A Practical Introductory

Guide on Using Satellite

Technology for Communications
Table of Contents 2002

2. Executive Summary
3. Communications Satellites: “Bent Pipes,”
Mirrors and Multipoint Broadcasters

3. The Satellite’s Orbital Location:

Geostationary and Geosynchronous

4. The Benefits of Using Satellite

5. Satellite Architecture
6. Bands and Beams
7. Bandwidth and Power
7. Shared and Dedicated Capacity
8. Ground Installation
9. Network Topologies
12. Determining Which Service to Use: Contact Intelsat
13. Resources
14. Glossary of Terms Used in This Primer
 Executive Summary
Satellites can provide global, ubiquitous and multipoint communications. Not
surprisingly, satellite technology has become a flexible and cost-effective solution for
domestic and international networks, irrespective of the user’s geographic location.
Wireline and wireless lack this ability to leap across continents and oceans, often
linking some of the world’s most remote spots.

Satellite technology can thus become a solution for some of the most complicated
access problems, connecting cities across a large landmass, where copper or fiber
would be cost prohibitive. Bringing broadband to the “last mile” of residences and
businesses. Overcoming regulatory issues that make alternative carriers dependent
on incumbents.

Satellites also have a major role to play in designing, developing and expanding
a network. With a satellite and Earth Stations, you can create a network on a
permanent or interim basis much more rapidly than “laying cable.” An interim
station will even let you test a market or provide emergency service prior to a major
infrastructure investment. You can also rapidly scale and re-provision a satellite-based
network to meet increasing and changing needs.

The benefits of satellite communications have steadily expanded its usage. Today,
satellites’ diverse purposes encompass wide area network communication, cellular
backhaul, Internet trunking, television broadcasting and rural telephony. Satellites are
also on the frontiers of such advanced applications as telemedicine, distance learning,
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and video on demand (VOD).

Intelsat has created this Primer to provide an introduction to the technology used
in satellite networks. Our intention is help you understand, in general terms, why
and how satellite technology might meet your needs. For more information, we
invite you to talk to our experts and discuss your specific requirements. We hope
this introductory material will be useful to you in meeting the challenges ahead in
your network.

2
Communications Satellites: “Bent Pipes,” For example, Intelsat satellite 805 is currently located at
304.5ºE. The geographic area that the satellite can transmit
Mirrors and Multipoint Broadcasters to, or receive from, is called the satellite’s “footprint.”
A satellite is essentially a space-based receiving and trans- Customers can review the areas covered by any of
mitting radio. In other words, it sends electromagnetic Intelsat’s satellites by examining coverage maps available
waves, carrying information over distances without the at: www.intelsat.com/satellites/satellites_coveragemaps.asp
use of wires. Since its function is to transmit information Satellites have an expected life of 10-15 years. As they
from one point on Earth to one or more other points, it reach the end of their planned use, an option is to
actually functions as a “radio-frequency repeater.” conserve on the large amount of propellant used to keep
A satellite receives radio-frequency signals, uplinked from the satellite from drifting on its North-South axis. The
a satellite dish on the Earth, known as an Earth Station satellite can then move into “Inclined Orbit” (IO — an
or Antenna1. It then amplifies the signals, changes the orbit “inclined” to the equator rather than fixed above it).
frequency and retransmits them on a downlink frequency Since the satellite remains in its East-West location relative
to one or more Earth Stations. to the Prime Meridian, it will not disturb other orbiting
equipment. An IO satellite moves in a figure eight around
Satellites are thus often described as a mirror or a “bent
its nominal slot. This technique helps to conserve fuel and
pipe” in the sky. The “bent pipe” analogy, however,
can extend the useful life of a satellite.
does not describe one of the main communications
advantages of a satellite: its unique ability to support Since a satellite in an Inclined Orbit is not in a 24-hour
point-to-multipoint communications. fixed beaming position, it requires tracking equipment
at the Earth Station to follow its beam. To compensate
for the cost of the tracking equipment, an operator may
The Satellite’s Orbital Location: lower the cost of the less desirable and less efficient fuel
Geostationary and Geosynchronous capacity. The trade-off in life extension may well make
As you can see, the challenge of “uplinking” and “down- this discounting worthwhile.
linking” requires a very predictable relationship between
the satellite and the Earth Station. The simplest situation
is one in which both the spacecraft and terrestrial antenna Figure 1 — Footprint of Intelsat 805 at 304.5º
remain in a fixed position with regard to each other.
Otherwise one would necessarily keep the antenna
continually moving to keep up with the satellite’s orbit.
That is why most communication satellites in use today are
geostationary. The satellite remains stationary over the
same spot on the surface of the earth (geo) at all times.
It stays fixed in the sky relative to the Earth’s surface.
These satellites orbit the earth geosynchronously (i.e.
“they move in synch with the Earth’s rotation.”). They
orbit over the Earth’s equator at an altitude of approxi-
mately 36,000 kilometers or 22,000 miles up. At this height,
one complete trip around the Earth (relative to the sun)
is basically equivalent to 24 hours on Earth. The precise
alignment of longitude, latitude and altitude ensures that
the satellite “hovers” in direct line with its Earth Stations
at all times. In this orbit, a single geostationary satellite
can “see” or “beam to” approximately 40 percent of the
Earth’s surface.
The geosynchronous location of the satellite is referred
to as the “orbital location” and is normally measured in
terms of degrees East (ºE) from the Prime Meridian of 0º.
1
The terms ”Earth Station” and ”Antenna” are often used interchangeably in the satellite industry. However, technically, an antenna
is part of an Earth Station. An Earth Station may be composed of many antennas.

