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Op-amp Comparator
The comparator is an electronic decision making circuit that makes use of an operational
amplifiers very high gain in its open-loop state, that is, there is no feedback resistor.

   
The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with
another analogue voltage level, or some preset reference voltage, VREF and
produces an output signal based on this voltage comparison. In other
words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two
voltage inputs and determines which is the largest of the two.
We have seen in previous tutorials that the operational amplifier can be
used with negative feedback to control the magnitude of its output signal in
the linear region performing a variety of different functions. We have also
seen that the standard operational amplifier is characterised by its open-
loop gain AO and that its output voltage is given by the
expression: VOUT = AO(V+ – V-) where V+ and V- correspond to the voltages
at the non-inverting and the inverting terminals respectively.
Voltage comparators on the other hand, either use positive feedback or no
feedback at all (open-loop mode) to switch its output between two
saturated states, because in the open-loop mode the amplifiers voltage
gain is basically equal to AVO. Then due to this high open loop gain, the
output from the comparator swings either fully to its positive supply
rail, +Vcc or fully to its negative supply rail, -Vcc on the application of
varying input signal which passes some preset threshold value.
The open-loop op-amp comparator is an analogue circuit that operates in
its non-linear region as changes in the two analogue
inputs, V+ and V- causes it to behave like a digital bistable device as
triggering causes it to have two possible output states, +Vcc or -Vcc. Then
we can say that the voltage comparator is essentially a 1-bit analogue to
digital converter, as the input signal is analogue but the output behaves
digitally.
Consider the basic op-amp voltage comparator circuit below.

Op-amp Comparator Circuit

With reference to the op-amp comparator circuit above, lets first assume
that VIN is less than the DC voltage level at VREF, ( VIN < VREF ). As the non-
inverting (positive) input of the comparator is less than the inverting
(negative) input, the output will be LOW and at the negative supply
voltage, -Vcc resulting in a negative saturation of the output.
If we now increase the input voltage, VIN so that its value is greater than the
reference voltage VREF on the inverting input, the output voltage rapidly
switches HIGH towards the positive supply voltage, +Vcc resulting in a
positive saturation of the output. If we reduce again the input voltage VIN, so
that it is slightly less than the reference voltage, the op-amp’s output
switches back to its negative saturation voltage acting as a threshold
detector.
Then we can see that the op-amp voltage comparator is a device whose
output is dependant on the value of the input voltage, VIN with respect to
some DC voltage level as the output is HIGH when the voltage on the non-
inverting input is greater than the voltage on the inverting input, and LOW
when the non-inverting input is less than the inverting input voltage. This
condition is true regardless of whether the input signal is connected to the
inverting or the non-inverting input of the comparator.
We can also see that the value of the output voltage is completely
dependent on the op-amps power supply voltage. In theory due to the op-
amps high open-loop gain the magnitude of its output voltage could be
infinite in both directions, (±∞). However practically, and for obvious
reasons it is limited by the op-amps supply rails
giving VOUT = +Vcc or VOUT = -Vcc.
We said before that the basic op-amp comparator produces a positive or
negative voltage output by comparing its input voltage against some preset
DC reference voltage. Generally, a resistive voltage divider is used to set
the input reference voltage of a comparator, but a battery source, zener
diode or potentiometer for a variable reference voltage can all be used as
shown.

Comparator Reference Voltages

In theory the comparators reference voltage can be set to be anywhere

between 0v and the supply voltage but there are practical limitations on the
actual voltage range depending on the op-amp comparator being device
used.

Positive and Negative Voltage Comparators

A basic op-amp comparator circuit can be used to detect either a positive
or a negative going input voltage depending upon which input of the
operational amplifier we connect the fixed reference voltage source and the
input voltage too. In the examples above we have used the inverting input
to set the reference voltage with the input voltage connected to the non-
inverting input.
But equally we could connect the inputs of the comparator the other way
around inverting the output signal to that shown above. Then an op-amp
comparator can be configured to operate in what is called an inverting or a
non-inverting configuration.

