are designed as guidance in
order to provide starting points and are neither comprehensive nor mandatory.
Additional resources to help place and deliver fieldwork are listed below:
 Water and Carbon cycles

https://www.geography-fieldwork.org/a-level/water-carbon/
 Ecosystems
http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/Fieldwork+and+local+learning/Fieldwork+topics+and+
themes/Physical+geography/Ecosystems.htm
 Weather and Climate
http://resource.download.wjec.co.uk.s3.amazonaws.com/vtc/2013-14/DfES03/hwb/index-
dfes03.html
129
Integrating Skills
Geographical skills in relation to both an equal weighting of quantitative and qualitative skills are
required for A level learners and the list in Appendix A of the specification indicates those selected
for study for all components in this specification. All the skills need to be addressed within these
components but not all will apply to fieldwork. The four required days of fieldwork should contribute
to learners building a holistic and balanced understanding of quantitative and qualitative skills
related to fieldwork and the six-stage enquiry process.
Definitions:
 Quantitative research is “explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are
analysed using mathematically based methods (in particular statistics).”
 Qualitative research seeks to answer questions about why and how people behave in the
way that they do. It provides in-depth information about human behaviour.
Source: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/quantitative-and-qualitative.html
The following book will also provide teaching ideas to integrate the vast majority of required
mathematical skills into your teaching programme:
https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/Product/9781471863554.aspx
Additional guidance:
Qualitative skills
 RGS article
 Learning to analyse qualitative data - online tutorial
Quantitative skills
 I-Use project. Including ‘How to’ video guides and student tasks
 GA ‘How to guides’ Conducting statistical tests in fieldwork
Learners need to develop competence in using the geographical skills specified in the DfE
Geography GCE AS and A Level Subject Content (December 2014) as shown in the 'Integrating
geographical skills in delivery of the core themes' tables in Appendix A of the specification.
130

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GCE AS/A LEVEL

WJEC GCE AS/A LEVEL in

GUIDANCE FOR TEACHING

This Qualifications Wales regulated qualification is not available to centres in England.

The four core themes; knowledge and understanding

1) Water and carbon cycles (A2)

In addition to this guide support is provided in the following ways:

• Specimen papers and mark schemes

Aims of the Guidance for Teaching

Assessment Objectives and their related command words

Define Give the precise meaning of a term, phrase or concept

Identify Point out and name from a number of possibilities

Distinguish Make clear the differences between two or more concepts

Explain Give an account; factual detail eg of a process

Give an Provide accurate evidence (response given demonstrates knowledge

Outline Give a brief summary of the main characteristics

Compare Give a point by point identification of similarities and differences

Contrast Give a point by point identification of differences only

Assess Goes beyond knowledge and understanding to weigh up the importance

Discuss Goes beyond knowledge and understanding to offer a considered

Evaluate Goes beyond knowledge and understanding to evaluate. Requires a

To what Goes beyond a knowledge and understanding to give possible

Calculate Ascertain by reckoning

Draw Draw to represent, an accurate diagram or graph

Identify Point out and name from a number of possibilities

Label Add labels to a diagram

Select Pick out the most appropriate material

Estimate Obtain an approximate mathematical or statistical value

A2 Unit 3: Global Systems and Global Governance

Written examination: 2 hours

Section A: Global Systems

Section B: Global Governance: Change and Challenges

Section C: 21st Century Challenges

A2 Unit 4: Contemporary Themes in Geography

Written examination: 2 hours

Section A: Tectonic Hazards

Section B: Contemporary Themes in Geography

A2 Unit 5: Independent Investigation

Non-exam assessment: 3000 – 4000 words

Additional resource links can also be viewed here

Water and Carbon cycles

Focus Amplification of content Teaching/learning approaches and resources

 This can be taught, or group/pair research work can be

Catchment outputs include evaporation, transpiration and

What factors affect river regimes?

 This resource includes information about the Rhone and

 This is a complex area of science. A relatively simple account

Why is excessive runoff generated in certain climatic zones?

Candidates should have knowledge and understanding of

How is carbon exchanged between the ocean and the

How is carbon exchanged between the continents (land) and

Climatic factors including temperature, precipitation and

 Teaching and learning support is provided in course text

Finally, students should have knowledge of the

Additional resource links can also be viewed here

Focus Amplification of content Teaching/learning approaches and resources

What are the most important factors in creating a shrinking

What have been the recent drivers of migration?