3
The Benefits of Using Satellite Temporary Network Solutions. For temporary locations, or
mobile applications, such as news gathering, homeland
Communications satellites have distinct benefits over security or military activities, satellite can often provide the
terrestrial alternatives: only practical solution for getting necessary information out.
Ubiquitous Coverage. A small group or constellation of Total Network Management. Satellite can provide a single-
satellites can cover virtually all of the inhabited Earth’s tier, end-to-end backbone infrastructure. Meanwhile,
surface. Even one satellite can cover a much vaster number terrestrial facilities may be managed by multiple organiza-
of potential subscribers than any terrestrial network. tions. From this perspective, satellites also provide a ”truly
Consistent Quality of Service (QoS). Essentially, satellites private” network, entirely under the operator’s control.
can deliver consistent quality of service to an almost A Long-South Solution for the Last Mile. The biggest
infinite number of locations, regardless of geography. problem with the last mile is getting the high-bandwidth
Whereas terrestrial IP networks are often a mixture of capabilities available in the long-distance networks
different networks and topologies, with different levels to the residence or small business. Network operators
of congestion and latency, the predictability of satellite ”over-built” the long-distance arena (a relatively easy
networks provides a constant, uniform QoS. In a terrestrial equipment task) without improving capacity for the
packet network, variations in the level of congestion and access arena between central office and home. By being
latency can cause problems such as packet “jitter,” requiring independent of terrestrial equipment factors, satellite can
large equipment buffers to avoid degradation of the voice provide cost-effective multipoint access, either to the CO
quality. On the other hand, the predictability of satellite or directly to the home.
latency levels provides a much more consistent QoS.
Rapid Provisioning of New Services. Since satellite solutions
Infrastructure Building. Satellite service can be offered can be set up quickly, you can be fast-to-market with
in areas where there is no terrestrial infrastructure and new services. For the most part, you can re-provision
the costs of deploying a fiber or microwave network are or expand services electronically without the customary
prohibitive. It can also support services in areas where ”truck rolls” of traditional terrestrial networks. As a result,
existing infrastructure is outdated or insufficient. you can decrease capital expenditures while realizing
Cost Predictability. Satellite communication is distance revenues earlier.
insensitive, thus providing cost predictability. Of course, all communications satellite networks are not
Traffic Bypass. Satellite can provide additional bandwidth alike. To realize these general advantages, it is helpful
to divert traffic from congested areas, to provide overflow to know the elements of satellite architecture. While the
during peak usage periods and to provide redundancy in structure of a communications satellite remains the same,
the case of terrestrial network outages. By being wholly its capacity and frequency bands will vary according to
independent of a wireline infrastructure, satellite is the your needs.
only ”truly diverse” communication alternative.
Scalability and Reconfigurability. Satellite connections
and Earth Stations are extremely scalable. In contrast to
terrestrial alternatives, they can be deployed quickly and
inexpensively, enabling rapid network build-out. You can
easily reconfigure satellite networks to match changing
user demand. Satellite ground equipment also provides
unparalleled flexibility because you can install it on an
interim basis, to test new markets or to keep communica-
tions going in an emergency. As demand increases or an
emergency stabilizes, you can re-deploy the equipment to
another area and, for a new market, replace the satellite
network with a permanent terrestrial presence. As an
emergency stabilizes, you can re-deploy the equipment
to another area.