Positive Voltage Comparator

The basic configuration for the positive voltage comparator, also known as
a non-inverting comparator circuit detects when the input signal, VIN is
ABOVE or more positive than the reference voltage, VREF producing an
output at VOUT which is HIGH as shown.

Non-inverting Comparator Circuit

In this non-inverting configuration, the reference voltage is connected to the

inverting input of the operational amplifier with the input signal connected to
the non-inverting input. To keep things simple, we have assumed that the
two resistors forming the potential divider network are equal
and: R1 = R2 = R. This will produce a fixed reference voltage which is one
half that of the supply voltage, that is Vcc/2, while the input voltage is
variable from zero to the supply voltage.
When VIN is greater than VREF, the op-amp comparators output will saturate
towards the positive supply rail, Vcc. When VIN is less than VREF the op-amp
comparators output will change state and saturate at the negative supply
rail, 0v as shown.

Negative Voltage Comparator

The basic configuration for the negative voltage comparator, also known as
an inverting comparator circuit detects when the input signal, VIN is BELOW
or more negative than the reference voltage, VREF producing an output
at VOUT which is HIGH as shown.
Inverting Comparator Circuit

In the inverting configuration, which is the opposite of the positive

configuration above, the reference voltage is connected to the non-inverting
input of the operational amplifier while the input signal is connected to the
inverting input. Then when VIN is less than VREF the op-amp comparators
output will saturate towards the positive supply rail, Vcc.
Likewise the reverse is true, when VIN is greater than VREF, the op-amp
comparators output will change state and saturate towards the negative
supply rail, 0v.
Then depending upon which op-amp inputs we use for the signal and the
reference voltage, we can produce an inverting or non-inverting output. We
can take this idea of detecting either a negative or positive going signal one
step further by combining the two op-amp comparator circuits above to
produce a window comparator circuit.

Window Comparator
A Window Comparator is basically the inverting and the non-inverting
comparators above combined into a single comparator stage. The window
comparator detects input voltage levels that are within a specific band
or window of voltages, instead of indicating whether a voltage is greater or
less than some preset or fixed voltage reference point.
This time, instead of having just one reference voltage value, a window
comparator will have two reference voltages implemented by a pair of
voltage comparators. One which triggers an op-amp comparator on
detection of some upper voltage threshold, VREF(UPPER) and one which triggers
an op-amp comparator on detection of a lower voltage threshold
level, VREF(LOWER). Then the voltage levels between these two upper and lower
reference voltages is called the “window”, hence its name.
Using our idea above of a voltage divider network, if we now use three
equal value resistors so that R1 = R2 = R3 = R we can create a very simple
window comparator circuit as shown. Also as the resistive values are all
equal, the voltage drops across each resistor will also be equal at one-third
the supply voltage, 1/3Vcc. So for ease in this simple window comparator
example, we can set the upper reference voltage to 2/3Vcc and the lower
reference voltage to 1/3Vcc.
Consider the window comparator circuit below.

Window Comparator Circuit

The inital switching condition of the circuit is the open-collector output of

op-amp A1 “OFF” with the open-collector output of op-amp A2, “ON” (sinking
current) so VOUT is equal to 0V.
When VIN is below the lower voltage level, VREF(LOWER) which equates to 1/3Vcc,
VOUT will be LOW. When VIN exceeds this 1/3Vcc lower voltage level, the first
op-amp comparator detects this and switches its open-collector output
HIGH. This means that both op-amps have their outputs HIGH at the same
time. No current flows through the pull-up resistor RL so VOUT is equal to Vcc.
As VIN continues to increase it passes the upper voltage
level, VREF(UPPER) at 2/3Vcc. At this point the second op-amp comparator
detects this and switches its output LOW and VOUT becomes equal to 0V.
Then the difference between VREF(UPPER) and VREF(LOWER) (which is 2/3Vccc –
1/3Vcc in this example) creates the switching window for the positive going
signal.
Lets now assume that VIN is at its maximum value and equal to Vcc.
As VIN decreases it passes the upper voltage level VREF(UPPER) of the second
op-amp comparator which switches the output HIGH. As VIN continues to
decrease it passes the lower voltage level, VREF(LOWER) of the first op-amp
comparator once again switching the output LOW.
Then the difference between VREF(UPPER) and VREF(LOWER) creates the window for
the negative going signal. So we can see that as VIN passes above or
passes below the upper and lower reference levels set by the two op-amp
comparators, the output signal VOUT will be HIGH or LOW.
In this simple example we have set the upper trip level at 2/3Vcc and the
lower trip level at 1/3Vcc (because we used three equal value resistors),
but can be any values we choose by adjusting the input thresholds. As a
result, the window width can be customized for a given application.
If we used a dual power supply and set the upper and lower trip levels to
say ±10 volts and VIN was a sinusoidal waveform, then we could use this
window comparator circuit as a zero crossing detector of the sine wave
which would produce an output, HIGH or LOW every time the sine wave
crossed the zero volts line from positive to negative or negative to positive.
We can take this idea of detecting voltage levels further by connecting a
number of different op-amp comparators together with them all using a
common input signal, but with each comparator using a different reference
voltage set by our now familiar voltage divider network across the supply.
Consider the voltage level detector circuit below.

Comparator Voltage Level Detector

As above, the voltage divider network provides a set of reference voltages
for the individual op-amp comparator circuits. To produce the four
reference voltages will require five resistors. The junction at the bottom pair
of resistors will produce a reference voltage that is one-fifth the supply
voltage, 1/5Vcc using equal value resistors. The second pair 2/5Vcc, a third
pair 3/5Vcc and so on, with these reference voltages increasing by a fixed
amount of one-fifth (1/5) towards 5/5Vcc which is actually Vcc.
As the common input voltage increases, the output of each op-amp
comparator circuit switches in turn thereby turning OFF the connected LED
starting with the lower comparator, A4 and upwards towards A1 as the input
voltage increases. So by setting the values of the resistors in the voltage
divider network, the comparators can be configured to detect any voltage
level. One good example of the use of voltage level detection and
indication would be for a battery condition monitor by reversing the LED’s
and connecting them to 0V (ground) instead of VCC.
Also by increasing the number of op-amp comparators in the set, more
trigger points can be created. So for example, if we had eight op-amp
comparators in the chain and fed the output of each comparator to an 8-to-
3 line Digital Encoder, we could make a very simple analogue-to-digital
converter, (ADC) that would convert the analogue input signal into a 3-bit
binary code (0-to-7).
Op-amp Comparator with Positive Feedback
We have seen here that operational amplifiers can be configured to operate
as comparators in their open-loop mode, and this is fine if the input signal
varies rapidly or is not too noisy. However if the input signal, VIN is slow to
change or electrical noise is present, then the op-amp comparator may
oscillate switching its output back and forth between the two saturation
states, +Vcc and -Vcc as the input signal hovers around the reference
voltage, VREF level. One way to overcome this problem and to avoid the op-
amp from oscillating is to provide positive feedback around the comparator.
As its name implies, positive feedback is a technique for feeding back a
part or fraction of the output signal that is in phase to the non-inverting
input of the op-amp via a potential divider set up by two resistors with the
amount of feedback being proportional to their ratio.
The use of positive feedback around an op-amp comparator means that
once the output is triggered into saturation at either level, there must be a
significant change to the input signal VIN before the output switches back to
the original saturation point. This difference between the two switching
points is called hysteresis producing what is commonly called a Schmitt
trigger circuit. Consider the inverting comparator circuit below.