4
Satellite Architecture individual customers, depending on the customer applica-
tion. A single transponder is capable of handling up to 155
Communications data passes through the satellite using a million bits of information per second. With this immense
signal path known as a ”transponder.” Typically satellites capacity, today’s communication satellites are an ideal
have between 24 and 72 transponders. Transponders may medium for transmitting and receiving almost any kind of
be shared between many customers, in a ”demand access” content, from simple voice or data to the most complex
environment, or segments of capacity may be dedicated to and bandwidth-intensive video, audio and Internet content.

Figure 2 — Diagrammatic Representation of a Satellite

Propulsion System

Telemetry, Attitude Control, Commanding

Solar Arrays Fuel, Batteries Solar Arrays
Power/Thermal Systems

{
Down- High Power
converter Amplifier

Communications Transponder Pre- Transponder

Receiver Section Filter Transmitter Section
Payload amplifier

Filter

Uplink Downlink

USA Tanzania
Earth Stations/ Antennas

5
Bands and Beams than global also allows satellites to employ frequency reuse
to increase capacity. Intelsat offers Defined Connectivity
Satellites transmit information within ”frequency bands.” Services with the following beam types:
The primary commercial frequency bands currently in use
■ C-Band Global
are C-band and Ku-band. Over the next several years, the
use of a new frequency band known as Ka-band is expected ■ C-Band Hemi
to increase. Generally C-band operates in the 4-6 GHz ■ C-Band Zone
range and is mostly used for fixed services such as
■ Ku-Band Spot
ship-to-shore communications and mobile feeder links.
A ”global” beam essentially means that the radiated power
Ku-band operates in the 11-14 GHz range and is generally
of the satellite beam is directed at the equator and spreads
used for fixed services such as Very Small Aperture Terminal
outward. The global beam provides widespread coverage.
(VSAT), a network, serving homes and small businesses,
However it provides less power than a concentrated beam.
that uses a small transceiver directly linked to a satellite
This means that a larger antenna must be used with a
in a Star topology. Ku-band serves Internet trunking and
global beam. For this reason, global beams tend to be
video distribution applications. Ka-band operates in the
used by carriers who require coverage not available with
18-30 GHz range largely for broadband applications2.
other beams, or require multiple points within a large
There is a trade-off between the size of the geographic coverage area, and have access to a large antenna, either
area in which signals can be transmitted or received and via their own facilities or via a shared hub. Intelsat offers
the amount of power that can be used to send or receive the option for higher-powered global beams on some
the signal. Therefore, modern satellites support a variety satellites that can support smaller antennas; small antennas
of ”beam” types to allow the satellite to focus its power at are generally lower cost and require less physical space.
different levels to particular locations. Use of beams other

Figure 3 — Satellite Frequency Bands

Band Intelsat’s Uplink Intelsat’s Downlink Comments

Frequency Frequency
C-Band 5850 to 6650 MHz 3400 to 4200 MHz Transmissions are immune to atmospheric conditions
such as snow and rain. However, C-band transmissions
have low power, so Earth Stations must be rather
large to compensate, typically 4.5 to 18 meters
in diameter. Applications include public switched
networks and Internet trunking.

Ku-Band 13.74 to 14.5 GHz 10.95 to 12.75 GHz The Ku-spectrum has higher power than C-band,
allowing for smaller Earth Stations to be used
(4 meters in diameter or less). However the higher
frequency of Ku-band makes it more susceptible
to adverse weather conditions than C-band.
Ku-band is generally offered in ”Spot” beams (see
below). Applications include VSAT, rural telephony,
satellite news gathering, Videoconferencing and
multimedia services.