Inverting Op-amp Comparator with Hysteresis

For the inverting comparator circuit above, VIN is applied to the inverting

input of the op-amp. Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider network
across the comparator providing the positive feedback with part of the
output voltage appearing at the non-inverting input. The amount of
feedback is determined by the resistive ratio of the two resistors used and
which is given as:

Voltage Divider Equation

Where: β (beta) can be used to indicate the feedback fraction.
When the input signal is less than the reference voltage, VIN < VREF, the
output voltage will be HIGH, VOH and equal to the positive saturation
voltage. As the output is HIGH and positive, the value of the reference
voltage on the non-inverting input will be approximately equal
to: +β*Vcc called the Upper Trip Point or UTP.
As the input signal, VIN increases it becomes equal too this upper trip point
voltage, VUTP level at the non-inverting input. This causes the comparators
output to change state becoming LOW, VOL and equal to the negative
saturation voltage as before.
But the difference this time is that a second trip point voltage value is
created because a negative voltage now appears at the non-inverting input
which is equal to: -β*Vcc as a result of the negative saturation voltage at
the output. Then the input signal must now fall below this second voltage
level, called the Lower Trip Point or LTP for the voltage comparators output
to change or switch back to its original positive state.
So we can see that when the output changes state, the reference voltage
at the non-inverting input also changes creating two different reference
voltage values and two different switching points. One point being called
the Upper Trip Point (UTP), while the other is called the Lower Trip
Point (LTP). The difference between these two trip points is known
as Hysteresis.
The amount of hysteresis is determined by the feedback fraction, β of the
output voltage fed back to the non-inverting input. The advantage of
positive feedback is that the resulting comparator Schmitt trigger circuit is
immune to erratic triggering caused by noise or slowly changing input
signals within the hysteresis band producing a cleaner output signal as the
op-amp comparators output is only triggered once.
So for positive output voltages, VREF = +β*Vcc, but for negative output
voltages, VREF = -β*Vcc. Then we can say that the amount of voltage
hysteresis will be given as:
We can also produce a non-inverting op-amp comparator circuit with built in
hysteresis by changing the input and reference terminals as shown:

Non-inverting Op-amp Comparator with Hysteresis

Note that the arrows on the hysteresis graph indicate the direction of
switching at the upper and lower trip points.

Comparator Example No1

An operational amplifier is to be used with positive feedback to produce a
Schmitt trigger circuit. If resistor, R1 = 10kΩ and resistor, R2 = 90kΩ, what
will be the values of the upper and lower switching points of the reference
voltage and the width of the hysteresis if the op-amp is connected to a
dual ±10v power supply.
Given: R1 = 10kΩ, R2 = 90kΩ. Power supply +Vcc = 10v and -Vcc = 10v.

Feedback Fraction:

Upper Voltage Trip Point, VUTP

Lower Voltage Trip Point, VLTP

Hysteresis width:

Then the reference voltage VREF, switches between +1V and -1V as the

output saturates from one level to the other. Hopefully we can see from this
simple example that the width of this hysteresis, 2 volts in total, can be
made larger or smaller simply by adjusting the voltage divider ratio of the
feedback resistors R1 and R2.

The Voltage Comparator

Although we can use operational amplifiers such as the 741 as a basic
comparator circuit, the problem with this is that op-amps are only optimised
for linear operation. That is where the input terminals are at virtually the
same voltage level and its output stage is designed to produce a linear
output voltage that is not saturated for long periods of time. Also standard
operational amplifiers are designed to be used in closed-loop applications
with negative feedback from its output to its inverting input.
A dedicated voltage comparator on the other hand is a non-linear device
that allows for heavy saturation, due to its very high gain, when the input
signals differs by a relatively small amount. The difference between an op-
amp comparator and a voltage comparator is in the output stage as a
standard op-amp has an output stage that is optimized for linear operation,
while the output stage of a voltage comparator is optimized for continuous
saturated operation as it is always intended to be close to one supply rail or
the other and not in between.
Commercial comparators such as the LM311 single comparator, the LM339
quad comparator or the LM393 dual differential comparator, are voltage
comparators which come in a standard IC package operating from a single
or dual supply. These dedicated voltage comparators are designed for the
sole purpose of switching the output very quickly from one saturated state
the another as the transistors used for a voltage comparators output stage
are generally switching transistors.
Since voltage comparators convert a linear input signal into a digital output
signal, they are commonly used to connect two dissimilar electrical signals
with different supply or reference voltages. As a result the output stage of
the voltage comparator is generally configured as a single open collector
(or Drain) transistor switch with open or closed states rather than actual
output voltages as shown.

Voltage Comparator Circuit

Here, the open collector output from the voltage comparator is connected
to a voltage source via a single pull-up resistor (and an LED for indication)
which pulls the single output high to the power supply. When the output
switch is HIGH it creates a high impedance path, therefore no current flows
as VOUT = Vcc.
When the comparator changes state and the output switch is LOW, it
creates a low impedance path to ground and current flows through the pull-
up resistor (and LED) causing a voltage drop across itself with the output
being pulled to the lower supply level, ground in this case.
Then we can see that there is very little difference between the schematic
symbol of an op-amp comparator and a voltage comparator or their internal
circuits. The main difference is in the output stage with the open collector or
drain configuration is useful for driving relays, lamps, etc. By driving a
transistor from the output allows for a greater switching current capacity
than that of the comparators output alone.

Op-amp Comparator Summary

In this tutorial about the Op-amp Comparator we have seen that a
comparator circuit is basically an operational amplifier without feedback,
that is, the op-amp is used in its open-loop configuration, and when the
input voltage, VIN exceeds a preset reference voltage, VREF, the output
changes state.
Due to the very high open-loop gain of the operational amplifier, using it
with positive feedback or even with no feedback at all causes the output to
saturate to its supply rail producing one of two distinct output voltages
depending on the relative values of its two inputs. This bistable behaviour is
non-linear and forms the basis of op-amp comparator and Schmitt trigger
circuits.
The output stages of dedicated comparators, such as the single LM311, the
dual LM393 or the quad LM339 are designed to operate in their saturation
regions allowing these voltage comparator circuits to be widely used in
analogue-to-digital converter applications and for various types of voltage
level detection circuits.
The erratic switching behaviour of an open-loop comparator can be easily
overcome by adding positive feedback between the output and input of the
comparator. With positive feedback, the circuit has hysteresis with the
output switching occurring between two different switching points, UTP and
LTP.
Op-amp window comparators are a type of voltage comparator circuit
which uses two op-amp comparators to produce a two-state output that
indicates whether or not the input voltage is within a particular range or
window of values by using two reference voltages. An upper reference
voltage and a lower reference voltage.
While operational amplifiers and comparators may look similar, they are
very different and designed to be used in different applications as an op-
amp may be used as a comparator, a voltage comparator can not be used
as an op-amp due to its non-linear output stage.
We know from previous tutorials that an operational amplifier is an
analogue device with a differential analogue input and an analogue output
and if operated in its open-loop configuration its output acts like a
comparator output. But dedicated voltage comparators (LM311, LM393,
LM339) are widely available which will perform much better than a
standard op-amp comparator.
Home / Operational Amplifiers / Op-amp Multivibrator

Op-amp Multivibrator
The Op-amp Multivibrator is a non-inverting op-amp circuit that produces its own input
signal with the aid of an RC feedback network