Ka-Band Not yet deployed Not yet deployed Ka-band has a higher power frequency than Ku-band
and therefore will be used for high-bandwidth
interactive services such as high-speed Internet,
videoconferencing and multimedia applications.
Ka-band transmissions are even more sensitive to
poor weather conditions than Ku-band.

2
The letters used to name frequency bands do not mean anything; they are used as code names by the US Military;
frequency ranges are approximate and not agreed to by everyone.

6
In contrast, some satellite beams direct the satellite’s Shared and Dedicated Capacity
power to specific areas. These are called ”Hemi,” ”Zone”
and ”Spot” beams. Hemi and Zone beams essentially offer As in terrestrial networks, satellite capacity can be shared
approximately one half and one quarter of the coverage among multiple users or can be dedicated to individual
of a global beam, respectively. A larger antenna will be customers. There are several methods of increasing capacity.
needed when using a global beam than a Hemi or Zone In Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA), a caller’s
beam, to achieve the same level of quality, because the demand to the ”satellite switchboard” determines a
antenna must compensate for the reduced power through temporary allocation of frequency. Frequency Division
its increased receive signal gain. The main benefit of Ku Multiple Access divides the available spectrum into
Spot beams is that they provide more power and, therefore, channels like radio stations, tuned to different frequency.
very small, low-cost antennas can be used. This makes it an Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) increases the
excellent solution for corporate network applications. traffic a slot can handle by dividing it into units of time.
Generally shared capacity is suitable for low-volume
telephony applications, which are supported using
Bandwidth and Power technologies, such as Demand Assigned Multiple Access
Satellite capacity is the combination of bandwidth and (DAMA), Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) or
power, and is measured in units of Hertz (cycles per Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
second). Since large bandwidths are required it is more For higher volume or more bandwidth-intensive applica-
common to use MegaHertz (MHz) or kiloHertz (kHz), 106 tions, such as video distribution, dedicated capacity ensures
and 103 respectively. Since terrestrial capacity is leased in a consistent quality of service. Most capacity in use on the
Megabits per second, or multiples thereof, Intelsat often Intelsat system is assigned as Frequency Division Multiple
makes the conversion to MHz which will support the Access (FDMA).
required information rate.
There is a relationship between the amount of bandwidth
and the amount of power available from the satellite.
Each transponder has a maximum amount of power
and a maximum amount of bandwidth available to it.
Therefore, if a customer has a small antenna, he may
use all of the power available to him before he has
used all of the bandwidth. Conversely a customer
with a large antenna may use all of the bandwidth
available but still have power available. For this reason,
Intelsat will work with their customers to help design
a ”Transmission Plan” that will optimize the amount
of power and bandwidth required.

7
The Ground Installation
All satellite communications are sent to and received from
the satellite using an Earth Station or Antenna; sometimes Figure 4 — Intelsat Approved Antenna Sizes
referred to as a ”dish.” Earth Stations may either be fixed
and installed at a specific installation, or mobile, for
uses such as Satellite News Gathering (SNG) or maritime Standard Approximate Antenna Frequency
applications. There are various sizes of antenna, depending Size (Meters) Band
on the customer application and the type of beam being
used on the satellite. Antennas range in size from large A 18 C
telecommunications carrier dishes of 4.5 to 15 meters in
B 11 C
diameter, to VSATs of less than one meter in diameter,
which are designed to support services such as Direct to C 16 Ku
Home TV (DTH) and rural telephony. Intelsat uses the
following definitions to classify dish sizes and types: E1 2.4-4.5 Ku
Antennas below 1.2m for Ku-band and 1.8m for C-band may
be approved for use with the Intelsat system under certain E2 4.5-7 Ku
circumstances — these are included in the ”G” standard.
E3 6-9 Ku
Earth Stations may incorporate sophisticated technology to
ensure that the link between the satellite and the Earth F1 3.7-4.5 (typical) C
Station is optimized. As mentioned above, some antennas
may use tracking equipment to follow the movement of F2 5.5-7.5 C
an Inclined Orbit satellite. In other situations where the
Earth Station itself is likely to move, such as in maritime F3 7.3-9 C
applications, special stabilization equipment is used to
compensate for the movement. G Up to 4.5 C & Ku
The antenna itself will generally be connected to an Indoor H 1, 2 & 3 1.8-3.7 C
Unit (IDU), which then connects either to the actual com-
munications devices being used, to a Local Area Network K 1, 2 & 3 1.2-1.8 Ku
(LAN), or to additional terrestrial network infrastructure.