   
The Operational Amplifier or Op-amp for short, is a very versatile device
that can be used in a variety of different electronic circuits and applications,
from voltage amplifiers, to filters, to signal conditioners. But one very simple
and extremely useful op-amp circuit based around any general purpose
operational amplifier is the Astable Op-amp Multivibrator.
We saw in our tutorials about Sequential Logic that multivibrator circuits
can be constructed using transistors, logic gates or from dedicated chips
such as the NE555 timer. We also saw that the astable multivibrator
switches continuously between its two unstable states without the need for
any external triggering.
But the problem with using these components to produce an astable
multivibrator circuit is that for transistor based astables, many additional
components are required, digital astables can generally only be used in
digital circuits, and the use of a 555 timer may not always give us a
symmetrical output without additional biasing components. The Op-amp
Multivibrator circuit however, can provide us with a good rectangular wave
signal with the use of just four components, three resistors and a timing
capacitor.
The Op-amp Multivibrator is an astable oscillator circuit that generates a
rectangular output waveform using an RC timing network connected to the
inverting input of the operational amplifier and a voltage divider network
connected to the other non-inverting input.
Unlike the monostable or bistable, the astable multivibrator has two states,
neither of which are stable as it is constantly switching between these two
states with the time spent in each state controlled by the charging or
discharging of the capacitor through a resistor.
In the op-amp multivibrator circuit the op-amp works as an analogue
comparator. An op-amp comparator compares the voltages on its two
inputs and gives a positive or negative output depending on whether the
input is greater or less than some reference value, VREF.
However, because the open-loop op-amp comparator is very sensitive to
the voltage changes on its inputs, the output can switch uncontrollably
between its positive, +V(sat) and negative, -V(sat) supply rails whenever
the input voltage being measured is near to the reference voltage, VREF.
To eliminate any erratic or uncontrolled switching operations, the op-amp
used in the multivibrator circuit is configured as a closed-loop Schmitt
Trigger circuit. Consider the circuit below.

Op-amp Schmitt Comparator

 
The op-amp comparator circuit above is configured as a Schmitt trigger that
uses positive feedback provided by resistors R1 and R2 to generate
hysteresis. As this resistive network is connected between the amplifiers
output and non-inverting (+) input, when Vout is saturated at the positive
supply rail, a positive voltage is applied to the op-amps non-inverting input.
Likewise, when Vout is saturated to the negative supply rail, a negative
voltage is applied to the op-amps non-inverting input.
As the two resistors are configured across the op-amps output as a voltage
divider network, the reference voltage, Vref will therefore be dependant
upon the fraction of output voltage fed back to the non-inverting input. This
feedback fraction, β is given as:

 
Where +V(sat) is the positive op-amp DC saturation voltage and -V(sat) is
the negative op-amp DC saturation voltage.
Then we can see that the positive or upper reference voltage, +Vref (i.e.
the maximum positive value for the voltage at the inverting input) is given
as: +Vref = +V(sat)β while the negative or lower reference voltage (i.e. the
maximum negative value for the voltage at the inverting input) is given as: -
Vref = -V(sat)β.
So if Vin exceeds +Vref, the op-amp switches state and the output voltage
drops to its negative DC saturation voltage. Likewise when the input
voltage falls below -Vref, the op-amp switches state once again and the
output voltage will switch from the negative saturation voltage back to the
positive DC saturation voltage. The amount of built-in hysteresis given by
the Schmitt comparator as it switches between the two saturation voltages
is defined by the difference between the two trigger reference voltages
as: VHYSTERESIS = +Vref – (-Vref).

Sinusoidal to Rectangular Conversion

One of the many uses of a Schmitt trigger comparator, other than as an op-
amp multivibrator, is that we can use it to convert any periodic sinusoidal
waveform into a rectangular waveform providing the value of the sinusoid is
greater than the voltage reference point.
In fact the Schmitt comparator will always produce a rectangular output
waveform independent of the input signal waveform. In other words, the
voltage input does not have to be a sinusoid, it could be any wave shape or
complex waveform. Consider the circuit below.

Sinusoidal to Rectangular Converter

 
As the input waveform will be periodical and have an amplitude sufficiently
greater than its reference voltage, Vref, the output rectangular waveform
will always have the same period, T and therefore frequency, ƒ as the input
waveform.
By replacing either resistor R1 or R2 with a potentiometer we could adjust
the feedback fraction, β and therefore the reference voltage value at the
non-inverting input to cause the op-amp to change state anywhere from
zero to 90o of each half cycle so long as the reference
voltage, Vref remained below the maximum amplitude of the input signal.

Op-amp Multivibrator
We can take this idea of converting a periodic waveform into a rectangular
output one step further by replacing the sinusoidal input with an RC timing
circuit connected across the op-amps output. This time, instead of a
sinusoidal waveform being used to trigger the op-amp, we can use the
capacitors charging voltage, Vc to change the output state of the op-amp
as shown.

Op-amp Multivibrator Circuit

 
So how does it work. Firstly lets assume that the capacitor is fully
discharged and the output of the op-amp is saturated at the positive supply
rail. The capacitor, C starts to charge up from the output
voltage, Vout through resistor, R at a rate determined by their RC time
constant.
We know from our tutorials about RC circuits that the capacitor wants to
charge up fully to the value of Vout (which is +V(sat)) within five time
constants. However, as soon as the capacitors charging voltage at the op-
amps inverting (-) terminal is equal to or greater than the voltage at the
non-inverting terminal (the op-amps output voltage fraction divided between
resistors R1 and R2), the output will change state and be driven to the
opposing negative supply rail.
But the capacitor, which has been happily charging towards the positive
supply rail (+V(sat)), now sees a negative voltage, -V(sat) across its plates.
This sudden reversal of the output voltage causes the capacitor to
discharge toward the new value of Vout at a rate dictated again by
their RC time constant.

Op-amp Multivibrator Voltages

 
Once the op-amps inverting terminal reaches the new negative reference
voltage, -Vref at the non-inverting terminal, the op-amp once again
changes state and the output is driven to the opposing supply rail
voltage, +V(sat). The capacitor now see’s a positive voltage across its
plates and the charging cycle begins again. Thus, the capacitor is
constantly charging and discharging creating an astable op-amp
multivibrator output.
The period of the output waveform is determined by the RC time constant
of the two timing components and the feedback ratio established by the R1,
R2 voltage divider network which sets the reference voltage level. If the
positive and negative values of the amplifiers saturation voltage have the
same magnitude, then t1 = t2 and the expression to give the period of
oscillation becomes:

 
Where: R is Resistance, C is Capacitance, ln( ) is the Natural Logarithm of
the feedback fraction, T is periodic time in seconds, and ƒ is oscillation
Frequency in Hz.
Then we can see from the above equation that the frequency of oscillation
for an Op-amp Multivibrator circuit not only depends upon the RC time
constant but also upon the feedback fraction. However, if we used resistor
values that gave a feedback fraction of 0.462, (β = 0.462), then the
frequency of oscillation of the circuit would be equal to just 1/2RC as shown
because the linear log term becomes equal to one.

Op-amp Multivibrator Example No1

An op-amp multivibrator circuit is constructed using the following
components. R1 = 35kΩ, R2 = 30kΩ, R = 50kΩ and C = 0.01uF. Calculate
the circuits frequency of oscillation.

 
Then the frequency of oscillation is calculated as 1kHz. When β = 0.462,
this frequency can be calculated directly as: ƒ = 1/2RC. Also when the two
feedback resistors are the same, that is R1 = R2, the feedback fraction is
equal to 3 and the frequency of oscillation becomes: ƒ = 1/2.2RC.
We can take this op-amp multivibrator circuit one step further by replacing
one of the feedback resistors with a potentiometer to produce a variable
frequency op-amp multivibrator as shown.

Variable Op-amp Multivibrator

 
By adjusting the central potentiometer between β1 and β2 the output
frequency will change by the following amounts.
Potentiometer wiper at β1

Potentiometer wiper at β2

 
Then in this simple example we can produce an operational amplifier
multivibrator circuit that can produce a variable output rectangular
waveform from 100Hz to 1.2kHz, or any frequency range we require just by
changing the RC component values.
We have seen above that an Op-amp Multivibrator circuit can be
constructed using a standard operational amplifier, such as the 741, and a
few additional components. These voltage controlled non-sinusoidal
relaxation oscillators are generally limited to a few hundred kilo-hertz (kHz)
because the op-amp does not have the required bandwidth, but
nevertheless they still make excellent oscillators.