8
Network Topologies monitor and control all components of the network.
Outbound information from the hub is sent up to the
Satellite communication supports a number of different satellite, which receives it, amplifies it and beams it back
network topologies, depending on the application. At its to earth for reception by the remote Earth Station(s).
simplest, satellite can support a simplex (one direction) or The remote locations send information inbound to the
duplex (two directions) link between two Earth Stations. hub. In a Mesh topology, remote Earth Stations can also
More complex networks can be fashioned to support communicate with each other via the satellite, but without
”Star” or ”Mesh” topologies, especially in corporate VSAT information being sent through the hub. This is common
applications. In a Star topology there will be a ”hub” Earth for international voice and data traffic via satellite. This
Station, at the center of the network. Content originates is also referred to as a community of Earth Stations.
at the hub, which features a large antenna. The hub can
control the network through a Network Management The following examples show some of the options avail-
System (NMS), which allows the network operator to able to customers for configuring their satellite networks:

Figure 5 — Simplex Transmission

Applications for simplex services include:

■ Broadcast transmissions such
as TV, video and radio services

TV Stations/
HQ Networks
Hub Equipment

Hub Equipment

Affiliated TV Stations

Figure 6 — Point-to-Point Duplex Transmission

Applications for duplex services include:

■ Voice telephony transport
■ Data and IP transport
(especially in asymmetric configurations)
■ Corporate networks
■ TV and broadcast program Public Public
contribution and distribution Network Network

Customer Customer
Site Site

Private CPE CPE Private

Network Network

9
Figure 7 — Point-to-Multipoint Transmission
(May be simplex or duplex, symmetric or asymmetric)

Applications for point-to-multipoint services include:

■ Corporate networks, including VSAT services
and business television
■ Video and broadcast distribution, including
Direct-to-Home Internet services

CPE
CPE
CPE

Network
Network or Sites
Network or Sites
Network CPE or Sites
or Sites

Figure 8 — Mobile Antenna Service

Applications for mobile antenna services include:

■ Satellite news gathering
■ Special event backhaul and broadcasting
■ Maritime services

Public
Network

Customer
Site

Private CPE
Network

10
Figure 9 — Star Network

Applications for Star networks include:

■ Corporate networks
■ Distance learning

A A
A D
B, C, D A C
B

Public or
Hub Equipment
Private Network Hub Equipment
Hub Equipment
Hub Equipment
Networks or Sites

Figure 10 — Mesh Network

Applications for Mesh networks include:

■ National and international telephony and data networks
■ Rural telephony

A
B
A C
B
C
BA
C

Hub Equipment
Hub Equipment
Hub Equipment
Networks or Sites

11
Determining Which Service to Use:
Contact Intelsat
Every satellite network is unique. The design you choose
chiefly depends on three factors:
■ The specific application
■ The geography of the network
■ The volume of traffic required
Intelsat has produced an ”Applications Toolkit” to help
guide you through the design, planning, budgeting and
deployment of a satellite network. Most important,
Intelsat has a team of experts who can understand your
specific requirements and help you to make the right deci-
sions. After deployment, they will continue to help you
optimize your investment.
Please feel free to contact us for further assistance at
(email address), or call us at +1 (202) 944-7111.
Visit our website at www.intelsat.com

12
Resources
The following sources are recommended for additional information:
Websites, Periodicals and Associations:
1. Intelsat Website — http://www.intelsat.com
2. Intelsat Business Network — http://www.intelsat.com/login.asp
3. International Telecommunications Union (ITU) — http://www.itu.int
4. SatNews — www.satnews.com
6. Space News International — http://www.space.com/spacenews/
7. Tele-Satellite International Magazine — http://www.tele-satellite.com/
8. Via Satellite — http://www.telecomweb.com/satellite/viasatellite/
9. Global VSAT Forum — http://www.gvf.org
10. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Home Page — http://www.ieee.org
11. Satellite Industry Association — http://www.sia.org

Reference Books:
1. ITU Handbook of Satellite Communications, 3rd Ed., 2002, ISBN 0-471-22189-9, Pub: John Wiley & Sons
2. Satellite Communications & Broadcasting Markets Study — Worldwide Prospects to 2010; Pub: Euroconsult,
January 2002
3. Satellite Communications Systems, 3rd Ed., 1998, by G. Maval & M. Bousquet, ISBN 0-471-970379 and
0-471-971669 (Paperback), Pub: John Wiley & Sons
4. Introduction to Satellite Communication, 1987, by Bruce R. Elbert, ISBN 0-89006-229-3, Pub: Artech House
5. Communications Satellite Handbook, 1989, by Walter L. Morgan & Gary D. Gordon, ISBN 0-89006-781-3,
Pub: Wiley Interscience, John Wiley & Sons
6. The Satellite Communications Applications Handbook, 1997, by Bruce R. Elbert, ISBN 0-471-31603-2,
Pub: Artech House

13
Glossary of Terms Used in This Primer
A more comprehensive glossary of acronyms can be found on Intelsat Business Network
at https://ibn.intelsat.com/itn/acronynms/acro.asp

Antenna — A device for transmitting and receiving signals. An antenna is part of an Earth Station.

C-Band — A frequency band in the 4-6 GHz range.

DAMA — Demand Assigned Multiple Access. A way of sharing a channel by assigning capacity on demand.

Downlink — The link from the satellite down to the Earth Station.

Duplex Simultaneous — Two-way transmission over a satellite or terrestrial link.

Earth Station — A device for transmitting and receiving signals.

FDMA — Frequency Division Multiple Access. A way of sharing a channel by assigning

different frequencies to different users.

Footprint — The area of the Earth’s surface from which an Earth Station can transmit
to or receive from a particular satellite.

Frequency Band — A defined portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Geosynchronous Orbit — A satellite orbit 22,300 miles over the equator with an orbit time of exactly 24 hours.

Global Beam — A satellite beam with wide geographic coverage of 40 percent of the Earth’s
surface, as seen from the satellite.

Hemi Beam — A satellite beam with approximately half the geographic coverage of a global beam.

Hertz — A measurement of satellite capacity based on cycles per second.

IDU — Indoor Unit. Comprises equipment not mounted on the antenna system.

Inclined Orbit — Any non-Equatorial orbit of a satellite. In order to conserve fuel, the satellite is allowed to move
in a figure eight pattern over its nominal orbital location. May also be used for photography
and to reach extreme North and South latitudes that cannot be seen from the Equator.

Ka-Band — A frequency band in the 18-30 GHz frequency range, nominally.

kHz — KiloHertz. One KiloHertz is the equivalent of one thousand Hertz, or one thousand
cycles per second. Used to measure frequency and bandwidth.

Ku-Band — A frequency band in the 11-14 GHz range.

LAN — Local Area Network. A geographically localized network.

Mesh Network — A network topology where all terminals are connected to each other
without the need for a hub.

MHz — MegaHertz. One MegaHertz is the equivalent of one million Hertz, or one million
cycles per second. Used to measure frequency and bandwidth.

14
NMS — Network Management System. Equipment and software used to monitor, manage
and change elements and devices in a network.

Orbital Location — The location of a satellite over the Equator, measured in degrees from
the Prime Meridian of 0°.

Simplex — Transmission that flows in only one direction over a channel.

SNG — Satellite News Gathering. Use of a mobile antenna to transmit news stories.

Spot Beam — A satellite beam with concentrated geographic coverage.

Star Network — A network topology where all terminals are connected via a central hub,
and can only communicate with each other via the hub.

TDMA — Time Division Multiple Access. A way of sharing a channel by assigning different
time slots to different users.

Tracking Equipment — Equipment installed on an Earth Station that allows the Earth Station
to track the position of a satellite.

Transmission Plan — A design showing the configuration and capacity (power and bandwidth)
resources required for a particular customer application.
Uplink — The link from the Earth Station up to the satellite.

VSAT — Very Small Aperture Terminal. A very small satellite antenna, usually 1.2-3.0 meters in diameter.

Zone Beam — A satellite beam with approximately one quarter of the geographic coverage
over a global beam.

15